{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "V\n\nDup.\n\nU.of C.\nOh.\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin\n\n2007 with funding from\nMicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1905natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIOf^l) ASSOCIATION\n\n^\n\n'^\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nf\n\n11/\n\n/\n\nFORTY-FOURTH ANNUAL MEETING\nHELD AT\n\nASBURY PARK AND OCEAN GROVE, NEW JERSEY\n\nJULY 3-7\n1905\n\n1905\n\npubUsbeD b^ tbc Bssociation\nSECRETARY'S OFFICE, WINONA, MINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\nId\n\n^''\n\nM,\ni\n\n:'.\n\n%\nprinted at\n\nThe University of Chicago Press\n\n^\n\n^'\n'\n\n(\n\n,\n\n{\n\nl^\\ v\n\nchicago, illinois\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "———\n\n—— — ———— ——— ———\n\n——\n\n—\n\n————\n\nCONTENTS\nPage\nConstitution\n\ni\n\nBy-Laws\n\n4\n\nAct of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\n\n4\n6\n8\n\nOfficers of 1904-5\n\n.\n\nOfficers for 1905-6\n\n12\n\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Trustees\n\n16\n18\n\nGENERAL SESSIONS\n21\n\nJournal of Proceedings\n\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active Members\nReport of Committee on Resolutions\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1904-5\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1905-6\nAddress of Welcome Green\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n23\n\n42\n\n46\n52\n\n57\n58\n\n.\n\nLane\n\nResponse\n\nPresident's Address: Education for Efficiency\n\nMaxwell\n\n59\n67\n\nThe Future of Teachers' Salaries Harris\nThe Uses of Educational Museums Skiff\nStandards of Local Administration\n\nMcClellan\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n80\n86\n\nThe Nation's Educational Purpose\n\n89\n\nChild Labor and Compulsory Education\n\n103\n\nDraper\nMartin\nThe Social and Legal Aspect of Compulsory Education and Child Labor\nThe Immigrant Child Miss Richman\nManual Training in the Grades Harvey\nThe Practical Utility of Manual and Technical Training Parsons\nThe Economic Importance of Trade Schools Vanderlip\nAddress\n\nGiddings\n\n113\n121\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n134\n141\n\nTheodore Roosevelt\n\nResponses-\n\nin\n\n146\n\nKirk, Miss Blake\n\n150, 152\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n155\n\nReview of the Educational Features of the Universal Exposition\n1.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nThe Foreign Educational Exhibits Rogers\nThe American Educational Exhibit Lyte\nLessons from the United States Exhibit\n\n.\n\n161\n\n167\n\nBlewett\n\n173\n\nMeans of Increasing the Efficiency of Our Public-School Work\nCarr\nAdequate Leadership, Progressive Teachers, and Fewer Subjects Pearse\nCrane\nIII. Changing the View-Point\nSome of the Conditions Which Cause Variation in School Expenditures Harris\n\n180\n\nThe Group Morality of Children\n\n214\n\n1.\n\nProviding Better Teachers\n\nII.\n\n.\n\nVincent\n\nCharter Provisions as Related to the Organization of School Systems\n\nA Nonpartisan School Law\n\nEliot\n\nMaxwell\n\n184\n190\n195\n\n214\n223\n\nCharter Provisions as Related to the Reorganization of School Systems\niii\n\nSoldan^ 231\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "— ——————\n\n— ———— ———— — —————— —— —\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\niv\n\nROUND TABLES\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents\nHigh-School Privileges for Country Pupils\n\nCary\n\nReport of the Committee on Interstate Recognition of Teachers' Certificates\n\n.\n\nRound Table of City Superintendents\nThe Merit System in St. Louis Blewett\n\n236\n240\n241\n\nOutlines of Methods of Appointing and Advancing Teachers\n\nManual Training in the Elementary School Haney\nChild Labor Miss Addams\nManual Training in the Secondary Grades and in Colleges\n\nVan Sickle, et al.\n\n244\n253\n\nWoodward\n\n.\n\n.\n\n259\n262\n\nNATIONAL COUNCIL\nConstitution\n\n271\n\nOfl&cers and Members\n\n273\n276\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nReport of Advisory Committee on Simplification of Spelling\n\nMaxwell\n\n.\n\n.\n\nReport on the Educational Progress of the Year Rogers\nWhat Are the Most Promising Subjects for Investigation ?\nI. Comparison of Modern Business Methods with Educational Methods\n\n.\n\n281\n\n286\n\n—\n\nMartin\n\n320\n\n11. Professional\n\nCulture of Teachers\n\nMemorial Addresses\nNewton Bateman\n\nGreenwood\n\n325\n\nDougherty\n\n329\n\nVan Liew\nHorace Summer Tarbell Jacobs\nClara Conway Harris\nEdwin C. Hewett Cook\nIra G. Hoitt\n\n331\n332\n\n334\n335\n\nDEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n341\n\nMiss Miller\nPhysical Development of the Child in Training of Kindergartners Oppenheim\nHow Does the Kindergarten Develop the Child Physically ? Mrs. Hughes\nMethods of Supervision of Public-School Kindergartens Miss Mills\nCurrent Criticism of the Kindergarten O'Shea\n\n342\n\nPresident's Address\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n344\n347\n\n354\n365\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n373\n\nProgress of the Year, and Curriculum of the Elementary School\n\nThe Teaching of Arithmetic in Elementary Schools\n\nMiss Cropsey\n\n374\n380\n\nBailey\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCES\nMiss Seegmiller\n\nA.\n\nHandwork in Primary Schools\n\nB.\n\nRight Methods of Stud5dng History and Geography\nReading in the First School Year Mrs. Cooley\n\nC.\n\n387\n\nMcMurry\n\n.\n\n.\n\n391\n393\n\nOn the Psychology of Reading and Writing MacDougall\nOn the Study of English Composition Miss Alexander\nTeaching Our Language to Non-EngHsh-Speaking Pupils\n\n.\n\n399\n407\nStraubenmiiller\n\n.\n\n413\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nThe Schoolmaster\n\nSchuyler\n\nDivision of the Twelve-Year Course of Study\n\nLyttle\n\n423\n424\n428\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "—— —\n\n— ———\n\n——— ——————— ————— —\n\n—\n\nCONTENTS\nWhy Do So Many First- Year Pupils Leave the High School ?\nReport of the Committee on Secret Fraternities\n\nHalleck\n\n.\n\n.\n\nMorrison\n\n436\n445\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCES\nA.\n\nPrincipals\n\nShould Entire Energy of High-School Principal Be Given to AdministraB.\n\nC.\n\ntion? Gunnison\nEnglish—\nThe Aims of English Teaching\n\nBuck\n\nThe Teaching of Composition\n\nMitchell\n\n452\n\n454\n458\n\nHistory—\n\nWhat Facts of History Should Be Taught ? Sullivan\nWhat Facts of Ancient History Should Be Taught ? Muzzey\n\n460\n.\n\n.\n\nD.\n\nMathematics\n\nE.\n\nClassics\n\nF.\n\nThe College Requirements and the Secondary-School Work Kirtland\nModern Languages\nThe Direct Method of Teaching a Modern Language Wolf\n\nIndividual Instruction in Algebra and Geometry\n\nJones\n\n.\n\n....\n.\n\n.\n\n461\n\n466\n\n.\n\n470\n\n.\n\n475\n\nDEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n481\n\nBryan\n\nExcessive Expansion in the Course of Study\n\nHonor in Student Life in Colleges and Universities\nWide Election and Minute Courses Canfield\n\n482\n\nSmith\n\nPlans of Admitting Students to Colleges and Universities\n\nShould Chairs of Pedagogy Be Abohshed ?\n\n486\n\nMacLean\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nHill\n\n495\n501\n512\n\nDEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nA Statement of the Issues Before the Department Van Liew\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n517\n519\n\nThe Modern High-School Curriculum Felmley\n.524\nHow Can the Normal School Best Produce Efl&cient Teachers of Elementary\nBranches?\n\nKarr\n\n533\n\nThe Co-operation of Universities and Normal Schools io the Training of\nElementary Teachers McMurry, Maxwell\n540, 542\nThe Co-operation of Universities and Normal Schools in the Training of\nSecondary Teachers\n\nHenderson, Snyder\n\n546, 551\n\nDEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n557\n558\n\nThe Problems that Perplex Chamberlain\nHow Can Class Teachers Be Educated to the Value of Manual Training?\n\nMcMurry\n\n563\n\nIndustrial Training in PubHc Evening Schools\n\nWarner\nNecessity for Special Manual-Training High Schools Keyes\nForms and Limitations of Handwork for Girls in the High School\n\n570\n\nMiss Dopp\n\n.\n\n576\n580\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nThe Educational Value of Drawing\n\n591\n\nSoldan\n\nDrawing Teachers' Congress at Berne\n\nCarter\n\n592\n597\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "———————————————— —————————— —— —— —\n\n—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nvi\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCE\nAims of Drawing in Primary Grades Miss Church\nAims of Drawing in Grammar Grades Hall\nAims of Drawing in the High School Collins\nDrawing and Constructive Work as Shown by Exhibits at the Exposition\n\nThe Teaching of Applied Design\n\n603\n605\n\n610\nKissack\n\nHaney\n\n612\n615\n\nDEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n627\n\nThe Mission of Music in the Public Schools Winship\nQuestions Involved in Making Music a Major Study Scott\n\n630\n\nCorrelation of Music with Other Branches\n\n637\n\n633\n\nMrs. Casterton\n\nMusic as a Factor in Culture Locke\nRelation of the Grade Teacher to Music Instruction Fulmer\nMusic Instruction in the Schools of New York City Rix\nType Forms Useful in Teaching Music in the Schools Aiken\nReport of Committee on Music in the Grades Hayden\n\n644\n650\n\n....\n....\n\n657\n662\n667\n\nDEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n'\n\nQualifications of Commercial Teachers\n\nStevenson\n\n669\n671\n\n....\n.....682\n\nWhat Should Be the Education of a Business Man ? Walker\nThe Science Work of a Four- Year Commercial Course Davis\nThe Study of Local Industry and TrdiA^—Tildsley\nEssential Elements of Study in a University Course in Commerce\nI. From the Point of View of the University of Michigan\nJones\nII. From the Point of View of Dartmouth College\nPerson\nIII. From the Point of View of the University of Pennsylvania\nYoung\nResults of the Organization of Higher Courses in Commerce\n\n674\n678\n\n....\n.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nIn Dartmouth College\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPerson\n\n689\n692\n\n696\n\n698\n\nYoung\n\nIn the University of Pennsylvania\n\n703\n\nDEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nPresident's Address\n\n707\n\n708\n\nLancaster\n\nChild Study in the University and College\n\nHall\n\nChild Study in Normal Schools\n\n.\n\nSmith\nChild Study in Special Clubs Miss Marsh\nA Problem for Women's Clubs Miss Lawrence\nEducation from the Genetic Point of View Burnham\nRelation of the Child's Development to Control of Him Miss Tanner\nThe School and the Child's Physical Development Rqwe\nNotes on a Few Books in Child Study Wilson\n\n....\n\n.\n\n710\n\n714\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n721\n\n724\n727\n.\n\n.\n\n734\n742\n751\n\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n755\n\nThe Importance of the School- Yard for Children\n\nArnold\n\nPhysical Fitness and Unfitness of School Children\n\nKirkpatrick\n\nPhysical Training in Grammar Schools\n\nPhysical Training in High Schools\n\n....\n\nMiss Stoneroad\n\n768\n\nCarroll\n\nPhysical Training in Colleges and Universities\n\n756\n760\n\n773\n\nMiss Crawford, McKenzie\n\n.\n\n775, 778\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "———\n\n—— — —————————— — ——— —— — —\nCONTENTS\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n7^^\n\nPresident's Address\n\n782\n\nGilley\n\nCorrelation of Mathematics and Science\n\nComstock\n\n788\n\nNewman\nCommon Insects, and How Children Can Study Them\n\nScience Teaching in Elementary Schools\n\nSmith\n\n.\n\n.\n\n798\n807\n\n.\n\n.\n\n814\n\nTeaching Biology with a Projection Microscope Cole\nReport of Committee on Physics Courses Gilley, Chairman\n\n815\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nRecent Progress in School Administration\n\n827\n828\n\nBruce\n\nSommer\n\nShall the State Regulate Teachers' Salaries ?\n\n831\n\nDavis\nNeeded Legislation in School Architecture Snyder\nRecent Progress in School Architecture\n\n836\n843\n\nLIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nLibraries for Villages and Rural Communities\n\n...\n\nCary\n\nMethods of Instruction in the Use of High-School Libraries\n\n853\n\n...\n\n854\n858\n\nMiss Hopkins\n\nHow to Make the Library Useful to High-School Pupils Wright\nWhat Children Do Read and What They Ought to Read—Hall\n\n....\n....\n\n864\n868\n\nThe Value and Place of Fairy Stonea— Chubb\n\n871\n\nDEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\n881\n\nMiss Bancroft\n\nPresident's Address\n\n883\n\nThe Physical Betterment of the Mentally Deficient—ilfcZee\nOur Limitations in Educating Mentally Deficient Children Miss Pogite\nWhat Has Been Done with One Deaf Child in His Own Home Miss Reinhardt\nThe Schools for the Feeble-Minded Johnstone\n.\n\nExtracts from a Recent Investigation in Sociology\nAll Crime is Disease\n\nMiss Campbell\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nLinsley\n\n885\n895\n\n900\n903\n906\n\n914\n\nDEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nGreetings and Resume of Work\n\nMusic of the American Indian\n\nFitzgerald, Baxter, Miss Campbell, Miss Reel\n\n925\n926-933\n\nMiss Curtis\n\n933\n\nEthnological Study of Our Indians in the Southwest\n\nMiss Biggart\n\nTeaching Indian Pupils to Speak English Perry\nIndian Characteristics Miss Judd\nThe Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry Miss Sipe\nIndian Education and Methods of Instruction Mrs. Quinton\nNormal Schools to Train Teachers for Instructing Indian Children\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n934\n\n.\n\n935\n\n936\n\n'\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nThe Necessity for More and Better-Equipped Day Schools\n\n....\n\nDuncan\n\nBenedict\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n938\n947\n948\n\n954\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nPREAMBLE\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of\nteaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States,\n\nwe, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following\n\nCONSTITUTION\nARTICLE I—NAME\nThis Association shall be styled the National Educational Association.\n\nARTICLE II—DEPARTMENTS\nSection\n\ni.\n\nIt\n\nconsist of eighteen departments:\n\nshall\n\nsecond, of Normal Schools;\ntion;\n\nfifth,\n\ncation;\n\nthird, of Elementary\n\nfirst,\n\nof Superintendence;\n\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Educa-\n\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Edu-\n\neighth, of Music Education;\n\nEducation;\n\nninth, of Secondary Education;\n\neleventh, of Child Study;\n\ntenth, of Business\n\ntwelfth, of Physical Education;\n\nthirteenth, of\n\nNatural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library\n\nDepartment;\n\nsixteenth, of Special Education;\n\nseventeenth, of Indian Education;\n\nand\n\neighteenth, the National Council of Education.\n\nSec\n\n2.\n\nOther departments\n\nmay be organized in the manner prescribed in this\n\nconstitution.\n\nARTICLE III—MEMBERSHIP\nSection i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and\ncorresponding.\n\nSec 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members.\n\nAll\n\nothers who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members.\n\nEminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be\nThe number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed\n\ncorresponding members.\nfifty.\n\nSec 3. Any person eligible may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the\nannual dues for the current year.\nActive members only have the right to vote and to hold office in the general Association or in the several departments.\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and will be entitled to the\nvolume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. The annual membership\nfee shall be payable at the time of the annual convention, or by remittance to the Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nbefore September i of each year.\n\nAny active member may discontinue membership by\n\ngiving written notice to the Secretary before September i, and may restore the same only\n\non payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\nAll life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall\nenjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance with the\nusual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without the\n\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in the\nvolume of Proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses, the\nlist to be revised annually\n\nby the Secretary of the Association.\n\nARTICLE IV— OFFICERS\nSection i. The officers of this Association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\n\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National Educa-\n\ntional Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer,\n\nchairman of the Board of\n\nTrustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected\n\nby the Association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of\nall Hfe\n\ndirectors elected previous to July 10, 1895.\n\nAll past Presidents of the Association\n\nnow Hving (July 10, 1895), and all future\nand the United States Com-\n\nPresidents at the close of their respective terms of office,\n\nmissioner of Education, shall be life directors of the Association.\n\nThe President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treaschairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen\nannually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall\n\nurer,\n\nconstitute the Executive Committee.\n\nSec. 3.\n\nThe elective officers of the Association, with the exception of the Secretary\n\nbe chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise\nordered, on the third day of each session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for\nThey shall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to\nchoice.\n\nshall\n\ntheir election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\n4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president,\nand such other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs; but\nno person shall be elected to any office of the Association, or of any department, who is\nnot, at the time of the election, an active member of the Association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\n\nSec.\n\nsecretary,\n\nofficer.\n\nIn his absence, the First Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside;\n\nand in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec.\n\n6.\n\nThe Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\n\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his records\n\npresent at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The secretary\nof each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his\n\nkeep a list of the members of his department.\nThe Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the Association; shall expend the same only\n\noffice,\n\nSec. 7.\n\nupon the order of said board;\n\nshall\n\nkeep an exact account ofjiis receiptsand expendi-\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\ntures, with vouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the first day of July each year,\n\nhe shall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the\n\nreport the same to the Board of Directors.\nfaithful discharge of his duties as\n\nmay be required by the Board of Trustees; and he\n\nshall continue in office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the\n\nannual meeting of the Association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\n\nbody; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees;\n\nshall make all necessary arrangements for its meet-\n\nand shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon\nthe written application of twenty active members of the Association for permission to\nestablish a new department, it may grant such permission.\nSuch new department shall\nin all respects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others.\nThe formation\nings,\n\nof such department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the\n\nand the Secratary shall make the necessary alterations.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be\na member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886, one\n\ninsertion of its name in Art. II,\n\nSec. 9.\n\none for three years, and one for\nand annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors held\nprior to the annual meeting of the Association, one trustee shall be elected for the term\nof four years.\nAll vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation\nor otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the\nabsence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his\nmembership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body\ncorporate of the Association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington D. C, and\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the Association may receive from donations; and\nthe income of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing the annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall\nspecify otherwise.\nIt shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer\nfor the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and,\nwhen practicable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars\nthat shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association\ntrustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years,\n\nfour years;\n\nfor the previous year.\n\nSec. II.\nshall also\n\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who\n\nbe secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and\n\nthe term of office for a period not to exceed four years.\n\nARTICLE V—MEETINGS\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\n\nSec. 2. Special meetings\n\nmay be called by the President at the request of five\n\ndirectors.\n\nSec. 3.\n\nAny department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\n\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and\nnot less than two hours before the assembling of the Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nSec.\n\n5.\n\nSpecial meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\n\nor the President shall determine.\n\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on pubHcation shall be appointed, which shall consist of the Presi-\n\ndent and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member from\n\neach department.\n\nARTICLE VI— BY-LAWS\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Association.\n\nARTICLE VII—AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present;\n\nor by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\n\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\n\nmeeting.\n\nBY-LAWS\n1.\n\nAt the first session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\n\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions; and at the third session of such\n\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\n\nfrom each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on\nthe nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination;\n\nprovided, however,\n\nthat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\n\nThe meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee\n30 P. M. on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at\nsuch place as shall be announced in the general program.\nshall be held at 5\n\n2.\n\n:\n\nThe President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\n\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n3;\n\nEach paying member\n\nof the Association shall be\n\nentitled to\n\na copy of\n\nits\n\nProceedings.\n4.\n\nNo paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its\n\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address\n\nbe published in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the President, Secretary,\n\nto appoint annually some\n\nand Treasurer of the Association\n\ncompetent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\n\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the\nsaid fund, shall be attached to the report of the Board of Trustees.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution\n\nwas passed.\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation\nfor the National Educational Association,\n\nunder United States or state laws, as speedily\n\nas may be.\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts,\nand Eli T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval\nof the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a\n\nCERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens\nof the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do herebyassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of\n\nthe \"National Educational Association,\" for the full period of twenty years, the purpose\n\nand objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States\n\nTo secure the full benefit of said act we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation\nas said act provides.\n\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\n\nNorman A. Calkins,\n\n[l. s.]\n\nJohn Eaton.\nZalmon Richards.\n\n[l. s.]\n\n[l. s.]\n\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District\nand recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of\n\nof Columbia,\n\nColumbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR OF MEETINGS\nNATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION\ni8s7— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Shkldon, Secretary.\n\n1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\n\n1858— CINCINNATI, Ohio.\n\ni86s— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\nZ.\n\nZ.\n\nRichards, President.\n\nJ.\n\nW. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\n\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\nZ.\n\ni8s9— WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nJ. P.\n\nW. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\n\nC. S. Penneli., Treasurer.\n\n1867\n\n—No\n\nsession.\n\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\n\nRichards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\nZ.\n\n—No\n\nWickersham, President.\n\nH. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\nS.\n\ni860—BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\n\n1861, 1862\n\nRichards, Treasurer.\n\n1866—INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ.\n\nRichards, Treasurer.\n\nL. V.\\N BoKKEi.EN, Secretary.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer.\n\nsession.\n\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1869—TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1870— CLEVELAND, Ohio.\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasiurer.\n\nNAME CHANGED TO\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nT871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ.\n\nL. PiCKARD, President.\n\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS,\n\nH. White, Secretary.\n\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1877—LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1873— ELMIRA, N. Y.\n\nJ.\n\n1878\n\n—No\n\nOrmond W^ilson, Treasurer.\n\nsession.\n\nNorthrop, President.\nH. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\nB. G.\nS.\n\n1874—DETROIT, MICH.\nS.\n\nH. White, President.\n\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n187s—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\n\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P.\n\nMarble, Treasurer.\n\n1879—PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ.\n\nOrmond Wilson, Treasurer.\n\ni88o— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ.\n\nOrmond Wilson, President.\n\nW, D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T.\n\nTappan, Treasure!.\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR OF MEETINGS\n1893— CHICAGO, ILL.\n\n1881—ATI, ANTA, GA,\n\n(International Congress of Education.)\n\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ.\n\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\n\nNicholas Murray Butler. President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nE. T. Tappan, President.\n\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1884—MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\n\nI.\n\ni88s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. Louis Soldan, President.\n\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1898—WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\n\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nC. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nE. C. Hewett. Treasurer.\n\nI.\n\n1899—LOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\n1887— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\n\nE.\n\nHewett, Treasurer.\n\nI.\n\n1901—DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n\nH. Canfield, Secretary.\n\nE. C.\n\nMcNehl, Treasurer.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\nHewett, Treasurer.\n\n1889—NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ.\n\nC.\n\n1900— CHARIESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\n\nH. Canfield, Secretary.\n\nE. C.\n\nOram Lyte, President.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nH. Canfteld, Secretary.\n\n1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ.\n\n1897—MILWAUKEE WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886—TOPEKA, KANS.\n\nE. C.\n\n1896—BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nC. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nJ.\n\nM. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n189s—DENVER, COLO.\n\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n.\n\nM. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1894—ASBURY PARK, N. J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\n\n1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\n\nHewett, Treasurer.\n\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\n\n1902—MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilllam M. Beardshear, President.\n\nH. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\n\nJ.\n\niRwm Shepard, Secretary.\n\nHewett, Treasurer.\n\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n1891—TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\n\n1903—BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President.\n\nE. C.\n\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ.\n\nM. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1892— SARAIOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\n\n1004—ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\n\nE. H. Cook, President.\n\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson, Treasurer.\n\nM. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\n190S—ASBURY PARK ANDXOCEAN GROVE, N. J.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nOFFICERS FOR 1904-1905\nGENERAL ASSOCIATION\nWIIXIAM H. MAXWELL\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nJAMES W. CRABTREE\n\n!\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPresident\n\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\nPeru. Nebr.\n\nTreasurer\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, lU.\n\nE. H.\n\nC. P. Cary, Madison, Wis.\n\nHenry H. Swain, Dillon, Mont.\n\nGeorge B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark.\n\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\n\nN. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind.\nJ. M. H. Frederick, Lakewood, Ohio.\nMiss Alice M. Robertson, Muskogee, Ind. T.\n\nA. B. Poland, Newark, N. J.\n\nMark, Louisville, Ky.\n\nB. C. Caldwell, Natchitoches, La.\n\nJ.\n\nCharles D. McIver. Greensboro, N. C.\n\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES\n(See Art. IV, sec. g, of the Constitution.)\nF. Louis Sold an\nNicholas Murray Bxjtler\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman\n\nSt.\n\nMo\n\nLouis,\n\nNew York, N. Y\nChicago,\n\nNewton C. Dougherty\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\n111\n\nTerra expires July, iqos\n\nTerm expiies July, 1006\nTerm expires July, 1907\n\nPeoria, III\n\nTerra expires July, 1908\n\nNew York, N. Y\n\nEx officio\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the Constitution.)\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\nPresident\n\nJohn W. Cook\nJames W. Crabtree\nAlbert G. I^ane\nW. T. Harris\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nDeKalb, 111.\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nTreasurer\n\nPeru, Nebr.\n\nChairman of Board of Trustees\n\nChicago, III.\n\nMember by election\n\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona. Minn.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex ofllcio\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\n\nJames W. Crabtree, Peru, Nebr.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn,\n\nLife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R^ I.\nBoard or Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Boulder, Colo.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Colurabus, Ohio.\n\nJewett, A. V.. Abilene, Kans.\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker, Charles L, South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul, Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n.\n\nDIRECTORS\nLife Directors\n\ncontinued\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nEiJOT, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\n\nPickard, Josiah I,., Brunswick, Maine.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 1)1.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Ix)uis, Mo.\nStratton, C. C, University Park, Ore.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\n\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nHunt, Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass.\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\n\nWilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\n\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\n\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\n\\ . .\n\nJohn S. Locke\nJames E. Klock\nWalter E. Ranger\nAlbert E. Winship\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyfs\nAugustus S. Downing\nJohn Enright\nJohn W. Lansinger\n\nSaco\n\nPlymouth\nMontpelier\n\nBoston\nProvidence\nHartford\n\nAlbany\nFreehold\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\nJoseph I^. Jarman\nMiss Lucy Robinson\n\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nVirginia\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\n\n'.\n\n.'\n\nMiss Lydia A. Yates\nW. K. Tate\nW. F. Slaton\nMiss Clem Hampton\n\nWilmington\nBaltimore\n\nWashington\nFarmville\n\nWheeling\nWilmington\nCharleston\nAtlanta\nGainesville\n\nSouth Central Division\n\nFrogge\n\nKentucky\n\nS. L.\n\nTennessee\n\nD. J. Johns, Jr\nIsaac W. Hill\n\nNashville\n\nRobert B. Fulton\nWarren Easton\nAlexander Hogg\nJ. H. Hinemon\nAndrew R. Hickam\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nUniversity\n\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nLouisiana\n\nTexas\nArkansas\n\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nFrankfort\n\nMontgomery\n\nNew Orleans\nFort Worth\nLittle Rock\n\nOklahoma City\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\nMadisonville\n\nIllinois\n\nEdmund D. Lyon\nT. A. Mott\nJ. A. Mercer\n\nMichigan\n\nWilllam H. Elson\n\nWisconsin\n\nL. D.\n\nGrand Rapids\nMenomonie\n\nIowa\n\nA. V. Storm\n\nCherokee\n\nMinnesota\n\nW. F. Kunze\nBen Blewett\nW. E. Hoover\nGeorge W. Nash\nGeorge L. Towne\nJ. W. Spindler\n\nRed Wing\n\nOhio\nIndiana\n\nMissouri\n\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nHarvey\n\nRichmond\nPeoria\n\nSt.\n\nLouis\n\nPark River\nPierre\n\nLincoln\nWinfield\n\nWestern Division\nButte\n\nColorado\n\nRobert G. Young\nMiss Estelle Reel\nJohn F. Keating\n\nNew Mexico\n\nHugh A. Owen\n\nSilver City\n\nMontana\n\nWyoming\n\nWashington, D.\n\nPueblo\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nlO\n\nDirectors by Election\nArizona\n\nA. J. Matthews\n\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\n\nA. C.\nJ.\n\ncontinued\n\nNelson\n\nE. Stubbs\n\nMiss May L. Scott\nFrank B. Cooper\nE. D. Ressler\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nCalifornia\n\nTempe\nSalt Lake City\n\nReno\nBoise\nSeattle\n\nMonmouth\nPasadena\n\nDependencies\n\nMiss Cassia Patton\nSamuel McCune Lindsay\n\nAlaska\nPorto Rico\n\nArthur F. Griffiths\nC. H. Maxson\n\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nSitka\n\nSan Juan\nHonolulu\nIloilo,\n\nPanay\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\n\nELMER E. BROWN\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\n\nPresident\n\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nVice-President\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\n\nW. CARR\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD\nMiss ANNA TOLMAN SMITH\n\nSecretary\n\nAnderson, Ind.\n\nHOWARD J. ROGERS\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nMiss MARY JEAN MILLER\nMiss ANNA HARVEY\nMiss ANNA ELISE HARBAUGH\n\nPresident\n\n.\"\n\nJ.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nExecutive Committee.\n\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nWashington, D. C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nKindergarten\nRochester, N. Y.\n\nVice-President\n\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nSt,\n\nLouis, Mo.\n\nElementary\nMiss N. CROPSEY\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss LIDA B. EARHART\n\nPresident\n\nWILLIAM SCHUYLER\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nJAMES SULLIVAN\n)\\TLSON FARRAND\n\nPresident\n\nSt.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nBaltimore, Md.\n\nSecond Vice-President\n\nNew York. N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nNewark, N. J.\n\nIndianapolis, Ind.\n\nVice-President\n\nBaltimore, Md.\n\nSecretary\n\nWhitewater, Wis.\n\nSecondary\nLouis, Mo.\n\nHigher\n\nRICHARD H. JESSE\nWILLIAM L. BRYAN\nJOSEPH SWAIN\n\nPresident\n\nColumbia, Mo.\n\nVice-President\n\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nSecretary\n\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nNormal\nC. C.\n\nVAN LIEW\n\nJESSE D. BURKS\nMiss ANNA BUCKBEE\n\nPresident\n\nChico, Cal.\n\nVice-President\n\nPaterson, N. J.\n\nSecretary\n\nCalifornia, Pa.\n\nSuperintendence\nE. G.\n\nCOOLEY\n\nLAWTON B. EVANS\nW. CARR\n\nPresident\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nAugusta, Ga.\n\nSecond Vice-President\n\nAnderson, Ind.\n\nMiss EVANGELINE E. WHITNEY\n\nSecretary\n\nNew.York, N. Y.\n\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN\n\nPresident\n\nPasadena, Cal.\n\nVice-President\n\nNew Haven, Conn.\nRoxbury, Mass.\n\nJ.\n\nManual\nCHARLES L. KIRSCHNER\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\n\n'.\n.\n\n.\n\nSecretary\n\nArt\nMrs. matilda EVANS RILEY\n\nPresident\n\nSt.\n\nFRANK H. COLLINS\n\nVice-President\n\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nMissISTELLAlTRUEBLOOD..:\n\nSecretary\n\nSt.\n\nLouis, Mo.\n\nLouis, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OFFICERS\n\nII\n\nMusic\n\nWM. A. WETZELL\nMrs. marie BURT PARR\n\nPresident\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nVice-President\n\nCleveland, Ohio\nKeokuk, Iowa\n\nHAYDEN\n\nSecretary\n\nW. C. STEVENSON\n\nPresident\n\nH. B. BROWN\n\nVice-President\n\nValparaiso, Ind.\n\nJOHN ALFRED WHITE\n\nSecretary\n\nMoline, 111.\n\nELLSWORTH G. LANCASTER\nD. P. MACMILLAN\nMiss THEODATE L. SMITH\n\nPresident\n\nFRANK M. GILLEY\nARTHUR G. CLEMENT\nH, A. SENTER\n\nPresident\n\nChelsea, Mass.\n\nVice-President\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nOmaha, Nebr.\n\nP. C.\n\nBusiness\nDecatur, 111.\n\nChild Study\nOHvet, Mich.\n\nVice-President\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nSecretary\n\nWorcester, Mass.\n\nScience\n\nPhysical\nE.\n\nHERMANN ARNOLD\n\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\nG. B. AFFLECK\n\nPresident\n\nNew Haven, Conn.\n\nVice-President. ...-\n\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nCedar Falls. Iowa\n\nSchool Administration\nB. F.\n\nHUNSICKER\n\nGRAFTON D. GUSHING\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\n\nPresident\n\nReading, Pa.\n\nVice-President\n\nBoston, Mass.\n\nSecretary\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nChairman, Executive Committee\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nLibrary\n\nGARY\nJ. N. WILKINSON\nC. P.\n\nMiss MARY EILEEN AHERN\n\nVice-President\n\nMadison, Wis.\nEmporia, Kans.\n\nSecretary\n\nChicago, lU.\n\nPresident\n\nSpecial Education\nMiss MARGARET BANCROFT\nJ.\n\nH. FREEMAN\n\nMiss ANNA E. SCHAFFER\n\nPresident\n\nHaddonfield, N. J.\n\nVice-President\n\nJacksonvUle, 111.\n\nSecretary\n\nMadison, Wis.\n\nIndian Education\nW. A. MERCER\n\nPresident\n\nCarlisle, Pa.\n\nCOCHRAN\nMiss ESTELLE REEL\n\nVice-President\n\nTalklai, Ariz.\n\nSecretary\n\nWashington, D. C.\n\nR. A.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nOFFICERS FOR 1905-1906\nGENERAL ASSOCIATION\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\n\nPresident\n\n'....... Harrisburg, Pa.\n\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nJASPER N. WILKINSON\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\nEmporia, Kans.\n\nTreasurer\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nMiss N. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJ. H. HiNEMON, Little Rock, Ark.\nEd. S. Vaught, Oklahoma City, Okla.\nJohn F. Riggs, Des Moines, Iowa.\nJoseph O'Connor, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nD. B, Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C.\nA. Shawan, Columbus, Ohio.\nH. O. Wheeler, BurUngton, Vt.\nJ. Y. JoYNER, Raleigh, N. C.\nJohn W. Spindler, Winfield, Kans.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111.\nJ.\n\nBOARD OF TRUSTEES\n(See Art. IV, sec. g, of the Constitution.)\n\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman\n\nNew York, N. Y\n\nNewton C. Dougherty\n\nPeoria, 111\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nNathan C. Schaeffer\n\nKaasas City, Mo\n\nTerm expires July, 1906\nTerm expires July, 1907\nTerm expires July, 1908\nTerm expires July, 1908\n\nHarrisburg, Pa\n\nEx officio\n\nChicago, 111\n\n,\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the Constitution.)\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\nPresident\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nJasper N. Wilkinson\nAlbert G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\n\nTreasurer\n\nEmporia, Kans.\n\nChairman of Board of Trustees.\nMember by election\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nIrwin Shepard.\n\nBOARD OF DIRECTORS\nDirectors ex officio\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg. Pa.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\n\nJasper N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kans.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\n\nLife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\n\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard or Education, Nashville, Term.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\n\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Boulder, Colo.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio.\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo,\n\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram. Millersville, Pa.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N. Y.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul. Minn.\nPiCKARD, Josiah L., Brunswick, Maine.\nPike, Joshua, Jerseyville, 111.\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nDIRECTORS\nLife Directors\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen. J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C,\nHunt, Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nJewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans.\n\n13\n\ncontinued\n\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nStratton, C. C, St. Johns, Oregon\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\n\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich.\nW^ilson, J. Ormond, Washington, D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\n\nJohn S. Locke\nJames E. Klock\nIsaac Thomas\n\nPlymouth\n\nMassachusetts\n\nHenry T. Bailey\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\n\nNorth Worcester\nProvidence\n\nCharles H. Keyes\nJames C. Byrnes\nJohn Enright\nJohn W. Lansinger\n\nHartford\n\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\n\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nSaco\nBurlington\n\nNew York\nFreehold\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nVirginia\n\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\n\nWilmington\n\nJoseph L. Jarman\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nJ. I. Foust\nRobert P. Pell\nWilliam M. Slaton\nMiss Clem Hampton\n\nFarmville\n\nBaltimore\n\nWashington\n\nWheehng\nGreensboro\nSpartanburg\nAtlanta\nTallahassee\n\nSouth Central Division\n\nKentucky\nTennessee\n\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nLouisiana\n\nTexas\nArkansas\n\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nEugene F. Turner\nIsaac W. Hill\nRobret B. Fulton\nWarren Easton\nL. E. Wolfe\nGeorge B. Cook\nAndrew R. Hickam\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nLouisville\n\nNashville\n\nMontgomery\nUniversity\n\nNew Orleans\nSan Antonio\nHot Springs\nOklahoma City\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\nOhio\n\nWells L. Griswold\n\nIndiana\n\nT. A. Mott\nJ. A. Mercer\nWilliam H. Elson\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\nJohn A. Cranston\n\nIllinois\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\n\nIowa\nMinnesota\n\nYoungstown\nRichmond\nPeoria\n\nGrand Rapids\nMenomonie\nCherokee\nSt. Cloud\n\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nW. J. Hawkins\nP. G. Knowlton\nM. A. Lange\nGeorge L. Towne\nL. D. Whittemore\n\nMontana\n\nOscar J. Craig\n\nMissoula\n\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nT. T. Tynan\nL. C. Greenlee\n\nCheyenne\nDenver\n\nNew Mexico\n\nC. M. Light\n\nSilver City\n\nMissouri\n\nSt. Louis\n\nFargo\nPierre\n\nLincoln\n\nTopeka\n\nWestern Division\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n14\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nDirectors by Election\n\ncontinued\n\nArizona\n\nA. J. Matthews\n\nTempe\n\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\n\nD. H. Christenson\n\nSalt Lake City\n\nJ.\n\nE. SitrBBS\n\nReno\n\nMiss Frances Mann\n\nBoise\n\nEdward T. Mathes\n\nBellingham\n\nE. D, Ressler\n\nMonmouth\n\nCalifornia\n\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nPasadena\n\nAlaska\nPorto Rico\n\nMiss Cassia Patton\nFrank H. Ball\n\nHawaii\n\nArthur F, Griffiths\nC. H. Maxson\n\ni\n\nDependencies\n\nPhilippine Islands\n\nSitka\n\nSan Juan\nHonolulu\nIloilo, Panay\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\n\nELMER E. BROWN\nAUGUSTUS S. DOWNING\nJ.\n\nW. CARR\n\nPresident\n\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nVice-President\n\nAlbany N. Y.\nDayton, Ohio\nWashington, D. C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nSecretary\n\nMiss ANNA TOLMAN SMITH\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nHOWARD J. ROGERS\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nMiss MARY C. MAY\n\nPresident\n\nExecutive Committee\n\nKindergarten\n\nELMER E. BROWN\nMiss MAY E. MURRAY\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nVice-President\n\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nSecretary\n\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nElementary\nMrs. ALICE WOOD WORTH COOUEY.. President\n\nMinneapoUs, Minn.\n\nCLARENCE F. CARROLL\nMrs. JOSEPHINE HEERMANS\n\nRochester, N. Y.\nKansas City, Mo.\n\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\n\nSecondary\n\nEUGENE W. LYTTLE\nWILSON. FARRAND\nEDWIN TWITMYER\nPHILO M. BUCK\n\n;....\n\nPresident\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nSecond Vice-President\n\nNewark, N. J.\nBeUingham, Wash.\n\nSecretary\n\nSt. Louis. Mo.\n\nHigher\n\nWM. L. BRYAN\nC. ALPHONSO SMITH\nOSCAR J. CRAIG\n\nPresident\n\nJOHN R. KIRK\nD. B. JOHNSON\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nRock HiU, S. C.\n\nMiss MARY ALICE WHITNEY\n\nSecretary\n\nEmporia, Kans.\n\nBloomington, Ind.\n\nVice-President\n\nChapel Hill, N. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nMissoula, Mont.\n\nNormal\nKirksviUe, Mo.\n\nSuperintendence\nW. CARR\nJ. H. PHILLIPS\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\n\nBirmingham, Ala.\n\nMiss IDA C. BENDER\nMiss ELLA C. SULLIVAN\n\nSecond Vice-President\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\n\nPresident\n\nRoxbury, Mass.\n\nCHARLES R. BATES\nOSCAR L. McMURRY\n\nVice-President\n\nPort Deposit, Md.\n\nSecretary\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nJ.\n\nDayton, Ohio\n\nManual\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\n\n15\n\nArt\n\nEUGENE C. COLBY\n\nPresident\n\nMiss CLARA A. WILSON.\nMiss HELEN E. LUCAS..,\n\nVice-President\n\nDavenport, Iowa\n\nSecretary\n\nRochester, N. Y.\n\nHAMLIN E. COGSWELL...\n\nPresident\n\nMansfield.JPa.\n\nMrs. FRANCES E. CLARK.\n\nVice-President\n\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nKeokuk, Iowa\n\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nMusic\n\nHAYDEN\n\nSecretary\n\nH. M. ROWE\nJAMES T. YOUNG\nHORACE G. HEALEY.\n\nPresident\n\nP. C.\n\nBusiness\nBaltimore, Md.\n\nFirst Vice-President\n\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\n\nSecretary\n\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\nChild Study\n\nEDWIN G. DEXTER.\nHENRY H. GODDARD..\n\nPresident\n\nUrbana, 111.\n\nVice-President\n\nCHARLES W. WADDLE.\n\nSecretary\n\nWest Chester. Pa.\nAustin, Tex,\n\nH. A. SENTER\nIRVING O. PALMER\n\nPresident\n\nOmaha, Nebr.\n\nVice-President\n\nNewtonville, Mass.\n\nWHITNEY\n\nSecretary\n\nBinghamton, N. Y.\n\nE. HERMANN ARNOLD\n\nPresident\n\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\nMiss MAY G. LONG\n\nVice-President\n\nNew Haven, Conn.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nMason City, Iowa\n\n.\n\n.\n\nScience\n\nE. R.\n\nPhysical\n\n'\n\nSchool Administration\nB. F.\n\nHUNSICKER\n\nGRAFTON D. GUSHING\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\n\nPresident\n\nReading, Pa.\n\nVice-President\n\nBoston, Mass.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nChairman, Executive Committee\n\nJ\n\nLibrary\nJ.\n\nN. WILKINSON\n\nEDWIN WHITE GAILLARD\nMiss GRACE SALISBURY\n\nPresident\n\nEmporia, Kans.\n\nVice-President\n\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nSecretary\n\nWhitewater, Wis.\n\nSpecial Education\nMiss ANNA E. SCHAFFER\nS.\n\nM. GREEN\n\nE. R.\n\nJOHNSTONE\n\nPresident\n\nMadison, Wis,\n\nMo.\n\nVice-President\n\nSt. Louis,\n\nSecretary\n\nVineland, N. J.\n\nIndian Education\n(Vacant)\n\nR. A.\n\nCOCHRAN\n\nMiss ESTELLE REEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\n\nMt. Pleasant, Mich.\nWashington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n:\n\n:\n\nTREASURER'S REPORT\nTO THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nJuly i, 1904 to June 30, 1905\n\nFOR THE MEETING AT ST. LOUIS, AND FOR THE ENSUING YEAR\nJ. W. Crabtree,\n\nTreasurer, in Acct. with the National Educational Association\n\nBALANCE ON HAND JULY i, 1904\nCash received from Treasurer Rhoads as per last annual report\n\n$ 3,514. 20\n\nRECEIPTS\nFrom transportation lines\nAccount of Minneapolis meeting:\nMinneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie\nAccount of Boston meeting:\n\n$\n\nBoston & Maine Railroad\nNew York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad\n\n$ 485 00\n2,020 00\n\nNew York Central & Hudson River Railroad\n\n543 00\n366 00\n\nEastern Steamship Co\nNashville, Chattanooga\n\n1\n\n.\n\n95\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n& St. Louis Railroad\n\n3 90\n.\n\n4 00\n\nErie Railroad\n\n.\n\n3,421.90\n\nTotal from transportation lines\n\n$ 3,423 85\n.\n\nFrom Board of Trustees:\nInterest on Permanent Fund\nFrom annual meeting (St. Louis)\n\n'\n\n5i534- 90\n\nAdvance memberships\nRegistration bureau\nFormer active memberships\nNew active memberships\nAssociate memberships\n\n$4,448 00\n.\n\n$ 908 00\n850 00\n3,088 00\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n4,846 00\n.\n\n9,294.00\n\nFrom memberships Milwaukee meeting of Department of Superintendence\n\n606 00\n.\n\nFrom Secretary's office during the year:\nMemberships\n\n$7,982 oof\n.\n\nEnrollments\n\n762 oot\n\nExchange\nSale of back volumes\n\n37-34\n480.85\n\nSale of special reports\n\nloi 70\n\n.\n\n.\n\nMiscellaneous\n\n9. 50\n\n9.373-39\n\nFrom royalty, sale of reports of Committees of Ten and Fifteen\nFrom interest on deposit in First National Bank, Chicago\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n69.20\n\nno. 41\n$31,925 77\n-\n\ntThese amounts include $904.00 enrollment fees and advanced membership dues for Asbury Park\nmeeting.\n\n16\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": ": :\n\n\"\n\n:\n\nTREASURER'S REPORT\n\n17\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nBoard of Trustees:\nPremium on bonds\nAccrued interest\n\n$190 00\n\nForeclosure suits\n\n142 22\n\nBank fees\nBank expenses\n\n211.50\n\n.\n\n42 22\n.\n\n.\n\n25 50\n.\n\n$611.44\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nPresident\n\n$104.44\n\nVice-President\n\nTreasurer\n\n22 05\n222 78\n\nChairman Board of Trustees\n\n109 28\n\nMember by election\n\ni4- 5°\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n473-05\nGeneral Secretary's office\nSalary of Secretary\n\n$4,000,00\n\nPostage\n\n1,632 67\n.\n\nTelegrams\n\n100. 56\n\nFreight and express\n\n57. 38\n\nClerical services\n\n1,509.85\n\nExchange\n\n40. 43\n\nStationery and office supplies\n\n149. la\n\nTraveling\n\n612 59\n\nOffice rent\n\n600.00\n\n.\n\nMiscellaneous (refunds, etc.)\n\n16 10\n.\n\n8,718.70\nPrinting:\n\nVolume of Proceedings\n\n$6,2 78 96\n.\n\nReprints from volume\n\n271 50\n.\n\nExecutive Committee bulletins\n\n1,265 52\n•\n\nMiscellaneous (letterheads, blanks, envelopes, programs, etc.)\n\n357 20\n.\n\n8,173.18\n\nExpress and freight\nDistribution of volumes\n\n$2,249.\n\nMiscellaneous\n^\n\n.\n\n.\n\n,\n\n92 38\n.\n\n2,341.40\n\n.\n\nSpeaal appropriations:\nDepartment of Superintendence\nCommittee on Educational Doctrine\nCommittee on Key Notation\nCommittee on Salary, Tenure, and Pensions\nCommittee on Courses of Study in Rural Schools\nCommittee on Taxation\n\n$203 .31\n-\n\n5 70\n.\n\n200.00\n2,609 23\n•\n\n357 43\n663 72\n.\n\n.\n\n4,039-39\n\nAnnual Convention:\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\n\n'.\n\n$423 85\n460. 96\n.\n\n.'\n\nClerical services\n\nStenographers and typewriters\n\n$308 68\n681 75\n.\n\nRegistration\n\n.\n\nAssistants at headquarters\n.\n\n118. o5\n\n1,109.38\n\n,\n\nPnntmg:\nPrograms\n\n$405 00\n.\n\nMiscellaneous\n\n143 75\n.\n\n548.7s\n\nS5So\n\nStationery\n\nConference of Department presidents, Chicago\n\n802.67\n\nMiscellaneous\n\n53 50\n.\n\n3,544.61\nUnclassified disbursements:\n\nFor examining securities, bonds of Treasurer, Secretary, and auditing accounts ..\nMiscellaneous\n\n.\n\n.\n\n$105 00\n.\n\n425 19\n.\n\n530.19\nTotal disbursements for the year\n\n$28,432 05\n.\n\nGENERAL SUMMARY\nTotal receipts\n\nTotal disbursements\nBalance in treasury, June 30, IQOJ\n\n$31,925 77\n28,432 05\n.\n\n.\n\n$3,493 72\n•\n\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n:\n\n:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nl8\n\nAsBURY Park, N. J., July 3,\n\nThe undersigned,\n\ntrustees of the National\n\nEducational Association, have this day\n\n1905.\n\nexamined and\n\napproved the accounts of Mr. James W. Crabtree, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and vouchers for\ndisbursements.\n\n(Signed)\n\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman.\nNewton C. Dougherty.\nF. LoDis Sold AN.\nWilliam H. Maxwell.\nChicago, September 5, 1905.\n\nExecutive Commiliee, National Educational Association of the United States.\n\nIn accordance with instructions received from Mr. A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board\nhave examined the books and accounts of the National Educational Association of the\nUnited States, as kept by the Secretary, Dr. Irwin Shepard, and the Treasurer, Mr. J. W. Crabtree.\nWe have verified the Treasurer's report, submitted at the meeting of the Association at Asbury Park\nand Ocean Grove, N. J., and we certify both reports to be in accordance with the books.\nWe are pleased to be able to report that the books are correctly kept, and are, in our opinion, well suited\nYours respectfully,\nto the needs of the Association.\nThe International Audit Company,\n\nGentlemen:\n\nof Trustees, we\n\nBy John McLaren, President.\nRobert Nelson,\nCertified Public Accountant, Manager.\n\nNINETEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOARD\nOF TRUSTEES\nTo the Board of Directors of tJie National Educational Association:\n\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational\nAssociation and its income for the year ending Jime 30, 1905\n\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1904:\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas bonds\nIllinois bonds\nCash on hand for investment\n\n$69,500\n10,100\n\n53.Soo\niSiQoo\n\nTotal\n\n$147,000\n\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1905:\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas\nIllinois bonds\nSt. Louis Terminal Railroad bonds\nCash on hand for investment\n\n$61,500\n10,000\n\n57.ooo\n15.000\n\n3.500\n\nTotal\n\n$147,000\n\nINVESTMENTS\nInvestment, July i, 1904\n\n$133,100\n\nPaid during the year\nMortgage, 726 and 728 West Adams Street, Chicago\n\n$1,000\n\nEudora City, Kans., Bond No. 13\nLemont, 111., Bond No. 14\nChicago improvement bonds\n\n6,000\n\nFirst Universalist Church, Englewood, Chicago\n\n7i000\n\n100\n\n500\n14,600\n\n$118,500\n\nBalance of investments\nInvestments during the year\nSt. Louis Terminal Railroad bonds\n\niS.ooo\n\nChicago drainage bonds\n\n10,000\n\nTotal investment, July i, 1905\n\n25.000\n\n$143,500\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n:\n\n1\n\n:\n\n,\n\nREPORT OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES\n\n19\n\nINCOME STATEMENT\nReceipts from interest\nCity of Eudora, Kans\nHodgeman county, Kans\nNess county, Kans\nMorgan Park, lU\n\n$ 48.00\n60 00\n60.00\n.\n\niS7 5©\n•\n\nLemont, 111\n\n187.50\n250.00\n\nFirst mortgage, 1919 Wabash avenue,\n\nChicago\nChicago\nFirst mortgage, 5603 Madison avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage. First UniversaUst Church,\nFirst mortgage, 5136 Hibbard avenue,\n\n250.00\n250.00\nipg 38\n450.00\n240.00\n250.00\n.\n\nFirst mortgage, 726 and 728 West Adams street,\n\nChicago\n\nChicago improvement bonds\nFirst mortgage, 312 North La Salle street,\n\nChicago\nChicago\nFirst mortgage, 5239 and 5241 Cornell avenue, Chicago\n5526-5528 Jefferson avenue, Chicago\n2268 Kenmore avenue, Chicago\nChicago drainage bonds\nInterest on bank deposits\nFirst mortgage, 1201 Irving Park boulevard,\n\n75.89\n475 75\n275 .00\n125.00\n.\n\n2,000.00\n\n180.88\n\nTotal interest transferred to J. W. Crabtree, Treasurer\n\n$5,534- 90\n\nSTATEMENT OF SECURITIES BELONGING TO THE PERMANENT FUND OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, JUNE 30, 1905\nIn the custody of A. G. Ijane, Chairman, Board of Trustees\nKANSAS COUNTY, MUNICIPAL, AND SCHOOL BONDS\nCoimty\n\nGarfield*\nGrant*...\n\nKind of Bond\n\nSchool District 24\n\nLane*\n\nCounty\nCounty\n\nReno*...\nSeward*.\n\nWith Bentley & Hatfield\n\nCity of South Hutchinson\n\nWichita, Kans\n\nTotal\n\nAmount\n\n^.1^1*°!\nInterest\n\n2,000\n3.000\n1,000\n\nJan. and July\nJan. and July\nJan. and July\nFeb. and Aug.\n\n1,000\n\nJudgm't obtained\n\n$ 800\n\nBond Due\n\nInterest Payable\n\nJanuary, 1910\nFebruary, 1920\nJuly I, 1918\nApril, 1908\n\n$7,800\n\nIn the custody of the First Trust and Savings Banks, Chicago\n\n:\n\nKANSAS COUNTY, MUNICIPAL, AND SCHOOL BONDS\nCounty\n\nKind of Bond\n\nTlnncrln^\n\nEudora Citv\n\nHodgeman\n\nCounty\n\nNesst\n\nSchool District 70\n\n.\n\n.\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\n$ 700\n\n6%\n\nMarch\n\n1,000\n\n6%\n\nJanuary and July\nJanuary and July\n\nBond Due\n\nInterest Payable\n\nf\n\n\\\n\nTotal\n\n500\n\ndue\n\neach\n\nyear, March i\n\n$2,200\n\nILLINOIS MUNICIPAL AND SCHOOL\n\nBond\n\nAmount\n\nVillage of Morgan Park 111\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\n\n$ 2,500\n\nLemont. 111.,^ School Nos. 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30,32\n\nOne\n\nJuly I, 1919\nJuly, 1003\n\n1,000\n3.500\n50,000\n\n$S7.ooo\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nBONDS\nInterest Payable\n\nBond Due\n\nMay and Nov.\nJanuary and July\nJune and Dec.\nDec. and June\n\nJuly, 1913\n$500 yearly Dec. i\n\nNov. I, 191\nDecember, 1917\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONyiL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n20\n\nCHICAGO REAL ESTATE\nFirst Mortgages\n\nAmount\n\nloiQ Wabash avenue (Thomas)\n\n$ 5,000\n\nHibbard avenue (Ritchie)..\n\n5,000\n5,000\n5,000\n5,000\n3,000\n9,000\n1,000\n10,000\n2,500\n11,000\n\n<\\i'\\6\n\na6''2 Lake avenue (Hord)i\n312 La Salle street (Leonard)\n\nI20I Irving Park boulevard (Wadharas)\n\nSS26-28 Jefferson avenue (Wallace)i\nS230 Cornell avenue (Dickinson)\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\n5%\n\ni\n5^\n\nI\n\nInterest Payable\n\nMortgage Due\n\nMay and Nov. i\nMay and Nov. i\nMarch and Sept.\nAoril and October\nJanuary and July\nFeb. and Aug.\nApril and October\nApril and October\nMay and Nov.\nJanuary and July\n\nMay I, 1908\nNovember i, 1908\nJuly I. 1909\nMarch, 1905\nOctober, 1906\nJulv, IQ06\nFebruary i, 1907\nOctober i, 1904\nOctober i, 1907\nNovember 15,1907\nJanuary, 1909\n\nJuly and Jan. i\n\n$61,500\n\nRAILROAD BONDS\nBond\nTerminal Raihroad Association of\nNos. i63ii~25\n\nSt.\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nInterest Payable\n\nBond Due\n\n$1 5,00c\n\n4^\n\nJanuary and July\n\nJanuary, 1953\n\nT^uis,\n\nApproved by the Board of Trustees and ordered transmitted to the Board of Directors.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman.\nW ILLIAM H. Maxwell.\n\nNewton C. Dougherty.\nF. Louis Soldan.\n\nREPORT OF EXAMINATION OF SECURITIES\nChicago, June 19, 1905.\nI have this day examined the securities named in the foregoing statement made bv A. G. Lane, chairman\n\nof the Board of Trustees, and Ix)uis Boisot, trust officer of the First Trust and Savings Bank in Chicago, and\nfind all the bonds and securities in theu: possession, or in the hands of attorneys for collection, as shown in their\n\nstatements.\n\n(Signed)\n\nCarroll G. Pearse.\n\nIn default in payment of interest.\ntin the hands of Citizens State Bank of Ness City, Kans., for the purpose of exchange for new bond.\nJin the hands of James Frake, of Chicago, for foreclosure.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFORTY-FOURTH ANNUM. CONVENTION\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nASBURY PARK AND OCEAN GROVE, N. J., July 3-7, 1905\n\nSUNDAY SERVICES\nSpecial Sunday services were held in advance of the opening of the convention in the\nOcean Grove Auditorium, July 2, 1905, under the auspices of the National Educational\nAssociation; President William H. Maxwell presiding.\nMorning service at 10:30 A. m.; Bishop James N. FitzGerald, D.D., conducting.\nSermon by Rev. Newell Dwight Hillis, of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nEvening service at 8 p. m.; Rev. A. E. Ballard, D.D., conducting. Sermon by Rev.\nRussell H. Conwell, of Baptist Temple, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMusic for both services was furnished by the Auditorium Choir and Ocean Grove\nFestival Orchestra, under the direction of Mr. Tali Esen Morgan, director of music,\nOcean Grove.\nThe exercises were arranged and the preachers secured by Dr. James M. Green, of\nTrenton, N. J., acting by request of President William H. Maxwell,\n\nOPENING SESSION.—Monday, July 3\nThe forty-fourth annual convention of the National Educational Association was\ncalled to order by President William H. Maxwell, of New York city, at 8 p. m., in the\nAuditorium at Ocean Grove, N. J.\nVarious selections by the Ocean Grove Festival Orchestra had been rendered while\nthe audience was assembling.\n\nThe music at all general sessions was under the direction of Mr. Tali Esen Morgan,\nand was furnished by the Ocean Grove Festival Chorus and the Ocean Grove Festival\nOrchestra, and several eminent soloists under the leadership of Mr. Morgan. Mr. J. H.\n\nVon Nardroff presided at the Auditorium organ.\nThe exercises were opened with prayer by Bishop James N. FitzGerald, D.D., of\nOcean Grove.\nDr. James M. Green, principal of the State Normal School at Trenton, N, J., dehvered\nan address of welcome on behalf of Hon, Edward C. Stokes, governor of New Jersey, who\nwas absent on account of illness.\nA response to the address of welcome was made by Albert G. Lane, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., who was President of the National Educational Association at the Asbury Park convention in July, 1894.\nA musical solo, \"The Lord Worketh Wonders,\" by Handel, was sung by JuHan\nWalker, accompanied by the Ocean Grove Festival Orchestra,\nThe annual address of the President of the Association was dehvered by President\nWilliam H. Maxwell, of New York city, on the subject, \"Education for Efficiency.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n22\n\nA musical solo, \"The Two Grenadiers,\" by Schumann, was sung by Julian Walker.\nDr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, presented an address\non \"The Future of Teachers' Salaries,\" which was followed by an address on \"The Uses\nof Educational Museums,\" by Frederick J. V. Skiff, director of the Field Columbian\nMuseum, Chicago, 111. A discussion of the subject followed by J. W. Carr, superintendent\nof schools, Anderson, Ind.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions was then announced, as follows:\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nEliphalet Oram Lyte, Chairman, principal of State Normal School, Millersville, Pa.\nCharles J. Baxter, state superintendent of schools, Trenton, N. J.\nEdwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nFrank B. Cooper, superintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash.\nCharles D. Mclver, president of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C.\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.\nMiss Harriet Emerson, principal of Central Grammar School, Springfield, Mass.\nO. J. Kern, county superintendent of schools, Rockford, 111.\nEdward J. Goodwin, second assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.\nWilliam L. Bryan, president of Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind.\n\n^he convention then adjourned to meet at 2 30 p. m. Tuesday, July 4.\n:\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Tuesday, July 4\nThe convention was called to order at 2:30 p. m., in the Ocean Grove Auditorium, by\nPresident WiUiam H. Maxwell.\n\nPrayer was offered by Rev. A. E. Ballard, D.D., of Ocean Grove, N. J.\n\nAn overture, \"America,\" was rendered by the Ocean Grove Festival Orchestra.\nThe first address of the session was on \"The Fundamentals in Education,\" by Hon.\nGeorge B. McClellan, mayor of the city of New York.\nAn address on \"The Nation's Educational Purpose\" was delivered by Hon. Andrew\nS. Draper, state commissioner of education for New York, Albany, N. Y.\nThe Ocean Grove Festival Chorus and Orchestra rendered the musical selection\n\" Great God of Nations,\" by Wagner.\nIn the absence of President Edwin A. Alderman, of the University of Virginia, who\nwas appointed to speak on \"American Idealism,\" Dr. James H. Canfield, of Columbia\nUniversity, supplied President Alderman's place and addressed the convention on the\nsame subject, Mr. Canfield was not willing to have the stenographer's report of his\naddress published in the volume of Proceedings, since it was dehvered without time for\ndue preparation, and simply to fill out the program for the afternoon, at the request of\nPresident Maxwell, when it was known that President Alderman would not be present.\nThe national anthem, \"America,\" was sung by the chorus and audience.\nThe convention adjourned to Wednesday evening, July 5, at 8 p. M.\n\nTHIRD SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5\nThe convention assembled in the Ocean Grove Auditorium at 8 p. m., and was called\nto order 'by President Maxwell.\n\nPrayer was offered by Rev. John Leroy Taylor, pastor of the First Presbyterian\n\nChurch, Asbury Park.\n\nA musical solo, \"The Serenade,\" by Berlioz, was sung by Wilham Harper.\nThe topic \"Child Labor and Compulsory Education\" was discussed as follows:\na) \"The School Aspect,\" by George H. Martin, secretary of State Board of Education\nfor Massachusetts, Boston, Mass.\nh) \" The\n\nLegal Aspect,\" by FrankHn H. Giddings, professor of sociology, Columbia\n\nUniversity, New York city.\n\nWilliam Harper again sang a solo, \"Honor and Arms,\" by Handel.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nJOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n.\n\n23\n\nThe second topic of the evening was \"The Immigrant Child,\" presented by Miss\nJuHa Richmond, district superintendent of schools, New York city.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was announced by the Secretary, having\nbeen appointed by the President in accordance with By-Law No. i\n\nMEMBERS OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE\nJames L. Hays, New Jersey, Chairman\n\nW. Hill\n\nMontana\n\nS.\n\nD. Largent\n\nA. J. Matthews\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nNebraska\n\nJ.\n\nW. Searson\n\nAlabama\n\nI.\n\nArizona\nArkansas\n\nRichard D. Faulkner\nColorado\nZ. X. Snyder\nConnecticut\nCharles H. Keyes\nDelaware\n.Arthur R. Spaid\nDistrict of Columbia. Hosmer M. Johnson\nFlorida\nW. B. Dickenson\nGeorgia\nW. M. Slaton\nIdaho\n(Vacant)\nIllinois\nDavid Felmley\nIndiana\nH. B. Brown\nIndian Territory.\n.Miss Mary F. Russell\nIowa\nJohn F. Riggs\nKansas\nJasper N. Wilkinson\nKentucky\nE. H. Mark\nLouisiana\n.Miss Marion Brown\nMaine\nJohn S. Locke\nCalifornia\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nMaryland\n\nAlbert S. Cook\nCharles H. Ames\nE. E. Scribner\n\nMassachusetts\n\nMichigan\nMinnesota\n\nJ-\n\nMississippi\n\nMissouri\n\nJ.\n\nW. Olsen\n\nNevada\n\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth CaroUna\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\n\nOklahoma\nPennsylvania\n\nRhode Island\nSouth CaroHna\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\n\nW. M. Kern\nEdmund D. Lyon\nE. S. Vaught\n(Vacant)\nE. O. Lyte\nCharles E. Dennis, Jr.\nD. B. Johnson\n\nGeorge M. Smith\nR. B. Lees\nR. B. Cousins\nA. C. Nelson\nW. D. Hatch\nDudley R. Cowles\n\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\n\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\n\nM. Greenwood\n\nWyoming\n\nC. Kirtland, Jr.\nJames L. Hays\n\nHiram Hadley\nGustave Straubermiiller\nJ. Y. Joyner\n\nOregon\n\nC. E. Saunders\n\nPorto Rico\n\n(Vacant)\nJ.\n\n(Vacant)\n\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nWilliam George Bruce\nCharles H. Nellor\n\nFrank H. Ball\n\nAfter announcements the convention adjourned.\n\nBUSINESS SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nMINUTES OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE; ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nThe meeting was called to order by President William H. Maxwell, at 12 m., in the\nFirst Methodist Episcopal Church.\n\nPresident Maxwell;\n\nThe first business is the reading of the minutes of the last\n\nannual meeting.\n\nOn motion, the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, and the same were approved\nas printed in the annual volume of Proceedings of'the St. Louis meeting.\n\nPresident Maxwell:\n\nThe next business is the annual report of the Treasurer\n\nof the Association.\n\nCopies of the report were distributed to the members present.\n\nOn motion, the report of the Treasurer was accepted and approved, and ordered\nprinted in the annual volume of Proceedings.\n\nPresident Maxwell:\n\nThe next item of business is the report of the chairman of\n\nthe Board of Trustees.\n\nAlbert G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees: Printed copies of the report\nhave been distributed to the members present. I wish to call your attention to the statement of securities at the end of the report. The permanent fund having been increased\nto approximately $150,000 required more time and attention than it was possible for the\nchairman of the Board of Trustees to give it; consequently, at the annual meeting of the\nBoard of Trustees last year, they voted to make the First Trust and Savings Bank, which is a\npart of the First National Bank of Chicago, the trust company in charge of the fund. You\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n24\n\nwill see by this statement that only those delinquent bonds in Kansas which are in process\n\nof collection are in the possession of the chairman of the Board of Trustees, while the active\nsecurities are all in the hands of the First Trust and Savings Bank of Chicago.\nThat\nbank transacts all the business for a commission of one-eighth of one per cent., and has\nthe custody of the bonds.\nSuperintendent Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee, was appointed\n\nexaminer of securities for the current year; his certificate follows the report.\nI call attention to the footnote under \"Mortgages on\n\nChicago Real Estate.\"\n\nSteps\n\nwere taken for foreclosure of the Hord note and the Wallace notes because the property\n\nhad been sold to other parties. There were some second mortgages, and we thought best\nto protect our interests by foreclosure.\nPresident Maxwell: Does any member of the Association desire to ask Chairman\nLane any question with regard to the report ?\nT. A. Mott, of Indiana, moved that the report be approved as printed, and that it\nbe incorporated in the printed volume of Proceedings; seconded; carried without opposing\nvote.\n\nPresident Maxwell:\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations is next in\n\norder.\n\nJames L. Hays, of New Jersey, chairman of the Committee on Nominations, read\nthe report.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nTo the President and Members of the National Educational Association:\nOn behalf of the members of the Committee on Nominations, I beg leave to report\nthe following nominations for officers of the Association for the year 1905-6, as follows:\n\nFor—\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nThird Vice-President\nFourth Vice-President\nFifth Vice-President\nSixth Vice-President\nSeventh Vice-President\nEighth Vice-President\nNinth Vice-President\nTenth Vice-President\nEleventh Vice-President\nTwelfth Vice-President\nTreasurer\n\nNathan C. Schaeffer\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nMiss N. Cropsey\n\nAlabama\n\nIsaac W. Hill\n\nMontgomery\n\nArizona\nArkansas\nCahfornia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\n\nMatthews\nGeorge B. Cook\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nTempe\n\nJ.\n\nH. Hinemon\n\nE. S. Vaught\nJohn F. Riggs\nJoseph O'Connor\nD. B. Johnson\nJ.\n\nA.\n\nShawan\n\nH. O. Wheeler\nJ. Y. Joyner\nJohn W. Spindler\nJ. Stanley Brown\nJasper M. Wilkinson\n\nPennsylvania\n\nNew York\nIndiana\nArkansas\n\nOklahoma\nIowa\nCahfornia\nSouth Carolina\n\nOhio\nVermont\nNorth CaroUna\nKansas\nIllinois\n\nKansas\n\ndirectors\nA.\n\nJ.\n\nHot Springs\n\nL. C.\n\nPasadena\nDenver\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\n\nWilmington\n\nGreenlee\nCharles H. Keyes\n\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nNo nomination\n\nFlorida\n\nMiss Clem Hampton\nWilliam M. Slaton\nMiss Frances Mann\n\nHartford\n\nMercer\n\nTallahassee\nAtlanta\nBoise\nPeoria\n\nIndiana\nIndian Territory\n\nT. A. Mott\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nRichmond\nMuskogee\n\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\n\nA. V. Storm\nL. D. Whittemore\n\nTopeka\n\nLouisiana\n\nW. H. Bartholomew\nWarren Easton\n\nNew Orleans\n\nMaine\n\nJohn S. Locke\n\nSaco\n\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nllhnois\n\nJ.\n\n•.\n\nA.\n\nCherokee\nLouisville\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n25\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS—DIRECTORS (continued)\nM. Bates Stephens\nHenry T. Bailey\nW. H. Elson\n\nBaltimore\nWorcester\nGrand Rapids\nSt.\n\nNebraska\n\nJohn A. Cranston\nRobert B. Fulton\nW. J. Hawkins\nOscar J. Craig\nGeorge L. Towne\n\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\n\nNo nomination\nNo nomination\n\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico.\nNew York\n\nJohn Enright\nC. M. Light\nJames C. Byrnes\nJ. I. FousT\n\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\n\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\n\nMissouri\n\nMontana\n\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\n\nP. G.\n\nSt. Louis\nMissoula\nLincoln\n\nFreehold\nSilver City\n\nNew York\nGreensburg\nFargo\n\nKnowlton\n\nOklahoma\n\nWells L. Griswold\nAndrew R. Hickam\n\nOregon\n\nNo nomination\n\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth CaroHna\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\n\nJ. W. Lansinger\nWalter Ballou Jacobs.\n\n•.\n\nOklahoma City\nMillersville\n\nProvidence\nSpartanburg\nPierre\nNashville\n\nE. F. Turner\nL. E. Wolfe\nD. B. Christenson\nJ. L. Jarman\n\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\n\nYoungstown\n\n.\n\nRobert P. Pell\nM. A. Lange\n\nTexas\nUtah\n\nSan Antonio\nSalt Lake City\nFarmville\n\nMiss Lucy Robinson\n\nWheeling\n\nHarvey\nT. T. Tynan\nE. T. Mathes\nIsaac Thomas\n\nMenomonie\n\nL. D.\n\nWisconsin\n\nWyoming\nWashington\nVermont\n\nCloud\n\nUniversity\n\nCheyenne\nBellingham\n\nBurUngton\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nA-\\\nre(^bignea;\n\n/ James L.\n>^\n\n^\n\nHays, Chairman.\n\n^ Mark, Secretary.\n\nAndrew S. Draper, of New York, moved that the report be received and that the\nSecretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the members present for the nominees named\nin the report; seconded by J. H. Philhps, of Alabama; carried by unanimous vote.\n\nThe Secretary: The ballot is so cast.\nPresident Maxwell:\n\nI have pleasure in announcing that Superintendent Nathan\n\nC. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, has been elected your President for the ensuing year, and\nthat the other ladies and gentlemen mentioned in this report have all been elected to the\nrespective offices for which they were nominated.\n\nMr. Draper:\n\nI feel disposed to say a word in this connection.\n\nto express the feeHngs or the thought of anyone besides myself.\nis to\n\nI\n\ndo not expect\n\nI feel that the Association\n\nbe congratulated upon electing to the presidency the distinguished, scholarly, long-\n\nexperienced head of the public educational system of the state of Pennsylvania; but I do\nnot mean by that remark to be understood as feeling otherwise than that I should be glad\nenough at any time in this Association to vote for that other distinguished man who has\nbeen mentioned in connection with the office of President, and who is so deserving of\npopular commendation and of public support, Mr. Charles D. Mclver, of North Carolina.\nBut time sets all things even.\nPresident Maxwell: Commissioner Draper has expressed what is in the hearts\nof everyone of us.\n\nThe next business in order is the report of the Board of Trustees and the Board of\nDirectors on reincorporation, as provided by resolutions passed by the active members\nat the last annual meeting.\n\nThe Secretary announced that the report of the Board of Trustees to .the Board of\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n26\n\nDirectors, dated April 20, 1905 (for copy of report see minutes of Board of Directors), had\n\nbeen transmitted to the members of the latter body by mail, and that sixty-five directors\nresponded, all voting to approve the report of the Board of Trustees, except two directors,\n\nwho cast qualified affirmative votes;\n\nalso that on\n\nMay 25 a circular letter was sent to all\n\nactive members, inclosing a copy of the adopted report of the Board of Trustees, a copy\n\nof the proposed bill of incorporation and of the proposed by-laws, and giving notice that\n\nthe report would be presented for adoption at this meeting, in accordance with the directions in the resolutions passed at the meeting, June 30, 1904.\n\nThe Secretary also reported that the Board of Directors, at an adjourned meeting\non July 4, had voted to recommend certain changes in sec. 7 of the proposed bill, and that\nthis section had been printed on a separate slip in a form embodying the proposed amendments.\n\nThese sHps, with copies of the original proposed bill, of the proposed by-laws, and of\nthe report of the trustees, were distributed to the members present.\n\nDr. F. Louis Soldan was then recognized by the chair as the member authorized by\nthe Board of Directors and the Board of Trustees to present the report and recommendations of those boards, and to explain the proposed bill for reincorporation, and the amend-\n\nrecommended by the Board of Directors, as well as all other matters\nThis he proceeded to do by reporting, as a matter of information, the adoption by the Board of Directors of the following resolution:\nments to sec.\n\n7\n\nconnected with the subject.\n\nResolved^ That the Board of Directors approve and adopt the recommendations\nof the Board of Trustees that appUcation be made to Congress for a special act in the form\nherewith submitted, or in the amended form herewith submitted, to incorporate an association to be known as the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" to\nsucceed and continue the present association.\nResolved, That the Board of Directors recommend the following resolution to the\nAssociation for adoption:\n\nHe then moved the adoption of the resolutions offered by the Board of Directors,\nwhich motion was duly seconded, as follows:\nResolved,\n\nThat this Association authorizes and requests the Board of Trustees to\n\nmake application to Congress for a special act, in the following form, to incorporate an\nassociation to be known as the \"National Education Association of the United States,\"\nto succeed jand continue the National Educational Association.\n\nA PROPOSED BILL TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America\nin Congress assembled:\n\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now the officers and directors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear one thousand eight hundred and eighty six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia:\n\n{Names of officers to be entered.)\nand such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or\nmembers of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\n\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the\ncause of education, in the United States. This corporation shall include the National\nCouncil of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter\nbe created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of\nHigher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of\n\nKindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education;\ntenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n27\n\nthirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth,\nthe Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; and the number and names of these departments may be changed at the pleasure\nof the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure, to sue or be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States; to\ntake or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal\nproperty and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes\naforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the\ncorporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to,\nthe educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, that the corporation\nshall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report\nin writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and\nthe expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the\n\npreceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes\nof members\nviz., active, associate, and corresponding\nwhose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the ofiicers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee,\nand a Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the\nSecretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional\nmember from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for\nthe term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the\nNational Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and\nall former Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the\nAssociation hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be\nmembers of the Board of Directors for Hfe. The Board of Directors shall have power\nto fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the\ncorporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess\nsuch other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committe shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of\nDirectors to serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent,\nand to act for, the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body,\nto the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under\nsuch general directions as may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of\nDirectors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be\na member ex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they\nshall elect one trustee for the term of four years.\nAll vacancies occurring in said Board\nof Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors\nfor the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings\n\n—\n\n—\n\nof the board shall forfeit his membership.\n\nSec. 7. That the funds of the corporation shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees,\n\nwho shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of all funds and property of whatever kind, including that which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or\ndevise; and the income of all such funds and property shall be used only to meet the cost\nof maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume\nof Proceedings, excepting when the donors shall specify otherwise, or the Board of Trustees\nshall otherwise direct.\nIt shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President\nand Secretary of the Association acting under authority of the Board of Directors. When\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding five hundred\ndollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the\nAssociation for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all\nappropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also\nbe secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term\nof his office for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted,\nand an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the next annual meeting of the\nAssociation appointed to be held thereunder, and until new By-Laws shall be adopted;\nand that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue\nto hold office and perform their respective duties as such, until the expiration of the terms\nfor which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected.\nThat at such annual meeting the members of the National Educational Association,\n\nthen present, shall organize and proceed to adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed\nthose whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the\n\"National Education Association of the United States;\" and that the Board of Trustees\nof the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into\npossession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts,\nclaims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever; and the several officers, directors and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any\nof the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver\nthe same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any HabiHty or\nobligation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and Habihties, and to be held Hable to pay and discharge all of the debts, Habiliities, and contracts, of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new\ncorporation had itself incurred the obhgation or liabiHty to pay such debt or damages,\nand no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated\nor been discontinued by reason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be\ndivested or impaired.\n\nDr. Soldan then called attention to the amendment to Sec. 7 of the Proposed\nwhich had been distributed to the members on printed slips, as follows:\n\nBill,\n\nAMENDMENT TO SEC. 7 OF THE PROPOSED CHARTER RECOMMENDED BY THE BOARD OF\nDIRECTORS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of\nTrustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of\nall other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise.\nNo\npart of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except\nby a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association, upon the recommendation\nof the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the\nBoard of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed\nto all active members of the Association.\nThe income of the Permanent Fund shall be\nused only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of pubHshing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or\ndevise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order.\nIt shall\nalso be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nJOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n29\n\nWhen practicable,\nof the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors.\nthe Board of Trustees shall invest as part of the Permanent Fund all surplus funds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the\nexpenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and\nfor all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also\nbe secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term\nof his oflBice for a period not to exceed four years.\nF. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis.\n\n—\n\nI shall be as brief in the presentation of this matter\n\nas the importance of the subject permits.\n\nYou all know the reasons which led to the\n\npresentation before the house of the matter of the reincorporation of the Association.\n\nYou know\n\nthat\n\nthe present\n\narticles of\n\nincorporation\n\nAssociation expire by limitation in February next.\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nNational Educational\n\nThis in itself shows the absolute\n\nnecessity of definite action today, so that the corporate existence of this society may not\nlapse.\nlast\n\nThe Board of Trustees, acting as a committee under resolutions passed at the\n\nannual meeting,\n\nprepared\n\narticles\n\nof\n\nincorporation following\n\nclosely the\n\nlines\n\nof the old constitution, embodying, with one exception to be mentioned later, nothing\n\nthat was not contained in the constitution which has been in force for many years.\n\nThe\n\none exception, referred to the disposition of the income of the Association: a disposition\nwhich, in the new draft, reserves the income from the permanent fund for two definite\npurposes, unless different purposes were indicated by the donors of the money for the\n\npermanent fynd, or by a vote of certain of the bodies of the Association. Otherwise,\nI refer now to the draft which was sent to your homes\nis the same in substance as the old constitution.\nI beg to direct your attention to sec. 7\nof the proposed bill of incorporation, because it is by all means the most important section in the document.\nThe first draft of the; articles of incorporation was adopted by vote,\nfirst by the Board of Trustees, then by the Board of Directors with but two dissenting\nqualified votes.\nWhen the matter, however, was discussed in the meeting of the Board\nthe articles of incorporation\n\n—\n\nof Directors on July 3, it seemed as if an improvement were possible in two directions\n\nan improvement which, while it is advocated by the Board of Directors, is submitted\nto the members for their own consideration and approval.\nYou have, therefore, two\npropositions before you, both backed by the recommendation of the Board of Directors.\n\nThe first is the proposition to adopt the articles of incorporation as contained in the document sent to your homes, printed on the larger one of the two papers now before you.\nThe second proposition, recommended by the Board of Directors unanimously, is to\nadopt the proposed amendment printed on the smaller paper now in your hands and\nmake it a part, by substitution, of the original proposition for incorporation.\nNow, in regard to the amendment, and the reasons which gave rise to its adoption\nin the Board of Directors: The amendment touches two points.\nIt touches the so-called\npermanent fund; it touches the income from that permanent fund. It appeared in the\ndiscussion before the Board of Directors that the expression \"permanent fund\" was\nsimply one that had become current by use in discussions, by headlines in the report\nof the Treasurer or Board of Trustees but which had absolutely no legal existence.\nThere\nwas in the hands of the Board of Directors, neither in the old constitution nor in the\narticles of incorporation as first prepared, any safeguard which made that fund permanent in law as it had been, or has been, permanent in name. And the clear-cut issue\nwhich the first part of the proposed amendment raises is: Does the Association desire to\nhave this fund made a permanent fund by law or not ?\n\nThe proposition to make the fund a permanent fund in law, then, is before you.\n\nIf\n\nyour preference that this fund should remain subject to drafts at any time, vote\nagainst the amendment.\nIf your feeling is that the fund should remain a permanent\n\nit\n\nis\n\nfund, then the amendment should be adopted.\n\nA word in regard to the form of the amendment: The form of the amendment, as\nfirst\n\nsuggested,\n\nupon;\n\nwas to provide in express terms that this fund should never be drawn\n\nthat the income alone should be used.\n\nThe attorney for the Association very\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n30\n\nproperly stated to the Board of Directors that such a provision could not be legally made.\n\nYou cannot tie up a fund for an indefinite number of years and indefinitely against all\nTherefore, the form finally adopted and recommended to you by the\n\npossible demands.\n\nBoard\n\nof\n\nDirectors\n\nis\n\ndifferent\n\nfrom the first\n\ndraft.\n\npossible to spend part of the permanent fund; but\n\nwhich makes the fund absolutely safe.\n\nit\n\nThe form adopted makes it\n\nplaces restrictions in the article\n\nIt can be spent only when there is\n\nof the three governing bodies of the Association:\n\nthe\n\na concurrence\n\nBoard of Trustees, the Board of\n\nDirectors, and the active members.\n\nThe amendment differs from the\ntwo features that the income may be used\n\nThe second proposition refers to the income.\noriginal draft in one respect.\n\nIt retains the\n\nfor the purposes of maintaining the organization of the Association;\n\na wise provision,\n\nwhich allows any reasonable purpose to be included in the maintenance of the organization of the Association.\nIt also provides that this income shall be used, and the income\nonly, for the expense of printing the annual volume.\nThe second provision of the original\nwas \"except the Board of Trustees shall decide otherwise.\" In discussing this second\nprovision before the Board of Directors, it seemed as if it placed an unwise limit on the\nexpenditure of the income of the Association, and assigns, perhaps, too much responsibility\nand power to the Board of Trustees. It was thought that the Board of Directors, a body\nwhich is in more constant touch with the current and shifting sentiment of the Association should have a voice in the spending of the income; hence, instead of the phrase in\nthe original draft \"unless decided otherwise by the Board of Trustees,\" tha amendment\nputs the words, \"unless decided otherwise by the Board of Directors.\"\nI want to put in a nutshell the two propositions: first, the proposition of the amendment is to tie up the permanent fund and make it permanent; second to allow a more\nliberal use, if necessary, of the income of the Association.\nI should not have occupied your time if it had not been for the request of the Board\nof Directors that I should present this matter to the governing body of the Association.\nAlbert G. Lane, of Chicago. I think this body is perfectly clear in regard to the\nwisdom of the action proposed by the Board of Trustees and the Board of Directors for the\n\n—\n\nreincorporation of the Association, as well as in regard to the amendments proposed to\n\nand I, therefore, move that the amended form of sec. 7 of the proposed bill as\nrecommended by the Board of Directors, and as explained by Dr. Soldan, be substituted\nsec. 7;\n\nfor sec. 7 in the original \" Proposed Bill\".\n\nThe motion was seconded as stated to the house by the chairman.\nMiss Margaret Haley, of Chicago I have a point of order to make. It is in\nwriting and I will file it with the Secretary when I have read it. It is to the effect that\n\n—\n\nthe report of the\n\nBoard of Trustees recommending an act of Congress providing for a\n\nnew association to take over this Association at some time in the future is out of order.\npowers of the Board of Trustees, as provided in the resolution. I\ndo not understand how this matter came before the Association. For that reason I am\nunable to state whether it is a report of the Board of Trustees approved by the Board\nof Directors, or a report of the Board of Directors.\nPresident Maxwell: What is before us now is a motion adopting the report of\nthe Board of Directors.\nIt is not within the\n\nMiss Haley:\n\nIt is out of order for the following reasons:\n\n.... (The statement\n\nof reasons was read at length, and a copy filed with the Secretary.)\n\nPresident Maxwell: The chair understands that a point of order is made by\nIt is the duty of the chair to rule upon points of order.\nYou will not expect\nme to go into an argument in reply to this elaborate document at this time. I shall simply\nMiss Haley.\n\nrule the point of order not well taken.\n\nMiss Haley: I appeal from the decision of the chair.\nPresident Maxwell: Miss Haley appeals from the decision of the chair. The\nquestion now before you is: Shall the chair be sustained? It should be remembered\nthat only active members have a right to vote.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\nThe question was put to vote and carried in the afifirmative, and the chair was\nsustained.\nS.\n\nY. GiLLAN, of Wisconsin: I rise to a point of information in respect to this proIn case Congress, for any reason, should fail to pass this proposed\n\nposed legislation.\n\nwhat would become of this Association at the date of the expiration of its present\nI have several other questions that I want to ask; but I\nbelieve a question of information is in order at any time, and I call for a reply.\nPresident Maxwell: I shall ask the counsel of the Board of Directors and the\nBoard of Trustees, Mr. John B. Pine, of New York, to answer the question.\nMr. Pene: During the past winter the Board of Trustees secured the passage by\nbill,\n\ncharter in February, 1906 ?\n\nCongress of an amendment to the General Act of Incorporation of the District of Columbia,\nwhich wall make it possible, in case the special charter is not passed before February 24\nnext, to continue the existence of the corporation by filing a certificate, executed by the\nPresident and Secretary of the Association, with the consent of two-thirds of the Board of\nDirectors.\n\nIn case the charter should not be passed by the day named, it is the inten-\n\nBy that means\nand opportunity will be given at a\nlater session to secure the enactment of the bill for incorporation by Congress.\nMr. Gillan: I see no objection then to taking that step at the present tim.e, and\ntion of the Board of Directors, as I understand it, to file such a certificate.\n\nthe present corporate existence ynW be continued,\n\ncontinue the present corporate existence of this body for another twenty years.\n\nBut another question, more important, is this: If Congress should amend this Proposed Bill so as to make it unsatisfactory to this Association, would not this Association\nthen be obliged to reorganize, and to transfer its property and the rights which it now\nholds, to the new organization which will be created, and on the terms therein prescribed,\n\nhowever unsatisfactory they might be ?\n\nMr. Pine: The charter cannot become effective until it has been formally accepted\nby the Association, and should the bill passed by Congress be amended in any particular\nunsatisfactory to the Association, it will then be within your power to refuse to reorganize\nunder it, and you can then proceed to adopt the other form of reorganization.\nMr. Gillan: The next point is this: Under the Proposed Act of incorporation all\nmembers are made members of the incorporation. That is, it will include associate\nmembers as well as active members.\nPresident Maxwell: To what clause do you refer?\nMr Pine: He refers to the first clause of the Proposed Bill. (Reads it.)\nAll members, under any title, are members of the corporation, but it does not follow\nthat all members shall have a voice in its affairs.\n\nThe Association is able to limit the\n\ncontrol to active members only.\n\nThere has been in the Association, I think, for a number of years a misapprehension as to what can constitute a corporate body. This is\nindicated by the peculiar phrase which appears in your constitution to the effect that the\nBoard of Trustees shall constitute the body corporate. The corporation at the present\nmoment consists of all persons who are included in its membership. The management,\nhowever, is in the hands of the active members, the Board of Directors, and the Board\nof Trustees.\nIn that respect the new charter will effect no change. The management\nand control will still continue to be vested in the active members, the directors, and the\ntrustees.\n\nMr. Gillan: Immediately the act is passed, the associate members would be memThen they could not be disfranchised without a vote of the\nmembers of the body corporate, the members voting against themselves. Whether the\nbers of the body corporate.\n\nfranchise could be Hmited later or not, it certainly could not be immediately on the organi-\n\nzation of this Association, and every member of a corporate body has a vote in that body,\n\nand he cannot be deprived of that vote unless by act of the body of which he is a member.\nAnother question for information: This Proposed Bill permits the Association to\nadopt by-laws, but it is silent in regard to amending the by-laws, and no mention is made\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n32\nof a constitution.\n\nPresumably it is assumed that this act itself would be the constitution.\n\nWould not the bill itself, if enacted by Congress, be the constitution of the Association,\nand thus be placed beyond the possibility of amendment except by a further act of Congress ? It can adopt by-laws, but there is no mention of a power to amend them.\nMr. Pine: The proposed charter, which embodies all the matter contained in your\npresent constitution, will, if enacted, become the new constitution of the Association,\nand, therefore, no constitution is provided for in terms, the act itself being the constitu-\n\nThe provision of the constitution as to the adoption of by-laws and the regulation\n\ntion.\n\nof the affairs of the Association carries with it, as a matter of course, the right to amend\n\nthe by-laws as may be desire4 from time to time.\ngress,\n\nit\n\nIt is true, if this act is passed by Con-\n\ncan, like any other act, be amended only by that body.\n\nfor the Association at any time to request such\n\nIt will\n\nbe competent\n\namendment; but it will not be in the\n\npower of the Association to make changes in the act. The very fact that such permanency will be secured is one of the reasons why it is recommended that the charter be\nplaced in the form of an act of Congress, in order that the fundamental law of the Association may be placed upon the most lasting foundation possible, and that all the present\n\nmembers may have the assurance that the Association will be perpetuated in accordance\nwith its present policy. This consideration of permanency has been one of the reasons\nwhich largely influenced the Board of Trustees in recommending this action. The passage of the act will also secure for the Association the recognition of its national character,\n\nwhich can be obtained in no other way.\n\nThe course of procedure which has been pursued is precisely that which was adopted by the trustees of the Carnegie Institution. A\nsimilar method has been pursued by other educational bodies of a national character.\n\nMiss Haley:\n\nI rise to\n\na question of pri%dlege.\n\nI wish to ask the attorney to state\n\nto the house what provision, or section of existing provisions, of\n\nlaw as to the incorpo-\n\nration of the Association requires any change in the terms of the existing constitution and\n\nby-laws of the Association in order to continue the corporate existence of this Association.\n\nI should like further to ask the attorney, in case there is no\n\nchange necessary in\n\nthe existing constitution or the rules of this body, if the authority is extended to the trustees\nto recommend any change in these resolutions.\n\nMr. Pine: I think the first question is answered by the terms of the first resolution,\nwhich not only authorized the Board of Trustees to re^commend changes, but made it their\nduty to do so. They were charged mth the solemn duty of protecting the interests of\nthe Association to the best of their abihty, and in that spirit they have endeavored to carry\n\nout the direct and expressed wishes of the resolutions adopted by the Association.\n\nAs to the provisions of the general law, I need only say that it was legally impossible to take the steps necessary to continue the existence of this Association at the time\n\nthe resolutions were passed.\n\nThat law was found to be so vague and defective, and so\n\npeculiar, as to render impossible the continuation in\n\nany form of the existence of the\nand consequently, as I explained, the Board of Trustees\napplied to Congress, and secured the amendment to the general act which has now made\nit possible for your Board of Directors to continue the corporate existence of the Association.\nBoth the second and third resolutions plainly contemplate the recommendation\nof any change in the constitution which the Board of Trustees may deem advisable, and\nAssociation under that statute;\n\nthe Secretary has strictly complied with the third resolution as to notice.\n\nMiss Haley:\n\nA point of order: The Board of Trustees was not authorized to take\n\nthe action recommended;\n\nand if the attorney says they were, then I want to ask him if\n\nthe amendment to the law which he proposed was not approved in March, 1905, and\nthe recommendaton of the Board of Trustees to the Board of Directors wa§ not made\nApril 20, and sent out to the active members on May 25.\n\nTherefore, the power was\n\nresident in the Board of Trustees at the time they made these recommendations to make\n\nthe change under the law, even if the attorney's opinion is right that they could not have\n\nmade the change under the law before its amendment.\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n33\n\nMr. Pine: The lady is correct as to her dates.\nMiss Haley: I want to enter my protest on the records of the minutes of this meeting against the action of the Board of Trustees in recommending on April 20 to the Board\nof Directors\n\n....\n\nPresident Maxwell: The chair must rule the protest at this time out of order.\nThe question is on the discussion of Mr. Lane's motion, which is the only question before\nthe house.\n\nMr. Gillan:\n\nI\n\nhave one more question of information:\n\nWhat is meant by the\n\nNational Council which sec. 2 proposes to include in this new corporation to be created\n\nDoes it mean the present sixty members, with their power practically\nand their power to\namend their own constitution ? Does it mean that sixty ? If not, what does it mean.\nI have all these questions in writing, and expect to file them with the Secretary.\n\nby act of Congress ?\n\nto perpetuate themselves, as provided by their present constitution,\n\nMr. Pine: The gentleman's question is already answered, so far as it can be\nanswered now. It is impossible for me to foresee what by-laws this Association may\nadopt a year or two hence. It will be for this body to determine what the powers of the\nNational Council shall be, and how its members shall be elected.\n\nIt has been suggested\n\nand recommended by the trustees and Board of Directors, in the documents which they\nhave laid before you, that the duties of the Council shall be as stated in the proposed\n\nThese by-laws do not come up for action now, and, with all due respect, it\nseems to me that the gentleman's question is out of order at this time.\nby-laws.\n\nMiss Haley: Another question for information: It is on sec. 2 of the Proposed Bill,\nThe original constitution has the same seventeen departments, and the\n\nsecond sentence.\n\neighteenth department of this organization\n\nis\n\nthe National Council.\n\nIn our present\n\nconstitution the National Council is a department of the National Educational Association, subject to the Association as any other department is subject to it.\n\nI should like to\n\nask a ruling of the the chair on this part of the report of the Board of Trustees, which\n\n\"The restatement of the constitution in terms suitable for a charter such as is now\nproposed has necessarily involved changes in terms and phraseology .... we ask you\n\nsays:\n\nto note particularly that it has not been the intention of the\n\nBoard of Trustees or their\n\ncounsel to make any change in any part of a substantial character.\"\n\nI should like to ask\n\na ruHng of the chair as to whether the dropping of the National Council as a depart-\n\nment, and the placing of the Council in the position it holds here, is a substantial change,\nor whether it comes under the heading of what the trustees have called \"changes in terms\n\nand phraseology.\"\nPresident Maxwell: The chair will answer that no substantial change is intended\nor made. The National Council remains as it is at present, until changed by the by-laws\nof the National Educational Association.\n\nMiss Haley: Then I wish to protest against the intentions, if I have no power to\nIf it was not the intention of the Board of Trustees to\n\nprotest against the language.\n\nThis is a substantial change, as I am advised\nby counsel.\nPresident Maxwell: The question is upon Mr. Lane's motion. Will Mr. Lane\nplease restate his motion ?\nMr. Lane: The motion was to substitute the amended form of sec. 7 for the same\nsection as it appears in the original printed copy of the proposed bill.\nPresident Maxwell: All in favor of that motion will say \"aye\"; opposed, \"no.\"\nThe motion was carried.\nPresident Maxwell: The question is now upon the original motion, as amended.\nThe motion reads as follows:\nResolved, That this Association authorizes and requests the Board of Trustees to\nmake application to Congress for a special act, in the following form, to incorporate an\nassociation to be known as the \"national education association of the united\nSTATES,\" to succeed and continue the National Educational Association.\n\nmake this change, yet they have made it.\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n34\n\nThis is the motion placed before you by Dr. Soldan, on authority of the\nLane, as ^'oUows:\nDirectors, and amended on motion of\n\nBoard of\n\nMr\n\nA PROPOSED BILL TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America\nin Congress assembled:\n\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now the officers and direct\nors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear one thousand eight hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation\nof the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia:\n\n{Names of officers to be entered.)\nand such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers\nor members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate by the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and\nby that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations,\nand restrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the\ncause of education, in the United States. This corporation shall include the National\nCouncil of Education and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter\nbe created by organization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher\nEducation; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth,\nof Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth,\nthe Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; and the number and names of these departments may be changed at the pleasure\nof the corporation, as provided in its By-Laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure, to use or to be used in\nany court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws\nnot inconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\nSec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia,\nwhich shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and all personal\nproperty and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes\naforesaid, or to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from taxation; provided, however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the\ncorporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to\nthe educational purposes of the corporation; and, provided further, that the corporation\nshall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report\nin writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and\nthe expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during\nthe preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes\nof members viz., active, associate, and corresponding whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obhgations shall be prescribed by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, and Executive Committee,\nand a Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the\nSecretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional\nmember from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for\nthe term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the\nNational Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and\nall former Presidents of the said Association now Hving, and all future Presidents of the\nAssociation hereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be\nmembers of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nto fill all vacancies in their own body;\n\n35\n\nshall have in charge the general interests of the\ncorporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess\nsuch other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the By-Laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board\nof Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of\nDirectors, to serve one year.\nThe said committee shall have authority to represent,\nand to act for, the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body,\nto the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under\nsuch general directions as may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of\nDirectors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be\na member ex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they\nshall elect one trustee for the term of four years.\nAll vacancies occurring in said Board\nof Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors\nfor the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings\nof the board shall forfeit his membership.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of\nTrustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of\nall other funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise.\nNo\npart of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except\nby a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association, upon the recommendation\nof the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the\nBoard of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed\nto all active members of the Association.\nThe income of the Permanent Fund shall be\nused only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or\ndevise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order.\nIt shall\nalso be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary\nof the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors.\nWhen practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer\nafter paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the\nfixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing\nyear.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also\nbe secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term\nof his ofl&ce for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia, provided that the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted,\nand an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may\nbe determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the By-Laws.\nSec. 9. That the Charter, Constitution, and By-Laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and eflfect until the next annual meeting of the\nAssociation appointed to be held thereunder, and until new By-Laws shall be adopted;\nand that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Association shall continue\nto hold office and perform their respective duties as such, until the expiration of the terms\nfor which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected.\nThat at such annual meeting the members of the National Educational Association,\nthen present, shall organize and proceed to adopt By-Laws, to elect officers to succeed\nthose whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the\n\"National Education Association of the United States;\" and that the Boaid of Trustees\nof the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into\npossession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the Distruct of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts,\nclaims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever; and the several officers, directors and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of\nany of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand\ndeliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby\ncreated.\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n36\nSec. io.\n\nThat the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\n\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, not shall any hability or\nobhgation, or the payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\nin any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts, of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new\ncorporation had itself incurred the obligation or liabiHty to pay such debt or damages,\nand no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated\nor been discontinued by reason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be\ndivested or impaired.\n\nMr. Gillan: I offer a substitute, as follows:\nBe it resolved, That this Association do continue its corporate existence for the term\nof twenty years from and after the date limited by law for expiration of its present corporate existence, under the laws enacted by Congress for the District of Columbia; that\nthe Board of Trustees and the proper officers of this Association be, and the same are\nhereby, directed to take, or cause to be taken, the necessary action to continue the corporate existence of this Association for the term of twenty years, as provided by laws\nenacted by Congress for the District of Columbia.\n\nMr. Gillan's motion was seconded. A motion was then made and seconded that\nMr. Gillan's substitute be laid on the table; this motion was carried.\nPresident Maxwell: The question is now upon the original motion submitted by\nDr. Soldan on behalf of the Board of Directors.\nThe motion was put to vote and carried.\nPresident Maxwell: The next order of business is the consideration of proposed\namendments to the by-laws, offered at St. Louis in 1904. The Secretary will please read\nthese proposed amendments, which are printed in full in the official program.\n(The Secretary read from the minutes of last year the proposed amendments.)\nPresident Maxwell: These amendments to the by-laws are before you. What\nis\n\nyour pleasure ?\n\nOn motion, the first amendment was laid on the table.\nPresident Maxwell: The second amendment is before you.\n\nWhat is your\n\npleasure ?\n\nOn motion, the second amendment was laid on the table.\nMr. Gillan: I rise to offer an amendment, to be laid over under the rules until next\nyear, and I do this on the assumption that it is barely possible that Congress may not pass\nthis Act, and that we may find ourselves next year, as the attorney has said, operating\nunder the same old constitution; therefore, I offer the following amendment to the\nconstitution and by-laws, to be laid over in due course and acted upon next year.\nI shall pass it to the Secretary, without reading, if you please, because it is identical,\n\nwith the exception of a few words, with the resolution adopted last year, cutting out the\nprovision for the election of Vice-President; otherwise it is identical, as follows:\nResolved, That sec. 2, Art. IV of the Constitution be amended by adding the follow-\n\ning words to the first paragraph:\n\nThe active members from any state, territory, or district, in attendance at the meeting\nfor electing a member of the Committee on Nominations, may elect the additional member\nof the Board of Directors for such state, territory, or district.\nResolved, That the By-Laws be amended by inserting the following paragraphs\nimmediately after the first paragraph of By-Law No. i\n\"The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the second day of each annual session\nand nominate candidates for President, Treasurer, and a director for each state, territory,\nor district whose members shall not have reported the election of a director as provided\nin sec. 2, Art. IV, of the Constitution; and the Committee on Nominations shall report\nto the active members at their meeting the following day a fist of the nominations.\n\" When the vote is taken by the Committee on Nominations for candidates for Presi-\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n37\n\ndent, and Treasurer, the committee shall report the persons having the highest number\nBut if, after two\nof votes, not exceeding two persons, as candidates for each office.\nformal ballots, any person shall receive a two-thirds majority of the votes cast by the\nCommittee on Nominations for any one of the aforesaid offices, then the person\nreceiving such two-thirds majority shall be reported as the only candidate for such\noffice.\"\n\nPresident Maxwell: The proposed amendment will be printed in the minutes of\nthis meeting.\n\nMr. Gillan:\n\nI offer the following resolution:\n\nResolved, That the Secretary be, and he is hereby, authorized and instructed to print\nand publish all proposed amendments to the constitution and by-laws, offered at this\nmeeting, in the official program or bulletin or other announcement of the meeting of 1906,\nand to mail a copy of the same to each active member not less than one month before the\ndate of such meeting.\n\nThe motion to adopt the resolution was seconded and carried.\nAlbert G. Lane, of Chicago: I wish to give notice at this time and to submit the\nproposed by-laws, which were drafted and printed in connection with the Proposed Bill\nfor reincorporation, for consideration at the annual meeting next year in the following\n\nform:\n\nPROPOSED BY-LAWS\nARTICLE I—MEMBERSHIP\nACTIVE MEMBERS\n\nSection i.\n\nTeachers and all who are actively associated -with the management of\n\neducational institutions, including libraries and educational publications,\n\nmay become\n\nactive members.\n\nSec. 2. Any eligible person may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the pa3nnent of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\n\ndues for the current year.\nSec. 3. Active members only shall have the right to vote and to hold office in the\nAssociation, in the National Council of Education, or in the several departments.\nSec. 4. All active members shall pay annual dues of two dollars, and shall be entitled\nto the volume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions.\nSec. 5. The annual membership fee shall be payable at the time of the annual\nconvention, or by remittance to the Secretary before September i of each year.\nSec. 6. Any active member may discontinue membership by giving written notice\nto the Secretary before September i in any year, and may restore the same only on payment\nwritten\nof the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year.\napplication for active membership shall constitute an agreement to continue such membership and pay annual dues, unless written notice of discontinuance is sent to the Secretary\nbefore September i of the fiscal year for which such discontinuance shall apply.\n\nA\n\ncorresponding members\nSec. 7. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Board\nThe number of corresponding members\nof Directors to be corresponding members.\nshall at no time exceed fifty.\nCorresponding members shall be entitled to the volume of Proceedings\nSec. 8.\nwithout the payment of fees or other conditions.\n\nASSOCIATE members\nSec. 9.\n\nAny person on paying an annual membership fee of two dollars may become\n\nan associate member.\nSec. 10. Associate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance\nwith the usual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\n\nlife members\nSec. II. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members,\nand shall enjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of\nannual dues.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n38\n\nROLL or MEMBERS\nSec. 12.\n\nThe names of active, life, and corresponding members only shall be printed\n\nin the annual Yearbook, with their respective educational titles, offices,\nand the list shall be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\n\nand addresses;\n\nARTICLE II— OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES\n\nThe President, Vice-Presidents, directors, and Treasurer shall be chosen\nby the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise ordered, on the third\nday of each annual session, a majority of the votes cast being necessary to a choice. They\nSection\n\ni.\n\nshall continue in office until the close of the annual session subsequent to their election,\n\nand until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter provided.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nSec. 2. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association the President\nshall appoint a Committee on Resolutions.\n\ncommittee on NOMINATIONS\nAt the third session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall\nbe appointed by the President a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state and territory represented. Such a committee shall be appointed by the\nPresident on the nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present at the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided,\nhowever, that such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination,\nwhen the active members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a\nSec.\n\n3.\n\nnomination.\nSec. 4.\n\nThe meetings of the active members of the several states to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held at 5 30 p. m. on the first day of the annual\nmeeting of the Association, at such places as shall be announced in the general program.\n:\n\nARTICLE III—DUTIES OF OFFICERS\n\nTHE PRESIDENT\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of\nthe Board of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofficer.\n\nIn his absence the first Vice-President in order,\n\nwho is present, shall preside;\n\nand in the absence of all the Vice-Presidents, a pro tempore chairman shall be appointed\non nomination, the Secretary putting the question.\n\nTHE secretary\nThe Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\nSec. 2.\nthe general meetings of the Association and of all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence and transact such other business of the Association\nas the directors or Executive Committee may assign, and shall have his records present\nat all meetings of the Association and the Board of Directors.\n\nTHE TREASURER\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\nhold in safekeeping, the current income of the Association; shall expend the same only\nupon order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures,\nwith vouchers for the latter; which accounts, ending the first day of July in each year, he\nshall render to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report\nto the Board of Directors.\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful discharge\nof his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue in office\nuntil the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting of the\nAssociation next succeeding that at which he is elected, and until his successor has been\nelected and has qualified.\n\nAUDITOR OF ACCOUNTS\nand Treasurer of the Association to appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of\nthe said fund, shall be attached to the annual report of the Board of Trustees.\nSec.\n\n4.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the President, Secretary,\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n39\n\nCERTIFICATION OF BILLS\nSec.\n\n5.\n\nThe President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills\n\napproved by the Board of Directors.\n\nARTICLE IV—THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nSection\n\ni.\n\nThe Board of Directors shall hold its regular annual meeting at the\n\nplace of the annual convention, and not less than two hours before the assembling of the\nAssociation.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\nor the President shall determine.\nSec. 3. Each new board shall organize al the session of its election.\n\nARTICLE V—THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nobjects and duties\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and discussion of educational questions of public and professional interest;\nthe proposal to the Board of Directors, from time to time, of suitable subjects for investigation and research, and the recommendation of the amount of appropriations that should\nbe made for such purposes; the appointment and general supervision of such special\ncommittees of investigation and research as may be provided for and authorized by the\nBoard of Directors of the Association; the consideration, discussion, and recommendation\nto the Board of Directors for disposition of all reports by such special committees of\nresearch as may have been appointed on its recommendation or by its authority; the\nannual preparation and presentation to the Association at its annual convention of a\nreport on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year;\" and in other ways shall use its\nbest eflforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\n\nmembership of the council\nSec. 2. The Council shall consist of sixty members, selected from the membership\nAny member of the Association identified with educational work is\nof the Association.\neligible to membership in the Council.\nSec. 3. The Board of Directors shall annually elect five members, and the Council\nshall elect five members, each member to serve for six years, or until his successor is elected.\nSec. 4, The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection\nwith the annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\nSec. 5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the\nCouncil shall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council\nshall fill vacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies caused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term.\nAll persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\n\nBY-LAWS OF THE COUNCIL\nSec. 6. The Council may establish by-laws for its government not inconsistent\nwith the Act of Incorporation or of the By-Laws of the Association, provided such by-laws\nshall be submitted to and approved by the Board of Directors of the Association before\nthey shall become operative.\n\nARTICLE VI—DEPARTMENTS\nSection i.\n\nA department shall consist of those members of the Association who\n\nare especially interested in the consideration of a particular group of educational problems.\nEach department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and\nsuch other officers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs.\nSec. 2. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time of the annual\nconvention of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may\nhold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by the officers of said department.\nSec. 3. The objects of the annual department meetings shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n40\n\nthese meetings shall be organized and conducted by the respective presidents, in conference\nEach departwith, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association.\nment shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, at the time of the annual\nconvention, except that a third session for business or informal round-table conference\nmay be held at the discretion of the department officers.\nUpon the written request of twenty active members of the Association for\nSec. 4.\npermission to establish a new department, the Board of Directors may grant such permission.\nSuch new department shall in all respects be entitled to the same rights and\nprivileges as the departments named in the Act of Incorporation.\nSec. 5. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties\nusually pertaining to his office, keep a list of the members of his department in attendance\nat the annual convention.\n\nARTICLE VII—MEETINGS\nSection\n\ni.\n\nThe annual meeting\n\nof the Association shall\n\nbe held at such time\n\nand place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2.\nSpecial meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\n\nSec.\n\n3.\n\nAny department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such time\n\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\nSec. 4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association, or any\nof its departments, in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address\nbe pubHshed in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon\nthe approval of the Executive Committee.\n\nARTICLE VIII—AMENDMENTS\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual meeting by the\nunanimous vote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present,\nprovided that the substance of the alteration or amendment has been proposed in writing\nat a previous annual meeting.\n\nPresident Maxwell: These proposed by-laws will be duly printed in the minutes\nof this meeting, and will be considered at the next annual meeting.\nIs there any other business to come before this meeting ?\n\nIf not, a motion to adjourn\n\nis in order.\n\nA motion to adjourn was made, and seconded, and carried; and the annual meeting\nwas declared adjourned.\n(Signed)\n\nIrw^in Shepard, Secretary.\n\nApproved:\n(Signed)\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\n\nFOURTH SESSION.—Thursday Evening, July 6\nThe convention was called to order by President Maxwell, at 8 p. m.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. James W. Marshall, pastor of St. Paul's Church, Ocean\nGrove, N. J.\n\nA musical solo, \"Lend Me Your Aid,\" by Gounod, was sung by Daniel Beddoe.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, superintendent of schools, Menomonie, Wis., dehvered an\naddress on \"Manual Training in the Grades.\"\n\nThe topic, \"The Practical Utihty of Manual and Technical Training,\" was presented\nin an address by William Barclay Parsons, former chief engineer. New York City Rapid\n\nTransit Commission,\n\nNew York.\n\nFollowing this address, Daniel Beddoe sang \"Prize Song,\" by Wagner.\n\nThe last address of the evening was presented by Frank A. Vanderlip, vice-president\nof the National City Bank, New York city, on the subject, \"The\n\nEconomic Importance\n\nof Trade Schools.\"\nJ.\n\nM. H. Frederick, superintendent of schools, Lakewood, Ohio, led in a discussion\n\nof the subjects presented.\n\nThe convention adjourned to Friday afternoon, July 7.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nJOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n41\n\nFIFTH SESSION. Friday Afternoon, July 7\nThe convention assembled for its closing session in the Ocean Grove Auditorium at\nThe Auditorium was filled to its utmost capacity long before the hour of\nopening, in anticipation of the arrival of President Theodore Roosevelt, who was to be\n2:30 p. M.\n\npresent and deliver the closing address of the convention.\n\nPresident Maxwell had appointed a former President of the Association, Dr. James\n\nM. Green, of Trenton, N. J., a committee of one, to take charge of all arrangements\nDr. Green secured, as an escort of\nfor receiving President Roosevelt and his party.\nhonor for the President, the Third Regiment of New Jersey Infantry of the National\nGuard, Colonel John A. Mather of Camden, commanding, and the Second Troop of Cavalry of Red Bank, Captain Edwin Field, commanding.\nThe President arrived in Asbury Park from Oyster Bay, N. Y., at 2 p. m., accompanied\n\nby Private Secretary William Loeb, Jr., Surgeon Charles F. Stokes, U. S. navy, and othersHe was met by the receiving party, consisting of a special committee as follows:\nN. J.; Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111.; Howard J.\nJ. M. Green, Trenton,\nRogers, Albany, N. Y.; F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo.; Lawton, B. Evans, .A.ugusta,\nGa.; the Executive Committee of the National Education Association: WiUiam H. Maxwell, President; John W. Cook, First Vice-President; James W. Crabtree, Treasurer;\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman of Trustees; William T. Harris, U. S. Commissioner of Education; Irwin Shepard, Secretary; state and local representatives: Edward Casper\nStokes, governor of New Jersey; United States Senators John Kean and John F. Dryden;\nCongressmen Benjamin F. Howell and Richard Wayne Parker; State Senator Oliver H.\nBrown; State Director John Enright; Frank L. Ten Broeck, mayor of Asbury Park;\nBishop James N, Fitzgerald and Rev. A. E Ballard, president and vice-president of the\nOcean Grove Association; James L. Hays, president of the State Board of Education of\nNew York; T. Frank Appleby and R. A. Tusting, president and secretary of the Local\nNational Educational Association Committee of Asbury Park and Ocean Grove.\nAfter greetings, the President's party and the receiving party proceeded in carriages,\nunder escort, to the Ocean Grove Auditorium. On entering the Auditorium, a most\nenthusiastic and impressive greeting met the President from the twelve thousand teachers\nassembled.\nAfter the greeting, the convention was called to order by President William H. Maxwell.\n\nThe exercises were opened with prayer by Hon. Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superwho\n\nintendent of public schools for Pennsylvania, President-elect of the Association,\n\ninvoked divine blessing in the following words:\n\nO Lord our God, Thou art our Father, and we, Thy children, approach Thy throne\nMake us mindful of all that\nof grace, beseeching Thee to grant us Thy favor and mercy.\nThou hast done for us. Make us duly thankful for health and strength, for hfe and light;\nwe\ndwell,\nfor\nits\nhomes,\nits\nfor the goodly land in which\nschools, its churches, its libraries,\nand for all other blessings that we enjoy.\ninvoke a special blessing upon Thy servant, the President of these United States.\nBless him in all his efforts to establish peace and justice among the nations of the earth.\nGive him wisdom from on high to guide him in the discharge of all his duties. Bless the\ngovernor of this commonwealth and all others in authority. Make us a righteous as well\nGrant that it may be our aim as a body of teachers, not merely\nas a prosperous people.\nto banish ignorance and illiteracy from the earth, but also to spread the light of Thy gospel\nand the news of salvation among all the children of men.\nHear us in these our prayers, answer us in love and mercy, and save us thru riches of\ngrace in Christ, our Redeemer, Amen.\n\nWe\n\nPresident Maxwell then introduced President Roosevelt in the simple announcement:\n\n\"Members of the National Educational Association, the President of the United States.\"\nThe great audience rose and greeted the President with another impressive and longcontinued welcome.\n\nThe President then addressed the convention.\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n42\n\nFollowing the address of President Roosevelt, John R. Kirk, president of the State\nNormal School at Kirksville, Mo., was introduced and responded to the President. He\nclosed by offering a resolution of thanks by the convention assembled to President Roosevelt\nfor his eloquent and inspiring address.\nMiss Katherine D. Blake, principal of Public School No. 6, New York city, seconded\nthe resolution of Mr. Kirk, and spoke impressively at some length on the obligation under\nwhich President Roosevelt had placed the teachers of the country by his words and deeds.\n\nShe most happily expressed the spirit and thought of the audience when, in seconding the\nresolution of thanks to President Roosevelt, she characterized him as \"the best-loved man\n\nin all the great round world.\"\n\nThe resolution was passed by a unanimous rising vote of twelve thousand teachers\namid cheers and waving salutes.\nPresident Maxwell then addressed President Roosevelt as follows:\nMr. President, your words here will be the inspiration of every teacher who has heard\nThey will be an inspiration to all of the teachers of America wherever\nthose teachers may be sojourning today. Treasured in the volume of our Proceedings,\nthey will be an inspiration to generations of teachers yet unborn; and passing thru the\nminds and hearts of the teachers of America, they will serve to form the character of\nmillions of American citizens in the future.\nAs you leave here, the best wishes of the\nteachers of America go with you; their prayers will follow you for success, for happiness,\nand for God's blessing on your work for this nation.\nyour voice today.\n\nFollowing this, the \"Hallelujah Chorus\" was sung by the Ocean Grove Festival\nChorus, supported by the Ocean Grove Festival Orchestra, under the leadership of Mr.\nTali Esen Morgan.\nAfter the President and his party withdrew from the Auditorium, the Committee\non Resolutions presented its report thru its chairman. Dr. Eliphalet Oram Lyte, of the\nFirst Pennsylvania State Normal School, as follows:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nAsBURY Park and Ocean Grove, N. J., July 7, 1905\n\nDECLARATION\nThe National Educational Association, now holding its forty-fourth annual convention\nin Asbury Park and Ocean Grove, and representing the teachers and friends of education\n\nthruout the country, makes the following declaration of principles:\n1.\n\nThe Bureau of Education continues to render invaluable service to the nation.\n\nIt is the judgment of the Association that the powers of the bureau should be enlarged,\n\nand that Hberal appropriations should be made to it by Congress in order to enable it to\nwiden its usefulness.\n2.\nThe National Educational Association notes with approval that the qualifications\ndemanded of teachers in the pubhc schools, and especially in city pubHc schools, are\nincreasing annually, and particularly that in many localities special preparation is demanded\nof teachers.\nThe idea that anyone with a fair education can teach school is gradually\ngiving way to the correct notion that teachers must make special preparation for the vocation of teaching.\nThe higher standard demanded of teachers must lead logically to higher\nsalaries for teachers, and constant efforts should be made by all persons interested in\n\neducation to secure for teachers adequate compensation for their work.\n3.\n\nThe rapid establishment of township or rural high schools is one of the most\n\ngratifying evidences of the progress of education.\n\nWe believe that this movement should\n\nbe encouraged until the children of rural communities enjoy the benefits of public education\nto an extent approximating as nearly as practicable the education furnished in urban\ncommunities.\n4.\n\nThe Association heartily approves of the efforts now being made to determine\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\nthe proper place of industrial education in the public schools.\nis\n\n43\n\nWe believe that the time\n\nrapidly approaching when industrial education should be introduced into all schools,\n\nand should be made to harmonize with the occupations of the community.\n\nThese courses,\n\nwhen introduced, should include instruction in agricultural as well as manual training.\nWherever the conditions justify their establishment, schools that show the appUcation of\nthe branches of knowledge to practical life should be estabhshed.\n\nThe National Educational\n\n5.\n\nAssociation\n\nstrongly\n\nrecommends the increasing\n\nutilization of urban school buildings for free vacation schools and for free evening schools\n\nand lecture courses for adults and for children who have been obliged to leave the day\nschool prematurely.\nIt is the\n\n6.\n\nduty of the state to provide for the education of every child within its\n\nand to see that all children obtain the rudiments of an education. The constitutional provision that all persons must contribute to the support of the public schools\n\nborders,\n\nlogically carries with it the implied provision that no persons should be permitted to defeat\n\nthe purposes of the public-school law by forcing their children at an early age to become\n\nbread-winners.\n7.\n\nThe national government should provide schools for the children of all persons\nunder the immediate control of the government. The attention of\n\nliving in territory\n\nCongress is specially directed to the need of adequate legislation to provide schools for\nthe children of citizens of the United States living on naval reservations.\n8.\n\nThe association regrets the revival in some quarters of the idea that the common\n\nschool is a place for teaching nothing but reading, spelling, writing, and ciphering;\n\nand\n\ntakes this occasion to declare that the ultimate object of popular education is to teach the\nchildren how to live righteously, healthily, and happily, and that to accomplish this object\nit is essential that every school inculcate the love of truth, justice,\n\npurity, and beauty thru\n\nthe study of biography, history, ethics, natural history, music, drawing,\n\nand manual\n\narts.\n\n9.\n\nThe National Educational\n\nAssociation wishes to record\n\nits\n\napproval of the\n\nincreasing appreciation among educators of the fact that the building of character is the\nreal aim of the schools and the ultimate reason for the expenditure of milHons for their\n\nmaintenance. There are in the minds of the children and youth of today a tendency\ntoward a disregard for constituted authority; a lack of respect for age and superior wis-\n\ndom; a weak appreciation of the demands of duty; a disposition to follow pleasure and\nand order. This condition demands the earnest thought\nand action of our leaders of opinion, and places important obligations upon school\n\ninterest rather than obligation\n\nauthorities.\n10.\n\nThe National Educational Association wishes to congratulate the secondary\n\nschools and colleges of the country that are making the effort to remove the taint of pro-\n\nThis taint can be removed only by leading\nand school faculties to recognize that inter-school games should be\nplayed for sportsmanship and not merely for victory.\nfessionalism that has crept into student sports.\nstudents, alumni,\n\n11.\n\nThe National Educational\n\nAssociation observes with great satisfaction the\n\ntendency of cities and towns to replace large school committees or boards, which have\nexercised thru subcommittees executive functions,\n\nby small boards which determine\n\ngeneral poHcies, but intrust all executive functions to salaried experts.\n12.\n\nLocal taxation, supplemented by state taxation, presents the best means for the\n\nsupport of the public schools, and for securing that deep interest in them which is necessary to their greatest efl&ciency.\n\nState aid should be granted only as supplementary to\n\nlocal taxation, and not as a substitute for it.\n13.\n\nWe cannot too often repeat that close, intelligent, judicious supervision is\n\nnecessary for all grades of schools.\n14.\n\nA free democracy cannot long continue without the assistance of a system of\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n44\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nstate-supported schools administered by agents chosen by the people,\n\nand responsible\n\nto the people for its ideals, its conduct, and its results.\n\nEliphalet Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, Chairman;\nCharles J. Baxter, of New Jersey;\nEdwin G. Cooley, of IlHnois;\nFrank B. Cooper, of Washington;\nCharles D. McIver, of North Carohna;\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith, of District of Columbia;\nMiss Harriet Emerson, of Massachusetts;\nO. J. Kern, of Illinois;\nEdward J. Goodwin, of New York;\nWilliam L. Bryan, of Indiana;\n^\n\nCommittee on Resolutions.\n\nThe declaration as presented was then adopted by a unanimous vote of the convention.\nFollowing this action, a resolution of thanks was presented by Chairman Lyte, and,\non motion, was also adopted, as follows:\nResolved, That the thanks of the National Educational Association are due, and are\nhereby most cordially tendered, to the residents of Asbury Park and Ocean Grove,\nwhose open-hearted, refined hospitahty will long be remembered; to the newspapers\nthat have fully recorded the proceedings of the Association from day to day; to the railroads and other transportation companies, whose hearty and well-directed co-operation\nin bringing the large membership to these beautiful twin cities by the sea was essential\nto the success of this meeting and to the educators of Asbury Park and Ocean Grove\nand the state of New Jersey, who have so successfully borne the burden of preparing for\nthe great body of teachers and friends of education that have assembled here this week.\nThis Association desires to refer particularly to the services of Hon. James L. Hays,\npresident of the State Board of Education of New Jersey, and his associates on the Board;\nHon. Charles J. Baxter, state superintendent of pubHc instruction; Dr. J. M. Green, principal of the State Normal School, Trenton, N. J.; Mr. T. Frank Appleby, Chairman of\nthe General Local Committee; Mr. R. A. Tusting, secretary, and their associates;. Dr.\nFred S. Shepherd, superintendent of schools of Asbury Park; Miss Li die M. Doren,\nsuperintendent of schools of Ocean Grove; Professor John Enright, superintendent of\nschools of Monmouth county; and Professor H. Brewster WilHs, superintendent of schools\nof Middlesex county; to the teachers and school officers who have contributed in many\nways to the success of this meeting; to Mr. Tali Esen Morgan, director of music, Ocean\nGrove, to the eminent soloists who took part in the public exercises of the general\nmeeting, and to the Ocean Grove Festival Chorus and the Ocean Grove Festival Orchestra,\nfor the exceptionally fine music rendered by them; to President James N. FitzGerald,\nVice-President A. E. Ballard, and other officers of the Ocean Grove Auditorium Association, for the use of the Auditorium and for other courtesies extended; and to all\nothers who have co-operated with them in making arrangements for this meeting and\nin carrying their carefully prepared plans to successful completion.\nResolved, That the thanks of the Association are also due, and are hereby tendered,\nto Hon. Edward Casper Stokes, governor of the state of New Jersey, and his official\nassociates, and to the military department of the state, represented by the Third Regiment of Infantry, Colonel John A. Mather, of Camden, commanding, and the Second\nTroup of Cavalry of Red Bank, Captain Field commanding, for having furnished an\nescort to the President of the United States, and for appropriately and generously\nproviding for the care and comfort of the chief executive of the nation during his visit to\nthe convention.\n\nThe chairman of the committee then presented the following special resolution,\nmoving its adoption, and asking the Secretary to put the question to vote\nResolved, That the thanks of the Association be tendered to the retiring President,\nSuperintendent William H. Maxwell, of New York city, and to the retiring Treasurer,\nPresident James W. Crabtree, of Nebraska, for the faithful and efficient services which\nthey have rendered to the Association during the past year.\n\nThe motion was carried by a rising vote of the convention, with hearty applause.\nPresident Maxwell: Members of the National Educational Association: I thank\nyou for this hearty expression of your esteem and good-will.\n\nI should like you to believe\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS\n\n45\n\nthat from the day you elected me your President until this moment I have spared no\npains, I have given my best thought and energy, to carry out your purposes and to\nmake this meeting the success I believe it has been. Anything, however, which I did\nwould have availed but little, had I not had the cordial support and encouragement of\na host of helpers. The local committee in Asbury Park and Ocean Grove spared neither\ntrouble nor expense to provide for your comfort and to illustrate the proverbial hospitahty\nMr. Tali Esen Morgan, with his chorus and orchestra, provided such\nof New Jersey.\nmusic as has seldom been heard in a convention of teachers. The presidents of departments made, possibly, the most interesting and instructive programs ever presented in\nthe history of the Association, and secured most valuable discussions.\nWhere so many\nhave done so much, it seems invidious to single out particular individuals for special\nremark. And yet, in view of their pre-eminent services, I am sure you will pardon me if\nI refer particularly to two gentlemen.\nOne is Dr. James M. Green, principal of the\nNew Jersey State Normal School, who took charge of the Sunday services and of the\nreception of President Roosevelt.\nwell he performed these duties you have all\nseen.\nThe other is our honored secretary. Dr. Irwin Shepard. I risk nothing in saying\nthat, as a rule, the members of this Association know little, indeed can know but little,\nof the invaluable services rendered by Dr. Shepard.\nIt has been my great privilege to\nwork with him for the past year, and therefore I can speak from intimate knowledge.\nI have learned to know him and to appreciate him, and I have no hesitation in saying\nthat the success of these enormous conventions is largely due to him.\nWith admirable\npatience, with a loyalty that never falters, with a complete knowledge of our history and\nour traditions, with an unsurpassed mastery of detail, with liigh ideals of the work our\nAssociation should do, Mr. Shepard devotes his life to your service. As I put aside the\ncares of office, I pause for a moment to thank our Secretary that he made them so light,\nand to wish for him and his prosperity and happiness.\nThere now remains for me but one more duty to perform the pleasant duty of\nintroducing to you my successor in the ofl&ce of President, Dr. Nathan C. Schaeffer, of\nPennsylvania, to whom I now present the ofl&cial gavel of authority as President of the\nNational Educational Association.\n\nHow\n\n—\n\nPresident-Elect Nathan C. Schaeffer: Members of the National Educational\nAssociation: Twenty-five years ago, while on my wedding trip, I attended for the first\ntime the National Educational Association. The meeting impressed me as the most\nearnest body of educators upon the face of the globe, and this impression has grown\nstronger year by year. The presidency of the National Educational Association is the\nhighest compliment which the teachers of America can bestow, and I shall return to my\nsummer home at Mount Gretna, not only with feelings of profound gratitude and appreciation, but also with the conviction tliat the National Educational Association has given\nme the finest possible gift to take with me to my silver wedding tomorrow. Words fail to\nexpress my feeling of obligation for the honor conferred. It shall be my ambition to\nmake the next meeting of the Association redound to the highest and best interests of the\nchildren of America, and to this end I ask your assistance, your sympathy, and your\nI now pass the gavel back to you, President Maxwell, in order that you\nactive support.\nmay close the meeting, which has been so eminently successful thru your efforts and\nguidance.\n\nThe President then declared the Forty-fourth Annual Convention of the National\nEducational Association adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE BOARD OF\nDIRECTORS FOR 1904-1905\nAsBURY Park, N. J., July 3, 1905\n\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in the basement\nroom of the Public Library at 4:30 p. m., July 3, by President William H. Maxwell.\nThe following directors responded to roll-call:\nA. J. Matthews, Arizona; S. L. Frogge, Kentucky; E. F. Turner, Tennessee; M.\nBates Stephens, Maryland; Isaac W. Hill, Alabama; J. H. Hinemon, Arkansas; E. O.\nLyte, Pennsylvania; J. W. Crabtree, Nebraska; A. H. Chamberlain, California; John S.\nLocke, Maine; N. C. Dougherty, Illinois; L. C. Greenlee, Colorado; W. H. Elson,\nMichigan; George L. Towne, Nebraska; A. E. Winship, Massachusetts; T. A. Mott,\nIndiana; Ben Blewett, Missouri; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; John Enright, New\nJersey; Edmund D. Lyon, Ohio; A. S. Downing, New York; James H. Canfield, New\nYork; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; Walter Ballou Jacobs, Rhode Island; A. P. Marble,\nNew York; R. B. Lees, representing Board of Education of Nashville, Tennessee,\nA. G. Lane, IlHnois; W. H. Maxwell, New York; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; John D.\nBenedict, Indian Territory; A. C. Nelson, Utah; Oscar J. Craig, Montana; Lydia A.\nYates, North Carolina; Marion Brown, Louisiana; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Lucy\nRobinson, West Virginia; Clem Hampton, Florida; A. V. Storm, Iowa; J. A. Mercer,\nIlHnois; J. W. Spindler, Kansas; Andrew R. Hickam, Oklahoma.\nPresent, forty-one directors.\n\nOn motion, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, held in St. Louis, Mo.,\nJune 30, 1905, was dispensed with, and they were approved as printed in the volume of\nProceedings of the St. Louis meeting.\nThe Secretary read communications from absent directors tendering their resignations\nand nominating successors for appointment by the board, as follows:\nDirector James E. Klock, of New Hampshire, nominating H. C. Morrison,\nDirector W. F. Kunze, of Minnesota, nominating J. A. Cranston.\nDirector Warren Easton, of Louisiana, nominating Miss Marion Brown.\nDirector Robert G. Young, of Montana, nominating Oscar J. Craig.\nDirector D. J. Johns, Jr., of Tennessee, nominating E. F. Turner.\nDirector W. K. Tate, of South Carolina, nominating E. B. Wallace.\nDirector John F. Keating, of Colorado, nominating L. C. Greenlee.\n\nOn motion, the resignations of the several directors were accepted, and the Secretary\nwas instructed to cast the ballot of the directors present for the election of the respective\nnominees. The Secretary reported the ballot so cast, and the president announced the\nseveral nominees duly elected as members of the Board of Directors.\nThe next subject for consideration was announced as the Report of the Board of\nTrustees to the Board of Directors on the subject of Reincorporation, in accordance with\nthe resolution on that subject passed by the active members at their annual meeting,\nJune 30, 1905.\nthat\n\nThe Secretary reported that the Board of Trustees had completed their report,\nit was transmitted by mail on April 20, 1905, to the members of the Board of\n\nDirectors, and that sixty-three directors had replied casting votes of unqualified approval,\n\nand two others had cast votes of qualified approval, of the plan for reincorporation proposed\nin the following report of the Board of Trustees:\n\n46\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\n47\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nSecretary's Office, Winona, Minn., April 20, 1905.\n\nREPORT OF the BOARD OF TRUSTEES\n\nTo the Board of Directors oj the National Educational Association:\nPursuant to the authorization and request contained in the resolutions adopted by\nthe Association on June 30 last, with respect to the continuance of the corporate existence\nof the Association, your Board of Trustees have taken legal advice and have carefully\nconsidered what steps are necessary to protect the interests of the Association, in view of\nthe expiration, by limitation, of its present charter in February, 1906.\nare advised by our counsel, Mr. John B. Pine, of\nYork, and are unanimously\nof the opinion, that the most desirable means of perpetuating the existence of the Association is by a charter granted by a special act of Congress.\nThe advantages of such a charter,\nbriefly stated, are that it is national in its scope, and accords with and emphasizes the\nnational character and dignity of the Association; that it places the Association upon\nthe most permanent basis possible, as it is perpetual in its operation; and that by\nmeans of such a charter the interests of the Association can best be protected and its funds\nmost carefully safeguarded.\nOther associations of Hke character, such as the Carnegie Institution and the General\nEducation Board, have within recent years been incorporated by act of Congress, and it\nseems not improbable that an appUcation for a charter, if presented by this Association,\nwill receive favorable consideration.\nReincorporation of the Association by act of Congress will necessarily involve the\ncreation of a new corporation, but it is proposed that such new corporation shall be known\nas the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and shall in all\nexcept a technical sense be the same association as the present one, with the same officers\nand with like objects and form of government. Taking the present constitution and\nby-laws as a basis, a charter has been prepared, in the form of a bill to be submitted to\nCongress, which embodies all the fundamental provisions of the constitution, and a set\nof proposed by-laws has been drafted, which includes the present by-laws, and also those\nprovisions of the constitution which relate merely to matters of procedure.\nThe restatement of the constitution, in terms suitable for a charter, such as that now\nproposed, has necessarily involved changes in terms and phraseology; and under the\nprovisions of the resolutions first mentioned, it therefore becomes our duty to submit our\nrecommendations to the Board of Directors and to the Association.\nask you to note\nparticularly that it has not been the intention of the Trustees or their counsel to make\nany change in any particular of a substantial character; they have endeavored, on the\ncontrary, to preserve and perpetuate, in the most desirable form, all the essential features\nof the present constitution and by-laws unaltered.\nIn order that the recommendations of the trustees may be perfectly understood, and\nthat the details of the proposed charter and by-laws may receive the closest scrutiny,\ncopies of the same are submitted, herewith, to each director, with a request for an expression of his opinion. If a majority of the replies are favorable, copies of the documents will\nbe sent to all the active members of the Association, so that they may be prepared to vote,\nat the next annual meeting of the Association, upon a proposition to apply to Congress\nfor a charter, in the form herewith presented.\n\nWe\n\nNew\n\nWe\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman,\nNicholas Murray Butler,\nF.\n\nLouis Soldan,\n\nNewton C. Dougherty,\nWilliam H. Maxwell,\nBoard of Trustees.\nCopies of the Report of the Board of Trustees and of the Proposed Act of Incorporation by Congress were distributed to the directors, but the report was not read, as all had\n\nreceived copies by mail and were familiar with the text.\n\n(For full text of Proposed Bill see page 34; of proposed By-Laws, see page 37.)\nMr. John B. Pine, of New York city, attorney and counsel employed by the Board\nof Trustees, was present and explained the various provisions of the proposed bill, answering numerous questions asked by the directors.\nThree questions were raised regarding the provisions of sec. 7 of the bill, and were\ndiscussed at length, viz.:\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n48\n\nDoes the Proposed Bill provide for, and establish with sufficient definiteness, a\n1.\n\"permanent fund\" ?\n2.\nShould the income from the \"permanent fund\" be solely under the control of\nthe Board of Trustees ?\nShould provisions be made under which the \"permanent fund\" may be drawn\n3.\nupon under certain circumstances ?\nAfter somewhat extended discussion, the Proposed Bill of incorporation was referred\nback to the trustees, with the request that they report at a special meeting, to be held\nJuly 4, at 9 A. M., such amendments as will carry into effect the changes suggested in the\ndiscussion.\n\nThe board adjourned at 5:20 p. M., to meet at 9:30 A. m., July 4.\n\nADJOURNED MEETING OF BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nAsBURY Park, N. J., July 4\n\nThe Board of Directors met in adjourned session at 9 A. m., and was called to order\nby President Maxwell. The following directors responded to roll-call:\nA. C. Nelson, Utah; J. W. Crabtree, Nebraska; Ben Blewett, Missouri; A. V. Storm,\nArkansas; S. L. Frogge, Kentucky;\nJ. A. Mercer, IlHnois;\nJ. H. Hinemon,\nL. C. Greenlee, Colorado; E. F. Turner, Tennessee; F. L. Soldan, Missouri; James H.\nCanfield, New York; Albert G. Lane, IlHnois; Hiram Hadley, New Mexico; A. E. Winship, Massachusetts; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; William H.\nMaxwell, New York; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; John W. Cook, Illinois;\nJohn S. Locke, Maine; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; A. S. Downing, New York; J. M.\nGreenwood, Missouri; N. C. Dougherty, Illinois; George F. Towne, Nebraska; Charles\nH. Keyes, Connecticut; Lydia A. Yates, North Carolina; Marion Brown, Louisiana;\nAndrew R. Hickam, Oklahoma; E. O. Lyte, Pennsylvania; Oscar J. Craig, Montana;\nT. A. Mott, Indiana.\n\nIowa;\n\nPresent, thirty-two directors.\n\nA letter of resignation as director was read from Hugh A. Owen, director for New\nMexico.\n\nThe resignation was accepted, and, on motion of Director A. E. Winship, of\n\nMassachusetts, Hiram Hadley, the newly appointed territorial superintendent of public\ninstruction of New Mexico, was elected director for that territory.\n\nThe business of the previous meeting was resumed.\n\nTrustee F. Louis Soldan reported,\n\nas a result of the conference of the trustees with their counsel, Mr. Pine, that a satisfactory\n\nadjustment of the points in question had been reached in accordance with the following\n\namended form of sec. 7 of the Proposed Bill:\nI\n\nPROPOSED AMENDMENT TO SECTION SEVEN OF THE PROPOSED CHARTER RECOMMENDED\nBY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS, N. E. A.\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \" Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund, and shall be in charge of the Board of\nTrustees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all\nother funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No\npart of the principal of such permanent fund or its accretions shall be expended except\nby a two-thirds vote of the active members of the Association, upon the recommendation\nof the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the\nBoard of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expenditure has been mailed\nto all active members of the Association.\nThe income of the Permanent Fund shall be\nused only to meet the cost of maintaining the organization of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise\nshall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order.\nIt shall also be\nthe duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all\nbills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors.\nWhen practicable, the Board\nof Trustees, shall invest as part of the Permanent Fund all surplus funds exceeding five\nhundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses\nof the Association for the previous year and providing for the fixed expenses and for all\n\nappropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\n49\n\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and term of his\nofiice for a period not to exceed four years.\nDirector Soldan moved the adoption of the amended form of sec. 7\n\n;\n\nseconded by\n\nDirector Keyes, of Massachusetts.\nAfter discussion, the motion of Director Soldan was adopted.\n\nOn motion of Director James H. Canfield, of New York, seconded by Director A. S.\nDowning, of New York, the following resolutions were unanimously passed:\nResolved, That the Board of Directors approve and adopt the recommendations of\nthe Board of Trustees that application be made to Congress for a special act, in the form\nherewith submitted, or in the amended form herewith submitted, to incorporate an association to be known as the \"National Education Association of the United States,\"\nto succeed and continue the present association; and\nResolved, That the Board of Directors recommend the following resolution to the\nAssociation for adoption:\nResolved, That this Association authorizes and requests the Board of Trustees to\nmake application to Congress for a special act, in the following form, to incorporate an\nAssociation to be known as the \"National Education Association of the United\nStates,\" to succeed and continue the National Educational Association.\n\nOn motion of Director Downing, Director F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, was appointed\nas the representative of the Board of Directors at the annual meeting of the active members\n\non July 6, and was authorized to state to the active members that it was the unanimous\nvote of the Board of Directors that the amended form of sec. 7 of the Proposed Bill should\nbe adopted instead of the form as proposed in the original bill.\nDirector A. E. Winship, of Massachusetts,\n\nmoved that the thanks of the Board of\n\nDirectors be extended to Mr. John B. Pine for his valuable assistance and counsel; sec-\n\nonded by Director W. T. Harris, of the District of Columbia.\nmously carried.\n\nThe annual report of\n\nthe Treasurer of\n\nthe Association,\n\nThe motion was unailiJames W. Crabtree, of\n\nNebraska, was then presented, and printed copies of the same were distributed to the\ndirectors present.\n\nOn motion of Director Keyes, of Connecticut, the Treasurer's report was received\nand approved, and ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe report of the Board of Trustees was presented by Chairman Albert G. Lane,\nof Chicago, and printed copies were distributed to the directors present.\nChairman Lane explained the action of the Board .of Trustees, by which the First\nTrust and Savings Bank of Chicago had been selected as the custodian of the securities\nbelonging to the \"permanent fund,\" excepting certain Kansas bonds which were held\nin the possession of the chairman of the Board of Trustees for the purpose of collecting\ninterest in default.\nChairman Lane made an encouraging report on the prospect of\nsecuring final payment of the face value of all Kansas bonds. This he illustrated by the\nstatement that the authorities of the city of South Hutchinson had, a number of years\nago, proposed to pay 25 per cent, of the face of the bond held by the National Educational\nAssociation; three years later they offered 50 per cent.; subsequently they offered 60 per\n\nand recently they have offered to settle by payment of the face of the bond, and\nThe land values in Kansas are\nso good today that people with a knowledge of the conditions give assurance that the Assocent.;\n\nthe trustees recommend the acceptance of the proposal.\n\nciation will recover at least the face value of all its bonds.\n\nDirector James M. Greenwood, of Missouri, moved that the report be received\nand adopted, and printed in the volume of Proceedings; seconded and carried.\nA communication was received from C. D. Fleming, principal of Grammar School\nNo. I, Brooklyn, N. Y., transmitting to the Board of Directors thru President William H.\nMaxwell a formal appHcation for the organization of a new department of the Association,\nto be called the Department of DiscipUne and Government.\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nThe Secretary reported that the application did not bear the required number of\n\nsignatures of active members of the Association to constitute a petition in regular form\nfor a new department, as provided by the constitution.\n\nOn motion of Director Downing, the application was received and placed on file.\nA communication was received from Superintendent L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin,\nchairman of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities,\ntransmitting recommendation on behalf of that committee, that the work of the committee\n\nbe continued, and that the Board of Directors make the necessary appropriation to carry\n\non that work and to print the reports.\nOn motion of Director Canfield, the communication with its recommendations was\nreferred to the National Council of Education for the consideration and recommendation\nof the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\nA communication was received from Lewis C. Monin, dean of the Armour Institute\nof Technology, Chicago, 111., transmitting a formal petition for the organization of a new\n\ndepartment of the National Educational Association, to be known as the Department of\nTechnical Education.\n\nOn motion of Director Crabtree, the petition was referred to the Executive Committee\nof the Association, with power to act.\n\nDirector W. T. Harris, chairman of the Committee on the Louisiana PurchaseExposition, appointed by the Board of Directors at its meeting in Detroit, July 9, 1901, submitted\n\nthe following report:\n\n«\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nI have the honor to call your attention to the action of this Board of Directors at\nthe Detroit meeting on July 9, 1901, in response to an invitation from the committee on\neducation of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\nIt was resolved to appoint an advisory board of twenty-one members to act in co-operation with the said education committee of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, as that\ncommittee may request; this advisory board to have power to fill vacancies, and to add\nto their numbers.\nSaid committee was duly appointed with the following members:\nW. T. Harris, of District of Columbia, Chairman. William R. Harper, of Illinois.\nEdwin A. Alderman, of Louisiana.\nArthur T. Hadley, of Connecticut.\nNewton C. Dougherty, of IlHnois.\nDaniel C. Oilman, of Maryland.\nNicholas Murray Butler, of New York.\nJ. G. Schurman, of New York.\nWiUiam H. Maxwell, of New York.\nDavid Starr Jordan, of Cahfornia.\nJames MacAlister, of Pennsylvania.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri.\nCalvin M. Woodward, of Missouri.\nCharles M. Jordan, of Minnesota.\nHalsey C. Ives, of Missouri.\nLewis H. Jones, of Michigan.\nAaron Gove, of Colorado.\nW. T. Carrington, of Missouri.\nAndrew S. Draper, of IlHnois.\nF. Louis Soldan, of Missouri.\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Nebraska.\n\nAt a meeting of said committee held at Detroit to nominate a suitable person to act\nas director of the department of education and social science, the committee chose by\nballot Mr. Howard J. Rogers as their nominee, and appointed a subcommittee of three,\nto act as executive committee at St. Louis, to whom further questions might be referred\nby said committee on education of the Exposition, said subcommittee consisting of F. Louis\nSoldan, N. C. Dougherty, and C. M. Woodward.\nAs the objects of this committee have been accomplished, it makes this final report\nof its action, and asks respectfully to be discharged.\n(Signed) W. T. Harris, Chairman.\n\nOn motion, the report was received and the committee discharged.\nThe secretary reported a communication from Professor Calvin Thomas, chairman\nof the Advisory Committee on the Universal System of Key Notation, in which Chairman\nThomas reported that the expenses of pubKshing the report had exceeded the estimates,\nand that there remained an unpaid proportion of expenses amounting to $90.31, which,\nunder the action of the Board of Directors a year ago, would properly fall to the share of\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\nthe National Educational Association.\n\n51\n\nProfessor Thomas requested that an amount be\n\nappropriated sufficient to cover the extra expense.\n\nOn motion of Director Ben Blewett, of Missouri, $90.31 was appropriated to meet\nthe extra expenses of the Committee on Key Notation.\n\nA communication was received from R. Fulton Cutting, president of the Association\nNew York city, transmitting a proposition by\nMrs. Emily E. Williamson, of New Jersey, to offer two prizes (one of two hundred dollars\n\nfor Improving the Condition of the Poor in\n\nand one of one hundred dollars), to be given under the direction of the National Educational Association for the best form of reports on the condition of the poor, adaptable to\n\nthe needs of the small cities, the large cities, and state superintendents.\n\nAfter discussion commending the purpose and spirit of the communication, a resolution\n\nwas passed instructing the Secretary to reply to the courteous proposition of Mr.\n\nCutting and Mrs. Williamson, and to state that, in the judgment of the Board of Directors,\nthe subject was more properly one for the consideration of the school authorities of the\ncity of\n\nNew York than for the National Educational Association.\n\nA communication from Mrs. Charles C. Darhng, secretary of. the PubHc Educational\nAssociation, was received and referred to Director E.\n\nOram Lyte, chairman of the Com-\n\nmittee on Resolutions of the general Association.\n\nOn motion, the Board of Directors adjourned sine die.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES OF THE MEETING OF THE NEW BOARD\nOF DIRECTORS FOR 1905-1906\nAsBURY Park, N. J., July 6, 1905\n\nThe new Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in the\nbasement room of the Public Library of Asbury Park at 4:30 p. m., July 6, 1905.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President-elect Nathan C.\n\nSchaeffer.\n\nThe\n\nfollowing directors responded to roll-call:\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York; Representative of the Board of Education, Nashville,\nTenn.; James H. Canfield, New York; John W. Cook, Ilhnois; J. M. Greenwood,\nMissouri; Oscar T. Corson, Ohio; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; E. Oram Lyte, Pennsylvania;\nF. Louis Soldan, Missouri; N. C. Schaeffer, Pennsylvania; J. N. Wilkinson, Kansas;\nI. W. Hill, Alabama; George B. Cook, Arkansas; A. H. Chamberlain, California; L. C.\nGreenlee, Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, Connecticut; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida;\nMiss Frances Mann, Idaho; T. A. Mott, Indiana; A. V. Storm, Iowa; L. D. Whittemore, Kansas; Henry T. Bailey, Massachusetts; George L. Towne, Nebraska; John\nEnright, New Jersey; James C. Byrnes, New York; Wells L. Griswold, Ohio; Andrew\nR. Hickam, Oklahoma; J. W. Lansinger, Pennsylvania; W. B. Jacobs, Rhode Island;\nM. A. Lange, South Dakota; E. F. Turner, Tennessee; L. E. Wolfe, Texas; D. H.\nChristenson, Utah; Miss Lucy Robinson, West Virginia; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin;\nT. T. Tynan, Wyoming; E. T. Mathes, Washington; W. T. Harris, District of Colvimbia;\nRobert B. Fulton, Mississippi; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota.\nPresent, forty directors-\n\nDirector James H. Canfield, of New York, presented the following preamble And\n\nand moved\nunanimous vote:\n\nresolution,\n\ntheir adoption;\n\nseconded by Director Lane, and carried by\n\nWhereas, By a resolution of the Association, adopted at the annual meeting of\nactive members, held on July 6, 1905, the Board of Trustees was authorized and requested\nto make application to Congress for a special act to incorporate an association to be known\nas the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" to succeed and\ncontinue the \"National Educational Association,\" in a form approved by the Association; and\nWhereas, It may prove impracticable for the trustees to secure the passage of such\nspecial act before the date of the expiration of the present charter of the Association,\nnamely, February 24, 1906;\nResolved, Providing it shall prove impracticable for the trustees to procure the passage\nof such special act before the date mentioned, or, if for any reason it shall seem to the\ntrustees necessary to protect the interests of the Association:\nFirst, That the President and Secretary be, and they hereby are, authorized, upon\nthe request of the trustees, to execute a certificate, under the general incorporation law\nof the District of Columbia, as amended March 3, 1905, extending the corporate existence\nof the Association, and making the same perpetual, or to continue until the passage of a\nspecial act incorporating the National Association of the United States.\nSecond, That the Board of Directors consent that the corporate existence of the\nAssociation be continued and made perpetual.\n\nThe next order of business being the election of a member of the Board of Trustees\nfor four years, to succeed Trustee F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, whose term of office had\n\nexpired, Director Keyes, of Connecticut, nominated Trustee Soldan for re-election.\n\nMr. Soldan expressed his thanks for the nomination, but requested that he be not\nIt being the unanimous\nwish of the Board of Directors that Mr. Soldan should continue on the Board of Trustees,\nelected to serve longer as a member of the Board of Trustees.\n\n52\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\n53\n\nthe Secretary was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the Board of Directors for\n\nThe ballot was so cast, and Mr. Soldan was declared re-elected.\nMr. Soldan then resigned the office to which he had been re-elected, and urged that\nhis resignation be accepted.\nOn motion, the resignation was accepted.\nDirector L. E. Wolfe, of Texas, placed in nomination Superintendent James M.\nGreenwood, of Missouri, as a member of the Board of Trustees for the ensuing four\nhis re-election.\n\nyears.\n\nOn motion, the Secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors\nfor Mr. Greenwood's election.\n\nThe ballot was so cast, and Mr. Greenwood was declared\n\nelected as a member of the Board of Trustees to fill the vacancy occasioned by the resig-\n\nnation of Trustee Soldan,\n\nOn motion of Director Mott, of Indiana, Dr. W. T. Harris was unanimously elected\nto succeed himself as member of the Executive\n\nCommittee for the period of one year.\n\nOn motion, the chair was instructed to appoint a committee on Nominations, of\nThe chair appointed as such committee Directors J. N. Wilkinson, of\nM. Greenwood, of Missouri; John W. Cook, of IlUnois.\n\nthree members.\n\nKansas;\n\nJ.\n\nA recess of five minutes was then taken to enable the directors present to sign a\npetition in pursuance of the resolution of Director Canfield, adopted at the opening of\n\nthe meeting.\n\nThe petition read as follows:\n\nWe, the undersigned, directors of the National Educational Association, do hereby\nconsent and request that the corporate existence of the Association be constituted and\nmade perpetual under and pursuant to the provisions of the act of general incorporation\nof the revised statutes of the District of Columbia, sec. 202, as amended March 3, 1905.\nIt\n\nbeing understood that this consent and request shall not be used unless it shall\n\nprove impracticable for the trustees to procure the passage of a special act of Congress for\nreincorporation before the expiration of the present charter.\nAll of the directors present, forty in number, signed the petition.\n\nThe Board of Directors was called to order for the resumption of business. On\nmotion of Director Soldan, action of the Board of Trustees in the employment of counsel\nto advise concerning the reincorporation of the Association was approved, and the board\nwas authorized to employ counsel for the future to the extent that they might deem it\nnecessary to protect the interests of the Association.\n\nThe next order of business being the selection of a place of meeting for the forty-fifth\nannual convention in 9106, the board received invitations from Portland, Oregon; San\nFrancisco, Cal.;\n\nDenver, Colo.;\n\nand\n\nSalt\n\nLake\n\nCity,\n\nUtah.\n\nThese invitations were\n\npresented in brief addresses by representatives of the respective cities.\nDirector William H. Maxwell, of New York, moved that the invitations be referred\nto the Executive Committee, with full power to select the place of meeting,\nall necessary arrangements with the\n\nand to make\n\nauthorities of the city selected and with the transpor-\n\ntation companies; seconded by Director John W. Cook, of lUinois;\n\nunanimously carried.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations to fill vacancies in the National Council reported\nas follows:\n\n-\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nYour Committee on Nominations of members to fill vacancies in the National Council\nof Education nominates the following, all for re-election for the term of six years; namely:\nW. H. Bartholomew, of Kentucky, term to expire in 191 1.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts, term to expire 191 1.\nI. C. McNeill, of Wisconsin, term to expire 191 1.\nE. Oram Lyte, of Pennsylvania, term to expire 191 1.\nJames M. Greenwood, of Missouri, term to expire 191 1.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\n(Signed)\n\nJ.\n\nN. Wilkinson,\n\nJohn W. Cook,\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n54\n\nOn motion of Director A. G. Lane, of Illinois, the Secretary was instructed to cast\nthe ballot of the members of the Board of Directors for the nominees.\n\nThe ballot was\n\nso cast, and the nominees were declared elected as members of the Council for the term of\nsix years.\n\nAn application for the estabhshment of a new department of the Association, to be\nknown as the Department of Teachers' Interests, was presented in a communication and\npetition signed by many active members of the Association, more than the required number\nof twenty signatures being attached.\n\nOn motion of Director F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, seconded by Director T. A. Mott,\nof Indiana, the petition\n\nwas referred to the Executive Committee, with instructions to\n\nreport with recommendations at the next meeting.\n\nOn behalf of Miss Mary E. Bancroft, president of the Departftient of Special EducaMiss Mary R. Campbell presented a verbal request to the Board of Directors for\nan appropriation to the amount of $85 for certain expenses incurred in preparing the\nAsbury Park Auditorium for the meetings and exhibits of that department.\nOn motion of Director Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut, Miss Campbell's request\nwas referred to the Executive Committee, with power to act.\nDirector James M. Greenwood, chairman of the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations of the National Council, presented a report of that committee to the\nNational Council on certain applications for appropriations which had been considered\nby the committee, and recommended by the Council.\n\ntion,\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\n\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to submit the following report on such matters as have been regularly brought before it for consideration:\nThe Committee on Industrial Education presented the following request:\nI.\n\"AppHcation for the appointment of a committee of investigation, and for recommendation of an appropriation for the expenses of the same.\n\"On behalf of the Committee of Five on Industrial Education, appointed by the\nCouncil July 7, 1903, whose report is submitted at this meeting, I respectfully ask the\nCouncil to appoint a committee to continue the work already begun by the Committee\nof Five, and to recommend to the Board of Directors that such an appropriation be made\nas may be necessary to carry on the work of the committee and print its reports.\n\"It is the judgment of the Committee of Five that if the Council should deem it wise\nto appoint the committee asked for, it should be authorized to continue its work for at\nleast three years, and to make at least one report each year.\n\"The following are some of the reasons for the appointment of such a committee:\n\" The report of the Committee of Five made at this meeting does not attempt to deal\nwith details, but in a general way sets forth the reasons for industrial education in rural\nschools, the necessity for the organization of a new type of secondary schools in which\nthe industrial phase of educational effort is made prominent; and indicates in brief outline\nwhat may be attempted in the way of industrial education at the present time, in existing\ntypes of schools.\n\"Further work is necessary to put into available and authoritative form the results\nof experiments in this field in this and other countries; to give such detail of successful\nexperiments as may be useful in other localities than where the experiment is in operation;\nand to present plans of organization for the development of industrial education in rural\ncommunities.\n\"The United States Department of Agriculture is deeply interested in this subject,\nand it is believed that the proposed committee, representing the National Educational\nAssociation, could in a variety of ways co-operate with this department, thus combining\nfor a single purpose technical knowledge and training, and practical acquaintance with\neducational conditions and possibihties in rural communities.\n\"The Patrons of Husbandry, the Farmers' Institutes, and other organizations and\nagencies are also interested in industrial education, and it is believed they would welcome\nthe co-operation of a committee of the National Educational Association representing\nthat body and its interests in industrial education.\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW BOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\n55\n\n\"Such a committee and the Bureau of Education could co-operate in a variety of\nways, which would prove valuable to those interested in the organization and administration of this phase of educational work.\"\n(Signed)\n\"L. D. Harvey.\"\n\"Menomonie, Wis.,\n\"May 3, 1905.\"\n\nOn motion, an appropriation of not more than three hundred dollars ($300), or so\nmuch thereof as may be necessary, was recommended for the working expenses of this\ncommittee during the next year.\n2.\nOn motion, the committee recommends that two thousand copies of the Report\nof the Committee on Taxation, as Related to Public Education, or more copies of these\nif there be a demand, be printed and distributed by the secretary to active members, one\ncopy each, on application only, and copies sold to others at cost and carriage price; that\nten thousand copies of the Report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Rural\nSchools, or more copies if there be a demand, be printed and distributed by the Secretary\non the same conditions; and that three thousand copies of the Report of the Committee\non Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of PubHc-School Teachers be printed and distributed\nby the secretary under the conditions outlined above.\nNo other requests having been presented, and no one appearing in the interest\n3.\nof any other matter, the committee adjourned.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nM. Greenwood, Chairman.\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Secretary.\n\nJ.\n\nOn motion of Director T. A. Mott, of Indiana, an appropriation not to exceed $300\nwas allowed for the expenses of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for\nRural Communities for the ensuing year, for the continuation of the work of the committee,\nas outlined in the application of Chairman Harvey.\nChairman Greenwood also reported a recommendation of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, to the effect that an appropriation not to exceed $300 should\nbe made for printing a report by the Committee on Public Schools and Public Libraries,\nproviding such report should be formulated and prepared for publication during the\ncurrent year.\n\nChairman Greenwood then presented the following letter from President Charles W.\nEliot, which letter had been received by the Committee on Investigations and Appropria-\n\ntions too late to be considered either by the committee or by the Council.\n\nCambridge, Mass., July i, 1905.\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\n\nThe committee appointed in 1903 to report to the Council on an investigation proposed\nby President Baker, of the University of Colorado, concerning the culture element and\nthe economy of time in education, did not succeed in presenting any report at St. Louis in\nThere were differences of opinion in the committee which had been developed\n1904.\nin correspondence; and only two members of the committee attended the St. Louis meeting.\nThe Council continued the same Committee of Five, and requested a report from\nthem at the meeting of July, 1905.\nThe committee has been obliged to do its work chiefly by correspondence; altho\nthree members of the committee, Messrs. Baker, Goodwin, and Eliot, met in New York\nearly in December last to discuss the results of the correspondence.\nAmong the topics which President Baker had suggested for investigation, there were\nthree which seemed to the committee to afford opportunity for promising inquiries.\nThe\nfirst of these topics was:\n\"The value of a college training for young men who are going\ninto business.\"\nYour committee was unanimously of the opinion that the Council might\nwisely pass a resolution requesting the Commissioner of Education at Washington to\ninvestigate that subject by ascertaining at several of the business centers of the country\nthe number of college-bred men who hold high places in industries, commerce, and finance.\nYour committee also advise the Council to appoint a committee of five persons,\npartly college men and partly school men, to prepare a report on the following topics:\n(i) the best period for the high school\nfour years, from fourteen to eighteen, or six years,\nfrom twelve to eighteen; (2) the devices already in use for shortening the college course,\nor the combined courses of college and professional school. These two topics relate to\neconomy of time in education an economy highly valuable to college graduates who are\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\ngoing into business, as well as to graduates who are going to study a profession. In case\nthe committee just mentioned be appointed, your committee recommends that the Council\nask for an appropriation not exceeding $500 to be placed at the disposal of the new committee to meet the cost of postage, stationery, and clerk hire.\nThis report is unanimous so far as its first recommendation is concerned, and is\nsupported by a majority of the committee as regards the second recommendation.\n\nCharles W. Eliot,\nJames TI. Baker,\nJ.\n\nBy\n\nM. Greenwood,\n\nE. J. Goodwin,\nE. A. Alderman,\nCommittee.\nCharles W. Eliot, Chairman.\n\nIt was moved and carried that the portion of President Eliot's letter which referred\n\nto the work proposed for the United States Commissioner of Education be referred to the\n\nCommissioner, and that the part relating to the work of the National Council be referred\nto the president of the Council with the recommendation that it be placed upon his next\n\nprogram for discussion.\nThere being no other business, the board adjourned, sine die.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\nADDRESS OF WELCOME\nJAMES M. GREEN, PRINCIPAL OF\n\nNEW JERSEY STATE NORMAL AND MODEL\n\nSCHOOLS, TRENTON, N.\n\nJ.\n\nMr. President, and Members oj the National Educational Association:\nIn the name of the commonwealth of New Jersey, and of the citizens of\nAsbury Park and Ocean Grove, I welcome you here.\nIt was the desire of our President to inaugurate at this meeting a departure\n\nfrom our custom of having representatives of the several departments of the\nstate, general and local, welcome you, and to have instead that office performed\n\nby one person only. When asked to suggest that person, we at once fixed\nupon our governor as the man who more than any other represented all departments; for, while he is a statesman and orator, he is also an educator who\nappreciates the most intelligent aims of education and is in full sympathy\nwith them. His illness and failure to be here are therefore a great disappointment to us.\nWhen one is to welcome a guest, his cordiality in doing so is naturally\nmeasured by the kindness previously shown him by that guest, and by the\ndistinguished character of the latter.\nGoverned by these standards, surely\nmy greeting to you would be warm, when I remember the kindness you have\nshown our state thru myself, and when I recall the distinguished name you\nbear thru your great and honorable achievements. in advancing education.\nWe welcome you to a state that was one of the original thirteen, and that\namong her earliest acts established the public school, and has fostered its\ngrowth and development from an institution affording the crudest benefits\nto the few, to a system of schools supplying a most generous secondary culture\nto all who will accept it;\n\na state whose department of public instruction has\n\nrecently decided that a secondary education is not only the privilege of every\nchild,\n\nbut the right of every child under our constitution and laws; a state\n\nwhose highest courts have recently decided that the only essential authority\nfor the establishment of higher education within its borders is the vote of the\n\npeople.\n\nThis state is already furnishing this higher education in a number of\n\nbranches\n\n—a fact that may not seem surprising to our energetic western friends,\n\nfostered as they have been\n\nby public-land grants, but which will be fully\n57\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n58\n\n[General\n\nappreciated by this old, conservative eastern belt, where it has been so long\nheld that higher education was not the province of the state.\n\nWe welcome you to the state that gave to the country the iron railroad,\nthe telegraph, the phonograph and the incandescent lamp; a state that, while\nit\n\nhas paid tribute to science, letters, and philosophy, has not been neglectful\n\nof the emotions;\n\nfor\n\nit\n\nis\n\nthe one state in which George Washington\n\nwas\n\nactually knowm to swear.\nI mention these things, not to take unto ourselves any glorification, but\nto show to you a setting in sympathy with your purposes, and thus moke you\nfeel entirely at home.\n\nAgain we welcome you to the cool breezes and stimulating baths of these\n'Hwin cities by the sea,\" to this Alma Mater of summer spiritual life, to our\n\nhomes and to our hearts.\n\nRESPONSE\nALBERT\n\nG.\n\nLANE, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nEleven years ago the closing session of the National Educational Association was held in this Auditorium, and it was\n\nmy pleasant duty to express\n\nthe sincere thanks of the officers and members of the Association to the citizens\nof Asbury Park for their generous provision for our entertainment.\n\ntime we were invited to come again.\nof Asbury Park,\n\nAt that\n\nWe have come again, on the invitation\n\nOcean Grove, and the state of New Jersey.\n\nThe welcome\n\nby President Green, New Jersey's leading\neducator in behalf of the teachers and citizens of the state, are gratefully\ngreetings so cordially expressed\n\nappreciated.\n\nAt our last session, in 1894, Professor \"Richard G. Moulton spoke on this\nplatform of the formative influence of literature on thought and character.\n\nThe molding power of good reading, covering history, literature, and science,\nhas received a great impetus during the past decade.\n\nThe educators here assembled represent the moral and intellectual forces\nof the nation.\n\nTheir mission is to lead minds to knowledge that will develop\n\nright standards of judgment.\n\nGreat social and moral questions, involving\n\nthe welfare of the whole people, are receiving unusual attention.\ntations in the industrial world\n\nThe agi-\n\nhave led to numerous organizations of allied\n\nThe great questions of law and order, equity and justice, liberty\nand equal rights, labor and compensation, have largely engrossed public\nattention.\nUnexpected opportunities for leadership have arisen. The dangers\nof unworthy motives and unwise leadership are threatening the vital interests\nof our institutions and of our people.\nThe teachers in our elementary and\nsecondary schools, in our normal schools, colleges, and universities, must\nbecome leaders of thc^ught, establish ideals, and inspire the action which will\ninterests.\n\naid in solving these great problems in the interests of a common humanity.\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nEDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY\n\nSessions!\n\n59\n\nThe National Educational Association represents 400,000 teachers and\n16,000,000 pupils in this country, and we have come here to merge our thoughts\n\nand plans, and to emphasize the essential elements in education.\nWe gladly accept the hospitality offered us, and hope the people will be\nenriched by our presence.\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nEDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY\nWILLLA.M H.\n\nMAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF THE CITY OF\nNEW YORK\n\nThe National Educational Association meets in its forty-fourth annual\nmoment when Japan has given the world another great\n\nconvention at the\n\nobject-lesson in the value of education.\n\nEver since Napoleon's retreat from\n\nMoscow, the world has stood in awe of that massive and mysterious power\nwhich we call Russia. In that fateful campaign it was not the skill of the\nRussian commanders or the bravery of the Russian soldiers that wrought the\ncatastrophe; it was the snowflakes the arrows from the quiver of God\nEver since, Russia has gloried\nthat overwhelmed the might of the invader.\nThe world accepted her at\nin a victory that was not of her own achieving.\nWrapt in the glamor of an unearned\nat her own valuation, and stood in awe.\n\n—\n\nrenown, Russia pursued her aggressions practically unopposed, until her\n\nempire stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean.\nof conquest has ended.\nconflict\n\nThere her career\n\nThere, once again, has broken out the irrepressible\n\nbetween ignorance and enlightenment.\n\nOn the one side stands a\n\npeople, almost countless in number and rich beyond knowledge in all natural\n\nwealth, but ignorant, devoid of initiative, and alienated from their rulers by\n\ndespotism and cruelty.\n\nOn the other side stand the Japanese —a people\n\nlimited in numbers and confined in territory, but bom again thru the diffusion\nof knowledge and thru the universal training for efl&ciency which has made\ntheir inherited patriotism invincible.\n\nJapan has but repeated at Port Arthur and at Mukden and on the Japan\nthe lesson of Marathon, of Zama, of the Invincible\n\nSea the lesson of history\n\n—\n\nArmada, of the Heights of Abraham, of Waterloo, and of Sedan; the lesson\nthat the race which gives its children the most effective training for Hfe sooner\nBorrowing eagerly from western civilizaor later becomes a dominant race.\ntions, Japan has adopted for her own whatever school exercise or method of\nteaching gives promise of training for eflaciency. Nobly has she repaid her\ndebt to Europe and America. She has demonstrated to the world that the\ntraining of the young to skill of hand, to accuracy of vision, to high physical\ndevelopment, to scientific knowledge, to accurate reasoning, and to practical\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6o\n\n—\n\npatriotism\n\nfor these are the staples of Japanese education\n\n[General\n\n— the best and\nis\n\ncheapest defense of nations.\n\nSuch are the lessons of war.\nthe same story.\n\nThe history of peaceful industrial effort tells\n\nNo nation is truly prosperous until every man has become,\n\nnot merely a consumer, but a producer.\n\nAs Emerson most truly said:\n\nA man fails to make his place good in the world, unless he not only pays his debt, but\nEfficient universal education, that makes\nalso adds something to the common wealth.\nmen producers as well as consumers, is the surest guarantee of progress in the arts of\n\npeace\n*\n\n— the mother of national prosperity.\n^is\n\n'But,\" exclaims an objector, \"this is gross materiaUsm.\"\n\nNot so.\n\nThe\n\nhistory of the world shows that a nation improves morally and intellectually\n\nonly as its physical condition is strengthened.\n\nThe futihty of religious mis-\n\nsionary effort, when unaccompanied by physical betterment,\n\nis\n\nof itself suf-\n\nprove the thesis.\n\nBetter shelter, better food, better clothing, are\n\nthe necessary antecedents\n\nand accompaniments of higher thinking, greater\n\nficient to\n\nself-respect, and more resolute independence.\n\nTrue, material prosperity too often brings with it a train of evils all its\n\nown; sensual indulgence or slothful ease, it may be; or the grasping at\nmonopoly and \"man's inhumanity to man;\" or a feverish pursuit of material\nTrue, enormous wealth is often accomthings, to the neglect of the spiritual.\npanied, particularly in crowded centers of population, by extreme poverty.\nhowever, are but temporary reversions\n\nThese,\n\nwe must pay for progress.\n\nto\n\nbarbarism\n\n—the price\n\nThe best corrective of the evils generated by the\n\naccumulation of wealth is not anti-trust laws or other repressive\n\nlegislation,\n\nbut a system of schools which provides a training for all that is equal to the\nbest which money can buy; which discovers and reveals genius bom in low\nestate, and enables it to fructify for the common good ;\n\nand which guarantees\n\nto every child the full development of all his powers.\n\nThe trained man will\n\ndemand, and will, in the long run, receive, his due share. Education is a\nchief cause of wealth and the most certain corrective of its abuse.\nIn a community in which every man had been trained to his highest efficiency, monopoly\nand poverty would be ahke impossible.\nIn the light of these historic truths, you will permit me, as a prelude to the\naddresses which are to be deUvered before the meetings, general and depart-\n\n—I do not venture\n—a few of the burning educational questions of the day.\n\nmental, of this convention, to state very briefly\ndiscuss\n\nto say,\n\nThe first of these questions is: What does ''education for efficiency\"\nmean ? It does not mean that every man should be trained to be a soldier.\nTrue, the man who is well trained for the duties of peace is, in these days\nof scientific instruments of destruction, well prepared for war;\n\nbut military\n\nprowess can never become the ideal of education among a great industrial\npeople.\n\nIt does not mean merely that each citizen should be able to read the\n\nnewspapers and magazines, so that he may be famihar with pohtical discussions, and able to make an intelligent choice between candidates and policies.\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nEDUCATION FOR EFFtCiENCY\n\nSessions]\n\n6i\n\nThe imparting of such knowledge to each individual is essential in a democratic nation, but\n\nit\n\nfalls far\n\nshort of the education needed to secure the\n\nhighest efficiency of each unit of society.\n\nStill less does it\n\nmean that wretched\n\ntravesty of education which would confine the work of the public schools to\n\nthose exercises in reading, writing, and ciphering which will enable a boy or\n\na girl, at the age of fourteen or earher, to earn starvation wages in a store or\nfactory.\n\nEducation for efficiency means all of these things;\n\nmuch more.\n\nbut it means\n\nIt means the development of each citizen, first as an individual,\n\nand second as a member of society. It means bodies kept fit for service by\nappropriate exercise. It means that each student shall be taught to use his\nhands deftly, to observe accurately, to reason justly, to express himself clearly.\nIt means that he shall learn \"to live cleanly, happily, and helpfully, with those\naround him;\" that he shall learn to co-operate with his fellows for far-reaching\nand far-distant ends; that he shall learn the everlasting truth of the words\nuttered nearly two thousand years ago:\n\n''Bear ye one another's burdens.\"\n\n''No man liveth to himself,\" and,\n\nSuch, I take it, is the goal of American\n\neducation.\nIf this ideal of\n\ndeveloping the highest individual and social efficiency of\n\neach citizen is the goal of American education, obviously the curriculum of our\nschools becomes an object of extreme solicitude.\n\nParticularly is this the case\n\nwith the elementary schools, for these contain over 90 per cent, of the children\n\nunder instruction.\n\nDuring the last quarter of a century a great movement\n\nfor the reform of the elementary curriculum has\n\nbeen gathering strength.\n\nThe most prominent characteristics of this movement would seem to have been\nthe development of the imagination and the higher emotions thru literature\nand art and music; the training of the body and the executive powers of the\nmind thru physical training, play, and manual training; and the introduction of the child to the sources of material wealth thru the direct study of\n\nnature and of processes of manufacture.\n\nAt\n\nhave been founded on a psychological basis.\nsociological foundation\n\n—\n\nfirst the movement seems to\nToday the tendency is to seek a\n\nto adjust the child to his environment of\n\nman and of\n\nnature.\n\nAt various times during the past ten or fifteen years, and particularly during the past year, reactionary voices have been loudly raised against the new\n\neducation,\n\nand in favor of the old.\n\nSuch was to be expected.\n\nfollow inevitably in the wake of every reform, political and social.\nwill show that the reactionary tendencies in education arise\n\nReactions\nAnalysis\n\nfrom three chief\n\nsources\nI.\nThe demagogic contentions of selfish poHticians, who see that it costs\nmore money to teach the new subjects of the curriculum than the old, and that\nthus a large proportion of the public revenue is diverted from the field of\npolitical spoils.\nThese are the men who have invented the term \"fads and\nfrills\" to designate art, manual training, music, and nature study.\nIt must\nbe theirs to learn that it will require something more than a stupid alliteration\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n62\n\n[General\n\nto stem the tide of those irresistible forces that are making the modern school\n\nthe faithful counterpart of the modem world\nfor\n\nits\n\nactivities.\n\nand an adequate preparation\n\nThe saving common-sense of the common people, when\n\ndeliberately appealed to, will always come to the rescue of the schools.\n2.\n\nThe reactionary tendency is due in part to an extremely conservative\n\nelement that still exists among the teaching force.\n\nFor the most part, teach-\n\nwho are still extremely conservative were themselves brought up chiefly\non the dry husks of a formal curriculum. They find it difiicult to learn\nand to teach the new subjects. They disHke to be bothered by the assisters\n\nance of special teachers.\n\nAccustomed to mass work both in learning and in\nschoolroom of arts which\n\nteaching, they regret the introduction into the\n\ndemand attention to individual pupils.\n3. The reactionary tendency has its roots even among the more progressive teachers in a\n\nvague feeUng of disappointment and regret that manual\n\ntraining, correlation,\n\nand nature study have probably not accompHshed all\n\nthat their enthusiastic advocates promised ten to twenty years ago.\n\nThe feeUng of disappointment, we might say even of discontent, among\nthe more thoughtful and progressive teachers, is what might have been antici-\n\nIn the first place, public education has become a much more difficult\n\npated.\n\nthing than it was half a century ago.\n\nIt has\n\nbecome more difficult for two\n\nreasons:\n1.\n\nBecause of the constantly increasing migration of population from the\n\ncountry to the cities.\n\nChildren removed from rustic to urban life lose that\n\nmost valuable education which comes from the work and the associations\nof the farmyard and the fields.\n2.\n\nBecause of the enormous increase in immigration from abroad, and\n\nparticularly because the character of the immigration has changed.\n\nUp to\n\nthe middle of the last century the majority of our immigrants were of kindred\n\nblood with the American people, and a large proportion spoke our language.\nGradually, however, the tide of immigration, while swelling until it has now\n\nreached the enormous total of one milUon a year, has shifted its chief sources\n\nfrom the shores of the North and the Baltic Seas to the shores of the Mediterranean.\n\nThe peoples of southern Europe, ilUterate, accustomed to tyranny,\n\nwithout individual\n\ninitiative,\n\nand habituated\n\nto a\n\nlow standard of\n\nliving,\n\nhuddle themselves together in our large cities and factory towns under conditions inimical alike to morals, to physical well-being,\n\nadvancement.\n\nand to intellectual\n\nTeachers have a good right to complain that municipal\n\nauthorities, in permitting the overcrowding of immigrants in unsanitary quarters, have aided the establishment of the most serious obstacle yet discovered\n\nto the upward progress of public education.\n\nIn the second place, the feeling of disappointment with the results of the\n\nnewer studies\n\narises\n\nfrom the fact that these studies were introduced before\n\nthe teachers were prepared to teach them\n\n;\n\nthat for too long they were con-\n\ncerned chiefly with uninteresting formal processes rather than with interest-\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY\n\nSessions]\n\n63\n\ning results; that they were not related to real needs of school and home, and\n\nwere not properly co-ordinated with other phases of the curriculum.\n\nMuch\n\nyet remains to be done to assimilate the environment of the school to the\n\nenvironment of the world.\n\nAnd yet, while we may feel discontented with the situation, and regret the\nincreased difficulties of our work, there is no reason for discouragement.\n\nI\n\nhave no hesitation in saying that in general intelligence, in all-round efficiency,\n\npower of initiative, the pupils whom I now see are superior to those of a\nIf the obstacles before us are more formidable, if the\nproblems are more complicated than those presented to our predecessors, the\nteachers of America are better organized and better equipped to overcome the\nobstacles and to solve the problems.\nHe who has sailed in a modern steamship thru an ocean storm has seen the mighty vessel cleave the billows and\nin\n\nquarter of a century ago.\n\nscarcely slacken her speed\nof the ship\n\nm the teeth of the hurricane. Down in the depths\n\nmen are piling coal on the furnaces and releasing a force\n\nwhirlwind.\n\n—the\n\n—that\n\nbaffles the waves and defies the\n\nAnd so it is with our ship of state.\n\nCome what storms of igno-\n\nimprisoned sun-power of uncounted ages\n\nrance or wickedness there may, teachers are supplying the fuel of knowledge\n\nand releasing the force of intelligence that will hold our nation in the straight\ncourse of progress.\n\nAnd yet, the teachers of America are still far from satisfied with their\nThey are dissatisfied with the elementary curriculum, because\nit seems crowded with the\nnew studies that have been added without\ndiminishing the number of the old. They are dissatisfied with the high-\n\nachievements.\n\nschool curriculum, because the old-style language, mathematics, and science\ncourse, however suitable it may be for admission to college, does not precisely\n\nmeet the needs of boys and\n\ngirls\n\nwho are going directly into life.\n\nare dissatisfied with the specialized high school, because\n\nit\n\nThey\n\nseems lacking in\n\nsome of those attributes of culture in which the old-time school was strong.\n\nAnd they are dissatisfied with the college course, because the elective system,\nwhich has taken the place of the old prescribed course, does not seem to\ngive a strong, intellectual fiber to the weaker students who, too often, follow\n\nthe path of least resistance.\ninteUigence, less efficiency,\n\nAnd they are dissatisfied because there is less\n\nand less helpfulness in the world than the world\n\nneeds.\n\nSo far from feeling concerned at this widespread discontent, we should\n\nrejoice\n\nthat\n\nit\n\nexists.\n\nThere is nothing so bhghting to educational enthusi-\n\nasm as smug satisfaction with what is or what has been;\n\nthere is nothing so\n\nstimulating to educational effort as a reahzing sense of present imperfections\n\nand of higher possibiHties.\nAs to the curriculum of the higher schools and colleges, the problem is\nreally not what studies shall be inserted and what omitted, but how shaU we\nmake it possible for the student to get that culture, efficiency, and power out\nof his studies which his development requires.\nThis is really a question for\npsychology to answer. Well may we ask of our universities, with their psy-\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n64\n\nchological laboratories\nreactions:\n\n[General\n\nand their sensitive apparatus for measuring mental\n\nWill psychology ever accomplish what phrenology once promised,\n\nbut has never performed\n\n—the determination of a young student's capabili-\n\nties and of the line of work he ought to pursue ?\n\nAs to the elementary curriculum, surely we shall not go far wrong if we\napply to each study, and even to each detail of each study, these four questions\n1.\n\nIs this study or this exercise well within the comprehension of the child ?\n\n2. Does it help to adjust him to the material and the spiritual environment of the age and of the community in which he lives ?\n3. Does it combine with the other studies of the curriculum to render him\nmore efficient in conquering nature and in getting along with his fellows,\nand thus to realize ideals that transcend environment ?\n4. Does it accomplish these objects better than any other study that might\n\nbe selected for these purposes ?\nIf these questions are\n\nanswered in the affirmative, we\n\nmay reasonably\n\nconclude that the study or the exercise in question is an important element in\neducation for efficiency. Examined from the view-point estabhshed\nby these questions, every study will assume an aspect very different from\nthat which it bears when taught without a well-defined object.\nTake drawing, for example.\n\nDrawing may be so taught as not only to lay bare to seeing\n\neyes new worlds of beauty, but to lead to that reverent appreciation of nature,\n\nand the reappHcation of her lessons to daily industrial art, which is the way,\nas Ruskin has said, in which the soul can most truly and wholesomely develop\nessential religion.\n\nAgain, take the teaching of agriculture.\n\nWhile our\n\nsoil\n\nseemed inex-\n\nhaustible in fertihty as in extent, the need of such teaching was not felt.\n\nNow,\n\nhowever, we are obHged to have recourse to lands that produce only under\n\nThe rural schools have added to our difficulties by teaching their\n\nirrigation.\n\npupils only what seemed most necessary for success when they should move to\n\nthe city.\n\nThe farms of New England are, in large measure, deserted or are\nTo retain the country boy on the land, and to keep\n\npassing into ahen hands.\n\nour soil from exhaustion, it is high time that all our rural schools turned\ntheir attention, as some of them have done, to scientific agriculture.\n\nThere is\n\nno study of greater importance; there is none more entertaining.\n\nIf\n\nevery\n\ncountry boy could become, according to his ability, a Burbank, increasing the\nyield of the fruit tree, the grain field, and the cotton plantation, producing food\n\nand clothing where before there was only waste, what riches would be added\nTo obtain one\nto our country, what happiness would be infused into Hfe!\nplant that will metamorphose the field or the garden, ten thousand plants\nmust be grown and destroyed. To find one Burbank, ten thousand boys\nmust be trained; but, unlike the plants, all the boys will have been benefited.\nThe gain to the nation would be incalculable. Scientific agriculture, practically taught, is as necessary for the rural school as is manual training for the\ncity school.\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nEDUCATION FOR EFFICIENCY\n\nSessions]\n\n65\n\nNor are our people going to rest satisfied with mere manual training.\n\nThe\n\nMosely commissioners pointed out that the great defect in American education is the absence.of trade schools.\nTrade schools will inevitably come. The\nsooner the better. They are demanded for individual and social efficiency.\nIt is\n\nnot in secondary schools alone, however, that efficiency demands\nIt is absurd to place the boy or girl, ten\n\nhighly differentiated types of schools.\n\nor twelve years of age, just landed from Italy, who cannot read a word in his\n\nown language or speak a word of English, in the same class with American\nboys and girls five or six years old.\nto\n\nFor a time, at least, the foreigners require\n\nbe segregated and to receive special treatment.\n\nAgain, the studies that\n\nappeal to the normal boy only disgust the confirmed truant or the embryo\n\nYet again, the mentally defective, the crippled, and the physiweak children require special treatment. Unless all indications fail,\nthe demand for education for efficiency will lead in all our large cities to the\n\ncriminal.\ncally\n\norganization of many widely differentiated types of elementary school.\n\nThe problem of the curriculum, important as it is, is less important than\nThe bom teacher that is, the man or woman\nwho has a genius for teaching will teach well, in spite of any curriculum,\n\n—\n\nthe problem of the teacher.\n\n—\n\nhowever bad.\n\nUnfortunately, genius is as rare in the profession of teaching\n\nThe great majority of\nus, as it needs must be, are very commonplace persons, who are seeking for\nlight and doing the best we can.\nHence, the supreme importance of training.\nAnd yet there is no part of our work to which so little thought and investigation have been given.\nNormal schools in this country are still very young\nonly a little over half a century old. The first normal schools were high\nschools with a little pedagogy thrown in.\nThe majority of them remain the\nas it is in law, or medicine, or any other profession.\n\nsame to this day.\n\nThere is a strong movement, however, toward purely pro-\n\nfessional schools to which no student who has not\n\nhad a reasonably liberal\n\neducation is admitted, and in which he shall devote his entire time to learning\n\nhow to\n\nteach\n\n—how\n\nto\n\nand\n\nobserve, understand,\n\nexercise\n\nchildren\n\nboth\n\nWelcome and necessary as this movement is, if all\nteachers are to train for efficiency, we are still far from precise scientific notions\nmentally and physically.\n\nas to the best methods of training teachers.\n\nI commend this subject to the\n\nNational Council as one of the next investigations it should undertake.\n\nTo secure training for efficiency, the conditions of teaching must be such\nBy common consent,\n\nthat each teacher shall be able to do his best work.\n\none of these conditions is that teachers shall not be subjected to the ignominy\nof seeking political or other influence, or cringing for the favor of any man, in\n\norder to\n\nsecure\n\nappointment or promotion.\n\nDuring the past year two\n\nevents have occurred which seem to be full of promise for the estabhsh-\n\nment of this condition.\n\nThe public-school teachers of Philadelphia have been\n\nfreed from the bondage toward pohticians in which they were held for well-\n\nnigh a century; and the one-man power, beneficent as such a system proved\n\nunder a Draper and a Jones in Cleveland, has been supplanted by an appar-\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n66\n\nently more rational system.\n\n[General\n\nIndependence of thought and freedom of\n\ninitia-\n\ntive are necessary to the teachers of a nation whose stability and welfare as a\n\nrepublic depend upon the independence, the intelhgence, and the free initia-\n\nIndependence of thought and freedom of initiative may be\n\ntive of its citizens.\n\nthrottled by bad laws, but under the best laws they will be maintained only by\n\nBy making it unprofessional to seek appointment\n\nthe teachers themselves.\n\nor promotion thru social, religious, or political influence, the teachers of this\n\ncountry have it in their power to estabhsh one of the most essential conditions\nof education for efficiency.\n\nUnder the conditions that confront us, particularly in the large cities, with\nthe rapid increase and constant migration of our home population, with the\ninflux of vast hordes of people from abroad, alien in language, alien in\n\nof thought, and alien in tradition, the character of our elementary\nis undergoing a profound transformation.\n\nmodes\nwork\n\nWe are beginning to see that every\n\nschool should be a model of good housekeeping and a model of good gov-\n\nWhat more may the schools\nThey can provide knowledge and intellectual entertainment for adults\nas well as for children. They can keep their doors open summer as well as\nwinter, evening as well as morning.\nThey can make all welcome for readernment thru co-operative management.\n\ndo ?\n\ning, for instruction, for social intercourse, and for recreation.\n\nBut I for one\n\nWhen I look upon the anaemic faces and\nundeveloped bodies that mark so many of the children of the tenements;\nbelieve they\n\nmay do still more.\n\nwhen I read of the terrible ravages of tuberculosis in the same quarters, I cannot but think that the city should provide wholesome food for children at\nthe lowest possible cost in public-school kitchens.\n\nTo lay the legal burden\n\nof learning upon children whose blood is impoverished and whose digestion is\n\nimpaired by insufficient\n\nor unwholesome feeding\n\nis\n\nnot in\n\naccord with\n\nthe boasted altruism of an advanced civilization or with the divine command:\n'\n\nTeed the hungry.\"\n\nIs this not also a subject for investigation by our National\n\nCouncil ?\n\nAnd should it some day come to pass that men will look upon corruption in\npublic and corporate life, such as of late we have seen exposed in New York,\nPhiladelphia,\n\nand\n\nSt.\n\nLouis,\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nsame loathing with which they\n\nregard crime in private life, it will be when the schools are in earnest about\nteaching our young people the fundamental laws of ethics, that\n\nThe ten commandments will not budge,\nAnd stealing still continues stealing.\n\nBut economic perils and racial differences are the teacher's opportunity.\nHere in this country are gathered the sons and the daughters of all nations.\nOurs is the task, not merely of teaching them our language and respect\nour\n\nfor\n\nlaws,\n\nbut of imbuing them with\n\nthe\n\nspirit\n\nof\n\nself-direction,\n\nour precious inheritance from the Puritans; the spirit of initiative which comes\nto us from the pioneers who subdued a continent to the uses of mankind;^\n»\n\nMiinsterberg, The Americans, chaps, i and ii.\n\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessionsl\n\n67\n\nthe spirit of co-operation which is symbolized by, and embodied in, the ever-\n\nAnd as, in my\nown city, I see the eagerness of foreigners to learn, and the skill and devotion\nof our teachers, I cannot but think that we are overcoming our almost\nlasting union of sovereign states to promote the common weal.\n\ninsurmountable difficulties.\n\nThere is, perhaps, no more striking moment in all history than that at\nwhich the apostle Paul, standing on Mars Hill and pointing to the blue ^gean,\nthe center of the then known world, proclaimed the new but eternal doctrine:\n'\n\n'God hath made of one every nation of men for to dwell on all the face of the\n\nearth.\"\n\nStanding here, as we do, on the border of the Atlantic Ocean, and\n\nbeholding, on the one side, the dove of peace alighting from the hand of our\n\nPresident on the fields of carnage in the Far East, and, on the other side, the\nhomes of peoples of all nationalities stretching from the Atlantic to the isles of\nthe Pacific, under the protection of the American flag, may we not realize that\nwe, as teachers, have a great part to perform in bringing a vast company to an\n\nunderstanding of the sublime truth that God has made all men one to dwell on\nthe face of the earth\n\n;\n\nthat their mission is not to defraud and to slay, but each\n\nto do his best for himself and to help his fellows ?\n\nTHE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\nW.\n\nT.\n\nHARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION,\n\nWASHINGTON, D. C.\nIn most rural districts that are sparsely settled the taxable wealth is small\n\nand the state does not make an opportionment of its annual funds sufficient,\n\nwhen divided pro rata for each person of school age, to provide for a full\nschool year's instruction;\n\ninstead of nine or ten months, only three or four,\n\nor five months possibly, is provided.\n\nConsequently the individual teacher has\n\n—\n\nmain vocation in some other occupation than teaching generally\nthat of a farmer.\nThe ungraded rural school cannot afford to employ professional teachers, because it can pay only a fragment of an annual salary.\nVillages and cities can depend upon a school population for the year, and\nan annual session of from eight to ten months, or even longer, is kept up.\nProfessional teachers are employed at living wages; that is to say, the wages\npaid teachers are in advance of the average rates for laborers who work the\nsame length of time\nto find his\n\nThe first question of interest to the teacher inquiring about salaries is:\nAre the positions of teachers, in a state, annual positions, or merely temporary\noccupations lasting only for a small fraction of the year ?\n\nThe annual position\n\nmeans a teacher employed by the year, who takes up teaching as a vocation,\nand does not have to shift to other occupations to eke out his salary received\nfrom his vocation as teacher.\n\nThe second important question is:\n\nHow many well-paying positions are\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6S\nthere\n\n—^how many positions are there\n\nin the teachers'\n\n[General\n\nranks which promise\n\nthe individual, successful in his profession of teacher, an increase above the\nposition he at present occupies, say to a salary one-fourth larger, or one-half\nlarger;\n\nhow many positions will open to him that are twice or three times or\nThe\n\nfour times what he receives now when he first enters the profession?\n\nambitious teacher wishes to have a career before him.\nenter upon the work of teaching,\n\nJust as he objects to\n\nwhen teaching is a makeshift lasting three\n\nor four months each year, so it is objectionable, tho not to such a degree, to enter\n\na profession which has in it no future for the teacher.\n\nThe salary which he\n\nreceives at first is necessarily a small one, and if there are no higher positions\nin the section where he is at work, there is no hope for the able and ambitious\n\nteacher for the future, unless he migrates to some land of promise.\n\nAnother aspect of the question is this\n\n:\n\nDo the positions commanding high\nPretty much\n\nsalaries increase in number as fast or faster than the population ?\n\nall the interest in statistics of salaries in the United States therefore relates, not\n\nto the salaries of rural schools, but to those paid in village or city schools which\n\nare sufficient to support a professional teacher, and to the question whether\nthere are a sufficient\n\nnumber of higher positions to hold out a promise of\n\npromotion from time to time in accordance with the increase of his professional skill.\n\nam therefore glad to mention here that the average annual increase in\n\nI\n\nhigher education throws open nearly one thousand new places a year in colleges\n\nand universities for teachers promoted from the secondary schools on\n\nbeing found to have the requisite skill and scholarship.\n\nThere were in 1890,\n\n7,918 professors and instructors in the colleges and universities of the United\nStates, not counting the professional schools.\nto 20,887.\n\nIn 1903 the number had risen\n\nIt started with less than 8,000, and had an increase of new places\n\nin thirteen years almost equal to\n\n1,000 a year (12,969).\n\nThe secondary\n\nschools of the United States counted 16,329 teachers in 1890,\n\nand in 1903\n\nThis increase gave 17,466 new positions in thirteen years\nfor teachers in pubUc and private high schools.\ncounted 33,795.\n\nThe teacher whose salary is low asks himself what he is going to do about\nit.\n\nHe may submit in sorrow to his lot, or he may take a more heroic view\n\nof the matter, and consider that the lot he will occupy depends in large measure\n\nHe will then try to improve his skill in teaching, and\nHe will make\nenthusiastic culture studies in literature and art as well as in science.\nHe\nwill study to perfect himself in fine manners.\nHe will pass under review\nhis moral judgments, seeking to raise the standard of his character.\nHe will\nseek to make himself the desired professional teacher. What teacher could\nupon his own efforts.\nto\n\nmake his field of learning more extensive and accurate.\n\nnot improve his position and find a more adequate salary for himself ? Daniel\n\nWebster is reported to have said to those who advised him against leaving\nthe country town in\n\nNew Hampshire to go to the great metropolis of New\n\nEngland, it being urged that Boston was already full of lawyers: ''Yes, but\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessions]\n\n69\n\nSo it may be said, in general, that the upper\n\nthere is always room at the top.\"\n\nstory in the temple of education is not yet full of good teachers.\n\nThere is,\n\nin fact, a great lack in number and quality for the highest positions and best\nsalaries that are offered in the United States..\n\nWith a view to study our resources in the way of better salaries, I have\nmade an inspection of the vocations of the number of the population which\nthe census finds engaged in gainful occupations.\n\nThere were some twenty-\n\nnine millions of these in 1900, as against about seventeen millions in 1880.\nI find that, while by far the larger part of the population is counted in the lower\n\n—those which are devoted\n\nto procuring raw material and manuand most common products for food, clothing, and\nshelter ^yet the talented and able workmen in the lowest rank have a constant\ndemand upon them to furnish recruits for the occupations that require more\n\noccupations\n\nfacturing the simplest\n\n—\n\nskill and offer a substantial increase in salaries.\n\nTaking a series of employments that indicate the increase of luxury, persons laboring in the manufacture of stoves and furnaces\n\n—the large majority\n\nof poor people use the fireplace, or even the bonfire, for cooking and heating\n\n—the number increased from 123 429 the milUon the\n—an increase of three and a half times each group of\na million wage-earners. Upholstery—none\nused by the poor—increased\npurposes\n\nin\n\nin\n\nto\n\nyears ending 1900\n\nthirty\n\nin\n\nis\n\nso much as to employ 1,060 in the million, where it had employed only 489;\n\npaper-hangers\n\n—not needed for log cabins—increased from 199\n\nin 1870 to 756 in 1900;\n\nin the milUon\n\nplumbers and gas- and steam-fitters increased from\n\n891 to 3,364 in the milHon; painters, glaziers, and vamishers increased from\n6,929 to 9,546 in the million.\n\n(See Table I.)\n\nTABLE I\nCensus Years\nIndustries that Provide for Creature\n\nComfort and Luxury\n1870\n\nStoves and furnaces\nUpholstery\n\nPaper-hanging\nPlumbers, gas- and and steam-fitters\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPottery\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n123\n\n192\n\n393\n\n429\n\n489\nIQ9\nSqi\n405\n\n600\n288\n\n1,129\n\n1,060\n\n544\n\n756\n\n1,115\n\n2 ,693\n\n3,364\n\n555\n9,546\n\n416\n\n656\n\nPainters, glaziers, and varnishers\n\n6,929\n\n7>493\n\nClocks and watches\n\n:\n\n*I42\n\n795\n\n9,775\nI, III\n\nTotal in each million of employed\n\n9,178\n\n',899\n\n16,301\n\n.\n\n830\n16,540\n\nOn the other hand, persons having to do with trade and commerce\nbookkeepers, salesmen, etc.\n\n—increased from 24,867, in the thirty years from\n\n1870, to 55,326 in each million inhabitants in 1900; bankers and brokers, from\n\n850 to 2,520; those engaged in insurance and trust companies, from 801 to\n(See Table II.)\n2,548; agents and collectors, from 1,625 to 8,295.\nIncludes clock-makers only.\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n70\n\n[General\n\nTABLE II\nCensus Years\n\nEmployments of a Commercial Civilization\n1870\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\nBookkeepers, salesmen, etc\nBankers and brokers. ....\nOfficials of banking, insurance, and\ntrust companies\nAgents and collectors\n\n24,867\n\n30,861\n1,114\n\n44,623\n1,582\n\n55,326\n2,520\n\n801\n\n894\n\n1,625\n\n1,954\n\n1,755\n7,679\n\n2,548\n8,295\n\nTotal in each million employed\n\n28,143\n\n34,823\n\n55,639\n\n68,689\n\n850\n\nFor employees in transportation, in steam railroads, street railroads,\nhackmen, and teamsters the increase was from 22,380 to 40,931 in the million.\n(See Table III.)\n\nTABLE III\nCensus Years\n\nEmployments that Presuppose Urban Civilization\n\nSteam railroad\nStreet railroad\n\n...\n\n.\n\nHackmen and teamsters\nTotal in each million employed\n\n1870\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n12,316\n\n13,573\n\n408\n9,656\n\n672\n10,210\n\n20,330\n1,646\n16,208\n\n20,024\n2,370\n18,537\n\n22,380\n\n24,455\n\n38,184\n\n40,931\n\nOn the other hand, mere blacksmiths decreased, from 1870, when there\nwere 11,360 in a milHon, to 7,790 in 1900; while the aggregate of other kinds\nof iron- and steel-workers increased\nperiod.\n\nfrom 15,077 to 23,666 during the same\n\n(See Table IV.)\n\nTABLE IV\nCensus Years\nDecrease of a Primitive Trade by Drafting its Skilled\n\nWorkmen into Lucrative Specialties\n\nMere blacksmiths\nAll other iron- and steel-workers\n\nTotal in each million of employed\n\n1870\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n11,360\n15,077\n\n9,931\n16,441\n\n9,218\n21,142\n\n7,790\n23,366\n\n26,437\n\n26,372\n\n30,360\n\n31,156\n\nIt is more important to note that what may be called the higher occupations,\nwhich have to do with protection and culture, increased with a considerable\n\ndegree of uniformity in the thirty years ending in 1900, showing an increase\n\nfrom 30,000 to 44,000 thirty years later in each million.\n\nI have included in\n\nthis list clergymen, physicians, dentists, lawyers, engineers,\n\nand surveyors,\n\narchitects, designers, and draftsmen, literary persons and scientists in so far\n\nas the census counts them, chemists\n\nand metallurgists,\n\nartists,\n\nmusicians,\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": ",\n\n...\n\n.\n\nTHE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessions]\n\n71\n\nmakers of musical instruments, besides\nprofessors and teachers, these last forming the class of workers in whose progress\njournalists, photographers, printers,\n\nwe are especially interested on this occasion.\n\nProfessors and teachers were\n\ncounted by the census in 1870 at 10,141 in each million, and at 15,345\nper cent,\n\nmore numerous—\n\nin 1900.\n\n—or 50\n\nBut from the records kept in the ofl&ce of\n\nthe Bureau of Education it would appear that the census count of teachers for\n\n1900 falls short of the true number by 90,623, which would increase the quota\nof 1900 in each million to 18,509.\n\n(See Table V.)\n\nTABLE V\nCensus Years\n\nSome of the Vocations for Protection and Culture\n\nClergymen\nProfessors and teachers\nPhysicians and surgeons.\nDentists\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n'\n\n1870\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n3,508\n10,141\n\n3,720\n13,093\n4,926\n\n3,880\n15,277\n4,610\n\n3,840\n15,345\n4,540\n1,020\n\n4,994\n627\n3,257\n\n708\n\n770\n\n3,688\n\n3,942\n\n3,937\n1,487\n\n326\n\n162\n65\n113\n523\n\n355\n413\n295\n198\n989\n\n364\n652\n344\n304\n856\n\n1,280\n\n1,752\n\n2,734\n\n423\n604\n\n708\n574\n\n961\n881\n\n3,170\n1,033\n\n3,232\n\n4,182\n\n5,413\n\n5,337\n\n.\n\n256\n\n451\n\n646\n\n499\n\nTotal in each million of employed\n\n29,642\n\n35,334\n\n41,364\n\n43,655\n\nLawyers\nEngineers and surveyors\n\n590\n\nArchitects\nDesigners, draftsmen, and inventors\nLiterary persons and scientists\nChemists, assayers, and metallurgists\nArtists and teachers of art\nMusicians and music teachers\nJournalists\n.\n\n.\n\n161\n103\n78\n62\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nPhotographers\nPrinters, compositors, lithographers, etc\n\nPiano- and organ-makers and tuners\n\n.\n\n475\n194\n\n927\n\nLooking at the five grand divisions in the census for 1900, we find agricultural employments relatively decreasing since 1870,\n\neach million, for thirty years, namely,\n\nwhen it had 475,700 in\n\n1900, when\n\nto\n\nit\n\nhad only 357,100;\n\nwhile professional service had increased from 29,700 to 43,300 in each million;\ntrade and transportation, from 99,500 to 164,000; manufacturing, from 214,100\nto 243,700.\n\n(See Table VI.)\n\nTABLE VI\nCensus Years\n\nTotal Employed in Gainful Occupations in the United\nStates, Showing Decrease in Agriculture and\nIncrease in Trade and Transportation, etc:\n\nAgriculture, etc\nProfessional service\n\nDomestic and personal\nTrade and transportation\nManufacturing.\n.\n\n.\n\nTotal\n\n.\n\n1870\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n475'\n\n443\n34\n\n376\n\n29.\n181.\n\n99.\n214.\n\n196.\n107,\n217,\n\n1,000.0\n\n41\n185\n146\n\n249\n\n357-1\n43-3\n191-9\n164.0\n243-7\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n72\n\nWhat is the future of teachers' salaries ?\n\n[General\n\nIs the vocation of teacher a per-\n\nmanent one, which will grow into greater consideration with our people during\nthe entire period in which they make progress along the lines of the conquest\nof nature, and the conversion of things and forces to the rational purpose of\n\nsupplying the wants of man ?\n\nWe must look at human occupations in the mass. Some occupations, as\nwe expect, are rudimental; they belong to the earliest stages nay, even to\n\n—\n\nthe savage state\n\n—of mankind. Hunting and\n\nalso the unsystematic foraging\n\nfishing belong to this stage;\n\nupon the vegetable kingdom of fruits and\n\nedible plants, and plants for textile purposes.\n\nBefore systematic agriculture,\n\nwe find the procuring of raw materials, and to some extent the conversion of\nthem, by means of fire, into palatable articles of food. By and by there come\nagriculture and grazing\n\n—the cultivation of certain food plants and the domes-\n\ntication and rearing of animals.\n\nAfter a long time come, in the fourth place,\n\nsome mining and metallurgy. We used to hear about a Stone Age succeeded\nby a Bronze Age, and lastly by an Iron Age.\n\nThen begins an age of transformation of products.\nrude.\n\nIts\n\nbeginnings are\n\nSomething is done in textile fabrics to supply clothing.\n\nSomething is\n\ndone in wood- and metal-work in building, and the making of rude instruments of offense and defense, and of tools for use in agriculture and mining.\nLeather is an important transformation of the raw hide.\nits\n\nThe raw hide, with\n\ncovering of hair and wool, is used without a tanning process in the lowest\n\nThere is a third stage, with transportation and trade,\nAt first, carrying is done by human strength next, there is carrying by the animal which is\n\nstage of civihzation.\n\nwhich belongs also to the early beginnings of human industry.\n;\n\nimpressed into the service of man\ndog, the reindeer.\nfirst the raft,\n\n—the horse, the\n\nox, the mule, the llama, the\n\nMore important than this is the transportation by water:\n\nthen the canoe, then the use of sails.\n\nBy and by the use of steam on the water and on the railroad ushers in a\nTrade begins by bartering and peddling; indue\nSteam transportation, and banking and exchange, and the use of machinery in general for\nmanufacturing and transportation, belong to the second and higher order of\n\nhigher form of civilization.\n\ntime it becomes shop-keeping; finally banking and exchange.\n\nhuman industry.\n\nThis higher order of human industry has three functions to\n\nperform by its occupations.\n\nIt provides, first, for the production of means of\n\ncomfort and luxury; next, for the protection of the individual by the social\n\nwhole; and, thirdly, for culture or education.\n\nWe may think of a great variety of employments which have as their end\nthe production of creature comforts, and whose manufactures require a higher\n\norder of technical skill\n\n—a multitudinous variety of occupations coming into\n\nbeing and going out of being, one following after another, many continuing\n\nand many supplanted by more useful devices;\n\nall\n\ndevoted to the conserving\n\nof the nervous energy of man, and to eliminating causes of discomfort\n\nwaste of power.\n\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessions]\n\n73\n\nUnder the second head of this higher order of occupations I include occupations that have to do with means of protection, and the first of these is the\n\nproviding of amusements and recreation\n\n—the most potent means of conserv-\n\ning human energy and keeping it rational.\nincludes the medical profession, in all\n\n'realized reason of man. \"\n\nThe second means of protection\nThe third is the\n\nvaried forms.\n\nwhich has been sometimes called the\n\nlegal profession, protecting property,\n'\n\nits\n\nin that it stores up products of the will for after use.\nerty,\n\ntherefore,\n\ncivilization.\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nhuman industry,\nThe protection of prop-\n\nIt is in the nature of a reservoir of\n\nprotection\n\nof\n\na fundamental instrumentality of\n\nFourthly, in the protecting class of occupations I place the\n\npubHc service, including officials managing public works or public charities,\nand government officials, as well as the police and the rank and file of the\narmy and navy. Sixthly, organizations like insurance companies and agencies,\nor companies formed for guarding against calamities, general or particular;\nalso corporate actions which undertake the supply of urban needs, as waterworks, gas-works, hygienic precautions,\ntrade unions, national banks, trusts\n\n—\n\netc.;\n\nalso charitable\n\nassociations,\n\nall forms of business aggregation which\n\nhave or are capable of having a protective influence on the individual, to\nsecure him freedom in his vocation,\nfire,\n\npestilence,\n\naccidents of\n\nall\n\nand to secure him against calamity by\nand the incidents of infancy or\n\nkinds,\n\nold age.\nI have named the vocations that provide means of creature comfort and\n\nthe means of protection as belonging to the higher order of occupations.\n\nIt\n\nwill be seen at once that these vocations involve educated capacity, and that\n\nThere\nand last division of this higher order of vocations, including employments of that portion of the community engaged in providing the instruthey receive higher wages than the employments of the lower order.\n\nis a third\n\nmentalities of culture for the people.\n\nI include in this list, first, those engaged\n\nin religious work of various kinds, and, next, the artistic trades that supply\n\nornament on useful goods, and produce works of sculpture and painting, and\nmusic, Hterature, the formation and care of art museums.\nI include three larger classes of workers in this higher order of occupations,\n\nnamely, school-teachers, librarians, and the purveyors of intercommunication.\n\nThe corps of teachers in public and private schools numbers something\n\nover half a million, the public teachers alone numbering upward of four hun-\n\ndred and fifty thousand, and the private teachers of all kinds numbering about\n\none hundred and twenty thousand more.\n\nThe curatorship of libraries con-\n\ntains a rapidly increasing list of occupations, and the list of occupations which\n\ninclude the people collecting and diffusing information by the daily or weekly\n\nnewspapers, magazines, and books, operating telegraphs, photographic and\nphoto-engraving establishments.\n\nThis class is at present not one-half so large\n\nas the corps of teachers in the United States, but it is destined to be much\nlarger, as urban life comes to supplant rural life.\n\nThese classes of workers, belonging to the higher order of occupations are\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n74\n\n[General\n\ndestined to grow in size with the advance of civilization and the increase of\n\nproduction in wealth.\n\nI include in this list those\n\nemployed in the pursuit of\n\nscience, and the invention of devices useful in the arts.\n\nIn the earliest stages of civilization ninety-nine laborers out of each hundred are needed to supply raw material and rude manufactures for the community.\n\nWith the growth of civilization a larger and larger number are\n\ndetailed from the one hundred to provide creature comforts, protection, and\nculture;\n\nand the teacher's vocation at present by far leads in the numbers of\n\nthose who have to do with providing culture for the community.\n\nThese voca-\n\ntions are Hmited in numbers only by the abiHty of the community to furnish a\n\nsurplus of\n\nmoney beyond what\n\nis\n\nneeded for the raw materials and the\n\nrude manufactures for food, clothing, and shelter.\n\nIn the far distant time\na goal will be reached when one person in each hundred, by means of\nmachinery, will furnish all the food, clothing, and shelter needed for the other\n\nninety-nine,\n\nand every one of these ninety-nine will find occupation in the\n\nhigher orders of employments which provide means for creature comfort,\nprotection,\n\nand culture.\n\nThe increase in lucrative occupations in the professional classes that furnish protection for health and property assists, by competition, the increase\nof salaries for teachers,\n\nby drawing their supply of workers from the more\n\nhighly educated classes.\n\nThe recent canvass of\n\nthe salaries\n\nby the special committee of which\n\nColonel Wright, the chairman, makes report this year, gives us data from\n\nwhich we may complete our hst of better-salaried positions, besides those\nin colleges already\n\nnamed, counting\n\ntendents, high-school principals,\n\nin\n\nsuperintendents, assistant superin-\n\nelementary-school principals, high-school\n\nteachers (not principals), elementary-school teachers\n\nreported in 467 cities of over 8,000 inhabitants.\n\n—\n\nsix classes of positions\n\nThis hst aggregates 53,554\n\npositions with annual salaries of $600\n\nand over, (one-half of which pay 800\nand upwards) and 14,193 of $500 to $600, and 17,728 of annual salaries below\n$500.\nI stop at salaries of $600 because he who receives $600 per year receives\n\nmore than his quota of the total productions of the United States, the total\nincome of the nation in 1900, made on a liberal basis, being only $551.56\nper inhabitant, if divided among the entire number of persons engaged in\ngainful occupations, twenty-nine miUions in\nset aside\n\nanything for the rent of real\n\nall.\n\nIn this estimate I do not\n\nestate, nor anything for the interest\n\non capital, nor anything for the extra pay of the organizing and directing\npower which contributes so much towards the increase of the production of\nwealth.\n\nNo teacher has a right to complain, on a sociaHstic basis, if he is receiving\na salary, for his annual services, of $600.\n\nIn making this calculation I count\n\nin the products of agriculture, manufactures, and transportation, as reported\n\nby the census for^i9oo, and add to it for home manufactures (making of cloth-\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\n75\n\ning for the family, etc.) something over a billion of dollars, and for garden\n\nand small-field agriculture something over a billion, and an estimate of a billion\nand a half for the rental of houses and furniture, which items are estimated\nI think, on a liberal basis, the same making a total of $16,144,278,462, which\nis equal to a quota of 58 cents ($0.5812) for each of the 365 days making the\nthe year, for each man, woman, and child.\n\nThe United States counted in the\n\ncensus for 1900 twenty-nine millions of our people engaged in gainful occupations, of which the number of teachers and professors counted less than 2\n\nper .cent. (0.018).\n\nI\n\nhave estimated them at 536,756 for the year 1900 from\n\nreturns made to this ofiice, while the census reckons only 446,133.\n\nThe true valuation of all real and personal property in 1890 was put by\nthe United States census at $65,000,000,000, the same being an increase of\n\n$22,000,000,000 over 1880.\n\nIf we\n\nallow for a moderate increase during the\n\ndecade ending in 1900, and call the true value of real and personal property in\n1900 $90 000,000,000, there would be, at 3 per cent, interest, a sum of $2,700,\n000,000 to deduct for the use of capital, leaving for total earnings the sum of\nonly $13,415,000,000, to be divided equally among citizens, without paying\nextra salaries to those who directed and supervised the industries.\n\nTaking\n\nout this 3 per cent, interest on the $90,000,000,000, the true value of all real\nestate and personal property in the United States, and dividing the remainder,\n\n$13,415,000,000, the balance for the total productions of the entire wage-\n\nearning population in the United States gives only 48 cents ($0.4815) per day\n\nand an income, for each of the twenty-nine million of\nOur estimate of salaries at $600 and over, therefore, as\nbeing the largest amount that can reasonably be demanded on any sociaUstic\nbasis, makes a good showing for the teacher who aspires to make his occupation something higher than a mere trade.\nI insert the results of my studies in the two tables following:\nfor each inhabitant,\n\nworkers, of $457.80.\n\nTABLE VII\nEARNINGS PER DAY PER INHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES IN IQOO\n\nValue\nfor\n\nValue of farm products (census)\nValue of manufactured products (census)\nValue of mineral products (estimated)\nValue of products of fisheries (estimated)\nFreight earnings (land) (census)\nDrayage, etc. (estimated at i8 per cent, of freight earnings)\nFreight earnings (water) estimated\nExpiessage (estimated)\nHouse rent (estimated)\nFurniture rent (estimated)\nRailroad building (estimated)\nHousehold manufactures not reported (estimoted)\nAgricultures not reported (estimated)\nMiscellaneous (partly estimated)\n\nTotal earnings per inhabitant per day\n\nPer inhab•\n\nitant\n\n1899\n\nPer Day\n\n$3,742,129,357\n5,656,521,284\n704,469,710\n55,476,939\n1,052,602,23s\n189,368,402\n166,428,129\n55,476,040\n1,109,520,79s\n416,070,298\n360,594,258\n1,109,920,795\n\n$0,135\n\n1,109,920795\n415,680*325\n\n.203\n\n.0254\n.002\n.038\n\n.0068\n.006\n.002\n\n.040\n.015\n.013\n.040\n.040\n.015\n\n$0,581\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n76\n\n[General\n\nTABLE VIII\nEARNDIGS PER DAY PER mHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES AT DIFFERENT EPOCHS\n\nAgricultural, including live stock (census)\n\nFrom transportation in enhanced value of products\nAgricultural products\nnot reported\n\nconsumed in the household and\n\ni8so\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n$0.1200\n.0580\n.0I20\n.0320\n\n$0.1450\n.1080\n.0370\n.0410\n\n$0.1080\n.1840\n.0470\n.C4OO\n\n$0.1350\n.2030\n.0528\n.0400\n\n.0480\n.0075\n.0025\n.0200\n\n.0440\n.0180\n.0220\n.0300\n\n.0400\n.0130\n.0424\n.0400\n\n.0400\n.0130\n.0424\n•0550\n\n$0,445\n\n$0.5144\n\n$0.5812\n\nHousehold manufactures not reported\nBuilding of railroads\n\nHouse and furniture rent\nTotal per day for each inhabitant\n\n$0.30\n\nThe teacher's profession offers, in the elementary and high schools and the\noffice of superintendent, the following positions:\n\nTABLE IX\nSalaries\n\nPositions\n\n$ 600-$ 700\n700- 800\n800- 900\n900-1,000\n1,000-1,100\n1,100-1,200\n1,200-1,300\n1,300-1,400\n1,400-1,500\n1,500-1,600\n1,600-1,700\n1,700-1,800\n1,800-1,900\n1,900-2,000\n2,000 and over\n\n.\n\n.\n\n16,015\n11,064\n8,664\n4,424\n2,539\n1,486\n2,825\n1,166\n\n.\n\n.\n\n861\n766\n1,005\n.\n\n.\n\n227\n361\n233\n1,918\n\n.\n\nTotal\n\n53,554\n\n$5oo-$6oo\nUnder $500\n\n^\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n14,193\n17,728\n\nAdding the positions in colleges and universities, 20,887 to 53,554 positions\nwith salaries of $600 and above, we have a total of 74,441.\nIt will be seen, on inspection of the above table, that there are 26,475 posi-\n\npay $800 and upwards, which, with the college positions, make\n\ntions that\n\n47,362.\n\n.\n\nWe have seen that teachers, if there are any who claim an increase of\nbeyond $551.56 a year on the ground of their natural right to a pro\nrata share of the wealth produced in the United States, could not urge a\nvalid plea, because the total wealth distributed, even without payment of\nsalary\n\ninterest on capital or rent on real estate, does not yield beyond that average\n\nsum to the twenty-nine milhons of persons following a gainful occupation in\nthe United States.\n\nWe have arrived at the conclusion, also, that the teachers of rural schools\nfor three or four months in the year are not an important element in this dis-\n\ncussion of salaries.\n\nTeaching as a makeshift occupation can never be of suf-\n\nficient importance to cause young\n\nmen and women to spend years at training\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessions]\n\nschools in preparation for that work.\n\n77\n\nOnly places with annual salaries,\n\nand with eight to ten months of teaching, will warrant the establishment of\nnormal schools and the requisite time of preparation necessary to secure\nthe special qualification of the professional teacher.\n\nIn the next place, the salaries that average below $600 cannot be named as\nattractive for the professional teacher, except as a beginning, a period of\n\nSalaries of $600 begin to be attractive to the person who belongs\n\nprobation.\n\nto the rank of mechanical wage-earners,\n\nand feels an ability and a desire to\n\nundertake a career that promises more honorable service and a higher salary\nthan the mechanical occupation which he finds ready to his hand.\nprofessional teacher\n\nThe\n\ndemands a permanent vocation at living wages, as I\n\nhave said, with plenty of higher positions for him, with advanced wages, as a\n\nreward for his increase in skill and culture.\nIn looking over the list of salaries, as reported by the superintendents of\nthe several states,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nfound that the average salary of male teachers in\n\nMassachusetts is rated at $145.27 a month, the school year being nine or ten\n\nmonths, while the salary of women teachers is rated at $54.61 for the same\nsession.\n\nRhode Island reports $119.06 and $51.91 a month, respectively, for\n\nmen and women teachers.\n\nConnecticut also reports an average monthly\nmore than $100. The general average of\nsalaries in the whole United States was $28.54 a month in 1870; in 1890\nit had risen to $37.46, and in 1893 it reached the sum of $40 a month; in 1903\nits\n\nsalary of\n\nmale teachers of\n\nthe sum of $47.50.\nI\n\nhave shown, in another place, that there has been an increase of\n\naccumulated wealth from decade to decade in the states, and that the total\namount of wealth per individual in the United States amounted in, 1900, to\n$1,235.^\n\nIn 1850 the total per capita of wealth, on its true valuation, was\n\n$308, and decade by decade\n1870, $780;\n\n1880, $870;\n\nit\n\nrose to the following sums:\n\n1890, $1,036.\n\nIt\n\ni860, $514;\nappears that each individual in\n\nthe United States has an average of four times as much realized wealth as in\n1850, and, therefore, can bear a burden of taxation equal to four times that of\n\n1850 with greater ease, because the greater the income from vested property,\nthe greater the tax possible without stinting the individual in his necessities.\nIt happens also that the average amount earned,\n\nper individual, by those\n\npersons reported in the census as engaged in manufactures increases from\n\nyear to year with the increase of realized wealth.\n\nReaHzed wealth may be con-\n\nsidered as capital for the production of property.\n\nThe individual, therefore,\n\nif\n\nreinforced by a large\n\nmore per annum.\n\namount of realized wealth, is able to produce much\n\nAnd thus it happens that the average wage-earner in\n\nmanufactures in 1850 produced less than $500 ($484.80);\nin 1870, $849.03;\n\nin 1880, $721.93;\n\nin 1890, $990.32;\n\nin i860, $651.48;\nin 1900, $1,065.69.\n\nThe larger the sum produced by the average person in the United States,\n« Estimate\n\nAlmanac.\n\nmade by the chief of the Biireau of Statistics of the United States Treasury for the World\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n78\n\n[General\n\nthe greater his abihty to support schools\n\nand furnish\n\nsalaries for the highest order of teachers.\n\nThese figures, therefore, on the\n\nincrease of productive\n\npositions of large\n\npower on the part of the individual wage-earner in\n\nmanufactures, are full of hope for the future of the teacher as regards his salary\n\nFive and one-third millions of workers, it seems,\n\nand his social position.\n\nproduced in the United States each an average of $1,065.69 for that year.\n(See Table X.)\n\nTABLE X\nNUMBER OF WAGE-EARNERS ENGAGED IN MANUFACTURES, AMOUNT OF ANNUAL EARNINGS,\nAND AVERAGE FOR EACH INDIVIDUAL FOR EACH CENSUS YEAR, 1850 TO 19OO, INCLUSIVE\nCensus Year\n\nNo. of Wage-Earners\n\nAmount Earned\n\n957,059\n\n$ 463,982,794\n\n1,311,246\n2,053,996\n2,732,595\n4,251,535\n5>3i4,539\n\n854,256,584\n1,743,898,200\n1,972,755,642\n4,210,364,965\n5,663,677,535\n\n1850\ni860\n1870\n1880\n1800\n1000\n\nAverage per\nIndividual\n\n$ 484.80\n651.48\n849.03\n721.93\n990.32\n1,065.69\n\nIn the foregoing table the total earnings have been determined by deducting \"cost of\nmaterials used\" from \"value of products,\" as shown in census reports for the several years\n\nnamed.\nScience makes possible mechanic invention, and it makes possible also the\n\nuse of the forces of nature to supersede\n\ndomestic animals.\n\nhuman power and the power of\n\nThis progress in the reinforcing of human might, as it\n\ngoes on from year to year, may be expected to increase the wealth-producing\n\ndoubled.\n\nwould seem that in fifty years, from 1850 to\npower of labor in manufactures has more than\nAll countries show increased power of wealth-production in pro-\n\nportion as\n\nthey adopt labor-saving machinery, but few to the extent of the\n\npower\n\nof the individual.\n\nIt\n\n1900, the wealth-producing\n\nUnited States.\n\nThe future of teachers* salaries is, therefore, a bright and promising one,\nviewed in the Hght of the general industrial progress, but a far more hopeful\none, viewed from the economical law of increased values for vocations that have\nfor their object protection and culture.\n\n'\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nJohn W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind. Dr. Harris has shown, as\nno one else could show, how the relative number engaged in agriculture, mining, and the\ncrudest forms of manufacture has decreased from decade to decade, and how the number\nof those engaged in other occupations, especially those which minister to our comfort, has\n\ncorrespondingly increased.\n\nThis has resulted primarily from two causes:\n\n(i)\n\nThe con-\n\nstantly increasing demands for comforts, luxuries,\nintellectual, aesthetic, and spiritual nature.\n\n(2)\n\nand the things that minister to man's\nBy the use of machinery, by better modes\n\nof transportation, and by the appHcation of science to his work, man has greatly increa«ipd\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE FUTURE OF TEACHERS' SALARIES\n\nSessions]\n\nhis productive power in agriculture, in mining,\n\n79\n\nand in the cruder forms of manufacture,\n\nthus enabling fewer persons to supply the physical wants of an ever-increasing number.\n\nAs a result of this, a greater number of persons is escaping from the drudgery of life, and\nmore congenial, more remunerative, more\nelevating, and higher occupations.\nBut, better still. Dr. Harris has demonstrated that the gloomy pessimism of Malthus\nis false, and that, instead of the world becoming over-populous and lapsing into savagery for want of food and the bare necessities of life, there will be proportionately more\nfood, more comforts, more culture, more happiness.\nHe has also demonstrated that there\nwill be work enough for all and that the work will be higher and more ennobling.\nIt seems to me, Mr. President, to be most fortunate that, just as Luther Burbank is\ngiving to the world his wonderful discoveries relative to food plants, and just as the\nannouncement is being made that the desert, now scorched and bare, is to produce hmitless\nquantities of food for man and beast, the great philosopher and teacher, the wisest seer\n\nis enabled to give their time and their talents to\n\namong us, after studying the question for forty years, should prophesy that the time will\nsurely come when two persons will be able to provide the food-stuffs and raw materials,\nand do the coarse manufacturing, for a hundred persons, leaving ninety-eight who will be\nemancipated from the merest drudgery and transferred to employments which relate to\neducation, religion, culture, ornament,\n\nand the production of other creature comforts.\n\nThis is a glorious prophecy, an utterance worthy of a noble seer.\n\nIt fills our hearts with\n\ngladness akin to that which inspired the children of Israel when a greater prophet pointed\n\nout the Promised Land, flowing with milk and honey, which they v/ere soon to enter\n\nand possess forever, provided they obeyed the God of their fathers who had led them up\nout of the land of Egypt and thru the wilderness of Paran.\nBut the prophecy of Dr. Harris will never be any nearer fulfilled than that of the\ngreat lawgiver's, unless this people shall live up to their high privileges and shall be faithEducation must be universal and\nful in the practice of the simple Christian virtues.\nefficient in fact as well as in name.\nThe universal intellect of the people must be touched\nand quickened, the hand must be not only skilful but willing, the taste, ennobled and\nrefined, and above all conscience must be enthroned.\nOur elaborate system of public\neducation will fail, miserably fail, unless there are great teachers of the people\n\n—teachers\n\nof hearts as well as teachers of heads.\n\nWhat wages shall teachers receive in the future ? That depends primarily on what\nIf we want novices; if we want boys and girls in their teens\nwho have but Httle education and less special training; if we want weaklings who have\nfailed in other occupations; if we want hangers-on who simply teach as a makeshift until\n\nkind of teachers is wanted.\n\nif we want persons lacking in scholarship, insight, tact, power,\nand character, to teach our children, then the wages of teachers in the future should be\nsmall, very small; indeed, the smaller the better, for we should not pay much for waste,\nneglect, and arrested development.\nBut if we want teachers of first-class ability; if we want men and women of broad and\ncultured minds; if we want persons of insight, tact, and power, whose Christian character\nstands four square to all the world; if we want persons who can instruct, guide, and\ninspire children, and whose very presence is a benediction; if we want teachers who can\nnot only keep order in the schoolroom, but who can guarantee the peace and prosperity\nof the nation; if we want teachers who can not only teach children to salute the flag,\nbut who can train citizens to be brave and loyal in war and just and honest and patriotic\nin peace\nfaithful to every civic trust and duty; if we want the minds of the children\ninoculated with the germs of truth and honor and virtue and reverence and love, so\nas to bring forth the largest harvest of righteousness; in a word, if we want the youth of\nthe land to be taught by the noblest and best of the land, then the salaries of teachers in\nthe future must bear some relation to the services rendered to the public.\n\nsomething else turns up;\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8o\n\n[General\n\nTHE USES OF EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS\nFREDERICK J. V. SKIFF, DIRECTOR OF FIELD COLUMBIAN MUSEUM\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe curator of the Ruskin Museum, Professor William White, at the\nLondon meeting of the Museums Association in 1893, presented a paper of\nconsuming interest, on \"The Function of Museums as Considered by Mr.\nRuskin.\" One paragraph, quoting the views of Ruskin, especially attracted\n\nmy attention, both^for the analysis of the\"subject and phrase of expression\nThe first function of a museum is to give example of perfect order and perfect elegance,\nin the true sense of that test word, to the disorderly and rude populace.\n\nEverything in\n\nown place, everythingflooking its^best because it is there: nothing crowded, nothing\nunnecessary, nothing puzzling. The museum is only for what is eternally right and well\ndone, according to divine law and human skill. The least things are to be there and\nits\n\nthe greatest; but all good, with the goodness that makes a child cheerful and an old man\n\ncalm: the simple should go there to learn, and the wise to remember.\n\nThat museum will be the most successful which, while conducted for the\nworker in science, at the same time attracts and stimulates studious thought on\neducated people.\nthe part of poorly or imperfectly\n\n—\n\nThe curator of the Ipswich (England) Museum, in an address recently\ndelivered, said:\n\nThe museum of today is a very different institution from the museum of five and\ntwenty years ago. Let progress continue at the same rate for the next quarter of a cenI believe that the future of\ntury and we can only dimly imagine the development\n\nmuseums as educational factors will be a great one. They will become great palaces' of\nThey will develop and foster a love and admiration for the wonders\npractical reference.\nof Nature in all her varied moods and branches; they will cultivate a taste for the\nbeautiful, a desire for knowledge of the many processes that go on in Nature's workshop,\n\nand lead to a greater reverence for that great Author of the universe, whose mighty works\nwe humble workers try to arrange and catalogue.\n\nThe museum on its material side, in its pubhc popular address, must be\nfrom an old friend, ''those who\ncome to stare may remain to study.\" Ruskin, speaking more particularly of\nso arranged and conducted that, quoting\n\nart museums, but with equal apphcability to all museums, said:\n\nTo teach people rightly .... we must let them feel that, although by poverty they\nmay be compelled to the pain of labor, they need not by poverty be debarred from the\nfeHcity and brightness of rest, in places dedicated to the highest labors of thought.\nWhat\nwe willingly concede to the graces of society, we must reverently offer to the Muses of\nseclusion, and, out of the millions spent annually to give attractiveness to folly, we may\nspare at least what is necessary to give honor to instruction.\n\nThe most alert and intelligent educational force in these times is the periThe magazine is more effective,\nthe magazine and the newspaper.\n\n—\n\nodical\n\nbecause there is more time allotted for its preparation, and its less frequent\npublication gives better opportunity for perusal and reflection.\n\ntions.\n\nIllustration\n\nand has come to be an essential feature in all publicaThe material on exhibition in a museum is to the student, young or\n\nis a most potent factor,\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nTHE USES OF EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS\n\nSessions]\n\n8i\n\nwhat the illustrations in the periodical are to the reader. The object\nmore accurate than a description of it; the eye is more reliable than\nthe ear.\nScientific instruction cannot be perfectly imparted except by objectold,\n\nitself is\n\nlessons.\n\nThe sketch and the drawing are important adjuncts of educational\nThe lantern slide is the almost invariable complement of the\n\nbooks today.\nlecture.\n\nThe purpose of an educational museum, broadly speaking, should be the\nextension and diffusion of popular information and ordinary fact among the\n\nmasses, by the exhibition of properly labeled specimens, and to create a reposi\ntory and archive for scientific material and data.\n\n-\n\nThe independent museum\n\n—the museum not connected with college or university—has long been recognized as an important, tho general, educational agency, but it is only during\nlate years that it has come to add investigation, research,\n\nand demonstration\n\nThe lecture course and the publication series\nare of quite recent occurrence.\nThe educational museum should be at once\na laboratory and study for the scholar, and a resort for popular culture. The\nand exhibition.\n\nto collecting\n\nacquisition of knowledge, coincident with research\n\nand collection, does not\n\nnow confine itself in its distribution to the label prepared for the specimen,\nbut finds a\n\nstill\n\nmore effective and broader method of distribution on the\n\nlecture platform and in the publication.\n\nIf the full\n\npurposes of a museum\n\nare comprehended, its operation will give unconscious education to the young\n\nand added wisdom to the mature. Its dedication should be to the people; it\nshould offer hope to the illiterate and inspiration to the scholar.\nThe educational museum management of today has two ambitions to\nprosecute and register important original scientific investigation, and to con:\n\nduct a popular institution along educational lines; to gather important scientific\n\nfacts which shall have value to the specialist and interest for the public.\n\nProfessor Goode wrote in 1888\n\n•\n\nNo museum can do good and be respected which does not each year give additional\nOn the other hand, the public\n\nproofs of its claims to be considered a center of learning.\n\nhave a right to ask that much shall be done directly in their behalf.\n\nMr. Goode divided all intellectual work into two classes\none, tending toward the increase of knowledge, the other toward its diffusion; the one\n\ntoward investigation and discovery, the other toward the education of the people and\nthe application of known facts to promoting their material welfare.\nIf I\n\nam asked by what means, in my opinion, the museum can accomplish\n\nthe greatest educational benefits, I shall say: thru the medium of the public\n\nand the introduction of the extension system that will bring the\nMy interest in museum-extension work has so far\nbeen confined to the advocacy, in pubHc and private speech, of its great possischools,\n\nmuseum to the school.\nbilities as an\n\neducational factor, tho the institution of which I am the execu-\n\nwould probably have made provision, at least, for a preliminary survey\nin this interesting field, had I not been occupied with other important duties\ntive\n\nduring the past five years.\n\nProfessor Waterman, of Chicago, has awakened\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n82\n\n[General\n\nmuch interest in this method of supplementing the system of the common\nschool.\n\nIn fact, it looked at one time as if sufficient private support might be\n\nobtained to inaugurate the traveling museum in Chicago.\n\nIt\n\nseems to me,\n\nfrom observation and correspondence, that the educational authorities in both\nEngland and the United States, and in centers v^^idely removed, are on the\npoint of seriously considering,\n\nif\n\nnot adopting, this inestimable aid in the\n\ninstruction of the young.\n\nUnder the law permitting the Field Columbian Museum to occupy a\npublic park, certain privileges are reserved for public-school children, which\nthe museum management has greatly extended, so that all of the teachers and\n\npupils of all schools and educational institutions have free access to the museum\n\nand its collections and lecture courses at all times, altho the general public\npays an admission on five days of the week.\n\nThe superintendent of schools\n\nof Chicago issues to each principal, each year, blank cards of admission, which\n\nare filled out by the different principals with the names of the teachers or pupils.\n\nThe children usually visit the museum in classes accompanied by teachers,\nand in many instances prepare papers upon some collection or object exhibiIf requested to do so, the curators 'of the museum willingly conduct\nted.\nThe number of\nclasses about the departments, and make informal talks.\npublic-school children, more especially when they come in classes, has been\ncarefully recorded and, while the advantages offered by the museum seem to\nattract a large attendance each year, yet the number of public-school children\nthat find their way into the museum under all circumstances is very small as\ncompared with the number of school children in the city as shown by the\nschool census. The fact appears to be that the school children, being\ntaken from their routine, and transported in a body to another, and often\nunfamiliar, part of the city, and to a public park or to the museum, insensibly\n\nconsider the expedition in the nature of a holiday, and the benefits conferred are\nrather of a temperamental than of an educational character.\n\nIf, on the other\n\nhand, small representative collections from the museum, accompanied by a\n\nprepared paper on the collection, which the teacher may read, should at stated\nintervals be sent to the different public schools,\n\nof that day's study exercise,\n\nmultiplied\n\nit\n\nand introduced as a part\n\nseems to me that the benefits are likely to be\n\nmany times, and that the impressions\n\n—the instruction—\n\nwill be\n\nreceived with much more intelligence and greater hope of permanency.\n\nThe editor of, and the contributors to, the Museums Journal, the organ of\nthe Museums Association of Great Britain, and a most interesting and valu-\n\nable publication, have devoted considerable space of late to the uses of muse-\n\nums in teaching.\n\nIn correspondence with Dr. Howarth, the editor of this\n\nJournal, I have been confirmed in\n\nmy interest in the extension feature of\n\nmuseum work by the literature of the Teachers' Guild of Sheffield.\n\nOne\n\npamphlet contains a description of the cabinets that are sent, upon application, to the schools of the city.\n\nThe contents of one of the mineral cabinets,\n\nfor instance, are described as follows:\n\nTray I shows ores of the metal of chief\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE USES OF EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS\n\nSessions]\n\nimportance in Sheffield\n\n—iron; Tray II contains ores and metals used\n\n83\nin the\n\nTray III illustrates the different forms of the most\nabundant oxide in the earth's crust silicia; Tray IV illustrates the simple\ncrystal forms assumed by minerals.\narts and manufactures;\n\n—\n\nDr. Howarth, while feeling that the time for the traveling museum has\n\ncome, says that, so far as he knows, no system has been adopted by a general\neducational authority for the regular distribution of museum cabinets, with\n\naccompanying lectures, etc., tho there are a few isolated instances in England\nwhere this work has been undertaken. Russia has adopted, I think, some\nscheme of the traveling museum, but more related to industrial than to\nIn Austria there is a limited governmental system of\n\neducational purposes.\n\ntraveling art museums.\nof\n\ncirculating\n\nreport of the\n\ncabinets\n\nLiverpool, however, has a good and general system\n\namong\n\nthe\n\nschools,\n\nwhich was\n\ndescribed\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nMuseums Association at the Liverpool meeting in 1890, since\n\nwhich date the system has been considerably extended.\nIn the United States, while it is possible that some work in this line has\n\nbeen inaugurated, I have not been able to make the careful search that seemed\nnecessary to discover its extent.\n\nAt the St. Louis Exposition I had the satis-\n\nfaction of aiding a number of teachers from different parts of the country, who\n\nsaid they were collecting specimens for their school cabinets, but I have heard\n\nnothing of a systematic effort.\n\nThe director of the Manchester (England) Museum, in a paper read before\nthe North of England Educational Conference in 1902, presented in most\ndirect\n\nand impressive paragraphs the thought which seems now becoming\n\nquite common as to the use of museums in teaching.\nties of\n\nThe educative authori-\n\nGreat Britian had decided that time spent by school classes in muse-\n\nums, under proper supervision, should be allowed to count as time spent in\nschool.\n\nWith this decision in view, Director Hoyle said:\n\nThis at once makes all museums an integral part of the national apparatus for elementary instruction. These institutions are now no longer to be merely storehouses of\nmaterial for investigation by specialists, nor means for teaching university classes, but\n\nthey come into intimate relation with the children in the elementary schools.\n\nUnder\n\nthese circumstances, it behooves us who have the direction of the museums, and those who\n\nteach the children, to take counsel together and see what new responsibiUties are laid upon\n\nus by this most broad-minded concession of the\n\nEducation Department.\n\nIt\n\nrests\n\nwith the teachers to make the ruling of the Education Department a means of progress\n\nand enlightenment.\n\nTeaching in the museum to be of maximum use must be correlated\n\nwith teaching in the school.\n\nThe proper persons to give instruction to classes of children\n\nin the museum are the teachers.\n\nMany of the facts of science may be taught to quite\n\nyoung children, and that, in a scientific manner, which will be a capital introduction to\nsystematic courses of study which may be undertaken later.\n\nThe reference made by Director Hoyle to the Education Department of\nGreat Britain, and the indefinite movement for broader organization, along\nsystematic lines, of the educational forces of the United States, invite attention\nto the fact that there has been some talk, I believe\n\n—unless the consideration\n\nof such a possibility has not progressed farther than an expression of views\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n84\n\n[General\n\nabout the creation of a new department in the national administration\n\n—a\n\nportfoHo of education and art, a department of the government whose head\n\nIn states, counties, towns, and cities the necessity\n\nshall be a cabinet officer.\n\nfor a uniform, even, sequential\n\nprocess of education, leading from\n\nmany\n\nprimary grades to a regularly decreasing number of higher grades, has been\n\nfound necessary.\n\nUnder a national system, uniform the country over, while\n\nnot in the least invading the rights of states, but unifying the states, as the\nstates unite and supervise the counties, the possibilities of a process of selec-\n\ntion for continued\n\nadvancement after graduation lead up irresistibly to the\n\nestablishment of a great national academy whose members shall constitute\nthe aristocracy of culture in America, the\nart.\"\n\n'\n\n'seat of learning and the shrine of\n\nThis would tend to a greater governmental paternity and broader\n\nconduct of educational institutions and art development, and would, I sup-\n\ndraw the national museums, the Indian schools, and the bureaus of\nand similar branches, as educational agencies,\nand all exposition management and participation, under some one national\npose,\n\nresearch and investigation,\n\nauthority provided for in the organization of the department.\n\nAssociating the subject of a national supervision of educational affairs and\nthe extension work of the museum, the suggestion occurs that, in the event of\n\nand Art, the national museum\nwould naturally and properly assume the responsibility of directing the\ndiffusion of knowledge thru the medium of the traveling museum and\nthe creation of a Department of Education\n\nlecture.\n\nEach state would select or create a museum which, under state\n\nauspices and appropriation, would act as the center or distributing agency\n\nmuseum, employing either its own dupHcate material and\nmaking requisitions for loans or contributions from the parent\ninstitution, but in all instances following the national plan promulgated by\nthe Department of Education and Art as represented by the national museum\nfor the federal\nlectures, or\n\nauthorities.\nIf these\n\nimportant steps should be taken, it may be that the educational\n\ninfluences of the country\n\nwould accord to certain elected or selected state,\n\nmunicipal, and private institutions, of sufficient importance and endowment,\nthe privilege of sharing in the facilities afiforded by the government in secur-\n\ning material and in prosecuting investigation, at home and abroad, on land and\n\non sea, now available by institutions supported alone by the government. To\nconfine all of the potent and effective agencies of the government for collection\n\nand investigation to national institutions located in one city, and that city,\ntho the capital, remote from the country as a whole, is, it seems to me, neither\nIf certain museums, for instance, situated in different\nnational nor rational.\nparts of the United States could, by some arrangement, have the privilege of\nutiHzing the governmental agencies the navy, the army, the Bureau of Indian\nAffairs, the Surveys, and the consular service, etc.\nto the same extent that the\nnational museums are now permitted to do, the material secured would have\na far greater educational influence and a wider distribution, and the investi-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE USES OF EDUCATIONAL MUSEUMS\n\nSessions]\n\n85\n\ngations made cover a larger field, than can possibly be the case as under the\n\npresent restricted conditions.\n\nThe museum as a physical thing is, after all, always a prime subject for\nthe museum in its relationship to the pubHc in its contact with\n\nconsideration\n\n—\n\nthe people.\n\nI should estimate that\n\nmore than one-half the visitors to the\n\nColumbian Museum are of foreign birth. On free days the Babel of\ntongues is startling. The manners of these visitors, whose nativity is so\nremote, are in sharp and rebuking contrast with those of the American-bom.\nField\n\nEvery discovered vandal has been a native of the United States.\nis not a dominant trait in this country.\n\ntion,\n\nReverence\n\nI read, with much interest and instruc-\n\nan article in the North American Review by Dr. Alfred Goldsborough\n\nMayer, of the Brooklyn Museum, in which this paragraph occurs, and to\n\nwhich I cordially subscribe:\n\nWe have overlooked the fact that the vast foreign immigration of the past few years\nhas brought among us a population accustomed to museums, and who seek the amuse-\n\nment and instruction which those institutions\n\nafford with\n\nmuch keener appreciation,\n\nrespect, and interest than is manifested by the native-born Americans.\n\nMuseums, zoologi-\n\ncal and botanical gardens, aquariums, and public parks are all appreciated more thoroughly\n\nand visited more frequently by foreigners than by our native-born, and we should take\ncare that the influence which thsy exert shall refine the thought and elevate the\nideals of that foreign element which is soon to exert a great influence upon our national\nAbout 80 per cent, of the emigrants to our country are between fifteen and\ndestiny.\nTheir ideals are already formed, our universities affect them only\nforty years of age.\nindirectly, and our Hbraries exert an influence on them through the feeble medium of a\nlanguage foreign to their thought. The museum, the zoological garden, and the public\npark may still appeal directly to them; through sight they may come to know our land,\nand to appreciate and respect its beauty, its history, and its principles.\n\nfull\n\nI beHeve the deepest, broadest influence of a museum is accomplished on\n\ncommunities.\n\nThe city or town in which a museum is located is uplifted by\n\nits\n\npresence, and in time its influence for culture and intellectual betterment\n\nis\n\nfelt\n\nby the whole people, and the inhabitants generally become\n\nmembers of\n\ninformed and more inteUigent and\n\ncultivated\n\nentire community is raised a\n\ntone, as distinguished\n\nlittle in\n\nsociety.\n\nbetter-\n\nThe\n\nfrom the results\n\nwhich makes a marked impression on a few.\nMaking for a place in which to live in a coming generation, the museum performs the better work, because the more general and democratic. Mr.\nRoosevelt has said that one piece of first-rate work is worth a thousand pieces\nof the college or university,\n\nof second-rate work.\n\nthe centuries\nsociety\n\n;\n\nHe was speaking of the university; and I expect that in\n\nsuch individual eminence in scholarship would be better for\n\nbut the purpose of the museum, while to educate the few, should be,\n\nnevertheless and more importantly, to instruct the many.\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n86\n\n[General\n\nSTANDARDS OF LOCAL ADMINISTRATION\nHON. GEORGE B. McCLELLAN, MAYOR OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK\nI owe you an expression of thanks for the privilege of addressing you today,\nand I know the city of New York appreciates the honor and distinction conferred upon it by the selection of the head of its public-school system to preside over your deliberations.\nI take it that the subject which has\n\nbeen assigned to me, \"Standards of\n\nLocal Administration,\" means educational administration, and, therefore,\neducation itself.\n\nAs local education is the keystone of the whole structure of\n\nnational education, my subject virtually covers the entire question which you\n\nhave assembled here to discuss.\n\nThe subject is so vast that in the few minutes\n\ngiven to me I can do no more than call to your attention one or two of its many\n\nimportant phases.\nIt\n\nmay be that I am old-fashioned\n\n;\n\nit\n\nmay be that my theories are obsolete\n\nbut I assure you that I am sincere in saying that I beHeve that schools exist for\n\nman, and not man for schools. There is no more misused, misapplied, and\nmisunderstood word in the English language than \"education.\" To teach is\none thing;\n\nto educate is another.\n\nYou can teach a bullfinch to whistle \"Hail\n\nColumbia,\" or a parrot to sing the \"Star-Spangled Banner;\" but in neither\ncase will your efforts have resulted in producing a useful American citizen.\n\nTeaching, so far as it goes, is most admirable, but the teaching of children\nthat does not educate can scarcely justify any expenditure of public moneys.\n\nWhat our scheme of government requires is that our children be educated.\nThey must be taught, of course, as a condition precedent to the education;\nbut the teaching is only a means to an end, and is by no means an end in itself.\n\nWhat the standards of education shall be depend very much on circumstances.\n\nwe\n\nEverything in this world is progressive; nothing stands still.\n\ntravel upon the journey of human evolution, the\n\nAs\n\nbroad and well-paved\n\nroad ahead may not cause us altogether to forget the beauty of the scenery\nleft\n\nbehind.\n\nOur economic and industrial development has been so extra-\n\nordinary during the last half-century that the inevitable tendency has been in\nthe direction of the practical rather than the beautiful.\n\nHowever desirable it\n\nmay be to increase the total of the earth's productivity, the most uncompromising economist must sometimes sigh for the economically incorrect charm\nof his native country side.\n\nFactory chimneys\n\nmay increase the wealth of\n\nnations, but green valleys and wild flowers, even pretty weeds,\ntheir people's happiness.\n\nadd more to\n\nIn the race for wealth in which for years we have\n\nbeen engaged, our educators, recognizing the economic law of supply and\n\ndemand, have tried to bring to market only salable goods. When fond parents have preferred that colleges should turn out money-making machines\nrather than educated men, colleges have met the demand, and well-chosen\nelective courses have graduated hard-headed young men ready to begin the\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nSTANDARDS OF LOCAL ADMINISTRATIONS\n\nSessions]\n\nStruggle for life.\n\n87\n\nTime being literally money, every day saved in preparation\n\nfor the contest has been considered to advantage.\n\nA bachelor-of-arts degree\n\nin many cases means that its recipient is a specialist in\n\nsome one narrow line\n\nof money-making, and not that he is the possessor of a liberal education.\n\ncraze to turn out complete\ncolleges;\n\nit\n\nThe\n\nmoney-making machines is not confined to our\n\nhas even entered the field of public education.\n\nThe time that\n\nthe average child can afford to spend at school is necessarily all too short; so\nshort, in fact, that very little ground\n\ntion cannot hope to make specialists.\n\nPubhc educa-\n\ncan be covered thoroly.\n\nIt can only hope to prepare children in\n\nAs the requirements of modern conditions change,\nmeet modern conditions change. The three\nR's of yesterday may not necessarily be the three R's of today. But there\nare certain fundamental subjects that everyone must know, and know well,\nif success in after-life is to be hoped for.\nThese fundamentals are the same\nall over the world.\nHowever much opinions may differ as to what should\ntime to become specialists.\n\nso the requirements needed to\n\nconstitute a liberal or a fundamental education, there should be no difference\nof opinion as to what should form the groundwork.\n\ntunity here in this convention,\n\nYou have a great oppor-\n\nyou who make education your life-work, to\n\nagree upon what these fundamentals should be, and then, by educating public\nsentiment, to cause their adoption as the three R's thruout the United States.\nI do not believe that anyone can be overeducated.\n\nagain confess to being old-fashioned.\n\nBut, pardon me, if I\n\nI do not believe that anyone can be\n\neducated who has not at least a smattering of the three R's.\nserve\n\nIt\n\nmay possibly\n\nsome mysteriously useful purpose to teach twelve-year-old boys, who\n\ncannot read even the simplest English, to sew buttons on shirts; or to drill\ngirls of the\n\nsame age, to whom the rule of three is unknown, in the theory,\n\nbut not in the practice, of music and cooking; for both are often bracketed\ntogether in our school curricula.\n\nBut the ignorant outsider who is excluded\n\nfrom the Parnassus of \"educational circles\" may be permitted to wonder at\nthe wherefore of it all.\n\nIt is anything but flattering to our ''standards of local\n\nadministration\" that the products of our great urban public schools seldom\n\nsucceed at either West Point or Annapolis.\n\nRun thru a list of the honor men\n\nat both academies, and, while you will often find among them the products\n\nof private institutions, you will find that the vast majority come from the Httle\n\n— God bless\n—has had no other working capital at her command than a knowl-\n\ncross-road country schoolhouse, whose simple-minded teacher\n\nher\n\n!\n\nfair\n\nedge of the three R's, which she has conscientiously imparted to her pupils.\n\nThere is nothing either disgraceful or undignified about the three R's.\n\nMany eminent and good men and women have been able to read, write, and\nreckon fairly well.\nthem.\n\nThere is nothing disgraceful or undignified in teaching\n\nAnd yet how little are they taught\n\nI trust that you will not imagine that I am playing devil's advocate at the\n\ncanonization of what in so-called \"educational circles\" are known as \"educational utilities.\"\n\nMany of them are really most useful, if properly and thoroly\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n88\ntaught.\n\n[General\n\nBut the tendency which exists to exploit the teacher at the expense\n\nof the taught inevitably results in giving the pupil the merest smattering of\n\ninnumerable subjects; in puzzHng his poor little brain without developing it;\nin confusing him with the higher branches of learning when he can scarcely\n\nread and write; in making him a little Jack-of-all-trades and master of none.\n\nEducate all you Hke and as much as you Hke\n\n—the more the\n\nbetter;\n\nbut in\n\ndoing so remember that there can be no education that is not built up on a\nsolid foundation, the thoro mastery of first principles.\n\nThe chief purpose\n\n—\n\n—for that matter, the only purpose—of pubHc education\n— make\n\nfor it is with public education only that we are concerned today\n\ngood citizens of the RepubHc.\npeople of the whole world.\n\nis to\n\nWe have thrown our doors wide-open to the\n\nEvery immigrant who accepts our invitation and\n\ncomes to us imposes upon us an additional duty which we cannot shirk.\nproblem is serious, but by no means insoluble.\n\nThe\n\nIts solution depends entirely\n\nupon ourselves. Every little offshoot of an immigrant, whether bom here or\nbrought here from abroad, has in him an unlimited possibility for weal or woe,\ndependent absolutely upon how we care for him. If he grows up ignorant of\nour institutions, ignorant of our customs, ignorant of our language, he remains\n\na stranger in a strange land, alien ahke in race, speech, and thought, one of a\nforeign people within our own.\nIf, on the other hand, we educate him, teach\nhim not only to read and write the Enghsh language, but, what is of even\ngreater importance\nto\n\n—an importance, I am sorry\n\nto say, often lost sight of\n\nspeak and to think in English, then we have made of him a citizen of the\n\nUnited States, and endowed him with the priceless right of working out his\nsalvation as an American.\n\nOur duty by no means ends with the immigrant's child.\nduty to every boy and girl in the land\n\n:\n\nWe owe an equal\n\nto see to it that every child whose par-\n\nents cannot afford to give it an education is thoroly grounded in at least the\n\nrudiments of learning, is taught to study and to think, and is given the tools\n\nmay still further educate itself.\n\n\"Get- wise-\n\nquick\" theories are as pernicious as \"get-rich-quick\" concerns.\n\nWe cannot\n\nwith which,\n\nif\n\nso disposed,\n\nit\n\nhope to produce scholars ready-made.\n\nIf we can cultivate the habit of study\n\nand of thought, we shall have accomplished much.\nThe country needs men of thought and men of learning, and needs them\nbadly.\n\nThe man who thinks may be a greater patriot than the man who does.\n\nIt has been said that no amount of sweetness and light will avail unless accom-\n\npanied by action, which is the same as saying that the brain will be useless\nwithout the power of expression.\nthought.\n\nWe have deified action at the expense of\n\nThe good old motto, \"Act in haste, repent at leisure,\" no longer\n\nstands at the top of our copy-books.\n\nWe have so persistently preached the\n\ndoctrine of action that we are almost convinced that any action is better than\n\nNot only have sweetness and light been discarded as effeminate fads,\n\"If you can't act well,\nthen act badly; but, for Heaven's sake, act,\" threatens to become our guiding\n\nnone.\n\nbut thought and dehberation bid fair to follow them.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nSessions]\n\n89\n\nrule.\nWhen Samson pulled down the pillars of the temple, he certainly performed a most vigorous action, and yet it may well be questioned whether a\n\nmore sweetness and light, and a little less vigor, might not have been as\nand beneficial. Vigorous action is very admirable at times, but\n\"look before you leap\" is a safer rule of life.\nWe suffer from the spirit of unrest, which frequently prompts us to illconsidered, immatured, and thoughtless action, often merely for the sake of\n\nlittle\n\ninstructive\n\nWe are inclined to applaud the man who does, not so\nmuch because he accomplishes anything useful, as because he accompUshes\ndoing something.\n\nsomething, be it good, bad, or indifferent.\n\nThis spirit of unrest permeates our whole national life, poHtical, social,\neducational.\n\nContentment bids fair to be banished from our existence.\n\nHe\n\nwho is content is sneered at as being without ambition, and yet ambition and\nhysterics are very different things.\n\nContentment and happiness are s)mony-\n\nmous, but we prefer to sacrifice both in a struggle for the unobtainable.\n\nWere\n\nour ambitions laudable, our state of mind would be most commendable; but\n\nWe have forgotten\n\nunfortunately we scarcely know what we are striving for.\nthat deeds are merely a means to an end.\n\nHaving no particular end in view,\n\nwe treat the deeds themselves as the summum bonum, the\n\nultimate object of\n\nattainment.\n\nYou who are here today are charged in your life's work with one of the\nnot to make savants or scholars, not to make\nwriters of book or sages, but to make honest, thoughtful, God-fearing men\nsublimest missions in the world\n\nand women.\n\nIf you\n\nfor your existence.\n\n:\n\nsucceed in doing this, you will have proved the reason\n\nIf you do this, the rest will follow.\n\nWhat we need is not\n\nso much men who do as men who think; not so much unthinking men of action\n\nas thoughtful, earnest, conservative citizens.\n\nIf by 'doing your duty you make\n\nsuch citizenship possible, you will yourselves be the purest, the noblest, and the\nbest doers of deeds.\n\nTHE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\nANDREW S. DRAPER, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION OF THE STATE OF NEW\nYORK ALBANY, N. Y.\nMr.\n\nPresident:\n\nThis day, a hundred and twenty-nine years ago, the thirteen British colonies\nsouth of the St. Lawrence river in America, thru their Continental Congress,\n\nsolemnly pubhshed and declared to the world that they absolved themselves\n\nfrom all allegiance to the British crown, that all political connection with the\nstate of Great Britain was totally dissolved, and that they were and of right\nought to be free and independent states.\nIt\n\nwas the faith-exacting step of brave and daring souls. It was the\nyes, the necessary—act of men with the blood of the Puritans of\n\nnatural\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nQO\n\n[General\n\nEngland, the Covenanters of Scotland, the Huguenots of France, and the\nSea-beggars of Holland in their veins.\n\nIt\n\nimperative because of the manner of\n\nlife\n\nwas even more natural and more\nand the independence of thought\n\nIt\nIt was not an impulsive or precipitate act.\nwas the act of men who weighed the reasons, measured the results, and underFrom it there could be no retreat save in unthinkstood the consequences.\nable dishonor.\nOnce the golden bowl was broken, there could be no restoraSubjugation and vassalage were as utterly\ntion of the unity of the Empire.\nimpossible as voluntary retreat was unthinkable. There was no middle\nground of compromise, and only superficial thinkers could balance the possi-\n\nin the American wilderness.\n\nSuch a\nand solemnly made, for just cause, by such men,\nmight be one year or forty years in fruition; but no one who understood the\nfactors in the contest and realized the qualities in the Saxon race could seriously\ndoubt what the end would be. Complete independence was inevitable if\ndemocratic government, as 5^et untried and essentially unformed, could stand\nthe strain which war would put upon it. The alternatives were a new nation\nbilities of\n\ncomplete subjugation with those of successful revolution.\n\ndeclaration, deliberately\n\nor unending insurrection.\n\nWar was, of course, the immediate sequence of the Declaration.\n\nIndeed,\n\nwar was already well begun. With scrupulous purpose, but unnecessary\ncare, the colonists had long before put the onus of the first shot upon the king's\ntroops, thru a measure of rebellion which made sure that the redcoats would\nhave to take the burden. With prophetic foresight and consummate skill,\nthe provincials had used the fatuity of their enemy to make oneness of sentiment for the great Declaration. W^ith a just intellectual valuation of the guaranties of the great charters of English liberty, they\n\ncombined the heroic\n\nphysical qualities which had breathed into those charters the Hving spark of\neternal fire.\n\nLovers of Hberty, students of political history, masters of decent\n\ndiplomacy, they were past-masters in the grim art of wilderness warfare.\n\nWhen war was the only hope of English hberty, the fact that it had to be\nmade against a dull and obstinate king, and a lascivious and recreant political\ncabinet, only strengthened the heart and sharpened the sword for it.\n\nSuccess\n\nmight be delayed in coming, might wait in tears; but that she would bide her\ntime and come in peace and glory by and by was as sure as the breaking of\nthe day\n\nand the beaming of the sunhght.\n\nAnd glorious success did come\n\nafter seven dreadful and fateful years.\n\nThe winning of such success did much for the men and women who gained\nit,\n\nand much for hberty as well.\n\nIt not only brought an independent nation\n\ninto being, but it opened an entirely new epoch in the development of political\nIt gave new and distinct energy to the intellectual, industrial,\nand economic evolution of mankind. It opened the way for the compounding\nof a new nation and the outpouring of a new civilization in America.\nIt did\n\ninstitutions.\n\nmuch more: it brought a new order of democracy, a new measure of opportunity, a new inspiration to high thinking and to splendid doing to all the\npeople in all the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nSessions]\n\nWe may well celebrate the anniversary of the Declaration.\ngreatest day in English as in American history.\nIt is the\n\nin all secular history.\n\n91\nIt is the\n\nThen it is the greatest day\n\nday upon which the barons forced the old\nIt is the day\n\nking to sign the Great Charter in the meadows of Runnymede.\n\nupon which Cromwell was made lord protector of England and the Puritan\nIt is the day upon which the first plan\nof colonial union in America was adopted at Albany.\nIt is the day upon\nIt is the day\nwhich the American nation was bom at Philadelphia.\nupon which Vicksburg answered back to Gettysburg that the Union should\nbe preserved, and that the most beneficent democracy of the world should\nIf the greatness of days\nlive to bless other generations of men and women.\nis to be determined by what they signify to political and reUgious freedom\nand human progress, then the fourth day of July may well be observed in\nEngland and America and in all the world as the greatest day in secular\nrevolution reached its culmination.\n\nhistory.\n\nOur nation is the product of the two most remarkable human migrations\nand of the two most eventful compoundings of people known to the world\none in Britain and the other in America, a thousand years apart. \\\\Tio shall\nsay that we do not inherit the best blood of all the nations and the finest\n\nhuman history ? Our fathers of the colonial era were the\nmen of their race and of their generation who would be free. They had\nheroisms in all\n\nthe qualities which would not be denied.\n\nNor is there essential difference with the men and women who in later\nyears have come from over the sea to have part in the making of the greater\nnation.\n\nIreland and Italy and the Scandinavian countries and the great\n\nGerman Empire have sent brawn and muscle and wit and art to uncover our\nresources, to quicken our industries, to\n\nthinking of Puritanism.\n\nwarm the heart and liberalize the\n\nSkepticism has been obliged to recede before the\n\ndemonstration that each new, great migration has brought a new element of\nstrength and a new measure of completeness to the equipment of the nation.\n\nPuritanism\n\n—\n\ncall it by\n\nwhat distinguishing name you will\n\n—was doubtless the\n\nmost subhme force which ever developed among men for giving liberty and\naiding learning.\n\nIt was the honest, harsh, necessary instrument which alone\n\ncould break out the roads over which democracy might advance.\nbirth to the British nation and to English freedom;\n\nit\n\nIt\n\ngave\n\ngave birth to the Ameri-\n\ncan nation and to a new measure of English freedom in America.\n\nBut it\nmust no longer be denied that the factors which have come into the life of the\nAmerican nation since the high noon of the nineteenth century have, thru the\nmixing and thru what we have been jointly doing, produced a newer nation,\nwith feeling and outlook, and power and purpose, which were beyond the\n\nken of Puritanism.\n\nHere we are, eighty millions of people. We are doing our own thinking.\nBut our thinking, when of general concern, is\n\nWe are having our own will.\nlogical;\n\nour will, before it becomes the nation's will,\n\nis\n\na disciplined\n\nwill.\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n92\n\n[General\n\nguided by reason, without malice and without fear, determined, yet tempered\n\nby goodness and justice and mercy.\nOur thinking and our doing have prospered us. We have administered\nour material and intellectual estate. We have exploited our resources. We\nhave developed industrial energy and inventive genius. We have taken\nWe have been apt and exact\nproper advantage of our commercial situation.\nin our scientific progress, and, what is better, we have applied science to the\nlife\n\nof the multitude.\n\nWe have achieved a high order of technological skill,\n\nand, what is better, we have not been wanting in the courage of our engineering,\n\nor lacked in the power to\n\nconsummate great undertakings.\n\nAlmost\n\nspontaneous wealth has become our greatest menace, but we give promise\nof strength to cope with\n\nit.\n\nIn letters we have been eminently respectable\n\nand are fast accumulating a distinctive national literature. Exacting study\nand free discussion make us experts in political philosophy. The manhood\nsuffrage encompasses our public service with some difficulties, but we are\ngaining in system and growing in knowledge thru the doing, and in the end,\n•\n\non all matters of large import, we are secure. Our propensity for organization\nstrong, and at times amusing; but our institutional life is singularly virile\n\nis\n\nWe are not quarrelsome. Our good nature and sense of humor\nThey reUeve the strains upon democratic theory, help on community business, make for comity between the states, aid national unity,' and\nand effective.\nare marked.\n\npromote intellectual good fellowship, in a measure which is useful and unique.\n\nThe wit and good nature of our maturer years, associated with our marvelous\ngrowth in population and strength, with our logical progress in democratic\ntheory and our unhesitating faculty in mobilizing the common power, with\n\nour veneration for freedom and our sense of moral right, with our sincere\ndesire for peace and our anxiety to settle differences by discussion, concession,\n\nand the rule of right and law, and with our undoubted readiness to meet force\nwith ample force when the stern need comes upon us, have given us an attitude of prominence and a measure of influence among the nations which we\ndid not even know we wanted, and which no one foresaw.\nBut the nation is resourceful and rises to occasions. It accepts the logical\ntho unforeseen consequences of its situation, of the form of government which\nit believes has made it great, of the political philosophy by which it is known\nIt\nof all men, and of the world-relations which its career has put upon it.\ndoes not seek to obtrude its beUefs upon other nations, but it will not recede\nfrom its beliefs before any other nation. It distinctly avoids entanglements,\nbut it will not refuse moral encouragement to other peoples that will seek\nliberty and independence.\n\nIt expects to control the western continent in the\n\ninterest of freedom and progress, because it holds that such control is essential\n\nto its own security and the full fruitage of the ideals for which it stands.\n\nIn\n\nthe rescue of Cuba it struck the high-water mark of self-government for the\n\ngood of mankind.\n\nIt will\n\nseek no territory for the sake of empire;\n\nit\n\nwill\n\noppress no people for the sake of population; but it permits none to thwart\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nSessionsl\n\nthe end for which\n\nit\n\nstands,\n\nand it refrains from no\n\nact\n\n93\n\nwhich may be\n\nconsequent upon its logically unfolding life.\n\nOur nation has by no means reached either the bigness or the greatness\nwhich its common sentiment anticipates.\n\nIts people have not been conspicu-\n\nThey know that the lives of nations are not\nbrief, and that the laws of nations are unceasing.\nThey know that our territory would sustain many times our present population, and they expect that\nmany, many miUions more will come to the freedom which the Republic offers,\nous for blindness or for dullness.\n\nand the institutions which its freedom has developed.\n\nTheir anticipations\n\nwould not be severely shocked if the flag of the Union should yet cover all\nof the land from the Arctic ocean to the Isthmus of Darien, with here\n\nthere another island on the great high seas.\n\nand\n\nThey are by no means eager\n\nIndeed, they face with solicitude what seems to be the inevitable\n\nfor this.\n\nadvance in population, in\n\nterritory,\n\nin\n\ndomestic administration, and in\n\ninternational responsibihty.\n\nThe nation is being sobered by its present and future responsibility in\nview of the self-conscious power of its democracy and of the manifest thought\nof its citizens that all men and women in all lands ought to have the oppor-\n\ntunity to learn the art of governing themselves, and that, as fast as they do\n\nlearn it, self-government ought to encompass the earth.\n\nThe nation does more, and its life depends upon it doing more, than\nmerely meet the emergencies which its own evolution and external conditions\n\nimpose upon it.\n\nIt is a purposeful nation.\n\nhas always worn its heart upon its sleeve.\n\nIt has always faced the East.\nIt\n\nIt\n\nhas always planned for the\n\nWith the growth in material and intellectual estate, with the reaching-\n\nfuture.\n\nout of the common sentiment for the best opportunities for everyone, with the\n\nnew significance of our poHtical theories in the affairs of all men, wherever they\nmay be there have come purposes and policies which are new to our own\nthinking, and certainly new to the thinking of the other peoples of the world.\nThe greatest, the very greatest, of these, for obvious reasons, are those\nwhich concern imiversal and liberal education. And a great national association of teachers, assembled on Independence Day in overwhelming num-\n\n—\n\nbers from every state, may well reflect upon the concept which it entertains\nof the purposes of this\n\nmighty people toward popular education.\n\nWith\n\nknowledge of the utter inadequacy of a single mind for such a task, but gathering courage from the fatt that I am only to formulate and not attempt to\ncreate, I\n\nsubmit these observations concerning the educational purposes of\n\nthis free-thinking but sound-thinking democratic nation.\n\nSchools are not of recent origin.\nas the race.\n\nBut any\n\nnational ends\n\nis\n\nLearning, speaking relatively, is as old\n\ndefinite national purpose to erect schools for distinct\n\ncomparatively new, and the self-conscious generation of a\n\ngreat national system of education by a people for their own upbuilding and\nfor the greatness of their nation has come within the\n\nand is essentially peculiar to this country.\n\nmemory of living man\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n94\n\nIn spite of threadbare claims, the original\n\nsettlers in\n\n[General\n\nAmerica held no\n\nsettled purposes concerning education which can be differentiated from those\n\nof their home lands.\n\nHow meager and undefined the educational purposes\n\nof the mother-countries were the student very well knows.\n\nBefore independence, American schools were dissociated and fragmentary.\n\nThere was no educational system.\n\nThe schools, like those over the\n\nsea, distinguished between what were conceived to be the simpler needs of the\n\npeasantry,\n\nand the necessity of classical training of the higher classes for\n\nservice in the church and state.\n\nIndependence did not of itself fertiUze, and did not reflect educational\npurpose.\n\nNeither the Declaration, nor the Constitution a dozen years later,\n\ncarried any reference to\n\nThis was not because the management of the\n\nit.\n\nschools had already come to be a function of the several states, and they were\n\nunwilling to concede that\nattracted no attention.\n\nit\n\nwas a function\n\nof the nation.\n\nThe matter\n\nIt was scarcely referred to in the congressional dis-\n\ncussions.\nNor was this in turn because the men of the Continental Congress\nand of the Constitutional Convention were illiterate or were indifferent to\nlearning.\nThey averaged the best scholarship among public men in their\ngeneration.\nHalf of them were graduates of colleges. As you, Mr. President,\nhave pointed out in another place, the dominant personalities in the Constitutional Convention were Alexander Hamilton, of Columbia, and James\nMadison, of Princeton, universities. Education had no part in the discussions, and found no place in the Declaration or in the Constitution, because\neducation was held to be a matter of only local and private concern, and not a\nfunction of organized government at all.\nNor was the federal Constitution alone lacking in educational initiative.\n\nThe first constitutions of the original states contained only slight references\nIn Georgia, North Carolina, and Pennsylvania the legislature\nwas enjoined to see that one or more schools were erected in each county.\nThe Massachusetts and New Hampshire references were more comprehensive, but less definite.\nMassachusetts made detailed provision for Harvard\nCollege.\nThe North CaroHna and Pennsylvania articles were identical and\nenjoined that the legislature should so arrange that the public \"might be\nenabled to instruct youth at low prices.\" This was in conformity with the\ncommon thought that it was not the function of the state to maintain schools,\naltho the state might help the people to do it economically.\nThe constitutions of the eight other original states made no reference whatever to schools or\nto education.\n\nto education.\nIt\n\nwould be interesting to follow the statutes as well as the constitutions\n\nof the original states for educational references.\n\nWe must for now be con-\n\ntent with the statement that they were meager indeed.\n\nOld usage, the foreign\n\ninfluence, the fact that thought would run in established grooves, the distances\n\nand the\n\ndifficulties of\n\ncommunication, made the evolution of educational\n\npurpose a slow and laborious one.\n\nThe fathers did not bring it all with them\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nSessions]\n\nwhen they came;\n\nit\n\n95\n\nunfolded very slowly: England and America in the first\n\nhalf of the last century were, educationally, not so very far removed from the\n\ntimes of Elizabeth; educational outlook and purpose grew out of our democratic life, and the stronger and freer that life became, the more rapid and the\n\nmore virile did it grow.\nAs democracy really became free, and as the conventionalities of the\nmother political system came to be really obsolete, the educational purpose\ngained volume and force. It is the operation, not the mere declarations or\nenactments, of our governmental system that has developed popular purpose.\n\nAs the people moved west, they managed their own affairs with added confidence and more freely, and as rapidly as they did the educational purpose\n\ngrew decisively.\nWhile the first constitutions and laws of the original states made Httle or\nno reference to it, those of all of the newer states were ahve with it. They were\nnot only alive with provisions for the elementary schools which should be\n\ncommon to all, but for higher schools, colleges and universities, which should\nAnd while the eastern states do not know it, and are\n\nalso be common to all.\n\nstohdly determined that they will not learn\n\nit,\n\nthere\n\nis\n\nno doubt whatever\n\nabout the pubHc educational purpose having its most luxuriant development\n\namong the people who exercise their political power more freely and more\nWherever caste has been most\ncompletely overthrown; wherever the aptitude for self -direction has had its\nuniformly in the newer states of the Union.\n\nfreest\n\ngrowth;\n\nwherever the fundamental principle of the Declaration of\n\nIndependence, that\n\nall\n\nmen are created\n\nwith equivalent and inaHenable\n\nrights, has had its largest acceptance, there the educational purpose of America\n\nhas had its best exempHfication, and there it has borne its most abundant fruit.\nIt is\n\nhardly too much to say that the first educational declaration, which\n\nwas really more serious than ornamental, in American law, was that in the\n\nand that the initiatory\npubHc policy of setting aside the common property for popular\neducation, which was really potential and continuing, appears in the uniform\nlegislation of the newer states which set aside a section of land in every\nordinance organizing the old Northwest Territory;\nstep in the\n\ntownship for the aid of schools.\n\nAs more recent immigration has given unexpected strength and completeness to the equipment of the nation, so recent immigration has given a new\nsetting and a new meaning to the educational purpose which flickered feebly\nui the minds of\n\nour fathers of the Revolution.\n\nSome new immigrants have\n\nappreciated our privileges better than some of us have ourselves.\n\nIreland and\n\nItaly and France have enriched our scheme with wit and rhythm and color.\n\nScotland has added moral fiber and mental virility. Norway and Sweden\nand Denmark have sent agricultural insight and domestic thrift. The great\nGerman Empire has contributed scientific method, intensive mechanical skill,\nand splendid energy and stability, to the conception which was begotten, and\nthen for a time held in check, by English and Dutch pioneers.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n96\n\nThe educational purpose of this nation is a law unto itself.\nwhich all must regard.\n\nIt acts\n\nupon government.\n\nIt\n\n[General\n\nIt is a force\n\ndoes not desist, it is\n\nnot discouraged, when government hesitates or statesmen cannot see.\n\nIt is\n\nindependent of dogmatism, of politics, of racial prejudice or religious bigotry,\nof language, of state or sectional lines, of partisanship or exclusiveness, of\nselfishness or sectionalism in every form.\n\n—\n\nOld Andrew Melville, to the king's very face, told James VI. ^he who\nhunted our Pilgrim Fathers out of England: \"There are two kings and two\nkingdoms in Scotland, and in one of them James is not a king, nor a lord, nor\na head, but only an ordinary member.\" So we say there are two governments in America. One is strictly technical, is exactly regulated by written\nlaws, is definitely responsible to the political sentiment of the country; while\n\nthe other is a pervasive, universal democracy of sense, of moral purpose, and\nof learning, with an unwritten, free-flowing constitution which shapes govern-\n\nment to its purposes, and in which presidents and governors and senators\nare weighed by the same standards as all the rest.\n\nThen I may well\n\n—parenthetically—express the satisfaction we\n\nin the fact that the mayor of our greatest city,\n\nhave\n\nall\n\nwhom we have just listened to\n\nwith so much interest, has citizenship in the democracy of learning,\n\nis\n\nnot\n\nonly the son of a respected commander of the Union armies, but a son of\nPrinceton University as well.\n\nAnd I may go farther and voice the satisfaction we all have in the other\nfact that the present chief magistrate of the Republic,\n\nwhom we shall hear at\n\nthis session, is a foremost son of our foremost university,\n\na hard student and\n\na fine scholar, a prolific and forceful writer, our most accomplished public\nspeaker, a moral force of unprecedented readiness\n\nand effectiveness in the\n\npresidency, a true exemplar of the nation's strength, and a splendid evangel\nof the nation's prayer for peace and truth thruout the Union and thruout the\n\nworld.\n\nWithout any interest in partisanship, and without any fear of official\n\npower, the National Educational Association, on Independence Day,\n\nmay\n\nwith all propriety express its satisfaction that the scholarship, the moral sense\n\nand the chief magistracy of the nation meet so splendidly in the person of\nTheodore Roosevelt.\n\nThe educational thought of America has no inclination toward sociaUsm,\nif\n\nsocialism means paternalism.\n\nIt holds that the\n\nDeclaration decrees equal-\n\nity of right under the law, and not equality of result in spite of moral and legal\n\nright.\n\nWith legal right it makes personal accountability fundamental in our\n\nIt opens the door of opportunity to all; but it takes from\nno man the fruit of his energy and endurance, of his knowledge and skill, of\n\npolitical system.\n\nhis patience\n\nand his thrift, to repair the just consequences of another man's\n\nworthlessness.\n\nIt\n\nnot only accepts,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nthe surest bulwark\n\nmental principles of our democratic institutions;\n\nit\n\nof,\n\nthe funda-\n\napproves the fabric of\n\nlaws which the wisest men of the race have been a thousand years in the\nweaving, and it is not disposed to avoid the operation of those higher laws\n\nwhich are from everlasting to everlasting.\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nSessions]\n\nThere\n\nis\n\n97\n\nno smack of charity about the public educational system\n\nof\n\nand inalienable right of every\nman and woman, every son and daughter of the realm. It is the comerAmerica.\n\nIt is for all.\n\nIt is the universal\n\nstone of our scheme, the essential factor of our governmental plan.\nIf there are children in the schools who need help ;\n\nif\n\nthere are others who\n\nare not in the schools because they need help, let them have the aid of private\n\nor public charity.\n\nThat is not lacking: men and women who administer it\nAid so extended will not breed\n\nare experienced in dealing with the needy.\n\nThe public\n\npauperism, and it will not put the school system in a false light.\n\nschools are to train virile men and women, not to support the thriftless or the\n\nunfortunate.\n\nPeople are to be made to support themselves if they may;\n\nthey are to be helped, as a boon, not as a legal right.\n\nif not,\n\nfundamental\n\nIt is as\n\nthat people shall suffer the inevitable consequences of their own misdoing,\n\neven of their own misfortune\n\n—except where our moral sense\n\nrelieves them\n\nas that they shall have opportunity, and have their reward for making the most\nof opportunity.\n\nOne principle is the necessary complement of the other.\n\nEducation is an inalienable right in America.\nin opportunity.\n\nSupport is not a legal right.\n\nIt is the essence of\n\nequaHty\n\nThe two should not be con-\n\nfused in the common thinking.\n\nThe schools have all that they can do. It\nwould be most unwise to weight them with any unnecessary burdens, or involve\nthem in popular misapprehension thru confusion over fundamental principles.\nLet the schools train.\n\nLet private philanthropy and organized charity give\n\nsuch support to the needy as good sense and good fellowship will justify.\n\nThe educational purpose of the nation reaches forward to the very mounBe not deceived it is not only for a free ele-\n\ntain tops of human learning.\n\n—\n\nmentary school within reach of every home, but for a free high school\n\nin\n\nevery considerable town, and for a free university in every state.\n\nof\n\nIt,\n\ncourse, accepts the endowed universities as component parts of the educational\n\nsystem.\n\nThey afford a fair realization of its ideal in some states; but it\n\ninsists that such shall articulate with the public secondary schools and, in one\n\nway or another, assure every boy and every girl the true chance which the plan\nand the progressive thought of the nation guarantee.\n\nIf not, then\n\nit\n\ninsists\n\nthat the states shall do this thru higher institutions of their own.\nIt\n\ndoes not insist that everyone must go to the higher institutions.\n\nIt\n\nrecognizes wide differences in the circumstances, the work, and the outlook\nof\n\nmen and women.\n\nIt distinguishes\n\nbetween the kinds of learning which\n\nare best suited to differing and ine\\dtable conditions of life.\n\nIt\n\ndoes insist\n\nthat the political security and the economic power of the nation rest upon\nthe moral sense and the common disposition to produce, and not exclusively,\n\nnor even very largely, upon philosophic theory, upon moneyed wealth, or\n\nupon a mere knowledge of literatures or of the fine arts. Longing for culture,\nit knows that the only true culture must result from doing, and that polish at\nsecond-hand, transmitted wdthout labor, is neither deep nor true.\nIt\n\ndoes not accept the rather general implication that honor and useful-\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n98\n\n[General\n\nupon intellectual pursuits. It does not encourage all children\nIt would make the work of the schools aid the industries, andit would give quite as much prominence and quite as much honor to manual\nness depend\n\nto seek them.\n\nskill as to intellectual occupations.\n\nIt\n\nstands for a balanced educational system\n\n—the best and broadest that\n\ncan be made, and therefore good enough for all, in which everyone may find\n\nwhat he will, may go as far and as high as he will; and not for a system which\nany interest or aids any class as against any other. In a word, it\n\ndignifies\n\nbelieves in schools of every grade\n\nand for every purpose, with equality of\nall;\nand with special\n\nopportunity and absolute freedom of selection for\nprivileges for none.\n\nWe hold all endowed institutions of learning as part of the public educational\nWe look upon private and proprietary institutions,\n\nsystem of the country.\n\nmoved by correct influences and managed by proper methods, to be deservand commendation. We give to sectarian and denominational\nschools our fraternal regard and professional co-operation. We express our\n\nif\n\ning of aid\n\nregret that any may think it necessary to decline the privileges of the pubUc-\n\nschool system and maintain schools at their own expense, on conscientious\n\ngrounds.\n\nIf\n\nwe cannot accept their thought, we will recognize sincerity\nWe will articulate, as far as we may, with every\n\nwherever it is convincing.\n\neducational activity calculated to quicken the nation's moral sense or uplift\nthe nation's intellectual life.\nIt is the overwhelming,\n\nand we believe the settled, American opinion that\n\nneither the federal power nor that of any state can sustain a business relation\nwith, or give financial aid to, or divide its responsibility with, any class or interest not common to every citizen and every section ;\n\nbut that affords no ground\n\nfor irritation between any class or sectional interest on the one side, and any\n\nphase of the state or federal power on the other.\n\nIndeed, if the state cannot\n\ngive its money to expensive work which enters into the building of the nation,\nit\n\nmay well give to that work the fullest measure of moral encouragement\n\nwhich may be welcome.\n\nIn a word, we can give special aid to none as against\n\nanother, but we will go to the verge of fundamental and constitutional principles, with all toleration of opinions and all true-heartedness, to bind together\nall of the moral forces and all of the intellectual activities of all sects and parties\n\nfor the further upbuilding of the nation.\n\nWe recognize the public obligations to afford information, to extend\nculture, and to aid self-improvement outside of the schools.\n\nThere has been\n\n—none, indeed,\n\nno more radiant sign of encouragement in our history\nhistory\n\nin any\n\n—than the manifest eagerness of the adult masses for knowledge.\n\nWe hold that sound policy will give to libraries and study clubs and all the\nmeans for study at home an unstinted measure of generous public aid and\nWhatever adds to the real enlightenment of the multitude,\nadds to the happiness, the strength, and the security of a republic which rests\nupon the common intelligence and equality of rights for all.\nencouragement.\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\n99\n\nwomen shall have the same educational\nThe opportunities are not to be merely equivalent\nin the opinion of men; they are to be identical when demanded by the common\nthought of women. All offerings are to be open, and the right of election\nis to be free.\nThe sentiment is growing that the education of men and women\nIt is fundamental in America that\n\nopportunities as men.\n\nmust be in the same institutions, if the opportunities are to be even; that\nthere is no moral reason why this should not be so; and that good morals,\ngood sense, and the soundest educational ends are promoted by having it so.\nIt is practically universal in the primary and secondary schools.\nThere is\nyet some prejudice against it in the older states, concerning the colleges and\nuniversities, but logic, justice, and experience are ripening sentiment and\nconcluding the matter.\n\nNo other country, and no other age ever dreamed of such private beneThe common impulse\n\nfactions to learning as we have become accustomed to.\n\nhonors the benefactors and holds the gifts to be sacred and inviolable public\ntrusts.\n\nThey must be neither impaired nor misdirected.\n\nThe laws must\n\nassure the ends for which they are created; public sentiment must see that\ntrustees execute the purpose of the givers with exactness.\n\nNo one can foresee\n\nThey will gain great ends which are\noften outside the legal powers of organized government.\nThey will round\nout and complete the undertakings of government. They will ornament and\nembellish the educational structure which government erects. They may\nthe influence of these benefactions.\n\nexperiment in fields where democracy must hesitate until the ground is proved.\n\nThe pubHc educational system will aid them and be aided by them.\n\nCom-\n\nbining unprecedented public purpose and public powers with unparalleled\nprivate beneficence, the United States will develop the most universal,\n\ncom-\n\nplete, and potential scheme of education that the wisdom and great-heartedness\n\nof man have devised.\n\nOf course, our democracy has its difficulties.\n\nEquality of opportunity,\n\nfrom the first school to the last one, with continuity of courses from the elementary work in the primary schools to the research work in the universities,\npresents difficulties which do not confront the educational system of any other\nland.\n\nIt is far easier for a minister of education without interference to arrange\n\nand administer all this than it is for a whole people to do it.\n\nBut it is better\n\nAnd the people tax themselves with doing more than\never confronted any minister of education. The zeal of the people, with\nfor the people to do it.\n\nfulbiess of opportunity, often puts more upon the teachers than they are able\nto\n\ndo completely.\n\nThere are seeming uncertainty and indefiniteness.\n\nBut\n\nwe must not forget that the people grow in strength and stature thru doing\nthings for themselves.\n\nIt is the fullness of opportunity and the self-conscious\n\npower, and the knowledge that consequences may be corrected if need be,\nthat are rounding out the educational system to its unprecedented proportions\n\nWe will go on doing things, meeting\n\nand its unparalleled\n\neffectiveness.\n\ndifficulties, correcting\n\nmistakes, bringing the perfect figure out of the barren\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nlOO\n\nand gaining the splendid ends\n\nrock,\n\nfor\n\n[General\n\nwhich the people sustain the\n\nschools.\n\nWe are never to forget that the schools are not only to educate people in\norder that they may be educated, but to educate them in order that they\n\nmay do things.\n\nThey are to be trained for labor and for effectiveness.\n\nWe\n\nneed to have things done, and we expect to make greater men and women\n\nThru the training they are not only to unlock the truths of\n\nthru the doing.\n\nscience, but apply them to the agricultural and mining and animal and mechani-\n\nthey are to think out economic principles, and understand\n\ncal industries;\n\ncommerce and world-relations; they\nmust know the underlying principles of finance, and apply them to personal\nand pubHc credits; they are to abound in toleration, and work with others\nthe underrunning currents of foreign\n\nin the institutions of society;\n\nrespect labor;\n\nthey are to stand for knowledge; they are to\n\nthey are to exact the right and do it; they are to bring out\n\nthe resources, help the thrift, stir the humor, enlarge the generosity, increase\n\nand quicken the sense of justice of the nation. We want\nThe schools must help to make the\npupils and the people know that the attitude of the Repubhc in the world is\nnothing different from the attitude of the individual units which make the\nnation.\nThere is no one-man power, no ministerial power, no money power,\nno specious but fallacious philosophy, going to rule this country. This is a\ndemocracy ^native energy and discussion will point the way.\nThe educational purpose of America is sharply distinguished from that\nthe self-respect,\n\nboth moral power and earning power.\n\n—\n\nThe essential difference comes thru our democracy.\nThe Enghsh purpose would have every EngHsh child read and write and\n\nof other lands.\n\nEngland has simple but effective elementary schools for the peasant\n\nwork.\nclass.\n\n.\n\nAll peasant children go to them.\n\nAltho they know nothing of Ameri-\n\ncan opportunity, the percentage of illiteracy is lower than in any American\nSo it is in the leading countries of Europe. We have something to\nand something to do about that. Of course, they have advanced\nschools for the higher classes.\nThere is, no educational mixing of classes,\nand no articulation or continuity of work. The controlHng influence in\nstate.\n\nlearn\n\nEnglish poUtics is distinctly opposed to universalizing education, thru fear\nof unsettling the status and letting loose the ambitions of the serving classes.\n\nThe placidity of the social organization seems of more moment to them than\nthe strength of the empire.\n\nSo it is also in France.\n\nNotwithstanding the republican form of govern-\n\nWith less native sense\nand less respect for work, with more inherent buoyancy and more art feeling\nment, the thinking of a thousand years is controlling.\n\n—\n\na humble\nsomewhat higher than across the channel. They are\ntrained for examinations and for routine rather than for power.\nWith less\nfiber and substance in the character commonly trained, the result is not more\n\nthan in Britain, the children of the masses are trained for service\n\nservice, tho possibly\n\nreassuring.\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE NATION'S EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE\n\nlOI\n\nThere is more to admire in the German purpose and plan;\n\nfor fiber and\n\nSessions]\n\nquahty and ambition and determination are not lacking in the nation, and the\nKaiser knows that the material strength and the military power of the German\n\nEmpire rest upon the intelligence of the German masses and the productivity\nSplendid as that is, it is not enough in American eyes.\nWe have a fast hold upon all that, and more. We want more than industrial strength and military power.\nWe do not know all that is to be known;\nof German labor.\n\nwe may learn something from every other system; but there is an essential\nand universal educational purpose in America which distinguishes our system\nfrom all others. We will have no classes in education. We are for the equal\nchance for all. Even more much more: We are for moral greatness, and\nit is the national belief that the true greatness of the nation and the welfare\nof mankind depend not only upon giving everyone his chance, but on aiding\nand inspiring everyone to seize his chance.\nWe have no fear of consequences. We rest our future upon the faith that\nthe happiness ani?' the beneficent influence of America must rest upon the\naverage of enlightenment, upon the measure of serious and potential work,\nand upon the attendant level of moral character, attainable by all the men\nand women who live under our flag.\n\n—\n\nThe corner-stone principle of our political theory coincides absolutely\nAll men and women are\nto be intellectually quickened and made industrially potential, to the very\nlimits of sane and balanced character.\nThe moral sense of the people is\nwith the fundamental doctrine of our moral law.\n\ndetermined by it, and the nation's greatness is measured by it.\n\nBefore this\n\nfact the prerogative of a monarch or the comfort of a class is of no account.\n\nBefore\n\nit\n\nevery other consideration must give way.\n\nIt is right here that\n\ndemocracies which can hold together surpass monarchies.\nreason that the progressive will of an intelligent people\nhereditary\n\nand arbitrary power of kings.\n\nis\n\nIt is\n\nfor this\n\nbetter than the\n\nAnd a sane and balanced and\n\nboundless educational system, with a base which is broad enough and a peak\n\nwhich is high enough,\n\nwill fuse the\n\nelements of population and enable a\n\ndemocracy of English speech and sufficient Saxon blood to hold together.\nAll Americans are optimists.\n\nare not\n\nThere may be a few stopping with us who\n\n—but they are not Americans. The expectations of the nation are\n\nboundless.\n\nWe will fix no upper Hmits.\n\nThose expectations are not gross:\n\nThey are the issue\n\nthey are genuine and sincere, moral and high-minded.\n\nof a mighty world-movement; the splendid product of the best thinking and\n\nthe hardest struggling for a thousand years.\n\nOur critics say that we are boastful. We will not put them to the trouble\nof proving it: we admit it.\nIt is a matter of definition or of terminology.\n\nWe have self-confidence born of knowledge and of accompHshment. We\nknow something of the doctrine of constants. There is logic which is as sure\nThe nation believes in the stars which are in the heavens, and\n\nas the sun.\nit\n\nalso believes in the stars\n\nwhich are upon the flag.\n\nIt\n\nknows its history;\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n102\n\nit\n\nunderstands its constituent elements;\n\nto go forward;\n\nit\n\n[General\n\nhas definite purposes;\n\nit\n\nexpects\n\nit believes in itself\n\nIt holds the essential principles established in the great charters of English\n\nand American Hberty to be its particular heritage.\n\nIt is enlarging, extending,\n\nand transmitting them. It is putting its whole self,\nits political power, its sagacity, and its money into the work which it has set\nitself to do.\nOf course, it has its perplexities; but it is without apprehension.\nWe have foohsh and troublesome men, and some bad and pestiferous men,\nclarifying, reaffirming,\n\namong us; but the great heart of the nation is conscious of its own rectitude.\nIt will not fear and it will not hesitate.\nIt will act upon its own thinking.\nIt will mend its mistakes.\nIt will not merely stand for security: it stands\nfor Hberty and for doing.\nIt will tak^ care of its\n\nIt is not for the present alone:\n\nown.\n\nIt will\n\nnot hide its Ught.\n\nit is\n\nfor the future.\n\nIt will\n\nnot meddle\n\nwith other people; but it will deny to no men and women who would upUft\nthemselves such measure of sympathy and encouragement as\nIts\n\nit\n\nmay give.\n\nconception of national integrity is such that it must frankly say what it\n\nthinks.\n\nIt readily discloses its poUtical philosophy and its national purposes\n\nand poHcies.\n\nIt is\n\neducating the world in publicity and frankness.\n\nThis\n\nmay be called boastful by a stranger. If it is boastful, it is not foohshly\nThe recording angel will look leniently upon it.\nNone will deny now that the real growth of the nation must be in soberness,\n\nboastful.\n\nin coherence, in balance, in moderation, in reserve power, in administrative\neffectiveness.\nGrowth in numbers is inevitable. Growth in moral sense\nand in respect for law must surpass the growth in numbers in order to cope\n\nwith it.\n\nWith sober knowledge that all real strength must come thru work, and all\ntrue growth must come thru service to its own people and to all peoples, the\n\nnation once more celebrates the greatest day in the history of pohtical insti-\n\nby dweUing upon its splendid and eventful past, and by dedicating\nanew to the development of a future which shall prove its capacity for\n\ntutions,\nitself\n\nthe trust which its history has bequeathed to it.\nIt knows that its purposes are to be gained thru the greatest good to every\n\nindividual man.\n\nNot in the old Pilgrim at Plymouth\n\nat Lexington green and Concord bridge\n\n;\n\n;\n\nnot in the minute man\n\nnot in the citizen-soldier of the Civi^\n\nWar; not in the college boys or the farmer lads who fought side by side at\nEl Caney and San Juan; not in the veterans of the Ninth Regular Infantry\nwho pushed thru the heat and filth of China to release the American legation\nfrom the horrors of the Forbidden City, were the will, the power, and the\npurposes of the nation so splendidly exemplified and so exactly disclosed as\nin its unfolding plans for universal and unUmited education.\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\n103\n\nCHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION— THE\nSCHOOL ASPECT\nGEORGE H. MARTESr, SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, BOSTON,\nMASS.\nall ages and among all peoples men have talked much of their own\nand of children's duties; we are beginning to reverse the terms and\nassert children's rights and men's duties.\nThe assertion of rights is in itself a\nsign of trouble.\nTrouble causes it, and trouble follows it. It means war,\nand there never can be local order or universal peace until every human being\nhas all that belongs to him and no more. Meantime, society must occupy\nitself in finding out what does belong to its different members, and keep on\n\nIn\n\nrights\n\nfighting.\nIt is\n\nnot creditable to either modern civilization or modern Christianity\n\nthat, after seventy-five years of fighting the wholesale exploitation of child\n\nlabor in mines and mills, we should still find the enemy in defiant possession\n\nmany intrenched positions, and defending them so successfully.\n\nof so\n\nTho\n\nthe cry of the children has been sounding in our ears for two or three generations,\n\nit is\n\nstill\n\ntrue that every discovery and invention which modifies\n\nindustry so as to make child labor profitable makes it inevitable.\n\nany\n\nSociety has\n\nnot yet learned that\n\nThe child's sob in the silence curses deeper\nThan the strong man in his wrath.\n\nThat the strong man does not now anwhere have it all his own way is reason\nfor thankfulness and for hope.\n\nThe fundamental postulate of this subject of child labor and compulsory\neducation shapes itself in my mind somewhat as follows: Every child comes\ninto the world by no voluntary act of his own.\n\nIn the world he finds himself\n\nsubject to inexorable physical laws, whose penalties work automatically and\npitilessly.\n\nHe finds himself, too, subjected to a multitude of social obligations\n\nequally inexorable, and he finds society organized with great complexity to\nenforce these obligations.\n\nBorn with\n\ncapacities for\n\nenjoyment lower and\n\nhigher, he finds that the road to the highest enjoyment is a straight and nar-\n\nrow way, to find and to pursue which demands the most active and highly\ntrained intelligence.\n\nWhen he comes into the world, this intelligence is only a germ—a possiIts development is wavering and uncertain.\nAt best it is slow it may\nbe arrested at any stage; it may never begin. His intelligence is developed,\nbility.\n\nfirst,\n\n;\n\nthru his own experiences, and, second, thru the experiences of the race.\n\nIn this process he needs help\n\n—instruction and guidance. His own experi-\n\nences need to be interpreted to him, and the experience of the race made known\nto him.\n\nThus two inalienable rights of the child reveal themselves.\n\nHe has a\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nclaim upon the world for time, and a claim for instruction: time in which to\nmultiply experiences and to co-ordinate them; time to look about him and\ndiscover what kind of a world he has been bom into, what kinds of things are\nit,\n\nand what they are\n\nfor; time to find his way and to become way- wise; or, to\n\nchange the figure,\n\nin it, and what they are for, what kinds of people are in\n\ntime to get his bearings and to learn the ropes.\n\nBesides this, he has a claim\n\nfor time to learn what people before him have learned, so that he may come\nto his struggle for existence with his intelligence broadened and quickened by\n\nhaving come into touch with the vital social forces that have been active in the\nworld thru all time.\n\nHe has a claim to instruction, and to guidance while he is being instructed,\nand to intelligent instruction and intelligent guidance. His claim includes,\nfirst, instruction as to himself, his own nature and powers and needs, and\nguidance in the use of his powers and in the satisfying of his needs. It\nincludes, second, instruction as to the world about him and as to his relation to\nit, how to use it, and how to find his way in it.\nIt includes, third, instruction\nand guidance in finding and using most expeditiously and profitably the knowledge which has been acquired and stored by the generations which have gone\nbefore.\n\nWere these two rights, which to us seem so self-evident as to need no public\ndeclaration, everywhere recognized and conceded, there would be no need of\nthis discussion.\n\nBut because they are not everywhere recognized, and because\n\nthe child is too ignorant to declare them and too feeble to maintain them, a\nthird right appears.\n\nThe child has a right to protection in his rights.\n\nNo other\n\nHis rights are paramount because he has everything at stake.\nclaims can take precedence of his.\n\nThey may be maintained against the\n\nworld.\n\n\\\\^en we have brought ourselves to assent to all these propositions, our\n\nWe say the child has a right to time. To how much\nHe has a right to instruction. To how much instruction and to what\nkind ? He has a right to protection. From whom does he need protection,\nand by whom and how should it be afforded ?\nHe needs protection against himself. Were he the child of a savage, he\nreal difficulties begin.\n\ntime ?\n\nmight be safely left to follow his own will.\n\nLife about him is so simple, nature\n\nis\n\nso open, that by observation and imitation he might come easily and early\n\nto\n\nknow all of life that he needs to know for his comfort and happiness.\n\nUnfortunately for him, into whatever social state he is bom, no matter how\n\ncomplex the civilization, he comes into the world with the same equipment of\nprimitive instincts as if he were a savage.\n\ninadequate and destructive.\n\nBut for civilized life, these are\n\nHis wayward, uncalculating impulses must be\n\nrestrained until he can learn why as well as how to restrain himself.\nchild has a right to be governed.\n\nThe\n\nTo leave him to himself is cruelty.\n\nHe may need protection against his parents\n\n—sometimes against\n\nindifference and neglect, sometimes against their physical abuse.\n\ntheir\n\nWith this\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\n105\n\nHe needs protection more often against\n\nphase we are not now concerned.\n\nTheir own views of Ufe may be so narrow,\n\ntheir ignorance and selfishness.\nand their power to reason so rudimentary, that they may, without knowing it,\nsacrifice their children to their own\n\ncomfort or ease.\n\nIt is at this\n\npoint that\n\nwe touch most fundamentally the subject of child labor.\nWherever we find children denied prematurely their right to time and\ninstruction, we find as the primary cause the ignorance and the selfishness of\n\nthe parents.\n\nIn every investigation into child labor it is found that the motive\n\nof the parent is to relieve himself from labor.\ncertain nationalities they are almost universal\n\nCases are common —among\n—where the multiplication of\n\nchildren is for the avowed purpose of increasing the productive labor of the\nfamily,\nlabor.\n\nand thereby relieving the father more quickly from the necessity of\nThere is evidence that, as the proportion of the family income derived\n\nfrom the labor of children increases, the earnings of the father decrease.\n\nA\n\nyoung Italian girl who asked for an employment certificate gave as a reason\nthat her father was getting too old to work.\nHe was forty-two.\nWhatever may be true in the country and on farms, it is certain that in\nfactory towns, where child labor is depended on for family support, racesuicide is not delayed by large families.\n\nTo this crime against childhood the parent is tempted by the greed of\nemployers.\n\nThey furnish the opportunity which in the North has drawn, as\n\nby magnetic attraction, the poor and ignorant peasants of Canada and Southern Europe, and in the South the equally poor and ignorant families from the\nfarms and the mountains. Against this conspiracy between employer and\n\nOnly society, by means of laws carefully drawn\nand rigidly enforced, can secure him his rights. To such legislation and to\nsuch enforcement society is dra'svn by its own interest, and compelled by its\nparent the child is helpless.\n\nhighest obligation.\n\nMercantile interests can look out for themselves, but the\n\nchildren must be protected by the state.\n\n\"Business,\" said Talleyrand, cynically,\n\n*\n\n'means other men's money.\"\n\nToo often it means other men's bodies and souls.\nAmerican conditions nowhere furnish a parallel to the revolting revelations made by the parliamentary commission reports during the last century.\n\nSuch indecent cruelty would not now be tolerated anywhere; but the same\nspirit is back of the scanty schooling allowed, the low age hmit tolerated, and\n\nthe exemptions of favored industries.\n\nThe obHgation of the state has come to be recognized in all European\nThe exceptions are\n\ncountries, and in most of the states of our own country.\n\nso few as to be conspicuous, and the absence of child-labor laws in any state\ngives to that state an unenviable distinction.\n\nThe history of child-labor legis-\n\nlation shows a steadily rising standard of judgment as to the rights of the child\n\na continuous quickening of the public conscience in regard to those rights,\n\nand an increasing rigor in the effort to protect them. For example: In\nMassachusetts, beginning at a time when a child of any age might be employed\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nlo6\n\n[General\n\nin any industry any number of hours a day and all the time, we have seen an\n\nage limit fixed successively at ten, thirteen, and fourteen years.\nseen employment denied,\ntries,\n\nand,\n\nlater, in\n\nfirst,\n\nin\n\nmanufacturing and\n\nmercantile establishments.\n\nWe have\n\nmechanical\n\nindus-\n\nWe have seen the hours of\n\nlabor limited, first, to ten hours a day, and then to fifty-eight hours a week.\n\nWe have seen the required schooling rise from twelve weeks to eighteen, to\ntwenty-four, to thirty-two, until now there is an average of thirty-seven.\n\nIt\n\nhas taken seventy years to bring all this about.\n\nThe same evidence of a rising tide of righteous pubUc sentiment exists in\nthe legislation of nearly all the states, some of which now surpass Massachusetts in particular features of their laws.\n\nA summary of the whole field shows\n\nthat every stage of this progress is still represented in some state.\nstill\n\nThere are\n\nlow age limits, still weakening exemptions, still favored industries, still\n\nscant schooling,\n\nstill\n\ninadequate means of enforcement.\n\nLegislation lags,\n\nand execution is feeble.\n\nThe time given to children to call their own, in which to equip themselves\nfor the battle of life, in the most advanced communities has reached a maxi-\n\nmum of fourteen years.\n\nThis is low enough for any community, and, wher-\n\never there is a lower limit, all the social forces should combine to raise it.\n\nmy judgment it is also high enough, at least for the present.\n\nIn\n\nIn fourteen\n\nyears a child of even moderate ability, in a community which furnishes ade-\n\nquate school facilities, should have acquired a good elementary education,\n\nbroad enough and thoro enough for him to build upon by voluntary effort\nsuch superstructure of more advanced culture as he is inclined to.\n\nThis may easily be shown by a brief analysis of the modern elementaryschool course.\n\nSuch an analysis justifies as not extravagant Horace Mann's\n\n\"The common school is the greatest invention of man.\"\n\nIn the\n\nfirst place it secures the formation of certain habits which underUe all\n\nmodem\n\ndeclaration:\n\nsocial\n\nrelations:\n\npunctuality,\n\nattention,\n\nobedience,\n\norder,\n\nand\n\nindustry.\n\nThis function of the lower school has been so luminously treated by Dr.\nHarris that it needs only mention here.\n\nThe wilful, wayward, intermittent\n\nimpulses of the child which, unchecked and undirected, would leave him a\n\nsavage in the midst of civilization, a prey to his own passions and to the passions of others, are turned into self -directing forces by which the child becomes\n\nable to find and make his way thru the mazes of life.\n\nThe fixing of these\n\nhabits involves some of the most profound psychologic changes which take\n\nplace in human life.\n\nSecondly, the elementary school equips the child with the universal instru-\n\nments of social intercourse: reading, writing, drawing, and a knowledge of\nnumbers.\n\nHaving these, in the social statistics of all countries, a person is\n\nnot classed as illiterate.\n\nThe Scotchman was right when he declared before\n\na parliamentary committee that if a man knew the twenty-six letters of the\nalphabet, he had the key to all knowledge.\n\nOnce the elementary school undertook to do no more than to furnish these\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION\n\n107\n\ninstruments, and, having them, a child might find his way alone.\n\nNow the\n\nSessions]\n\nschool does much more.\n\nIt\n\nopens doors for the child, and, before he has\n\nreached the age of fourteen, it has opened these doors wide enough, and held\n\nthem open long enough, to have furnished knowledge, to have created interest,\nand to have developed tastes.\nIt opens a door into the world in which he lives.\nThru his study of geography he gets a glimpse of men and things outside his immediate surroundings.\n\nHe has his horizon enlarged, his data for judgments increased, his interests\nand sympathies widened, his own place in the world made more clear. By\nall these means he is made more fit to go alone.\nAnother door is opened into the world of the past. By his study of history he learns to interpret the present in terms of cost.\n\nHe acquires stand-\n\nards of value of human effort in industry, in the arts, in social improvement.\n\nBy what men have done he learns what men can do.\n\nAnd he acquires stand-\n\nards of conduct as he forms the habit of looking at' the moral aspect of human\nAll this fits him to fill his place in society worthily.\nThe elementary school does more than to give him the tool called reading.\nIt shows him how to use it.\nIt opens a door into the world's literature, and\n\nrelations.\n\ngives him a tempting glimpse of its variety and attractiveness.\n\nA well-taught\n\nby the time he has reached fourteen,\nhave the inchnation and ability to use the faciUties for culture which a public\nchild in a well-ordered school should,\n\nlibrary affords.\n\nSuch a child needs no compulsory continuation school.\n\nBesides all these things, thru the school supplementing the home or with-\n\nout it, the child is able to make some moral distinctions, and he has acquired\n\nsome sense of moral obligation. He knows the difference between truth and\nfalsehood, between mine and thine, between fair dealing and trickery.\nHe\nknows honor from meanness, and has a keen sense of justice. All this is no\nmean equipment for the young knight as he goes out to make his way in the\nworld.\nIf parents and schools have done their duty by him, another door has been\n\nopened\n\n—the door into industrial\n\nlife;\n\nfor a child has a right to be taught to\n\nwork with his hands, and to be made to work as a part of his preparation for\nself-support.\nThis is not merely or chiefly that he may acquire manual skill,\ntho he will find that useful; but that he may learn the social use of labor, and\nbegin to feel, before he can see, that labor is the tie that binds men together in\nthe family and in the state.\n\nThe child has a right to be taught how to be useful, and to be increasingly\nHe has a right to know the\n\nuseful as he grows in strength and intelligence.\n\npleasure of service and to feel the obHgation of service.\n\nHe has a right to\n\nhave some place made for him in the industrial life of the family.\n\nThe attitude of society toward childhood in this respect seems radically\nwrong.\n\nA child is considered a gift of nature, Hke a piece of land, or a grove\n\nof trees, or a spring of water, or a running brook, or a deposit of mineral ore,\n\nwhich the owner may utilize or not, as he pleases.\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nIo8\n\nIf he is poor, he\n\ntrees for sugar or\nit\n\n[General\n\nmay cultivate the land to feed his family; he may tap the\n\nbum them for fuel; he may bottle his spring water and sell\n\nfor therapeutic purposes;\n\nhe may dam his stream and make it run his mill;\n\nhe may dig up his clay for bricks or his coal for fuel, or blast his ledges for\nmarble or granite.\nIf he is rich, he\n\nmay do none of these things.\n\nHe may allow his land to\n\nremain untilled, his spring to bubble thru its sandy bed, his brook to chatter\nover stony ways or bicker thru the meadows, his fields of clay and his ledges\nof rock to remain untouched, finding in the picturesque beauty of their natural\n\nwildness gratification for his aesthetic sense; or, if less refined, he may get a\n\nlower sort of satisfaction from the mere fact of possession.\n\nSo children are regarded, and so they are treated.\n\nIf the parents need the\n\nchild's labor, or think they do, in the house or in the shop or on the farm, he is\n\ngiven work to do.\n\nIf the parents can afford to do without it, or think they can,\n\nthe child grows up with no industrial training, and, therefore, with no insight\ninto the actual working of the machinery of daily social life in the family and\noutside.\n\nIn one case he helps to drag the family chariot; in the other he rides with\nthe family in the parlor car.\ntion asked\n\n:\n\nThe cases are alike in that in neither is the quesIn one case the child is made to work,\n\n^\\ hat is best for the child ?\n\nnot because it is good for him; in the other, he is kept from work, altho it is\n\ngood for him.\n\nThis takes us over to that other question proposed earHer:\ninstruction, and to what kind, has the child a right?\n\nTo how much\nTo all that\n\nI answer:\n\ntraining in habits, to the use of all the tools, to the opening of all the doors,\nto all the most generous work of the best elementary schools; and, in addition,\nto so much instruction and training in the elements of domestic and mechani-\n\ncal and agricultural and\n\ncommercial labor as the boys and girls used to get in\n\nthe home and the shop and on the farm before the\n\ndemands of the school\nupon time and strength of the children became so exclusive.\nThe school has no just claim upon all the time and thought of a child of\nany age, unless, in addition to its own proper work, it is forced to do the work\nof the home.\nIf in the home there is no opportunity for the child to learn the use of\nhis hands, then he should learn in the school shop and school kitchen and\nschool garden but if he does learn to use his hands there, he should learn the\nmore important lesson that in working with his hands he becomes a useful\n;\n\nmember of society, a giver as well as a receiver.\n\nHe should learn that the\n\ndignity of labor consists in the service that it renders.\n\nWith such training continued until the child has reached the age of fourteen, he may leave school with a fair prospect of being able to make his way\n\nin the world, to utilize later opportunities to\n\nexpand his intelligence and to\n\nincrease his usefulness and his happiness.\n\nGiven all this, the child cannot\n\ncomplain that he has been unjustly treated.\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD LABOR AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION\n\nSessions]\n\n109\n\nBut when we have said that fourteen is a suitable limit for general childlabor laws and general compulsory schooHng laws, we have not said all.\n\nWe\n\nhave said only that this is the least that society should insist upon doing for all\nits children.\n\nWe know that beyond the field of the elementary school there are opportunities for quickening and expanding the inteUigence of which it would be for\n\nBut these new fields are very wide,\nthe interest of children to avail themselves.\nand there is no one now wise enough to decide upon a course which, for their\nown good and that of society, all children should be compelled to take. It is\neasy to say that the age limit for employment and school attendance should be\nBut no one has yet ventured to indicate just\nraised to fifteen or sixteen years.\nwhat should be done with the added year or years. To compel all children to\ntake the course in a typical American high school would be cruelty for some\nand a waste of time for many. There are thousands of children now getting\nlittle good out of it.\nAt this point we cannot afford to lose sight of a certain profound psychoThere comes a time in the life of many boys and girls when the\nlogical fact.\ndeveloping instincts of manhood and womanhood appeal to them with commanding force, and impel them to do what men and women are doing, namely,\nto work for wages, instead of doing what children are doing, namely, going to\nschool and playing.\nThese cases need to be handled with the greatest care. To enact into a\nlaw that such children shall remain children, when their whole nature is crying\nout for them to be men, is to work a hardship as great as to compel them to be\n\nCompulsory schooling for such children may be as\nHundreds of boys and girls who have\n\nmen before their time.\n\ncruel as premature labor is for others.\n\npassed the age of fourteen are getting more real development, a better education, in productive labor than they would get in any such school as they would\n\nbe compelled to attend.\nIn asserting the following claims, we may feel that we are on defensible\n\nground:\nall\n\nfirst,\n\nthat,\n\nby\n\nsuitable state\n\nlegislation,\n\nprovision be\n\nmade for\n\nthe children in the United States to have at least thirty-six weeks of ele-\n\nmentary schooling until they reach the age of fourteen; that this schooling\nchild be allowed to\n\ninclude varied forms of industrial training; that no\n\nwork for wages when the schools are in session, nor be allowed to work at any\ntime during such hours or in such employments as may be dangerous to his\nhealth or his morals; that from this school attendance there be no exemptions\nfor the purpose of employment, on account of the poverty of his parents; that\nfor the enforcement of these\n\nschooHng and employment laws special officers\n\nbe provided, clothed with ample authority, state officers to be appointed to\nact when local enforcement is lax.\nIf this Association\n\nshould plant itself upon this platform, and go before\n\nthe people of each state with these demands in the name of the children, sum-\n\nmoning all the social forces of the state to united effort, I believe the most\nbackward states would feel the impulse.\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nno\n\n[General\n\nThe weakness of many of the schooling and employment laws now on the\nbooks of the different\n\nstatute\n\nstates is\n\nin their short school terms, their\n\nnumerous exemptions, their mixing schooling with employment. The laws\nwhich I have proposed are simple, easily understood, and easy of enforcement where the best public sentiment of the state is back of them.\nUp to this point there is needed a campaign for education, for legislation,\n\nand for enforcement.\n\nWhat schoohng laws and employment laws are needed for children over\nfourteen years of age is a matter at present not for general legislation, but for\ncareful scientific investigation.\n\nOn the employment side, facts are needed as to the effects upon the health\nof the children above the age of fourteen in all the industries in which such\n\nchildren are now employed.\ngirls of\n\nWhat are the physical effects upon boys and\n\ncontinuous employment in factories of different kinds\n\nnutrition, growth, development ?\n\n—\n\neffects\n\nupon\n\nAre there special ailments attributable to\n\nspecial employments or to parts of employments, and at what age is the power\nto resist disease gained ?\n\nHere are wide fields in which the aid of local medi-\n\ncal experts and boards of health may be invoked.\n\nIn France such investiga-\n\ntions have resulted in employment laws much more detailed and specific than\n\nour own.\n\nJust so fast and so far as facts are ascertained, the protective power\n\nof the state should be called into exercise.\n\nAlong another line of inquiry information is needed. We need to know\nhow many children continue voluntarily in school beyond the legal school age.\n\nAn inquiry last year in Massachusetts seemed to show that 65.5 per cent, of\nall the children in the state between fourteen and fifteen were in school.\n\nWe need also to know into what occupations the boys and girls who leave\nschool at the age of fourteen go, not in a general way, but specifically for all\nthe cases in a community.\nity of\n\nWe need to know the wages earned, the possibil-\n\npromotion, and the rate of increase in wages, with the limit to such\n\nincrease.\n\nWe need to know what advantages a fifteen-year-old and a sixteen-\n\nyear-old child has over a fourteen-year-old one, and whether that advantage,\nif any, is\n\ndue to physical causes, or to greater mental development, and what\n\nsort of education gives the greater advantages.\n\nThis would bring us to a review of our present provisions for secondary\neducation, and we should be confronted by two facts\n\nfirst, that between elementary and secondary education there is little organic connection; and,\n:\n\nsecond, that between school fife and business life there is a chasm.\n\nThese\n\nare the two problems to be studied before we undertake to extend the age\nlimit for school attendance and for employment:\n\nfirst,\n\nhow to make the whole\n\nschool process a continuous one, each part vitally and organically connected\n\nwith the part before it and with that which follows it; and, second, how to\n\nmake the whole school Hfe lead just as vitally and organically into\n\nthe\n\nindustrial Ufe which follows.\n\nTo the solution of these problems should be given the best thought of all\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "COMPULSORY EDUCATION AND CHILD LABOR\n\nSessions]\n\nthe friends of children, the friends of labor, and the friends of society.\n\nmutually sympathetic, co-operative\n\neffort will\n\ndarkness in which we are now groping.\n\nbe needed\n\nto\n\niii\n\nTheir\n\npenetrate the\n\nWhen that darkness lifts, infancy will\n\npass into childhood, childhood into youth, and youth into manhood, thru an\neducative process in which learning and labor thruout have been essential and\n\ncomplementary factors.\n\nThen the cry of the children will no longer be the bitter cry of children\nmisunderstood and wronged, but the exultant cry of children who are finding\nevery day new opportunities, and discovering in themselves new potencies.\n\nTHE SOCIAL AND LEGAL ASPECT OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION AND CHILD LABOR\nFRANKLIN H. GIDDINGS, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW YORK CITY\n[an abstract]\n\nThe educational problem and the industrial problem of child labor cannot\nbe separated.\n\nThis is true, whether every parent is permitted to deal as he\n\nwill with his child, or whether he is compelled, as in most American common-\n\nwealths, to withhold his child from gainful employment and to keep him in a\nschool, or otherwise to provide systematic instruction for him, during certain\n\nweeks of each year.\n\nChild labor itself is a kind of education which, according\n\nto its nature and extent, may be consistent or altogether inconsistent with other\n\nkinds.\n\nThe labor that American boys and girls had to perform on the farm a\n\ngeneration and more ago was often an invaluable discipUne of mind and character, fitting them for self-reHant and useful careers quite as effectively as their\n\nmeager school training did. Such labor did not necessarily tmfit the child for\nthe enjoyment of the highest educational advantages. Exhausting confine-\n\nment in stores, sweat-shops, and factories is child labor of an altogether difIt is antagonistic to the child's mental and physical development,\nand it cannot be combined with any sound educational poUcy.\nCompulsory education by the state and the prohibition of child labor are\npolicies undoubtedly socialistic in character. They assert the supremacy of the\nstate's interest in the child as against any opposing interest of the parent.\nThe\nAmerican people have never been afraid of sociaUsm to this extent, and within\nthe last ten years it has greatly extended both compulsory education and the\nprohibition of the labor of children between ten and fourteen years of age.\nIt\nwould not be inaccurate to say that pubHc sentiment at the present time in\nNew England, in the Northwest, and in most of the North Central states\ndemands an increasingly strict enforcement of child-labor legislation, and that\n\nferent sort.\n\na similar sentiment is rapidly growing in the South.\n\nThis poUcy encounters, however, important obstacles, which call for intel-\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n112\n\n[General\n\nNot much difl5culty has been encountered in the courts.\nligent examination.\nThe constitutionaHty of both compulsory school attendance and of the restriction of child employment in the interest of health, intelligence, morals,\n\ncitizenship\n\neverywhere upheld.\n\nis\n\nand\n\nThe real difficutlies are of quite another\n\ncharacter.\nIt is not easy to\n\nmaintain the administrative machinery to enforce child-\n\nlabor restriction and the truancy laws.\n\nExperience has shown that compul-\n\nsory school attendance is itself the best enforcement of the laws against child\nlabor; but this is difficult where school accommodations are inadequate, and\n\nwhere population is either dense and heterogenous, as in the tenement-house\nquarters of our great cities, or sparse and indifferent to educational interests,\nas in the mountain regions of the South.\n\nA very special difl&culty, and one that puts all our theories and our devices\nto the severest test, is that which is presented by destitute families.\ntical question, which has to be answered over and over, is\n\n:\n\nThe prac-\n\nIs it right to take a\n\nstrong, overgrown boy thirteen years of age, from money-earning employment,\n\nand force him to attend school, when, by so doing, we compel a widowed\nmother to apply to private or public relief agencies for help, thereby making\nher, and perhaps the boy also, a pauper ?\n\nThe only answer to this question, consistent with the policy of compulsory\neducation itself, is the proposition that in such cases adequate public assistance\n\nTo shrink from this course\nand inconsistent. Compulsory\neducation itself, as I have said, is socialism, pure and simple. State interference with the parent's disposition of the child's energy and time is a further\nextension of socialism. These policies have never been anything but socialLet\nistic; they never by any possibility can be anything less than sociahstic.\nus, therefore, not balk at a further provision by the state which happens to be\nnecessary to make them effective. Let us make our sociahstic scheme complete and consistent, or confess that it is altogether wrong and abandon it.\nA final and deeper difficulty exists, which has received curiously httle\nWe hear a great deal lately about ''race suicide.\" Large families\nattention.\nshould be given, not as charity, but as a right.\n\nbecause\n\nit\n\nsociahstic\n\nis\n\nis\n\nthoroly illogical\n\nare no longer seen, especially in the so-called middle class.\n\nIt is strange that\n\nno one has pointed out the connection between the increased demand upon\nparents to maintain their children in school, foregoing the earnings that chil-\n\ndren might add to the family income, and the diminishing size of the average\nfamily.\n\nThe connection, however, is undoubtedly a real one, and the practical\n\ninference is obvious.\n\nIf the restriction of child labor is desirable,\n\nif\n\ncompul-\n\nsory education is desirable, and if at the same time large families also are\ndesirable, the state must make up to the family at least some part of the income\n\nthat children could earn if they were permitted freely to enter upon industrial\n\nThe question, therefore, that we shall have to face and to\n\nemployments.\n\nanswer is this\n\n:\n\nShall the state pay parents for keeping their children in school\n\nbetween the ages of ten and fourteen ?\n\nThis would be a policy of socialism,\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE IMMIGRANT CHILD\n\nSessions]\n\nundoubtedly.\n\n113\n\nI do not pretend to say whether the American people will or\n\nwill not adopt it.\n\nI only say that, as a matter of social causation, they will be\n\ncompelled to adopt it, if they try to maintain both large famihes and compulsory education, while prohib'ting child labor in department stores and facIt is not\n\ntories.\n\nmy intention to advocate the measure, or to argue against it.\n\nMy purpose is served in calling your attention to the logic of facts.\n\nTHE IMMIGRANT CHILD\nMISS JULIA RICHMAN, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CITY OF\n\nNEW YORK\nThe citizen voter of today was yesterday\nTomorrow he may be a poHtical leader. Between the\n\nOurs is a nation of immigrants.\nan immigrant child.\n\nand upon the\nby the school depends the kind of citizen the immigrant\n\nalien of today and the citizen of tomorrow stands the school,\n\ninfluence exerted\nchild will become.\n\nHow do we meet this obligation toward the immigrant and toward ourBefore examining into our treatment of the immigrant child whom\nwe reach, let us consider our duty to those whom we do not reach. But are\nselves ?\n\nthere\n\nany such ?\n\nYou will ask\n\n:\n\nHave we not compulsory-education laws ?\n\nYes, but you must catch your boy before you can keep him at school.\npity that statistics are not available to\n\npopulation is of alien birth\n\n;\n\nIt is a\n\nshow what proportion of our school\n\nit is to a greater degree a pity that statistics are not\n\navailable to show how many of school age among those landed upon our all-\n\ntoo-hospitable shores never enter an elementary school.\n\nNotwithstanding all\n\nour compulsory-education laws and all our child-labor laws, notwithstanding\nthe fact that the welfare of the nation depends upon the control of illiteracy,\n\nno attempt has ever been made by school authorities, whether municipal,\nstate or federal, to secure a census of immigrants of legal school age.\n\nWere\n\nsuch records carefully made at ports of entry, and duplicates thereof immediately sent to the proper school authorities, not one child under the age limit\n\nof the laws of the state could escape attendance at school.\n\nThousands of\n\nsuch aliens have arrived, and are still continuing to arrive, drifting into fac-\n\nmany into delinquency and crime, with httle or\nSome attend evening school;\nbut many escape entirely, never learning to read English. Our country\ntory\n\nand mercantile\n\nlife,\n\nno interference on the part of the school.\n\nmaking it possible for\nnews and his miscellaneous literature in his mothertongue; consequently he never feels the need of acquiring the vernacular.\nBut because he does not feel the need of learning to read English, does\nit relieve us from the obligation of forcing him to acquire that knowledge ?\nCan we hope ever completely to Americanize the children of parents who,\ntho young themselves at the time of immigration, must always remain foreign\n\nis\n\nflooded with publications in foreign languages,\n\nthe alien to get his\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n114\nin speech\n\nand thought because\n\nof\n\ntheir\n\n[General\n\nfailure to learn to read English ?\n\nThe great blunder in the past, and the greater blunder in the present, is\nthe absolute lack of co-ordination between the governmental forces instituted\nfor the benefit of the nation.\n\nThe immigration bureau, with its splendid\n\nsystem, is content with excluding undesirable aliens\n\nmoral or physical defects.\ncating those\n\n—undesirable because of\n\nThe educational department is content with edu-\n\nwho voluntarily apply for admission to the schools, and those\n\nothers whom its attendance officers can catch and force into school.\n\nShall\n\nwe charge the immigration authorities with neglect because thousands and\nthousands of aliens under the age of sixteen have never entered school?\nShall we charge the school authorities with neglect because these thousands,\nof whose existence they are, at least officially, unaware, have never entered\n\nschool ?\n\nEach would plead not guilty to the charge. Who, then, shall bear\nSomewhere and somehow at every port of entry there must be\n\nthe blame ?\n\nestablished a bureau in which most careful entries should be made\n\n—\n\nentries\n\nthat will show a list of immigrants of school age, tabulated according to destination.\n\nCarefully classified duplicate\n\nlists must be\n\nimmediately forwarded\n\nto the municipal school authorities in the respective towns or cities to which\n\nthe aliens are bound.\n\nWith these lists in hand, the school can enroll imme-\n\ndiately all who belong under its control.\n\nDelays are dangerous.\n\nWlien once\n\nan immigrant child has been permitted to become a wage-earner, it is a task\nof tremendous difi&culty thereafter to place him in school.\n\nTime, labor, and\n\nmoney now expended in such work might all be saved under the plan just\noutlined.\n\nBut it is not of the immigrant whom we have failed to reach that I would\nThe immigrant child in our schools is the present problem. Meager\nas are all available statistics, certain general figures are at hand, from which\nfair deductions may be made.\nDuring the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904,\nspeak.\n\nthe total arrivals of aliens in the United States amounted to 812,870 (exclusive\nof 27,844 described as ''aliens in transit\").\n\nOf this three-quarters of a mil-\n\nlion there are recorded almost 110,000 as under fourteen years of age.\n\nOn\n\nthe assumption that an average of one-fourteenth may be considered as the\n\nnumber of children bom each year, eight thousand becomes the basis of calculation for a year of school age.\n\nAccording to the compulsory-education\n\nlaw, which in most states covers the years from eight to fourteen, we must deal\n\nwith forty-eight thousand new immigrant children annually. Adding to this\nnumber the sixteen thousand children of six or seven, most of whom do, and\nall of whom should, attend school, we have sixty-four thousand annually to be\nprovided for. To this figure the child-labor law in many states demands that\nthere shall be added all between fourteen and sixteen who cannot read and\nwrite English.\n\nTherefore our problem numerically amounts approximately\n\nto seventy-five thousand annually\n\n—\n\nfully 9 per cent, of the total immigration.\n\nOf the alien arrivals during 1904, 54 per cent, are tabulated as Italians,\nHebrews (mainly from Russia, Roumania, or GaUcia), Germans, and Poles;\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nTHE IMMIGRANT CHILD\n\nSessions]\n\n115\n\ncome from twenty-eight other countries.\nThe number of iUiterates over fourteen years of age in the four classes just\nreferred to amounts to 54 per cent, among the Itahans, 33 per cent, among the\nPoHsh, 23 per cent, (mainly women) among the Hebrews, and only 4 per cent,\namong the Germans. The last item furnished striking proof, if proof be\nthe remaining 46 per cent, having\n\nneeded, of the effective results obtained under a compulsory educational\n\nAs these records of ilHteracy are obtained by interrogation only, it\n\nsystem.\n\nassume that an actual test of the immigrant's ability to read or write\nwould show a far greater proportion. These figures are quoted merely to\n\nis fair to\n\ngive some crude idea of the responsibility of the school to educate this army of\n\nchildren so that they may readily assimilate with those of American birth.\n\nThe burden of assimilating the foreigner is not evenly distributed.\n\nDuring\n\nthe last thirteen years New York state alone received more than two million\naliens;\n\nPennsylvania, over a million; and Illinois, over four hundred thou-\n\nsand; while, on the other hand, during the same period Texas received only\n\nabout twenty-eight thousand; Idaho, only three thousand; and Mississippi,\n\nEven in the individual state the burden is unevenly\nNew York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Boston, which furnish homes, or, more properly speaking, dwelling-places, to the\nless than\n\ntwo thousand.\n\nborne.\n\nIt is the great cities, like\n\nbulk of the recent arrivals.\nlems before them.\n\nThey, consequently, have the most serious prob-\n\nA small American community can receive two or three\n\nand absorb them without in the slightest degree disturbing\nbut it is in the great cities, where foreign\ncolonies are planted and foreign customs are perpetuated, that the school must\nstep in to wrest, not only the child, but the whole family, from traditions which\nenslave the mind, and furnish some of the most stubborn obstacles to a proper\nalien families\n\neither economic or social conditions\n\n;\n\nassimilation and Americanization of the alien.\n\nThree sets of problems confront us in our school work with these children\npurely educational problems, meaning those brought to light in carrying out\nthe course of study in the school; civic problems;\n\nand the moral problems.\n\nThe educational problems vary with the nationality of the alien. Where\nilliteracy prevails among the adult classes of an immigrant people, there is a\ntendency on the part of the parents to underestimate the value of education\n\nand in direct ratio there is the tendency to depend upon the\nThese tendencies form two of the strongest obstacles to permanent progress on the part of many of the children.\n\nfor the child,\n\nwage-earning capacity of the child.\n\nStriking characteristics are apparent in the four classes which furnish the\ngreatest number of our immigrants.\n\nThe southern Italians, as a class, lack\n\neducation themselves, and are indifferent to the advantages of education for\ntheir children.\n\nTruancy or non-attendance is the chronic condition of many;\n\nfew remain at school longer than the law demands; and fewer still advance to\nhigh school or college. Immigrants from northern Italy make a more desirable school contingent.\n\nThe Hebrews are keen in matters of study.\n\nTheir\n\nexclusion from the government schools of Russia, Roumania, and GaHcia is\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nIl6\n\n[General\n\none of the main causes for the excessive immigration of the better class of\nJews. It is from these immigrants that the schools in great cities, notably so\nin\n\nNew York, get a large proportion of their most studious, most ambitious,\n\nmost\n\nloyal,\n\nand most successful pupils.\n\nadvance is strong in most Jewish hearts.\n\nThe desire to see their children\nIt is not uncommon for the alien\n\nJew to endure privations of all kinds in order to study or to keep his children\nIn contradistinction, we find among them a number in\nwhose environment there are degrading conditions which produce truancy and\ndelinquency. But, on the whole, the Hebrews make a desirable element in\nThe Germans contribute few truants or non-attendants. Their\nthe school.\nchildren are respectful and law-abiding, not always clever, but always earnThe Poles present practically the same problems as the\nest and faithful.\nat school or college.\n\nItalians ; the majority do not make satisfactory progress in school work.\n\nIn a thirty-minute address it is impossible to do more than make a few\nsuggestions to the teacher of the little immigrant.\n\nEvery foreign child should,\n\nas soon as possible, be graded according to the extent of his prior schooling.\nIt is an outrage upon a child who has had several years of schooling in his\nown land, to place him in a first-year class with children just out of the kin-\n\ndergarten simply because he cannot read or write English.\n\nHe can get an\n\nEnglish vocabulary in a fourth- or- fifth- or sixth-year class as easily as in the\n\nbaby class.\n\nAt the same time he can develop intellectually with a far greater\n\nrapidity than he could in the lowest grades.\n\nImagine the effect upon a boy\n\nwell taught in a foreign school, who is placed in a class where he is taught to\nread, \"See my kitty,\" \"Can the kitty run ?\" and where his training in mathe-\n\nmatics consists of combinations of three splints and four spUnts\n\n!\n\nEven an\n\nilliterate, if he be over ten years of age, should not be placed in a first-year class.\n\nOur first-year studies are designed to develop the mind of the six-year-old, and\nthe child four or five years older must be taught in a separate class and along\n\nWhere immigration is shght, the immigrant child so classi-\n\nmore mature lines.\n\nfied will quickly be assimilated, particularly if a classmate can act as interpreter.\n\nWhere, however, a large number of immigrants of one tongue can be gathered\ninto a school, a special class should be formed and special instruction be given.\n\nBoston and New York, possibly other cities, have undertaken such work, and\nspecial classes for immigrants (commonly called \"steamer classes\") are con-\n\nducted in\n\nall localities\n\nwhere conditions make such organization possible.\n\nOne word of warning in reference to such special classes: they are means to\nan end, not an end in themselves. A child must be taken out of the special\nclass as soon as he has a vocabulary sufficient to enable him to take up the work\nof the regular class.\n\nIt is fatal to segregate foreigners for any length of time\n\nonly by close association with American children and American influences can\n\na proper assimilation be hoped for.\nligent promotion,\n\nWith judicious classification and intel-\n\nthe most serious educational problem\n\nis\n\nmet.\n\nCareful\n\ninstruction in pronunciation and enunciation, and vigilance in correcting false\n\nidioms, are essential.\n\nBeyond\n\nthis, in\n\nthe training of the immigrant child\n\nthere need be no differentiation from normal standards.\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE IMMIGRANT CHILD\n\nSessions]\n\n1 17\n\nAmong certain classes of foreigners cardinal school virtues are planted\nwith difficulty.\n\nRegular and punctual attendance and personal cleanliness\n\nare not obtained without effort;\n\ndesired result.\n\nbut persistent effort does bring about the\n\nTo the credit of the schools let it be recorded that in that\n\nspecial foreign section of\n\nNew York from which I have drawn my richest\n\nexperiences, such standards of punctuahty and cleanliness as now prevail in\n\nthe community as a whole have grown out of the habits gained by the children\nin the schools.\n\nClosely interrelated with the purely intellectual problems are the civic\n\nEvery course of study makes provision for instruction in civics and\n\nproblems.\n\nIn our New York schools a deeply impressive feature\n\nlessons in patriotism.\n\nof the formal opening exercises in every school is the solemn oath of allegiance\nto\n\nour flag.\n\nAlways impressive, nowhere is it more soul-stirring than when\n\npronounced by the five hundred immigrant children who learn their first English in the school of the Educational Alliance in\n\nfaster and\n\nmy eyes grow moist when I hear it.\n\nNew York. My heart beats\nThese children, refugees from\n\nRussia and Roumania, with hate in their hearts for the land of their birth,\nturn loving eyes to the flag of the land of their adoption, and there is genuine\n\nIn the public schools, too, there is affection in the\n\nfervor in their pledge.\n\nheart and earnestness in the voice that declares its love of country.\n\nThere is\n\nlove, too, and enthusiasm in our celebrations in honor of Washington, Lincoln,\n\nMemorial Day, and those other occasions when patriotism is awakened and\nThere is respect, perhaps even reverence, for the Constitution.\n\nnurtured.\n\nWhy,\n\nthen, are there so\n\nmany law-breakers among our school children ?\n\nWhy are our courts so busy ? Why is our police force all too inadequate ?\nShall I tell you ?\n\nBecause our instruction in civics is largely a sham.\n\nWe\n\ncontent ourselves with teaching, mainly to pupils in classes of advanced grade,\nthe constitution of the United States, the chief features of state and municipal\n\ngovernment, and the names and rank of national, state, and municipal officials.\nIs that enough to make a community law-abiding ?\n\nqualifications of a United States senator help\n\nobey local ordinances ?\n\nWill a knowledge of the\n\nan alien, or even a native, to\n\nWill familiarity with the length of the term of a state\n\ngovernor, or a knowledge of the powers of the mayor, teach the children of an\n\naUen, or of a native either, to avoid violations of local ordinances ?\nIt is so\n\nmuch easier, and the effect is so \"much prettier, to teach the oath of\n\nallegiance to the flag, than to teach a community to keep the fire-escapes free\n\nfrom encumbrances.\n\nIt is so\n\nmuch easier, and so very much more interesting,\n\nto prepare a program for a patriotic celebration, than to secure from a tenement-\n\nhouse population a proper respect for tenement-house laws.\n\nIt is so\n\nmuch\n\nand so much more picturesque, to teach children to wave small flags\nwhile singing ''The Star-Spangled Banner,\" than it is to teach them to separate the ashes from the garbage as required by law in large cities.' It is\nbecause we do not teach to children the important city ordinances, and the\nreasons underlying them, that violations of such laws are so common.\neasier,\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nIi8\nIt is not so\n\n[General\n\nimportant to obey the law as it is to bribe the petty ofl&cials.\n\nThis the immigrant learned at home, in the school of political and religious\npersecution.\n\nPolitical corruption in\n\ntional object-lesson in this direction.\n\nmany of our large cities gives an addiThe immigrant learns all too soon that\n\nfor a consideration the district leader can secure for law-breakers\n\nfreedom\n\nIt is we who\n\nmust teach these foreigners better\nThru their children only can we teach them. We must teach\nstandards.\nthem the nature of the law; the causes which led to the making of the law;\nthe injury that must come to the community thru a violation of the law; and\na respect for the law, even tho compliance with the law imposes hardship upon\nIn no other way can a foreign community be led to meet its\nthe individual.\nfrom fine or imprisonment.\n\nobligations of citizenship ; in no other way can we hope to solve civic problems.\n\nWe must recognize that pedagogy based solely upon theory has outhved\nits usefulness.\n\nAbstract educational theories must stand aside to make room\n\nfor sociological experiences.\n\nThe sociological needs of a community must be\n\nexamined and closely studied by educators, and the causes thereof must be\nIn the removal of these causes the school will find its\n\nscientifically traced.\n\nchief function,\n\nits\n\nchief obligation to the\n\ncommunity.\n\nSociology and peda-\n\ngogy must be harmoniously blended, would we truly serve the state and the\nnation.\n\nWith this ideal before them, the training schools for teachers must\n\nrevise their methods.\n\nWhile the purely educational problem is engaging the attention of the\nteacher, he will find himself confronted with moral problems equally difficult.\n\nThese problems in great cities are not limited to any one class of the community, but they grow more numerous and compUcated where the\n\ndensest.\n\npopulation is\n\nJuvenile delinquency and juvenile crime are on the increase, because\n\nchildren are reared without any sense of responsibihty by parents who have no\n\nreaHzation of their own responsibihty.\n\nand small means.\n\nMany immigrants have large families\n\nAdults set themselves to the task of wage-earning, and\n\nleave their children to themselves.\n\nA child left to itself, in the crowded streets\n\nof a great city, is bound to come in contact with influences that tend to under-\n\nmine all his standards. The weak-minded boy follows the lead of an older and\nstronger boy, and the street gang is the result.\nLoafing, gambhng, and larceny\nare the natural consequences of this street\n\nlife.\n\nParents in the tenements\n\nseldom know, and occasionally do not care, what becomes of their offspring.\nColorado has done a wise thing in passing a law which holds the parents\nfinancially responsible for the delinquencies of their minor children.\n\nWhen\n\nsuch a law becomes general, we may hope to control some of the lawlessness so\nnoticeable at present\n\namong children, native-bom as well as alien.\n\nThe\n\nchild of the immigrant associates with the American-bom child of the street,\n\nand acquires all of his vices and none of his virtues. Hundreds of immigrant\nparents, whose children are disorderly, unfihal, and ungrateful, justify this\ncondition of affairs with the claim that the child has acquired American\nhabits.\nThey even blame the school for these bad habits. What agency is\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE IMMIGRANT CHILD\n\nSessions]\n\n119\n\nthere that can explain to these foreign parents true American standards, unless\nthe school undertakes that task ?\n\nIt\n\nbodes ill for our nation if American\n\nvices are to be considered true American traits.\n\nthe foreigner,\n\nseem\n\nidentical with\n\nIf these vices, in the mind of\n\nAmericanism, then every right-minded\n\nalien will pray that his child may forever remain a foreigner and may never\n\nbecome truly Americanized. It is we teachers who must indicate to the alien\nwhat habits a true American child must acquire, in order to make of the future\nman or woman an American of whom the nation may be proud. After all,\nmorality is a question of standard, and what from our point of view is grossly\nimmoral may, under other conditions and in other lands, have seemed an\nunimportant matter. Many juvenile offenses which to us seem appalling\nappear to the parents of trifling import. If, then, we would raise the tone of\nthe community, we must teach correct standards to the parents as well as to\nthe children.\n\nThere is one phase of the life of the alien in America which is a cause for\nworry to all earnest communal workers.\n\nMany of the children are surrender-\n\ning themselves to the best American influences, brought into their lives by the\nschool, thru settlements, and thru such other agencies as deal with the better-\n\nment of child life.\n\nSo far, so good\n\n;\n\nbut, unfortunately, the more that is done\n\nfor the child, the more is it weaned away from the standards and traditions\n\nhome. The parents remain foreign; the children become American.\nThere is thus created an almost unbridgeable gulf between the two. Differ-\n\nof its\n\nence in taste, customs, and language brings about domestic shipwreck.\n\nThe\n\nparents remain at home, and mourn over the waywardess and wilfulness and\ndisloyalty of their children.\n\nThe children find their best friends among the\n\nand settlement workers, and their warmest interests away from\nhome. Wider and wider grows the gap, until the children have lost absolutely\nall touch with the home, all sympathy with their parents.\nIndependence of\nparental control and disrespect for the opinion of the old folks is not an\nuncommon condition. When children seek and find all their pleasures, all\ntheir companions, and all their interests away from home, the community and\nthe nation are bound to suffer.\nA happy nation is based upon happy homes.\nHow, then, shall this problem be met ? Shall we stop Americanizing the\nchild ?\nSurely not.\nBut if this process of Americanization creates the gulf,\nwhere shall we look for the remedy ? Let those who made the gulf build the\nbridge to span it. If we have given to the child other, and let us hope better,\nstandards, then let us build a bridge between the Americanized child and its\nforeign parent, so that the parent can cross the bridge to join the child on the\nAmerican side.\nIt is for us who are Americanizing these immigrant children to bring their\nparents forward with them. But how can this be done ? First and most\nteachers\n\nprominent\n\nin school activities\n\nshould be parents' meetings.\n\nIn a foreign\n\ncommunity where English is not well understood, it may be necessary to have\none familiar with the tongue of the majority carry our message to the parents,\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI20\n\nfor they must be made to understand what it is we are trying to\n\n[General\n\ndo for the\n\nchildren.\n\nThey must be made to realize that in forsaking the land of their\n\nbirth, they\n\nwere also forsaking the customs and the traditions of that land;\n\nthey must be made to realize an obligation, in adopting a new country, to\n\nadopt the language and customs of that country.\n\nThey must be made to\n\nunderstand that the welfare of America demands the proper assimilation of\nall\n\nthese conflicting foreign elements that are so generously admitted to our\n\nland; but they must also be led to see that, unless they readily and willingly\n\ntake on Americanization in its best sense, the day will come when our govern-\n\nment must close its gates to their compatriots who wish to follow.\n\nThe sins of\n\nthe earlier immigrants will b'e visited upon their cousins and wives and brothers\n\nwho try to follow.\n\nIf our gates are ever closed to them, it will be because the\n\nimmigrants already among us have failed to measure up to our standards of\ncitizenship.\n\nThe school must make the parent see that the advance of the child is bound\nThe\nit beyond parental control, unless the parents also advance.\n\nto carry\n\nschool must at the same time impress it upon the child, that he is securing\n\neducational advantages which were denied to his parents, and that it was their\n\nheroism in giving up their land, their customs, and their home which has\nenabled him to receive a free education in a land of religious and political free-\n\ndom.\n\nThe school must make him see that this sacrifice on the part of the\n\nparents deserves, not only recognition, but also gratitude and loyalty, respect\n\nToo much stress cannot be laid upon the child's duty to the\nOne of our national weaknesses today is the general lack of respect\nThe school must\nfor authority and the lack of reverence for things sacred.\nand sympathy.\nparents.\n\ninsist upon the child's recognition of the claims of parenthood.\n\nThe parents' meetings, at best, however, can reach only those parents who\nThose who most need this influence are hkely to\nremain away. Our duty then becomes clearer. If the parent will not come\nThe\nto the school, the school or its representative must go to the parent.\nmother in particular must be reached. She is, perhaps, weighted down with\ndomestic burdens, which have made her apathetic or hopeless. With such a\nchoose to come to school.\n\nmother it is almost impossible to rescue a child subjected to evil influences\n\nand yet it is just such children that must be rescued.\nWives and mothers, thru their nurture of\nchildren and their influence over men, have the destiny of the nation in their\nkeeping to a greater extent than any other single agency. If this be true\nand who can doubt it? shall we allow thousands of wives and mothers of\nalien birth to become so submerged that physically, intellectually, and morally\nthey become unfit ''to rock the cradle\" ? The state intrusts to us the solemn\nand sacred duty of preparing for citizenship every child within its borders.\n\noutside of the home;\n\nWho will undertake this task ?\n\n—\n\nWhen we recognize that many of the mothers are unfitted for the task of\nmotherhood, shall we, as teachers, withhold the aid that might perhaps bring\nto a proper citizenship the child\n\nwho, but for our help, must be lost to the\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSess?ons]\n\ncommunity ?\n\n121\n\nIt is, perhaps, something Utopian that I suggest, but are not all\n\nIf we are to\nwe are not willing to do so, have we the right to hold\nour present positions ? cannot we see that half service is but a compromise\nwith conscience ? It is for us as indivdiuals, and it is for us as a force for the\nbetterment of social conditions, to carry into the homes of these children such\ninfluences as He within our power.\nWho can who dare set a limit to our\n\nideals Utopian in the eyes of those unable to create an ideal ?\n\nserve the state\n\n—and\n\nif\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\npower in this direction ?\n\nWe have long passed the day when abiUty to teach the studies of the school\ncourse is regarded as the whole of the service required of the ideal teacher.\n\nTo build up character, to guide and direct toward a better life, to right wrongs,\nto bring about civic and social improvement, to make the\n\nA\n\nare duties no less important and no less essential.\n\nindividual happier,\n\nteacher's life, if viewed\n\nwith the eyes of the optimist, is one of glorious opportunity; to the pessimist\n\nLet every teacher look into his or her own\nWhat have you made of your school life ? With you it still\nrests either to make your teaching a work of hopeless drudgery or of unhmited\nit is\n\none of hopeless drudgery.\n\nteaching career.\n\nNowhere else is that opportunity so rich, so fruitful, and so soulAffection and gratitude flow from the\nheart of the little immigrant in response to the teacher's interest and warmth.\nThose who have not met and recognized the richness of the responsiveness of\nmost foreigners cannot realize the depth and earnestness of this gratitude.\nIn all classes of the community there is much of God's work to be done.\nIn the large immigrant communities this is especially true. Here is our\nopportunity, teachers\nDare we neglect it ? Let us then give ourselves to\nthe task of serving the state, humanity, and God.\nLet us Americanize, according to the truest American standards, the children and the home; let us first\nopportunity.\n\nsatisfying as in a community of aliens.\n\n1\n\nsecure, thru co-operation with the Immigration Bureau, a complete list of the\nlittle\n\nimmigrants whom we would reach;\n\nlet\n\nus classify them thoughtfully,\n\npromote them intelligently, and teach them wisely\n\n;\n\nlet us revise our standards\n\nin teaching civics, so that a law-abiding community shall result from the efforts\n\nof the school;\n\nand let us bring together in affection and mutual sympathy the\n\nThus we shall render the rare\nand holy service to which we have been called, the making of a true American\n\nforeign parents and the Americanized child.\n\ncitizen out of the immigrant child.\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\nSUPERINTENDENT OF THE STOUT TRAINING SCHOOLS,\nMENOMONIE, WIS.\n\nManual training, as a form of educational effort, involves such a systemhand in construction work, thru the use of tools and\n\natic training of the\n\nmanipulation of material, as is adapted to the proper development of the\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n122\n\n[General\n\nmotor activity of the hand, initiated, guided, and controlled by mental activities essential for the proper development of the mind.\nIt will\n\nbe observed that by -this statement the systematic training of the\n\nhand, in construction work, thru the proper development of its motor activities, is\n\nmade a definite end and aim of elementary training.\n\nBy the \"proper development of the motor activities of the hand\" I mean\nsuch a growth of power and control in the use of those activities thru manual\ntraining as will enable the individual thus trained, and because of that training,\nmore readily and more effectively to employ the hand in productive labor in\nThat such a result can be secured thru this\nthe field of industrial effort.\ntraining is my belief, based upon the results of reasoning, of extended observation, and of experience in the administration of this Hne of work in the\n\nelementary schools.\n\nTo put it plainly, I find justification for that sort of manual training which\naims at a systematic training of the hand in the increased power which it gives\nthe individual to earn a hvelihood thru the use of his hands.\nI am aware that this statement will invite criticism from some quarters;\n\nthat it will be claimed that it is putting educational effort and aims on too low\n\na basis.\n\nI would anticipate such criticism by saying that manual training is\n\nnot all of education; that I do not claim for it everything that is needed for\nthe proper development of those\n\nwho attend our public schools; but I do\n\nclaim that, if properly administered, it .will increase the effectiveness of those\ntrained, as productive factors in society,\n\nand thus increase their capacity to\n\nearn a Hving and to support those dependent upon them.\n\nOur public-school system is supported by pubhc taxation.\n\nThe right of\n\nthe state to levy taxes for the support of a public-school system is found in the\nfact that the state has the right to do whatever is essential for its perpetuity\n\nand good citizenship is essential for the perpetuity of the state.\nThe duty which the public school owes to the state is to train American\ncitizens. The fundamental basis of all good citizenship is a trained inteUigence\nwhich will enable the individual to earn a living, to become a self-supporting\nmember of society. The pubHc school which ignores this fact, thru the quality of the training given, has no right to an existence.\nThat the individual trained in the public schools subsequently shows his\ncapacity to support himself may be because of the training there obtained, or\nin spite of it.\n\nIt should be because of that training.\n\nThe pubhc school should\n\nbe an active factor in the development of this capacity to earn a livelihood.\n\nWith this given, all things else ma^ be added; but without it nothing is possible.\nSome years ago the secretary of the International Committee of the Young\nMen's Christian Association, after careful study of statistics relating to the\nsubject of educational preparation of the young men of the United States\nbetween the ages of sixteen and thirty-five, reported as follows\nOf 13,000,000 young men in the United\n\nStates\n\nbetween these ages, only\n\nfive\n\nin\n\nevery one hundred have been specially prepared for their occupations by education\nreceived at some kind of a school.\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\n123\n\nHe also found that of every one hundred graduates of our grammar schools,\nonly eight obtained their livelihood by means of the professions and commercial\nbusiness, while the remaining ninety-two support themselves and their families by means of their hands.\n\nthem\n\n—\n\nand an examinaseem to substantiate\n\nIf these statistics are correct\n\ntion into the conditions existing in any community will\n\n— must be evident that the education given in the grades below the\nit\n\nhigh school which does not make provision for the training of the hand, as\nwell as of the brain, is failing to do for these children what they have a right to\n\ndemand shall be done for them, and what society and the state have the\nhighest interest in demanding shall be done for them.\n\nPresident Roosevelt has expressed, as the ke}mote of his administration,\n\n\"a square deal for every man and every interest.\"\n\nthe sentiment:\n\nIf ninety-\n\ntwo out of every one hundred of the graduates of our grammar schools, and\npractically all of those\n\nwho leave the elementary schools before completing\n\nthe eighth grade, are to earn their living by their hands, I submit that the\n\nsystem of education which fails to give them, during the most impressionable\nand formative period of their hves, such a training of the hand as will fit them\nthe earlier to become skilled in the different departments of manual labor in\nwhich they may engage, and thus to make their work more productive, is not\ngiving \"a square deal\" to these future members of society, to society itself,\n\nnor to the state.\n\nThus far I have spoken of the systematic training of the hand as a definite\nend of manual training. But it is not the sole end or purpose. We must take\nnote of the fact that the essential essence of all training is doing; of manual\ntraining, is doing with the hands;\n\nand that in systematic manual training, from\n\nstart to finish, the motor activities of the hand must be set in operation, must\n\nbe guided and controlled by the action of the mind\n\n;\n\nand the opening statement\n\nof this address calls for mental activities essential for the proper development\nof the\n\nmind\n\n—\n\n^not all\n\nforms of mental activity, but forms which cannot be\n\nomitted, because of their necessity for proper mental unfolding.\n\nMental power comes thru organized thinking.\n\nThe mere memorizing of\n\nwhat others have said, or learning about what others have done, is not organ-\n\nand gives little or no mental training. Organized thinking\ncomes whenever the individual sets himself a definite task to do, and then\n\nized thinking,\n\ndetermines and applies the ways and means necessary for the accomplishment\nof that task.\n\nThis task\n\nmay be the solution of a problem in arithmetic;\n\nor it may be the construction of a model from wood, iron, or other material;\nor the creation of a new and original design for such a model.\n\nI believe the\n\nlatter to be of the higher value, because it demands the use of tools and material.\n\nThe tools cannot be used successfully upon the material to produce the desired\nresult, without the exercise of the closest attention and of those forms of mental\n\nactivity leading up to an act of the judgment.\n\nThere can be no training of\n\nthe hand which does not involve mental activity, and the mental activity thus\n\ninvolved is of a kind which furnishes just the training needed for the practical\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n124\n\nconcerns of life.\nskill in\n\n[General\n\nIt is a mental activity out of which grows skill in doing ;\n\nand\n\ndoing, as a result of intelligent thinking, should be one of the chief\n\npurposes of education.\nIt is the ambition of every boy, at a very early age, to become the owner of\n\na pocket-knife.\nfurnishes for\ndesire to do.\n\nThe reason for this is that the pocket-knife is a tool which\n\nhim the largest opportunities for the exercise of his inherent\nNo one thinks of denying him the pocket-knife because of the\n\nfear that its use will result in his becoming a mere whittler; but, on the contrary, the thoughtful parent will furnish it because of its value as\n\nan instru-\n\nment in the training of the child's manual and mental powers.\nBecause in the manual-training school the child learns to use a plane or a\nsaw, it does not follow that he is to be a carpenter.\n\nBecause the girl learns to\n\nsew, it does not follow that she must be a seamstress; or because she learns the\n\nvalue of foods and how to prepare them, that she must therefore be a cook.\n\nThe use of the plane and the saw will be of value to the boy, should he decide\nThe training in sewing and cooking will be of value to\n\nto become a carpenter.\n\nthe girl should she decide to become a seamstress or a cook, or should she be\n\ncompelled to take the place of either seamstress or cook, even temporarily.\nBut, in any case, the training thus afforded will be of the highest value in the\n\ndevelopment of the individual, because it demands,\n\nfirst,\n\nconcentration of\n\nattention, and thus develops that quality so essential to success in any field of\n\nhuman endeavor; second, it requires organized thinking in the adaptation of\nmeans to ends —a demand which will be constant thru life; and, third, it\ndemands an exercise of the will-power resulting in doing for the realization of\nof those ends, and thru the doing there comes a clarification of the thinking.\nIt is\n\nnot claimed that this sort of training, and the knowledge and the skill\n\nwhich it brings, constitute all that is necessary in the education of the child;\nbut the claim is made, and well made, that any system of education which\nleaves out this kind of training omits one of the essential requisites in the\n\nproper education of the child.\nI believe that anyone who will analyze closely the mental processes involved\nin the mastery of a lesson in grammar, in history, in geography, or in any of\n\nthe branches taught in the public school,\n\nand then compare them with the\n\nmental processes involved in making a working-drawing of a model in wood,\n\nand then from that drawing, by the use of tools, reproducing that model, will\nsee that, for all purposes of mental training, the latter is of no less value, to say\nthe least, than the former.\nIt has the added value that it has developed control of the hand, and skill in its use, which will be of value in other fields of\nwork where manual skill is required.\nSystematic training of the hand involves a definite purpose, and adaptation\nof material, tools, and processes for the proper accomplishment of that purpose.\nThese determinations are, in every case, the result of mental activity. The\nselection of the material, the choice of tools, and even the specific purpose, at\n\nany given stage of the work, may be the result of mental activity and choice\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\n125\n\non the part of the teacher, but the setting in operation of the motor activities\nemployed in the use of tools, or in the manipulation of material, and the guidance and control of those motor activities to the accomplishment of the given\nend, are the result of mental activity on the part of the pupil.\n\nHence it fol-\n\nlows that the systematic training of the hand for the proper development of its\n\nmotor activities involves an equally systematic training of the mind which\nimitates, guides,\n\nand controls those activities.\n\nThe statement already given\n\ncalls for systematic training of the hand for a proper development of its motor\nactivities.\n\nThe term ''proper\" is used advisedly.\n\nUnder the limitations it\n\nimposes, the specific ends determined, and the exercises necessary for the\n\naccomplishment of those ends, must be selected with reference to the state of\n\npower of the child being trained. It\nbeyond the strength of the pupil, at any\ngiven time, and also other classes of exercises requiring close work and too\ndevelopment of motor\n\neliminates\n\nall classes\n\nactivity ,and\n\nof exercises\n\nfine adjustments of motor activity at an early stage of the child's development.\n\nhand required by this statement involves mental\nand control, it follows that, when such a stage of skill has been\ndeveloped as to cause the actions to become reflex, or when that stage is closely\napproached, they fall oustide of the demands here made, because then we have\nmotor activity, but without the corresponding and correlated mental activity.\nSince the training of the\n\ninitiative\n\nExercises thus continued may make for skill in a given narrow line of effort,\n\nbut not for general development.\n\nThe term \"proper,\"\n\nas used in the\n\nstatement, requires the discontinuance of any special motor activity when it\n\nhas reached a stage where mental control is no longer an essential.\n\nThe proper development of motor activities impUes an order of development which must be taken into consideration, and which must determine and\ncontrol the character of the exercises which involve the training.\nThe requirement that the motor activities involved in the manual training shall be initiated, guided, and controlled by mental activities essential for the development\nof the mind makes it necessary that these exercises shall be selected with\nreference to the demands which they make upon the mind.\nIt follows, therefore, that the mental capabilities of the pupil, at any stage in the process of\ntraining, must be considered.\nWork must be given of sufficient variety in the\ndemand which it makes, for calling into play the varied forms of mental\nactivity and in their proper order.\nIf this statement of the function of manual training in the public schools\nis\n\naccepted, it would seem to follow that there should be a definite course of\n\ntraining organized in the light of definite knowledge as to the motor\n\nand\n\nmental capabilities of pupils at different stages in their development and that\nshould be systematic in its unfolding. It must grow out of careful study\nand scientific knowledge of what is necessary for the proper motor development of the child. It must not be left in its development to the sport and play\nit\n\nof the child's impulses or temporary interests.\n\nThe problem is to present\n\nsuch a line of training as the child needs, and to interest him in something\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n126\n\n[General\n\nworth while, rather than to find some new thing which may appeal to each\n\nnew and fleeting interest.\n\nTraining involves the shaping and directing of\n\ninterests, and especially is this true in the training of the child whose interests\n\nare as varied as his impulses.\n\nThe exercise of the hand in manual occupations outside the school is not\nsystematic;\n\nit is\n\naccidental, sporadic, fragmentary;\n\nand because the work is\n\nunrelated, unorganized, it is not of the highest value for hand-training, and\nthe mental activity is not of a kind to give the best results.\n\nThe schools which do not give manual training give an incomplete trainThe sources of stimuli which they furnish are words mainly. The words\npresented for the pupil's consideration are symbols. The interpretation of\ning.\n\nthe symbols depends upon the character and extent of the apperception mass\nin the pupil's mind.\n\nIt\n\nmay be entirely adequate, or it may be partially or\n\ncompletely inadequate, in which case the mental product is imperfect, inadequate;\n\nthe impression\n\nis\n\nfaulty in that\n\nit\n\nis\n\nincorrect, vague, incomplete.\n\nThe expression of the results of this consideration of words is again chiefly\nthru the medium of words.\nThe teacher, under the present system of school organization, and with\nexisting ideals of what is demanded of the pupil, too often is unable to test\nwhether the pupil's expression is a remembered form of words without meaning, or,\n\nwhen other words are used, whether they are correct symbols of the\n\ncorrect idea.\n\nIn manual training the sources of mental stimuli are things chiefly, and\n\nwords secondarily.\n\nThe same thing is true in nature study; but the former\n\nto, and\nand results in an expression of thought in\nthe completed products of the hand, guided and controlled by the mind. This\nexpression of thought is in permanent objective form, and furnishes an opportunity for comparison and correction of inaccuracies, which the fleeting word\nis\n\nof a\n\nhigher form, because the mental stimulus leads directly\n\nco-ordinates with, motor activity,\n\ndoes not.\n\nBook study deals with words, and the character of the mental activity\naroused is uncertain.\n\nNature study deals with objects of nature, their forms,\n\nstructure, sources, and uses.\n\nManual training deals with material things, their\n\nform, sources, and uses; and, in addition thereto, demands physical and mental\nactivity in changing the raw material to the finished product ;\n\nand this is exactly\nwhat the individual will have to do who earns his living with his hands.\n\nWe may say that education demands, on the intellectual side, the development, control, and training for effective use of the varied activities of the mind,\nthru the action of stimuli of the right kind, properly appHed at the right time.\n\nThe work of the teacher then, in the development, control, and training\nof the intellectual powers of the child is in selecting the stimulus proper in kind\n\nand time, and thru right methods of applying it, securing the kind and amount\nof mental activity, properly directed, required to meet the needs of the pupil at\n\na given time for given ends.\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\nIt will\n\n127\n\nbe apparent that in the field now under considerationT— the intel-\n\nlectual side of education\n\n—the nature of the mind determines what\n\nis\n\nessential\n\nin the educational process, and this without reference to environment.\n\nIt will\n\nalso be evident that the nature of the mind does not determine the choice of\n\nmaterial available as to the source of stimuli for various forms of mental\nactivity or control.\n\nSources of mental stimuli available in the work of the public schools are\n\nwords and material things.\n\nIn the actual affairs of Hfe the great majority of\n\nhuman beings are engaged in productive activities of one form or another.\nThese productive activities demand a knowledge of material things, and\nknowledge of and skill in the processes necessary for the transformation of\nthe raw materials of nature into forms fitted to satisfy human wants.\n\nTo do the work with the greatest effectiveness, it is evident that there must\nbe specific training for it.\n\nSuch training is not afforded thru the activities\n\nevoked by the mental stimulus of words alone.\n\nThe activities evoked by the stimulus of material things may be roughly\nseparated into two classes:\n\nThose which begin with observation, and, passing on thru a consideraand uses, terminate in definite judgment, but\nwhich require no constructive effort involving processes resulting in change\n1.\n\ntion of their forms, sources,\n\nof form.\n\nNature study affords an illustration of this type of mental activity.\nits\n\nIt has\n\nplace in a rational scheme of elementary education, because it furnishes a\n\nnecessary stimulus not supplied thru the medium of words.\n2.\n\nThe second class of activities resulting from things as a source of mental\n\nstimulus is that shown in constructive effort thru motor activities, controlled\n\nby the mind and directed to a change of form of the material things under\nconsideration.\n\nSince this is the class of activities which must employ the great mass of\nmankind, since systematic training is essential for effectiveness in this line of\neffort, and since systematic training is\n\nnot given outside the school during the\n\nschool age, and because it can be most effectively given during that period of\nthe child's life, it follows that provision should be made for giving it in the\n\nelementary schools.\n\nManual training, under the implications of the introductory statement of\nthis address, fiunishes this kind of training, and rounds out and completes the\n\nnecessary forms of activity for the development of the child during the\n\nelementary-school age.\n\nLet us consider briefly the part which constructive effort plays in the work\nof the world\n\nThe magnificent cathedral, with its splendid proportions, adorned with\npaintings, mosaics, and statuary, embodies the highest creations of the mind\n\nThe splendid structure in its completed form\nmind of the architect as a mental product before it Assumed\n\nof the architect and the artist.\n\nexisted in the\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n128\nmaterial form.\n\n[General\n\nThe breathing marbles and the speaking canvasses which\n\nadorn its walls existed in the mind of the sculptor and painter as products of\nthe constructive imagination while the marble was yet in the unhewn block\nand the paints unmixed. Before these creations of mind could stand forth in\nembodied form to minister to the spiritual needs and aesthetic tastes of all, the\nmaterials of which its component parts are formed must be selected, assembled,\nand wrought upon by the cunning hand of the builder, the sculptor, and the\n\npainter in concrete constructive effort.\n\nWe may, perhaps, rightfully claim that the highest form of mental activity\nhere involved is shown in the conception of the architect and artist, which pre-\n\nceded its objective reahzation; but we must not forget the debt they owe to\nthe cunning\n\nwork of the hand.\n\nsculpture,\n\nan evolution.\n\nis\n\nArt, whether in architecture, painting, or\n\nThe builder's intrepretation and embodiment of\n\nthe constructive imagination of the early architect into an objective reahty,\n\ngave to that architect and others, in concrete form, that which had else\n\nremained a figure in the imagination.\n\nIt\n\nnow stands in form for study, for a\n\ndetermination of its defects and its points of excellence, of its adaptation or\nlack of adaptation to the purposes it was designed to serve.\nthis\n\nAs a result of\n\nstudy of the adaptation of means to ends, the imagination constructs a\n\nbetter mental product, which the builder again fixes in permanent form thru\n\nthe work of the hands.\n\nThis process is continued, the work of architect and\n\nbuilder each necessary for the other, each gaining by the other's work, until\n\nnew types and higher forms of structure, both in utility and in beauty, are\nrealized.\n\nIn the same way we might trace the development of art in painting and\n\nThe idea of the artist must take form thru the work of the hand,\nand each creation of mental and motor activity, whether in statuary or painting, becomes a lesson and an inspiration for further effort.\nsculpture.\n\nDesign, whether for decorative purposes, or in the production of new forms\n\nand combinations of materials adapted to the uses of man, follows the saine\nline of development.\n\nThe modem printing-press is one of the most marvelous products of human\ningenuity, but in its highest type today it is an evolution from the first crude\n\ncombined work of mind and hand.\nEach new type in the evolutionary process has come thru a new conception of\nthe mind, the outcome of a study of the defects and excellencies of an earlier\ntype, and put into concrete form by the trained hand of the workman.\nThe more thoroly the workman has been trained to conceive the end for\nwhich he works, and at each step to adapt wisely and skilfully his efforts to\nthe accomplishment of that end, the more likely will he be to see the necessity\nand possibiHty of improvement. The more skilful the inventor is as a workman, the fewer the errors in his designs and in the complete product.\nThe course in manual training in the grades designed to meet the demands\nfor training here set forth, should have a content of its own, wrought out and\n\npress employing movable type, thru the\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\n129\n\ndetermined by the capacities and needs of the individuals to be trained.\n\nThe\n\nmaterials and tools to be used, the particular forms of constructive work and\ntheir order, and the processes employed in the construction, should be selected\n\nand determined with respect to their adaptation in furnishing the kind of\ntraining required.\n\nManual training should not be given us the fag end of other subjects in the\ncourse, and not chiefly for the purpose of illustrating or enlarging the work in\n\nthose other subjects.\n\nThe question as to how far the exercises of manual\n\ntraining may be utiHzed to supplement other school work\n\n—geography, history,\n\n— of far\n\nless importance than the question as to how far these\n\nexercises are adapted to\n\nmeet the demands for necessary mental and motor\n\narithmetic, etc.\n\nis\n\nactivity, essential for the development of the child and not otherwise provided.\nIt is not\n\nmy intention to claim that the work in manual training should not\n\nbe in any way related to the other work of the school.\n\nIt furnishes opportu-\n\nnity for work of high value in connection with other subjects\n\n;\n\nand such oppor-\n\ntunities of relating one line of work with another, to the betterment of both,\n\nshould certainly be seized.\n\nEnough crimes have already been committed in the educational world\nunder the name of correlation, without still further extending the list in attempting to correlate every form of motor training with some phase of the textbook\n\nor the schoolroom.\nCorrelation in educational work should be natural and not forced.\nit\n\nIndeed,\n\ncannot be forced; and much of what goes under the name of correlation\n\nwould better be called a conglomeration\n\nof disjointed\n\nand unrelated frag-\n\nments of knowledge, with a resulting habit of mind of little value in effective\n\nand concentrated effort.\n\nA course of study in manual training extending thruout the grades, and\nplanned as above set forth, would furnish many opportunities for extending\n\nknowledge of materials and processes in industrial organization and administration lying outside the main line of training which the work is designed to\noffer.\n\nThe extent to which these fields of knowledge may be explored must\n\nbe determined by their value as matters of knowledge, and their relation to\nother subject-matter of the course of study, and to the character of mental\nactivity involved in their mastery.\n\nThe exercises may frequently develop an\n\ninterest in past or present industrial processes, the knowledge of which may be\n\nof value to the child.\nI believe the children being trained today are far more concerned with the\n\nindustrial processes of today than they are with the industrial processes of\n\nprimitive peoples, and I cannot bring myself to the belief that nature has made\nso great a mistake as to bring children into the world, at any given stage of the\n\ndevelopment of civilization, lacking the capacity to enter into that civilization\nwithout going thru all the preliminary processes and steps thru which it has\n\nbeen evolved.\nI\n\nam not undertaking to argue the question as to whether the child in his\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI30\n\n[General\n\nunfolding must live over again in his development the development of the race,\nand must begin where the race began but I do undertake to express my belief\n;\n\nthat, if this be true, he is, at the time he enters the public school, advanced so\n\nfar in this process of\n\ndevelopment that some systematic effort may be under-\n\ntaken for his training thru the utilization of his immediate environment, and\nthat it is unnecessary to attempt the difficult task of reconstructing the environ-\n\nment of primitive peoples which finds no proper place in the environment of\ntoday.\nIt is true that the industrial\n\ndevelopment of today presents complexities\n\nand yet I believe there is in it\nand which leads directly and naturally to the more complex, to furnish ample scope and material for the activities\nof the pupil's mind and hand; and that the consideration of these simpler\ntoo great for the child of the public school;\nsufficient that is simple and elementary,\n\nphases of present environment furnishes a better basis for the understanding\n\nand appreciation of environment as a whole than would a class of exercises\ngrowing out of a dealing with the supposed environment of a people remote in\ntime and low in the scale of development.\nI believe that, in our effort to make the work in manual training serve as a\n\npoint of departure in the accumulation of knowledge of that which is remote,\n\nwe have overlooked some opportunities which it affords, subsidiary to the\nmain line of training, but which are of the highest value.\n\nI shall call attention\n\nto one instance of this kind which has been very generally ignored, so far as\n\nmy observation goes, in the field of manual training.\n\nI refer to the oppor-\n\nit\n\noffers for exercises of the highest order in developing the use of\n\nlanguage.\n\nIn the completed products of the constructive exercises involved\n\ntunities\n\nin manual training, and in the processes employed,\n\nwe have materials which\n\nmay be utilized for language-training, in the two forms of description and\nexposition, unexcelled by any other material employed in the pubhc schools.\n\nThe child who is trained in accurately describing one of these completed\nproducts of his own hand, or who is trained in giving an accurate exposition\nof the steps in order, and the processes employed in the construction of that\nobject, has secured a power in the use of exact and definite language which he\n\nreceives nowhere else in the public-school course.\n\nEvery such exercise in the\n\nuse of language requires such a training of the observation, and a clarification\n\nand orgainzation of his knowledge, as is demanded by almost no other exercise\nin any phase of the pubHc-school work.\n\nOne of the greatest weaknesses of the pupils in the public schools today is\nToo often this lack\nof power is due to the fact that pupils are asked to talk when they have nothing\nto say, to write essays on subjects of which they know nothing except as they\nthe lack of power in definite, concise, accurate statement.\n\nacquire the knowledge from the words of the book.\n\nThe constructive work demanded by the manual-training course requires\nclose observation and adaptation of means to ends, an examination of effort and\nits results with relation to its success in realizing the desired end, a determination\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\n131\n\nof what is lacking, further effort guided and directed by the increased knowl-\n\nedge of what is demanded, and again further comparison and study, followed\n\nby further renewed efforts. All this requires clear thinking. The work of\nthe pupil's own hands is then a subject about which he knows something\ndefinite and definite knowledge is the essential for definite statement.\nHere\nwe have the raw material out of which accurate language in certain important\n;\n\nforms naturally follows.\n\nFor the workman, in the shop and elsewhere, the ability to state accurately\nand concisely what he is to do, or what he has done, or what another is to do,\nis an ability which has commercial value; and it is also an ability which has\nother value than can be measured in terms of dollars for the individual.\n\nthinking furnishes the right conditions for clear statement.\n\nClear\n\nClear statement\n\nbegets clear thinking.\n\nToo often in manual training we have left out all that is artistic.\nactivity\n\nMotor\n\nmay be developed and trained, and with it all the mental activity\n\nnecessarily involved in such training when dealing with things beautiful as well\n\nas with things ugly in form.\norder.\n\nArtistic design is constructive work of the highest\n\nIt is called for in the requirements for manual training set forth in the\n\nvery first sentence of this address.\n\nBut manual training is not a mere annex\n\nto artistic work, nor is it to be employed solely as a medium thru which to display\n\nEach should supplement the other.\nThey should go hand in hand. Design for the\n\nthe results of constructive artistic design.\n\nThey are closely related.\n\nmere sake of design in art has no value.\n\nIts value lies in its use;\n\nand ample\n\nscope is afforded in the field of manual training for effective and valuable\nartistic training in design and its applications to things useful.\n\nA question of vital importance in the introduction of manual training into\nthe grades is:\nIf I\n\nWhere shall it be begun, and how long shall it be continued ?\n\nhave correctly described its function, the question is answered in that\n\nstatement.\nit should\n\nIt should be\n\nbegun when the child enters the public school, and\n\nbe continued during his stay there.\n\nThere are still other reasons than those I have named, why it should be\nbegun in the lowest grades and continued thruout the course. We have been\n\nmaking the mistake in our pubHc-school work of assuming that the child can\nbe taken from the home, where his activities before entering school have been\nconcerned chiefly with things, and that during the school period each day we\nmay entirely change the form of his activities and invoke the activities which\ncome from the use of books. We are asking for mental activity, whereas the\ndemand of his physical nature is for physical activity. We are demanding\nphysical quiet, when his whole nature rebels against it.\n\nWe have been asking\n\nhim to deal with the abstract, when he wants the concrete, that for which he\nis fitted and which appeals to him.\nWe give him pencil and paper, and\noccasionally paints and brush, and expect him to find in these materials ample\nscope for the demands of his physical being for motor activity.\n\nWe should have, during these early years, just such scope for motor activity\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n132\n\n[General\n\nand systematic training as a well-organized course in manual training will\nprovide.\nI have sometimes heard\n\nit\n\nsaid that the claim\n\nmade for motor activity\n\ncarries with it the implication that manual training will make too great demands\n\nupon the mental activities of the child, and furnish no relief from the supposed\nmental activity involved in the use of books; but we must remember that\nchange and variety in the form of mental activity invoked by material in use\nin manual training, which serves as a stimulus for such activity, afford the\nrelief needed; and we must not forget that it is an impossibility to secure\neffective mental activity on the part of pupils in the primary grades while\nholding them exclusively to a study of books and recitation work during the\nsix hours of the school day.\nManual training, then^ is needed, in the very\nlowest grades, to furnish a form of activity which the physical nature of the\nchild\n\ndemands, and to utilize that activity thru systematic, organized work\n\nfor the development of the child.\n\nWhile, perhaps, this reason may not be urged with the same force in the\nhigher grades, it cannot be ignored with propriety in any one of the elementary\ngrades.\n\nManual training should be continued thruout the grades, not only\n\nbecause a large number of pupils do not go beyond the completion of the work\nin the eighth grade, but because a very large percentage of\n\nbefore that time.\n\nAll\n\nthem drop out\n\nneed the training, both motor and mental, which a\n\nsystematic, well-organized course of constructive\n\nwork gives when properly\n\nadministered.\nI shall not undertake now to discuss in detail, or even generally, the course\n\nof study in elementary manual training.\n\nThis is not the place nor the time for\n\nBut I do wish to say that, in my judgment, the large\nproblem for those engaged in furthering the cause of manual training today is\nsuch a consideration.\n\nin the determination of the values of the different Unes of work, material used,\n\nand processes employed in this field of educational effort; what motor activities are proper at a given stage in the child's development; what mental\npowers are valuable for the control of these activities; what materials, tools,\nand processes are best adapted to meet the needs of the child at the different\nstages of development.\n\nSuch an examination as this would result in material modification of the\nwork done in almost any of our schools where manual training is in operation.\nWe are as yet feeling our way. We shall make progress most rapidly when\nwe throw aside sentimentalism, and consider the question of, not what showing can we make, but what can be done to meet the needs of pupils. We\nshould stand ready to discard each and every pet form of work which cannot\nstand the test of such an examination.\n\nThe examination of the manual training exhibits at the St. Louis Exposition showed some remarkable things.\nest grades in\n\nIt showed work being done in the low-\n\none system of schools, and exactly the same line of work in the\n\nhighest grades in another system.\n\nIt showed work too difficult for the grade\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nMANUAL TRAINING IN THE GRADES\n\nSessions]\n\nin\n\n133\n\nwhich it was undertaken in some schools, and not up to the capacity of\n\npupils required to do the same work in the higher grades in other schools.\n\nIt\n\ngave evidence, in many cases, that product was the thing in the mind of the\nschool authorities, rather than training.\n\nIt showed that the relation of art to\n\nmanual training was, in most cases, so remote as not to be discoverable.\nThis entire\nAll these conditions are what might naturally be expected.\nBut the time has come for deliberation,\nfield of work is comparatively new.\nconsideration, and examination, not only of the basis upon which it rests, of\nthe ends which it is to serve, but of definite plans of adapting means to ends.\nIt is not the work of any one individual,\n\nnor of any short period of time.\n\nIt\n\nmust be undertaken faithfully, patiently, and systematically by all who are\nFurther, experiments must be\ninterested in this phase of educational work.\ntried;\n\nother failures will result; but out of failure will come new experience\n\nand better judgment.\nI cannot close without considering briefly another phase of the subject\n\nand that is how to find a place for it in the course of study.\n\nWe hear much of\n\nthe overcrowded condition of the elementary course of study,\n\nand we hear,\n\nperhaps, as much more as to the meager results which come from the administration of this course of study.\n\nWe are told that pupils from the public schools\n\nhave no power in the use of language, are not able to use arithmetic for the\npractical purposes of life, know little of geography and less of history; and, in\nfact, that\n\nthey are more noted for the things they have not learned than for\n\nthose they have mastered.\n\nAnd many of those who make these complaints,\n\ndoubtless with more or less of truth, argue that what is needed in the public\nschools is fewer rather than more subjects, and that manual training would only\nadd to the burdens of teachers and pupils, and would detract from the quality\nand quantity of knowledge and kind of training to be derived from the study\nof the traditional subjects in the course of study.\n\nThe remarkable thing about these claims is that they are made just as\nfrequently, and with just as much truth, where no work in manual training,\n\nor other of the so-called \"fads,\" is found.\n\nThe trouble is, not that we have too many subjects, but that we attempt to\nteach too many things in those subjects which are not worth teaching, and are\nwasteful in time, method, and effort, with correspondingly poor results.\n\nThose who argue against manual training forget that there is no other line\nof work in which the pupil can engage which calls forth mental activity of a\n\nhigher order than manual training; forget that this work can be introduced\ninto the school, and be used as a stimulus for mental activity when books fail\n\nas such a stimulus, and when the time spent in the subjects studied is time not\n\nonly wasted, but worse than wasted, because it results in the development of\n\nbad mental habits; they forget that this work gives physical activity, change\nof position, change of interest, change in the form of mental activity;\n\nand that\n\nthe pupil goes from it to his other tasks refreshed instead of wearied, and that\n\nhe is able in the remaining time to do more in the field of the common branches\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n134\n\n[General\n\nthan he could have done had the effort been made to hold him to those lines of\n\nwork continuously.\nThe mental power gained thru this dealing with things, and in the direction and control of motor activities, is a mental power which manifests itself\nin greater capacity of the pupil for the mastery of his work and more rapid\nHe sees in it practical utility. It holds him in school\nprogress in that work.\nlonger, and, if properly organized, it is pleasing to his parents from the standpoint of utility, if for no other reason. The influence upon the parents is to\nmake them more cordial in the support of the pubHc schools; and the development of such a sentiment in any community is one which should be encouraged,\nbecause the development of the public-school system depends finally upon the\nbehef of the public in its efficiency.\n\nTHE PRACTICAL UTILITY OF MANUAL AND TECHNICAL\nTRAINING\nWILLIAM BARCLAY PARSONS, FORMER CHIEF ENGINEER, RAPID TRANSIT COMMISSION OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK\nMr. President and Members of the National Educational Association:\n\nNot being engaged in education I approach the topic of this evening's\ndiscussion, not as an educator, but as\n\none engaged in practical work, where\n\nboth manual and technical training play their parts, and I shall speak, therefore,\n\nfrom the point of view of results achieved and of ends to be attained.\n\nThe statement is almost axiomatic that any particular educational work,\nprecisely the\n\nsame as work of other kinds, must pass the supreme test\n\npractical efficiency if it is to assume a permanent place.\ntional training can\n\nbetter able to\nit\n\nshow some actual value\n\nin\n\nof\n\nUnless special educa-\n\nmaking men and women\n\nmeet the ordinary demands of life, no matter how desirable\n\nmay seem, it has no reason to exist, and must in the end give way to\n\nother work, or to other subjects that will employ the student's time\nprofitably.\n\nmore\n\nIt is, therefore, by actual results that we are to judge of the value\n\nof any teaching, and, by this same standard, of the practical value of manual\n\nand technical training. The question is whether students are sufficiently\nimproved thereby to compensate for the time spent.\nSubjects that are taught in our schools and colleges may have one or both\nof two values: they may be useful in developing the reasoning faculties, thus\n•fitting the student to\n\ndeal later with the actual problems of real work, in the\n\nsame way as gymnastics develop the muscles of the body and are thus useful,\ntho one may not become a gymnast; or the subjects may have a direct value\nper se, as do all subjects that will later have bearing on actual daily vocations.\nIt is not for me, in a gathering of educators, to discuss the relative importance\n\nof any subject of the former class.\n\nOthers who will address you will cover the\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nSessions]\n\nUTILITY OF MANUAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING\n\n135\n\nvalue of manual training from the standpoint of mental development\n\nphase of the question requires any consideration or argument\n\n;\n\nwhile\n\n— that\n\nI,\n\nif\n\nwithin\n\nthe narrow compass of this paper, will invite your attention to a consideration\nof the subject solely from the standpoint of practical utiHty, and with regard to\nbetter fitting young men for the actual demands of work to come.\n\nWhen manual training was first brought forward, it was with the view of\nmeans of mental development it has, however, a much wider field\npractical\napplication, and an actual educational value of great practical\nmore\na\nits use as a\n\nutility.\n\n;\n\nWe are all conscious of the tremendous progress in mechanical\n\ndevelopment that has taken place within the past fifty years, more especially\nduring the last twenty years, and that is still going on at an increasing ratio.\nIt was not so very long ago that the great source of wealth was in agriculture,\n\nwhere work was performed by the most rudimentary of unskilled labor, while\neven in mining and in the mechanical arts implements were of the crudest\nform.\n\nOn the strength of men's arms, legs, and backs was the main rehance\n\nfor power.\n\nToday it is hard to call to mind a single trade in which machinery\n\nof intricate form does not enter in some degree, and usually to a great extent\n\nmachines requiring on the part of the operative some knowledge of mechanics,\nsome experience in manipulation, and some skill in manual dexterity. The\nhand-needle has given way to the sewing-machine;\n\nthe farmer's foot-loom\n\nand spinning-wheel, to exceedingly complicated machines of great capacity,\nengine-driven; the telephone is used in place of the messenger; a machine\nand not a pen writes our letters; while our stables have become repair shops\nfor motor cars.\nSuch are but a few of the many examples in our everyday\nlife that at once occur to one, where machinery is displacing handwork, and\nwhere skilled labor is taking the place of unskilled. The change that has\ncome about does not, however, stop with these. A moment's consideration\nshows us that our great crops are sown, gathered, and harvested, not by the\nhand-sower, by the scythe, and by the flail, but almost wholly by machinery;\nand where farms are conducted profitably and on modern lines, such means are\nwholly employed. Even at sea, where there is still rivalry between wind and\nsteam as motive power, the former can be used to advantage only by placing\non a sailing-vessel an engine to hoist and work the sails, thus permitting a\nreduction in the size of the crew by the substitution of mechanical skill for\nordinary labor;\n\nwhile the fishermen of small capital, instead of rowing or\n\nsailing each morning from the beach to the fishing grounds, are now going, in\n\nIncreasing numbers, to and from their daily work in gasoline-driven dories.\n\nMechanical development has already invaded our homes and our offices, and\nis\n\nfast taking possession of every avenue of human industry,\n\nsive field of transportation\n\nfrom the extenand the great factories, whose fires never go out,\n\ndown step by step to the electric cooking-stove.\nA measure of the number of persons dependent upon mechanical pursuits\n\ncan be obtained from the reports of the United States Census Bureau.\n\nThe report for the decade ending 1900 shows that there were then 29,000.000\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n136\n\nOf\n\npersons engaged in various occupations.\n\nthis\n\n[General\n\nnumber there were no\n\nless than 8,000,000, omitting entirely all those engaged in agriculture, employed\n\nin occupations where machine and tool knowledge formed the basis of work;\n\nwhile in nearly all of the others some such knowledge was desirable, and in\n\nmany cases essential.\n\nIt is\n\nnot an exaggeration to say that machine- and\n\ntool-work form so large a part of the daily vocation of the majority of all the\n\nworking classes in this country that there is not a single calling where the\nworker is not required to show some familiarity with tools, and where some\nproficiency in mechanical dexterity will not lead to his advancement.\n\nIn fact,\n\nwould seem that, after the great foundation of all education, reading, writing, and arithmetic, there is no one subject of instruction of so widespread\nWith the\npractical benefit as that of teaching the art of using the hands.\nmasses an education that develops the thinking power alone is of small\nit\n\nvalue;\n\nit\n\nproduces a development that is unbalanced;\n\ntion,\n\nit\n\ncreates a\n\npower\n\nGive a man a rudimentary educa-\n\nthat is ineffective, that cannot be used.\n\nwith an understanding of how to do things, and the educational foun-\n\ndation of productive capacity has been laid,\n\nwhich capacity governs the\n\nThe practical utility of manual training is the instruc-\n\nwage-earning power.\n\ntion of the rising generations in the use of tools, the education not only of the\n\nmind, but of the hand and the eye, and in teaching a subject that will later be\n\nan actual portion of the life-work of the majority of students.\n\nThe limit to which manual training should be carried is to be considered\nfrom three points of view: the elementary work in the lower grades, the\n\nAs\nmore advanced\n\nspecialized in the trade schools, and the higher in the technical colleges:\nto\n\n—the basis\n\nmanual training in the lower grades\n\nin the trade schools\n\n—\n\n^you\n\nfor the\n\nhave already listened to an acknowledged expert,\n\nwhile of the specialized work in the trade schools you will presently hear one\n\nwho has given the subject the closest study.\n\nAs to its practical value in our\n\ntechnical colleges, we must differentiate between the technical college and the\n\nhighest grade of trade school, especially in the matter of manual training.\n\nThe\n\none aims to turn out the professional engineer, educated not only in techincal\nsciences, but in the liberal arts as well, to\n\nwhom time and money spent in pro-\n\ncuring an education are quite a secondary consideration as compared with\nthe acquiring of an education\n\nthe other aims to develop the highest\n\nitself;\n\ngrade of mechanic and general foreman.\n\nAltho there is a great difference in\n\nthe scope of the educational work in the technical college and most advanced\nof trade schools, yet there is this similarity, that both deal with mechanical\n\nappliances; but with this distinction, that the men of the latter will in practice\n\nhave to do with their own hands their own work, while those of the former will\ndirect other\n\nhands to do it.\n\nIt is\n\nnot essential, therefore, that a technical\n\ncollege should carry manual training to the same point of development as the\n\nhighest grade of trade school does.\n\nIn the education of the engineer there\n\nshould be enough manual training to\n\nmade\n\nto\n\nfamiliarize\n\nhim\n\nmake him understand how things are\n\nsufl&ciently with\n\ncasting\n\nand\n\nforging,\n\nhand and\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nUTILITY OF MANUAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING\n\n137\n\nmachine tools, engines and their adjustment, the winding of dynamos, and\nhim the requisite know-\n\nthe connection of electrical devices, so as to give\n\nhow construcmake him conversant with\n\nledge of how to design, how the engine should be used, and\ntion results can be\n\naccompUshed;\n\nprinciples, rather than to develop\n\nin short,\n\nto\n\nmanual dexterity.\n\nThis brings us to the question of the practical value of technical training\nitself,\n\nand whether it is better that young men who are to follow the profes-\n\nsional Ufe of engineering should get their education in the offices of an older\npractitioner, as has been the custom in England, and is still to a large extent\n\nthe universal custom in teaching the allied subject of architecture\n\nthe same end by passing thru a technical college\n\nGermany.\n\n—the practice\n\n;\n\nor to gain\n\nin America and\n\nTo quote the growth of technical colleges is not necessarily a\n\nrational argument, but\n\nit\n\ncertainly goes to\n\nshow popular appreciation.\n\nIn\n\n1870 there were less than half a dozen institutions in the United States where\na good technical education could be had, and the number of students was\nsmall.\n\nToday there are no fewer than forty-three such institutions, with over\n\n23,000 students enrolled.\n\nBefore considering the practical value of technical education, let us define\n\nwhat is an engineer, and what is the vocation known as engineering. The\nword \"engineering\" is used here in its broadest sense, including all branches\nof professional work in apphed science or construction.\nThe word\n\"engineer\" is not, as is popularly supposed, derived from the word \"engine,\"\na machine.\n\nThere were engineers before steam was practically applied, or\n\nbefore the development of engines, in the modem acceptation of the term,\n\nbegan.\n\nBoth the words, \"engineer\" and \"engine,\" come from the same\n\nwhose prime meaning is \"natural quahty,\nand it in turn is derived from gegno, \"to produce.\" The\n\nderivation, the Latin ingeninm,\n\ncharacter, genius;\"\n\nengineer is, therefore, a man of \"natural quahty\"\n\n—one capable\n\nof producing.\n\nThe early engineers were military men engaged in fortifying cities and constructing battering rams and other engines of war.\nThe first man to use the\nterm \"civil engineer\" was John Smeaton, the eminent designer and constructor of the first Eddystone lighthouse, that guided safely into the harbor of Plym-\n\nouth the East India merchantmen of the eighteenth century.\n\nHe adopted\n\nthis appellation to distinguish himself from his confreres as one working, not\n\nThe profession of engineering in its\nThomas Tredgold, when founding the\n\nin military, but in civil undertakings.\n\nbroadest scope was later defined by\n\nInstitution of Civil Engineers, as being \"the art of directing the great sources\n\nof power in nature for the use and convenience of man.\"\n\nIt is difficult to\n\nimagine a field of work of higher order, of wider scope, and for which a more\ncomplete previous technical training is essential.\n\nThe powers of nature, those great and mighty forces that surround us;\nthat sustain and govern, not merely our own small earth, but the whole universe; powers that are without Hmits as to time and space;\n\nwhose laws never\n\nvary; whose manifestations may undergo change, but which never suffer loss,\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n138\n\n[Genera\n\nand which are the only things of which we have cognizance that are of perfect\ntruth these forces, in all their might, from the great energy of the engine capable of lifting mighty weights, or the violence of an explosive rending moun-\n\n—\n\ntains of rock, to the gentleness of the watch-spring in your pocket regulated to\n\na variation of less than a second a day, are by the study of the engineer controlled\nlittle\n\nand directed for the use and convenience of his fellow-men.\n\nHow\n\ndid Smeaton foresee the development of civil work to which he appHed a\n\ndesignative title\n\n1\n\nHow Httle did Tredgold realize the far-reaching effects of a\n\ncalling to which, it is true, he gave unlimited bounds!\n\nThe responsibility of\n\neducating men who are to follow Smeaton, who are to realize the ideals of\n\nTredgold, who are to understand, direct, and make useful the powers of nature,\nrests upon such as you who make up this audience.\n\nto repeat that definition of engineering,\n\nIt seems but necessary\n\nwhich in simplicity of language, in\n\ndirectness of thought, in broadness of conception, has never been excelled, to\n\nanswer at once the question whether such education is better given in special\nWhat are these\ntechnical colleges or in the offices of some one practitioner.\npowers of nature ? They are not only those that we see or feel every moment\nlight, heat,\n\nsteam, gravity; but also those studied by the electrician, by the\n\nchemist, by the physicist, by the geologist, and by the other disciples of pure\nscience;\n\nthose intricate forces that, whether matter consists of many or few\n\nelements, give it such a manifold and diversified character.\nof human information of the several branches of science\nlimited;\n\nWhen the total\n\nwas comparatively\n\nwhen the engineer could depend largely upon precedent; when\n\nprogress was made by short and careful steps, it was possible for a sufficient\n\neducation to be acquired under the tutelage of a single man, leaving it to the\ninherent genius of the\n\npupil to self-develop.\n\nWith, however, the vast and\n\nconstantly broadening field of modem scientific knowledge, it is quite impossible\nfor one man, or such a limited\n\ngroup of men as one office may contain, to\n\nimpart to the young student the requisite instruction in all the properties of\nthe forces and materials of nature that he should have as a general foundation\n\nAlthough engineering, hke medicine, law,\nfor his professional education.\nand the other learned professions, is divided into separate branches, nevertheless the modem engineer must know something of machine design, of electricity and its practical application, of hydraulics, transportation, structural\nconstruction, together with physics, geology, and metallurgy.\nIf such a structure be built on the solid foundation of a good education in the Hberal arts,\nso much the better will it be and, obviously, such a preparation can be given\n;\n\nin an institution with a corps of specialists.\n\nas any profession becomes\n\nIt seems a contradiction to say that,\n\nmore specialized, at the same time it becomes\n\nbroader; but, as a matter of fact, the range of subjects to be studied does\n\n—\n\n—\n\nbecome wider. It is not necessary in fact, it is impossible for anyone to\nbecome expert in all branches; yet so interdependent are the several divisions,\nso interlocked are the various nature forces, that some knowledge should be\nhad of many subjects and much knowledge of few.\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nUTILITY OF MANUAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING\n\nSessionsl\n\n139\n\nI gave you above numerical statistics of the growth of our technical colleges\n\nas an instance of\nstatistics of the\n\nthe practical success of such education.\n\nEducational\n\nengineering forces engaged in building the Rapid Transit\n\nSubway of New York city were compiled, and are both interesting and sugThe\ngestive as showing the extent to which technical training is availed of.\none\ntime,\nexclusive\nstaff of engineers numbered about two hundred at any\nof inspectors, and was divided into three classes: the executive, or those engi-\n\nneers holding positions of responsibility, and\n\nwho were called on for original\n\nthought in designing as well as for ability in execution\n\n;\n\nthe assistant engineers,\n\nholding positions of less trust, men of less experience, carrying out the orders\n\nand the third, the\nrodmen, those just begiiming engineering work, called on for no originality,\nof\n\ntheir\n\nsuperior officers,\n\ntho still with\n\nbut acting entirely under instructions.\nin the\n\nfirst\n\nclass,\n\nwere\n\nfilled after\n\nresponsibility;\n\nAll of these positions, except those\n\na competitive civil-service examination.\n\nOf the first two classes 86 per cent, were college graduates from our leading\nwhile of the third, where such education was not in any way a\nnecessary requirement, not less than 58 per cent, had passed thru some\ninstitutions;\n\ncollege of recognized standing.\n\nDuring recent years we have been frequently admonished to lead ''the\nstrenuous life\" by no less a person than the president of the United States,\n\nwho has always been a vigorous exponent of his own doctrine.\n\nMore recently\n\nan eminent French divine has been preaching the antithesis to \"the strenuous\nlife,\" namely,\n\n\"the simple life.\"\n\nDoes either as an\n\nideal satisfy in full all the requirements\n\nStrenuosity suggests, and\n\nmay be nothing more than, energy for\n\nbe our ideal ?\nof life?\n\nJudged from the cold standpoint of practi-\n\nShould either \"the strenuous Ufe\" or \"the simple life\"\n\ncality, is either right ?\n\ngood or for evil\n\n—vigor whose\n\nforce, acting\n\nwithout guidance, produces no\n\nuseful effect, and entirely fails to come up to the meaning of \"engineering,\"\n\nwhich is character, and the underlying motif of Tredgold's definition, which is\nforce directed for the benefit of man.\n\nSimpHcity, on the other hand, preached\n\nmind a gentleness deficient in vigor;\n\nas a doctrine, calls to\n\nor possibly a\n\ntimidity that shuns a contest with the hard, unsympathetic conventions of\nlife,\n\nand an avoidance of the necessary and entirely proper compUcations that\n\near an inevitable concomitant of modern development.\n\nbeyond human grasp\n\n;\n\nLife itself is involved\n\nand nature, with its sources of power, is complicated\nand all to an extent for which simplicity alone fails to\n\neverything about is vast\n\n;\n\nWe need force, we need a\nwe need that direction and avoidance of the unnecessary\n\npresent a satisfactory solution as a life-guide.\n\nvigorous force;\n\nwhich is simpHcity; but with either one alone there is something lacking.\nInstead of great force and latent energy without control;\n\ninstead of quiet\n\ngentleness without restriction, or of power of control without vigor to be controlled, what we need is force and energy applied where necessary, and always\nunder control, always working to a definite purpose, and at the same time avoid-\n\ning compUcations and unnecessary friction.\n\nThat is, to have a Hfe whose great\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI40\n\n[General\n\nunderlying motif is efficiency; and instead of speaking of \"the strenuous life'*\nor of \"the simple life,\" lef us have before us as a doctrine \"the effective life.\"\n\nWhat we need is not merely a man who acts, but one who does; that is, one\nwho will do what he has to do regardless of intervening obstacles. Efficiency\nand effectiveness are the keynotes of success in actual life. They are also the\nlessons taught by every parable in the New Testament, even if that work is\nregarded only as a code of ethics; and they form the spirit of that stirring\ndefinition of engineering which is based on the direction of the vital forces of\nnature and the doing of things for mankind. Efficiency is the practical\nunderlying principle in the work of technical education. In no other walk of\nlife is actual efficiency so essential as in engineering.\n\nIn other lines there is a\n\nplace for the student, for the didactic, for him who would turn to his books to\n\ngather wisdom; but not so in technical work.\nto do\n\n—\n\nHere there must be the man\n\nto take those great and mighty forces and make them do effective work.\n\nUnless he can so stand up and do that, he cannot succeed.\n\nWe are all cognizant of the great results already achieved by technical\ndevelopment;\n\nbut have you ever paused to take the measure of any one\n\nexample, to analyze some one of the results that we see daily produced, and to\nestimate what they mean ?\n\nI^et\n\nme give you one example, to which I have\nYou have all\n\nreferred on other occasions, but which is not out of place here.\n\nseen some ocean liner pass majestically to sea out of the port of New York ; but\n\nhave you ever thought of what that ship has to be designed to do, and the\n\namount of energy, expressed in simple language, that is required to propel\nYou see the many decks, the several funnels, and\nBelow the water and out of sight there is still more than what\nthe tall masts.\nis visible above; but all is so adjusted that, no matter how buffeted by the\nstorms, the ship will always be stable and will come back to a vertical position.\nI^ongitudinally, the great ship of 800 feet must be structurally designed to be\nsupported at one moment on waves at bow and stern, and yet resist breaking\nin the middle, and at the next moment be supported by a wave in the middle\nher from shore to shore ?\n\nonly to resist breaking in two in the opposite direction.\n\nTo drive this great\n\nmass, whose weiglit is 40,000 tons, through the water at railway speed, requires\n\na force rated at 50,000 horse-power.\n\nSo stated it means nothing, but as each\n\nhorse-power is equivalent to one and one-half ordinary draft horses, and as\n\neach of the latter can do the work of eleven men\n\n—who, however, can work\n—there would be\n\nfor only eight hours a day, thus requiring three sets of men\n\nneeded to take the place of the same energy in the ship no less than 2,500,000\n\nmen.\n\nHere in one single case combined we have an illustration of great static\nand the whole is an excellent illustra-\n\nability and enormous dynamic energy,\n\nThe structural strength and the compressed energy of the\n\ntion of efficiency.\n\nship are strenuosity in the extreme, but a vigorous strenuosity under absolute\ncontrol;\n\nand that control by one man at a throttle wheel is simplicity itself.\n\nEither one without the other is valueless; together they make the vital principle\nof which I spoke\n\n—\n\nefficiency.\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TRADE SCHOOLS\n\n141\n\nYou invited me to address you on the practical value of technical training\nas related to work in applied science.\n\nAs to the necessity for such education\n\nand as to the proper method\n\nof the highest order there is, of course, no debate,\n\nof acquiring it there can be\n\nno question.\n\nTechnical education has so\n\npoints of contact with professional work, and\n\nit\n\nmany\n\ncovers so wide a range, that\n\nFor the moment we are dealing with fundamental principles only, the basis of the subjective and objective value of such\none cannot discuss its details.\n\nan education, which can be summed up as efficiency leading to efifectiveness.\n\nThe one is the ability to do, the other is the doing.\ngiving to technical education\nefficient rests with you\n\nthe whole value.\n\nits\n\npractical value\n\nThe responsibility of\n\nby making it thoro and\n\nas educators, but efficiency alone will not\n\nThere must be instilled into\n\nit\n\nthe great\n\ncomplete\n\nHving principle\n.\n\nthat Tredgold had in mind when he spoke of directing the powers of nature\nfor the benefit of man; there\n\nmust be developed, not only in the education\n\nbut in the educated, in all simplicity, the vigorous strength that is embodied\nin \" The Effective Life.\"\n\nTHE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TRADE SCHOOLS\nFRANK A. VANDERLIP, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL CITY BANK, NEW\nYORK, N. Y.\nIn the group of great industrial nations there has come forward in recent\nyears one that has taken a place in the very front rank among industrial\nIt has reached a pre-eminent position in\n\ncompetitors.\n\nmany special fields of\n\nindustry, wresting from others the vantage they had long held in serene security.\n\nThat nation is Germany.\n\nBy the aid of rapidly developed skill and con-\n\nstantly improved methods, Germany has closed its own markets to the products\nof the manufacturies of other countries.\n\nthan that;\n\nit\n\nBut Germany has done much more\n\nhas developed an abiUty successfully to compete in the neutral\n\nmarkets of the world, until today it shows the greatest capacity in this field\nof international industrial competitors that is displayed by any of the great\n\nnations.\n\nIn accomplishing this remarkable industrial success, Germany has had little\naid from nature to make the task an easy one.\n\nThere has been no wealth of raw\n\nmaterial such as we Americans have had to aid us.\n\nThere has been no vast\n\nhomogeneous domestic market such as has been of vital importance in building up our own manufactures. Her people have lacked the peculiar inventive\ningenuity which in\n\nachievements.\n\nHer\n\nmany fields of industry has been the sole basis of our\nartisans have possessed\n\nalmost none of the delicate\n\nwhich makes French handiwork superior to the obstruction of\nHer industries were forced to grapple with English comall tariff walls.\n\nartistic sense\n\npetitors intrenched\n\nbehind a control and domination of the international\n\nmarkets which for generations have been successfully maintained.\n\nBut ^ midst\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n142\n\n[General\n\n>\n\nthis poverty of natural resources, and from among a people not signally gifted\n\neither with inventive ability or artistic temperament, there has, in a generation,\n\nemerged an industrial nation which stands forth, if we take into account the\ndisadvantages against which it had to struggle, as a marvel of economic\ndevelopment.\nI have had a somewhat unusual opportunity to study the underlying causes\n\nof the economic success of\n\nGermany, and I am firmly convinced that the\n\nexplanation of that progress can be encompassed in a single word\nmaster.\n\n—the school-\n\nHe is the great comer-stone of Germany's remarkable commercial\n\nFrom the economic point of view, the school system\nGermany stands unparalleled. The fundamental principle of the Ger-\n\nand industrial success.\nof\n\nman educational system is, in large measure, to train youths to be efiicient\neconomic units.\n\nIn that respect the German system is markedly at variance\n\nwith the present development of our own educational system.\n\nIn the German\n\nschools the most important aid in the work of successfully training youths into\nefficient industrial units\n\nhas come from an auxiliary to the regular school\n\nhas come from that division of instruction known as the trade\n\nsystem.\n\nIt\n\nschools.\n\nThe German trade schools have been so designed that they suppleThey are devised\n\nment the cultural training of the common-school system.\n\nto give instruction which will be practically valuable in every trade\n\ncommercial and industrial calling.\n\n—\n\nin every\n\nThey are so arranged that their work\n\nsupplements both the cultural training of the academic system and the technical routine of the daily task.\n\nshops and offices.\n\nThese schools are the direct auxiUaries of the\n\nThey have been the most powerful influence in Germany\n\nin training to higher efficiency the rank and file of the industrial army.\n\nThe students in these trade schools, you ^understand, are youths who have\ncompleted the regular compulsory educational course, and have gone out into\nthe ranks of active industrial and commercial workers.\n\nThe hours of instruc-\n\ntion are so arranged that they fall oustide of the regular hours of labor in shop\n\nThe curriculum is broadly practical.\n\nor office.\n\n—\n\nIt includes the science of\n\nmathematics or chemistry, for instance\n\n—\n\nand its\nBut it does not stop there. Principles of wise business management are taught. The aim is to prepare a student for the practical conduct\nHe gains knowledge of production and consumption, of marof a business.\neach particular trade\n\nits\n\ntechnology.\n\nkets\n\nand of the causes of price fluctuations.\n\nHe is put into a position to\n\nacquire an insight into concrete business relations, and into trade practices\n\nand conditions. Are not these aims worthy of our schools? What truer\ndemocracy can there be than to have a school system that will point the way\nto every worker, no matter how humble, by which he may reach a clearer\ncomprehension of the industry in which he is engaged, and with the aid of this\nknowledge may rise to a position of importance in that industry ?\n\nTo do all this does not mean the \"commercializing\" of our educational\nsystem.\n\nThere is no need for opposition even from those who hold that it is\n\nnot the place of the schools to teach youths how to earn a livelihood.\n\nThose\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TRADE SCHOOLS\n\n143\n\neducators who lay strongest emphasis upon such phases as \"character formation,\"\n\n\"mental discipline,\" and \"harmonious cultivation of the faculties,\"\n\nmay continue to hold firmly to those views, and at the same time welcome an\nauxiliary school system which, while not curtailing their ideal culture courses,\nwill add, after the ordinary period of school life is over, the opportunity for\n\nvaluable practical instruction.\n\nSuch an auxiliary system of trade schools will be available for the youth\nafter he has left the direct influence of our present school system.\n\nThere are\n\nin the United States ten millions of population between the ages of fifteen and\n\nThree-quarters of that number are not in attendance at any\nHere is a group of youth, seven and a half millions in number, from\n\ntwenty years.\nschool.\n\nwhich the students of such trade schools would be drawn.\nSurely it needs little training in the economics of industry to comprehend\nwhat an unreckonable advantage it would be if a substantial proportion of\nthat seven and one-half miUions were to be brought within the influence of a\n\nnew and entirely practical system of education designed to make each youth\na more efficient economic unit.\n\nThe present generation of American youth, entering industrial or commercial life, is to encounter a new, and in some respects a harder, condition of\naffairs.\n\nSo far as you, as educators, conceive education to be in any sense a\n\npreparation for practical life in a workaday world, there have been laid upon\n\nyou new demands and fresh\n\nresponsibilities.\n\nThe industrial life of this\n\ncountry has in a decade undergone changes more significant than had been\n\nencompassed before in a period of two generations.\n\nNo one whose life has\n\nbeen largely in the classroom is likely to have comprehended fully the true\nsignificance of the development of the forces of combination\n\n—combination in\n\nthe field of labor as manifested in the growing power of unionism, in combinations, in the domain of capital as manifested in the trusts, concentration in the\n\ncontrol of industries, in the subdivision of labor and the aggregation of wealth.\n\nThis display of the forces of combination, equally significant in the fields of\nlabor and of capital, has brought changed conditions to the problem of human\nindustrial endeavor.\n\nThe welfare of the people, and the position which our\n\ncountry is to maintain among nations, both depend on no single thing more\n\nthan on the recognition of these changed conditions by our educators.\n\nYou\n\nmust recognize the new demands of the times. You must provide the\neducational requisites which these changed conditions make imperative.\nThe forces of combination the labor unions and the trusts are united\nand are working in harmony to accomplish at least one thing. They are\nunited in a tendency to make, of a great percentage of our population, commercial or industrial automatons. They both tend to subdivide labor, and\nthereby limit the opportunity to acquire a comprehension of broad principles.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThey both tend to circumscribe the field of the apprentice, narrowing his\nopportunity, forcing him into petty specialization, and restricting his free and\nintelligent development.\n\nAll this is placing us in grave danger of evolving an\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n144\n\nindustrial race of automatic workers, without diversity of\n\n[General\n\nskill,\n\nunderstanding of principles, and without a breadth of capacity.\n\nwithout an\nThere is but\n\none power [that can counteract that tendency; that power is the schoolmaster. These youths who can gain from their daily work only that narrow\nroutine technical experience which, in the main, is all that the conditions of\n\nmodern industry offer, have a right to demand something more. They have\nAs modem conditions narrow their technical training, those same conditions broaden the\nopportunity for the man who does acquire knowledge which will give him a\ngrasp of more than a single detail of his business. I believe it is your duty to\na right to demand the opportunity for a practical education.\n\nprovide schools that will supplement the routine of the day's work; schools\nthat will give to those youths a comprehension of the relation of the narrow\ndaily task to the broad industry;\n\nschools that will supplement such cultural\n\ntraining as our present system has provided with practical knowledge of\n\nimmediate and valuable application;\n\nschools that will counteract the dis-\n\ncouragement and monotony of the daily round of toil, and create in their\nstead some enthusiasm for work, building up a love of labor by showing an\nintellectual side to what was before blank mechanical routine.\n\nThe industrial and commercial world never needed the schoolmaster more.\nIt is\n\nnot enough to say that you will give your efforts toward the perfecting\n\nof the present system, until\n\nit\n\nwill so\n\ngarb youth in an armor of sweetness\n\nand light, until it will so instil into the youthful mind a love of the beautiful,\nso strengthen his character, so build up by general instruction his mental\ngrasp, so train his general faculties, that you will for him have dignified all\nlabor and provided him with springs from which, without regard to material\nsurroundings, he can always drink with the deepest satisfaction.\n\nAll that is\n\na noble ideal; but none know so well as yourselves that an armor of that sort,\nif it is to\n\nbe forged by a boy before he is fifteen years of age, will be an imperfect\n\nprotection\n\nagainst the dijQ&culties of\n\nmodem industriaHsm.\n\nThe\n\npresent\n\nsystem of education does not meet the present requirements of industrial conditions.\n\nThere is a want in that industrial situation which nothing can so\n\nI beheve Germany has recognized\nHer answer to the problem raised\nby the new industriaHsm has been the development of the trade school. Her\nreward has been an unprecedented prosperity of her people and an unexampled\n\nwell supply as an auxihary school system.\n\nthat more clearly than any other nation.\n\ndevelopment of her economic resources.\nI would particularly emphasize the difference between a system of trade\nschools and a movement to enlarge the present curriculum of existing schools\nby the introduction of manual training. There should be no confusion\nbetween those two ideas. One belongs to the category of the \"fads and frills.\"\nI believe it is useful, but perhaps it crowds out other things still more useful.\nThe trade-school system which we need is an utterly different and far more\nIt is a technical school of comparatively advanced type, with\nserious matter.\nthe technical side of its instruction in the hands of skilled, practical workmen.\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF TRADE SCHOOLS\n\n145\n\nThe students are serious workers, regularly employed in shops or offices, who\nare seeking for knowledge that will help them better to grasp the technique\n\nand the principles of their daily labor. The curriculum is designed to aid\nthem to comprehend the scientific and theoretical side of their work, supplementing their technical experience.\ninfluence of our present school system.\n\nThe field is quite outside the direct\nThe result, in my opinion, if such a\n\nsystem is generally developed, cannot be reckoned\n\nin\n\nsymbols of dollars.\n\nIt\n\nwill be as far-reaching as our international relations, as broad as our industrial\n\nas important as the welfare, prosperity, and contentment of our people.\n\nlife,\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ.\n\nM. H. Frederick, Superintendent of Schools, Lakewood, Ohio.\n\n—In Europe, when\n\none asks you who you are, he usually means to inquire who your ancestors were; in this\ncountry this question implies, among other things, what you do, what you can do, and\n\nwhat you have done.\n\nIn the United States the overwhelming dominancy of what we may\n\ncall static education is past;\n\nthe dynamics of our entire civilization was never so marked\n\nas it is today, with Theodore Roosevelt in the chief place of power and trust.\n\nOur ideas\n\nand our ideals are more vivid than ever before. The mental processes reflect the age, and\nare no longer considered complete with \"knowing, feeling, and willing.\"\nAction is the\nacme of thought; or perhaps, to speak more accurately, the acme of thought is not reached\nwithout action. It reacts upon and vivifies the idea, intensifies the feeling, and strengthens\nthe will. A few years ago we argued that impression precedes and determines expression;\ntoday the impression is not considered complete without expression.\n\nComplete education may be said to be the harmonious development of all our faculties.\n\nManual exercise develops powers and appreciations that would otherwise lie dormant.\nIt is no accident that so large\n\na percentage of successful men were reared on the farm.\n\nThe necessities\nFrom early childhood these men were\n\nCharles Dickens declared use and necessity to be the best of all teachers.\nof farm life compelled the use of certain faculties.\n\naccustomed to do useful things, and thus they acquired the habit of achievement, as it\nThere was demand in plenty for the exercise of initiative and perseverance in\n\nwere.\n\nthought and action.\n\nEvery boy who ever taught a calf to drink, or persuaded a ram to\n\ngo the peaceful way and the pig to return to his sty, thereby was acquiring the habits of\n\nAt every turn his farm life trained him. These necessities furnished the natural\nThe average boy of the city has no such necessity, and no\nsuch natural opportunity. The manual training of the schools tends to give the boys of\nthe cities equal opportunities with the boys of the country.\nIt does, moreover, what the\nfarm so often fails to do: it cultivates the appreciations; and life is rich about in proportion\nas our appreciations are large and keen.\nsuccess.\n\nopportunities of the farmer boy.\n\nThe habits of early days cling to us.\n\nTherefore it is important that the child shall\n\nacquire early the habit of doing useful things.\nthat he can be useful.\n\nI\n\nIt is a valuable discovery when he learns\n\nhave in mind children who did poor work in every branch of\n\nstudy until clay-modeling, basket-making, weaving, or drawing revealed their possibilities\n\nand put them on the way to confidence and hopeful effort. Once one is conscious of his\nability to perform real service, he is a king compared with him who knows much, but feels\nthat he can do nothing that the world needs.\nThe feeUng that one is doing something\nuseful, constitutes a kind of interest; and interest is the mainspring of all worthy effort.\nLet a child copy a picture or make a drawing of a cabinet before him, and he will grow in\ncareful observation and manual skill; but let him design a picture or make a cabinet, and\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n146\n\n[General\n\nthe task will give in addition, keenness to his senses, and power and freedom of invention\nto his thought.\n\nSo far as possible, manual training in the schools should have usefulness of the work\ndone as an incentive, because, rightly directed, it tends not only to efficiency, but\nthe desire to be useful and sympathy with manual toil.\nalso to the best self-expression\nIt was their best work of the entire year,\nI recall the handiwork of pupils at Christmas.\nbecause it was the fruit of effort born of the altruistic spirit of the season.\nPresent needs and conditions have in every age been the principal factors in determining educational as well as all other conduct. The two dominant forces in the world today\nare business and education, and it is in manual and technical school work that they first\nto be\n\n—\n\nunite in the pupil's experience.\nI hope that I shall not be understood as at all lacking appreciation of the cultural\n\nin education.\n\nWe all agree that we are here to live —that the ultimate purpose is to make\n\na life rather than to make a living, as someone has said; but in order to make a life we\n\nmust have that ability which is necessary to make a living. We want the greatest breadth\nManual and technical training\npossible; but efficiency must go hand in hand with it.\ngive efficiency, and I am not prepared to admit that they are altogether devoid of cultural\nEmerson held that to be cultured a person must be able to perform some kind of\nvalue.\nmanual work well. Superlative efficiency is required to plan and construct a New York\nSubway and a Panama Canal, or to finance a great twentieth-century business corporation;\nbut such works are not accomplished usually by uncultured men. Let us have highminded life, with its philosophy which can bear its head above the clouds and among the\nstars, but let hs also always keep a firm footing on the earth.\n\nADDRESS\nTHEODORE ROOSEVELT, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES\n[stenographic report]\nPresident Maxwell, and Members oj the National Educational Association:\nI thank you for the chance of addressing you today;\n\nand I wish, Governor\n\n(turning to Governor Stokes), to thank thru you the state of New Jersey for\nthe hospitality extended to us, and to say personally how glad I am to be\n\nwithin the borders of this great state once more, and particularly on such\n\nan occasion as the present.\nI am particularly pleased to have the opportunity of addressing this Association because in all this democratic land there is no more genuinely democratic body than this; for here\n\neach\n\nmember meets every other member as\n\nhis peer, without regard to whether he is president of one of the great universities\n\nor the newest recruit to that high and honorable profession which has\n\nin its charge the upbringing of the boys and girls who in a few short years will\n\nthemselves be engaged in settling the destinies of this nation.\n\nIt is\n\nnot too\n\nmuch to say that the most characteristic work of the RepubHc is that done by\nthe teachers;\n\nmay be\n\nby the teachers, for whatever our shortcomings as a nation\n\n—and we have certain shortcomings—we have at\n\nleast firmly grasped\n\nthe fact that we cannot do our part in the difficult and all-important work of\n\nself-government, that we cannot rule and govern ourselves, unless we approach\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nSessions]\n\nADDRESS\n\nthe task with developed minds,\n\nand with what counts for more even than\n\n*\n\n1 47\n\ndeveloped minds, with trained characters.\n\nYou teachers\n\n—and\n\nit is\n\na mere truism to say this\n\n—you teachers make the\n\nwhole world your debtor, and of you it can be said, as it can be said of no\nother profession save the profession of the ministers of the gospel themselves\nif\n\nyou teachers did not do your work well, this republic would not outlast\nMoreover, as an incident to your avowed work,\n\nthe span of a generation.\n\nyou render some well-nigh unbelievable services to the country.\n\nP'or instance,\n\nyou render to this republic the prime, the vital service of amalgamating\ninto one homogeneous body the children alike of those who are born here\n\nand of those who come here from so many different lands abroad. You\ncommon training and common ideals for the children of all the\nmixed peoples who are here being fused into one nationality. It is in no\nsmall degree due to you, and to your efforts, that we of this great American\n\nfurnish a\n\nrepublic form one people instead of a group of jarring peoples.\n\nThe children, wherever they have been bom, wherever their parents have\nbeen bom, who are educated in our schools side by side with one another,\nwill inevitably\n\ngrow up having that sense of mutual sympathy and mutual\n\nrespect and understanding which is absolutely indispensable for working out\n\nthe problems that we as citizens have before us.\n\nAnd now I wish to speak of another service that you render which I regard\nIn our country, where altogether too much prominence is\ngiven to the mere possession of wealth, we are under heavy obligations to a\nas inestimable.\n\nbody such as this which substitutes for the ideal of the mere accumulation of\nmoney the infinitely loftier non-materialistic ideal of devotion to work worth\ndoing simply for that work's sake.\n\nI do not in the least underestimate the need\n\nof having material prosperity as the basis of our civilization, but I most earnestly insist that, if our civilization does not build a lofty superstructure on that\n\nbasis,\n\nwe can never rank among the really great peoples.\n\nWe need the\n\nmaterial prosperity as a foundation, but it serves only as a foundation, and\n\nwoe to us as a people unless upon that foundation we build a building of use\nto mankind.\n\nA certain amount of money is, of course, a necessary thing—a necessary\nthing as much for the nation as for the individual, and there are few move-\n\nments in Which I more thoroly believe than the movement to secure better\n\nWhile I hope for the success of\nmovement, it remains true that the service you render is incalculable\n\npay, better remuneration for the teachers.\nthat\n\nbecause of the very fact that by your lives you have shown that you believe\nideals to be\n\nwork\n\nworth sacrifice, and that you are eager to do non-remunerativ£\n\n—non-remunerative as judged by the ordinary standards—provided\n\nonly that work\n\nis\n\nof\n\ngenuine good for your fellow-men.\n\nTo furnish in\n\nyour lives such a reaHzed high ideal, not merely to speak about, but to live\n\nup to, is to do great service to the country. The chief harm done by the men\ncommunity is not the harm that^the^demagog is\n\nof swollen fortunes to the\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\napt to depict as springing from their actions, but the fact that their success\nsets up a false standard, and so serves as\nIf we did\n\na bad example for the rest of us.\n\nnot ourselves attach an exaggerated importance to the rich man\n\nwho is distinguished only by his riches, this rich man would have a most\ninsignificant influence over us.\n\nNow let me keep your minds upon my exact meaning. I speak of the rich\nman who is distinguished only by his riches, not of the rich man who uses his\nwealth aright as a means to an end.\n\nI ask you to remember the explanation\n\nof the parable of the rich man's difficulty in finding entrance to heaven.\n\nThe\n\nparable shows how ha^rd it shall be for the rich man who trusteth in his riches.\nIt is the rich man who trusteth in his riches that I am speaking of, not the\nman who is a first-rate citizen, whether rich or poor. Altho it is eminently\n\nright to take whatever steps are necessary in order to prevent the exceptional\n\nmembers of his class from doing harm, it is wicked folly to let ourselves be\ndrawn into any attack upon the man of wealth merely as such. Remember,\nyou teachers, that it is just as wicked to attack the man of wealth as such as\nto attack the man of poverty as such.\n\nMoreover, such an attack is in itself an\n\nexceptionally crooked and ugly tribute to wealth, and therefore the proof of\n\nan exceptionally crooked and ugly state of mind in the man making it. Venomous envy of wealth is simply another form of the spirit which in one of its\nmanifestations takes the form of cringing servility toward wealth, and in\nanother the shape of brutal arrogance on the part of certain men of wealth.\n\nEach one of these states of mind, whether it be hatred, servility, or arrogance, is in reaUty closely akin to the other two; for each of them springs\n\nfrom a fantastically twisted and exaggerated idea of the importance of wealth\nas compared with other things.\n\nThe man who is rendered arrogant by the\n\npossession of wealth is precisely the man who, if he didn't have it, would hate\n\nwith envious jealousy the man who had it.\n\nThe man who is roused to a fury\n\nof sour discontent, of envy, because he sees another man very well off, would\n\nwith absolute certainty misbehave himself if he became well off in his turn.\n\nThe clamor of the demagog against wealth, the snobbery of the social columns\nof the newspapers\n\nwhich deal with the doings of the wealthy, and the mis-\n\nconduct of those men of wealth who act with brutal disregard of the rights of\nothers, seem superficially to have no fundamental relations\n\n;\n\nyet in reality they\n\nspring from shortcomings which are fundamentally the same, and one of these\n\nshortcomings is the failure to have proper ideals.\n\nIf the\n\ncommunity pays\n\nproper heed to the right type of ideal, and admires the men most who approxi-\n\nmate most closely to that ideal, you will not find in it any of these unhealthy\nfeelings toward wealth.\n\nThe failure to have the right type of ideal must be remedied in large part\nby the action of you men and women here, and your fellow-teachers thruout\nBy your lives, even more than by your teachings, you show that,\nthis land.\nwhile you feel, as all of us ought to feel, that wealth is a good thing, you\nregard other 'things as still better.\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "ADDRESS\n\nSessions]\n\n1 49\n\nIt is absolutely necessary for each of us to earn a certain amount of money.\n\nIt is a man's first duty to those dependent upon him to earn enough for their\n\nsupport; but after a certain point has been reached, money-making can never\n\nstand on the same plane with other and nobler forms of effort.\n\nThe roll of American worthies numbers men like Washington and Lincoln,\nGrant and Farragut, Hawthorne and Poe, Fulton and Morse, St. Gaudens\n\nand MacMonnies;\ninventors,\n\nexplorers,\n\nit\n\nnumbers statesmen and\nbridge-builders,\n\nsoldiers,\n\nphilanthropists,\n\nartists,\n\nmoral\n\nsculptors,\n\nleaders\n\nin\n\nnumbers all these and many others Hke them; it numbers men who have deserved well in any one of countless fields of\nactivity; but of rich men it numbers only those who have used their riches\naright; who have treated wealth, not as an end, but as a means; who have\nshown good conduct in acquiring it, and not merely lavish generosity in\ngreat reforms;\n\nit\n\ndisposing of it.\n\nThrice fortunate are you to whom\n\nit\n\nis\n\ngiven to lead lives of resolute\n\nendeavor for the achievement of lofty ideals, and to instil, by living and teach-\n\nminds of the next generation, who will, as its boys\nand girls of today and as men and women of tomorrow, determine finally\nthe position which this nation is to hold in the history of mankind.\nAnd now, in closing, I want to speak to you of how certain things, some of\nwhich have happened during the past week, and others that have been\nsuggested by what has happened during the week, emphasize what I have\nsaid to you as to the importance to this country of having within its limits\nmen who put the realization of high ideals above any form of money-making.\nWithin a week this country has lost a great statesman, who was also\na great man of letters a man who occupied a peculiar and unique\nposition in our country; a man of whose existence we could each of us\nbe proud, because his life reflected upon each of us; for the United States as\na whole was better because John Hay Hved. John Hay entered the public\nservice as a young man, just come of age, as the secretary of President Lincoln.\nHe served in the war; he was a member of the Loyal Legion; he was trusted\nHe then\nby, and was intimate with, Lincoln as hardly any other man was.\nwent on rendering service after service, and of his merits this was one of them:\nhe had the great advantage and great merit of always being able at any moment\nto go back to private life, unless he could continue in public fife on his own\nterms.\nHe went on rendering service after service to the country, until as\nclimax of his career he served for some six years as secretary of state in two\nsuccessive administrations, and, by what he did and by what he was, contributed in no small degree to win for this repubUc the respect of the nations\nof mankind.\nSuch service as that could not have been rendered save by a\nman who had before him ideals as far as the poles from those ideals which\nhave in them any taint of what is base or sordid.\n\ning, those ideals into the\n\n—\n\nI wished to seciure as John Hay's successor the man whom I regarded as of\nall the\n\nmen in the country the one best fitted to be such successor.\n\nIn asking\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI50\n\n[General\n\nhim to accept the position of Secretary of State, I was asking him to submit to\nvery great pecuniary sacrifice; but I never even thought of that aspect of the\nquestion, for I knew he would not either.\n\nI knew that, whatever other consid-\n\neration he had to weigh for and against taking the position, the consideration\nof how it would effect his personal fortune would not be taken into account\n\nAnd he has accepted.\nAnd now I am not speaking of Hay and Root as solitary exceptions. On\nthe contrary, I am speaking of them as typical of a large class of men in public\nlife.\nWhen we hear so much criticism of certain aspects of our public Hf e and\nby Ehhu Root.\n\nof certain of our public servants\n\nmany cases deserved\npicture\n\n—\n\n—\n\nit is\n\n—criticism which, I regret\n\nto\n\nstate, is in\n\nwell for us to remember also the other side of the\n\nto remember that here in\n\nAmerica we now have, and always have\n\nhad, at the command of the nation in any crisis, in any emergency, the very\nbest abihty to be found within the nation; and that ability given with the\n\nutmost freedom, given lavishly and generously, altho at the great pecuniary\nloss of the\n\nmen giving it.\n\nThere is not in my cabinet a man to whom it is\nThere is not in my cabinet\n\nnot a financial disadvantage to stay in the cabinet.\n\none man who does not have to give up something substantial, very largely\nsubstantial in some cases, which it is a very real hardship for him to give up,\nin order that he\n\nmay continue in the service of the\n\nnation\n\n;\n\nand the only\n\nreward for which he looks or for which he cares is the consciousness of having\n\ndone service that is worth rendering.\nI hope more and more thruout this nation to see the spirit grow which\nmakes such service possible. I hope more and more to see the sentiment of\nthe community as a whole become such that each man shall feel it borne in\non him, whether he is in pubHc life or in private Hfe mind you, some of the\nvery greatest pubUc services can be best rendered by those who are not in\npublic life that the chance to do good work is the greatest chance that can\ncome to any man or woman in our generation or in any other generation that,\nif such work can be well done, it is in itself the amplest reward and the amplest\n\n—\n\n—\n\n;\n\nprize.\n\nRESPONSE TO THE ADDRESS OF PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT\nBY PRESIDENT JOHN R. KIRK, OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKS VILLE, MO.\nThe members of the National Educational Association are deeply grateful for the\nrecognition this day received.\n\nWe recall the severe duties at all times entailed upon our honored chief magistrate,\nWe know that the nations of the earth have lately\n\nespecially those of the past few days.\n\nlooked to the Capitol at Washington for the word that would bring to an end the greatest\n\nWith directness and simple dignity, the great contending\npowers were asked to make peace. They have made prompt and favorable response.\nThe world now knows a new diplomacy, and treats with befitting respect a new\nworld-power, our own fair land, the United States of America.\nwar the world has ever known.\n\nWe highly appreciate the spirit of the great leader who, thus engaged in the councils\n\nof nations, finds time to participate with us in discussing the great\n\nfundamental\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "RESPONSE\n\nSessions]\n\nproblem\n\n—the education of a generation of\n\nI51\n\ncitizens to receive\n\nand perpetuate\n\nthe\n\ninsti-\n\ntutions of our country.\n\nWe know the words spoken to us today come from the heart. We know this great\nAmerican who speaks to us. The school children of our country know him. The artist\nand the artisan, the student and the merchantman, the laborer and the capitalist know\nhim; for out of a strenuous life he finds moments to speak to them all.\nWe have just pride in this rare American of many parts, this embodiment of diversified talents possible in no land except our own, who represents the culture and poise\nof the East, the energy and force of the West, the fervor and frankness of the South, and\nthe sturdy endurance of the North.\n\nWe prize the sentiments here expressed to us, because they are the spontaneous,\nunvarnished outcropping convictions of a straightforward, unhesitating, versatile, unspoiled\n\nAmerican, now closer to the hearts of the whole people than any president of our republic\nsince the days of the martyred Lincoln.\n\nBut what shall we reap as the harvest of this passing hour ?\nThe National Educational Association represents all the schools of all the states and\nall the territories of this vast Union.\n\nseek no personal favors.\n\nWe are here for business and not for pleasure. We\n\nMoved by a happy discontent and by settled purpose, we face\n\nwithout fear the great issues of our country.\n\nIn a few days we return to our several posts of duty, and there the old problem, forever new, will confront us\n\n—the American boy. At the door of home\n—unknown\nhis\n\nto a complication of human agencies dazzling, bevvdldering\n\nhis eyes are opened\nto any other age or\n\ncountry.\n\nCan we catch him while he is young? Can we start aright this bundle of restless\nthis dynamo of alternating currents, this uncertain fluctuating marvel of\n\nenergies,\n\npotentialities ?\n\nWith him and us it is now or never.\n\nIn him, active or latent, is every instinct and\n\nevery impulse of the human race.\n\nGood or bad, they are in him. They are his race\ninheritance.\nFor them he is not responsible. Can we by use bring to maturity his good\ninheritance ? Can we by non-use free him from his bad inheritance ?\nCan we regulate\nhis will and action?\nCan we make him a free, self-respecting, law-abiding, law-creating,\nlaw-enforcing man? We wall try; and when he is a man, we will send him forth on\n\nWe will teach him to be both\nany party or man 6r platform. We will\nteach him not only to vote, but to make the ballot that he votes.\nMy friends, the day for honest deeds is dawning. My story is short. Let me tell it:\n\nelection day armed with a ballot and an indelible pencil.\n\npatriot and partisan, but never in serfdom to\n\nThe old conservative state of Missouri, keystone of the middle West, had a campaign of\neducation.\nfor,\n\nIt\n\nwas in November, 1904.\n\nstepped into the arena of politics.\n\nA mysterious stranger, unheralded, unlooked\nHe did not say: \"I am a Democrat.\"\n\nHe did\n\n\"I am a RepubUcan.\"\n\nBut he was a Democrat, a moss-back Democrat with\nthe moss shaken from his back.\nHe was a RepubHcan, grim, gaunt, and hungry, but\nunmindful of long blighted hopes. He was 60,000 strong. Guided by his personal\njudgment, he piled up a majority of 30,000 votes for the young, virile, unrelenting.\nDemocratic prosecutor of crime and corruption, Governor Joseph W. Folk; and another\nmajority of nearly 30,000 votes for the fearless, aggressive, uncompromising foe of\nwrong and friend of right and exemplar of law enforcement, President Theodore\nnot say:\n\nRoosevelt.\n\nMr. Chairman, I move that we, the members of the National Educational Association\ntender to the Honorable 1 i^eodore Roosevelt, President of the United States, our sincere\nthanks.\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n152\n\n[General\n\nSECOND RESPONSE\nMISS KATHERINE D. BLAKE, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, NEW YORK\nCITY\nMr. President:\nIn warmly seconding the vote of thanks to President Roosevelt for honoring us with\nhis presence here today, and for his earnest words to which we have all Hstened with so\n\nmuch admiration, T am sure that I express the feelings of the members of this Association\nfrom all parts of the country, but I bear a special message of thanks from the teachers of\nhis own native c;ty.\n\nWe of New York feel that he is of us, and belongs to us; for with us began his work,\nwhich has widened and grown until his influence for good reaches far beyond our utmost\nborders.\n\nHe is the greatest teacher of us all, for he is a teacher, not of children, but of men\nnay more, of nations\n\n—and as we watch the work of our great peace-maker, we\n\nall\n\nhope\n\nthat success may shortly crown his efforts.\n\nThe teachers of New York city especially owe a debt of gratitude to our great execubecause only a few years ago, when he was the governor of the Empire State, a bill\n\ntive,\n\nwas placed before him which provided liberal salaries for the city teachers, based on\nlength of service and meritorious work.\npolitician.\n\nIt removed the teacher\n\nfrom the power of the\n\nThe Board of Education was unanimously opposed to the bill;\n\nthe city\n\nauthorities protested that it would lay too heavy a burden upon the taxpayers.\n\nAt the\n\npublic hearing the might and power of the city government were arrayed on one side,\nagainst a handful of pedagogs on the other.\n\nIt seemed as tho there were but little hope that\nMr. Roosevelt listened patiently and carefully to the arguments on both sides; then, after mature deliberation, he did as he always does, that which\nhe felt it was right for him to do; and, in spite of the powerful opposition, he signed the\n\nthe bill would become a law.\n\nbiU.\n\nToday the schools, the teachers, and the children are reaping the benefits of that wise\nBy it a standard was set of adequate pay for meritorious service a standard which\nother cities and states are striving to reach. The signing of his name to that bill is an act\n\n—\n\nlaw.\n\nin the President's life that the chroniclers are not wont to dwell on;\n\ninfluence for good that will reach far into the future.\n\nyet it has had an\n\nBy that little act Mr. Roosevelt did\n\nthe highest service to the public-school system of this country,\n\ndid his utmost for\n\ncultivating that enlightened public opinion which is essential to good government.\n\nPlease do not regard me as mercenary in speaking thus.\n\nI often think that the love of\n\nmoney which is so strong in Americans today was put into their hearts by the poorly paid\npedagogs of the past generation. All unconsciously, we teachers impress our pupils with\nour own ideals; for personality is the strongest force in teaching, tho sometimes the least\nconsidered. When a teacher is ground down to starvation wages, the acquisition of a\ndollar or two more becomes an object that takes the place of high ideals.\nWhen the longing for a better coat is substituted for the yearning for the true and the beautiful, it is a\n\nsad thing.\ngogs.\n\nHitherto the world has progressed, one might almost say, in spite of the peda-\n\nWe trust that now it is progressing because of the pedagogs. We hold the future\n\nof this nation in our hands; as we mold the children to whom we minister, so do we shape\n\nThe importance of the work of farmers has been recognized\nby our national government in the Department of Agriculture. So also have the rights\nof commerce and labor.\nI look forward to the time when the sacred rights of our children\nthe destinies of this country.\n\nto the highest type of education may be recognized by our national government as greater\n\nthan the rights of laborers or farmers, to the time when the Department of Education shall\nequal in importance the Department of State itself.\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSECOND RESPONSE\n\nBefore closing, may I add a personal word of thanks ?\nvelt was the youngest member of the\n\n1 53\n\nYears ago, when Mr. Roose-\n\nNew York State Legislature, I had the pleasure of\n\nhearing him speak and of meeting him afterward.\n\nI have not forgotten what he said then,\nand I think I could almost quote his speech verbatim; his words made such s-n impression\nof sincerity upon me.\nI well remember what my mother said to me on our homeward\njourney: \"My daughter, that young man is on the threshold of his career. I believe that\nhe will be the president of the United States some day. See what he has already done.\nTry, if you can, to imitate him, and make as much of your life as he is making of his.\"\nHer words sank into my mind. I have watched his life with ever-increasing admiration.\nHis fearless right-doing has been a stimulus and an inspiration to me, and in like manner\nto countless thousands of others.\nLittle did I think, as I talked to him in my girlhood,\nthat I should live to lay my tribute of praise before him, and to greet him, not only as the\npresident of the United States, but as the most popular, the best loved man in all the whole\nround earth. Mr. President, I second the vote of thanks.\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\nMILWAUKEE MEETING, 1905\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST DAY\n\nMORNING SESSION.—Milwaukee, Wis., Tuesday, February 28, 1905\n\n'\n\nThe department met in the Davidson Theater, and was called to order at 9 30 A. M.\nby Edwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., president of the department.\n:\n\nA chorus of five hundred boys from the city's public schools gave to the assembled\nThe welcome was continued\nfirst installment of welcome in song.\nby William George Bruce, editor of the American School Board Journal, and Carroll G.\n\nsuperintendents the\n\nPearse, superintendent of the city schools, representing respectively the civic\n\nand the\n\neducational interests of the city of Milwaukee.\n\nA response on behalf of the department was made by President Edwin G. Cooley.\nThe topic, \"Educational Features of the Universal Exposition at St. Louis,\" was\ndiscussed in papers as follows:\n1.\n\n\"From the View-Point of the Chief of the Department of Education\": Howard J. Rogers, first\n\nassistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.\n2.\n\n\"From the View-Point of the Chairman of Group i and Department Juries on Education and Member\nEliphalet Oram Lyte, principal of the First Pennsylvania State Normal\n\nof the Superior Jury of Awards\":\n\nSchool, Millersville, Pa.\n3.\n\n\"From the View-Point of a Member of the Jury of Awards, Group x, Elementary Education\": Ben\n\nBlewett, assistant superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nThe president announced a complimentary banquet to be tendered Wednesday evenW. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, at the Plankinton\n\ning to Dr.\n\nHouse.\n\nA pleasant incident occurred at the beginning of the morning session, when a large\npicture of Dr. Harris was brought upon the stage and greeted with a round of applause.\n\nOn motion, the department adjourned until 2 o'clock p. m.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION.—Tuesday. February 28\nThe afternoon session opened at 2:30 p. m., President Cooley in the chair, with\nmusic by the Glee Club of the Milwaukee State Normal School.\nThree papers were given on \" Means of Increasing the Efficiency of Our Public-School\n\nWork.\"\n\nThe first speaker was John W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind.\nHe took the place on the program allotted to Albert G. Lane, of Chicago, who was absent\non account of illness.\n\nThe second paper was given by Superintendent Carroll G. Pearse, of Milwaukee.\nThe third paper on the topic was by William I. Crane, superintendent of schools,\nMarshalltown, la.\n\nThe general discussion which followed was participated in by J. F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo.; Gustavus R. Glenn, president of North Georgia Agri155\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n156\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nand Mechanical College, Dahlonega, Ga.; F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of\nW. O. Thompson, president of Ohio State University,\nColumbus, O.; Elmer A. Lyman, professor of mathematics. State Normal College,\nYpsilanti, Mich.; George H. Martin, secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education,\nWest Lynn, Mass.; A. S. Downing, third assistant commissioner of education, Albany,\nN. Y.; Charles F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.; and George J.\nMiller, principal of Woodward Avenue High School, Kalamazoo, Mich.\nThe discussion was summed up in the following resolution, introduced by John W.\n\ncultural\n\npublic instruction, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n;\n\nCarr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind.\nResolved, That the paramount educational question of the hour is the employment and retention of sufficient numbers of well-qualified teachers to fill all of our public schools; and that this department pledges itself\n\nto use its best endeavors to secure sufficient compensation to enable teachers to prepare themselves properly\nfor their work, and to justify them in remaining permanently in the profession of teaching:\n\nThe president announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nE. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\n\nT. A. Mott, Richmond, Ind.\n\nBen Blewett, St. Louis, Mo.\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\n\nL. C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\n\nCOMMrriEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nL. H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\n\nC. G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nColumbus, O.\n\nA. B. Blodgett, Syracuse, N. Y.\n\nJ. A. Shawan,\n\nW. F. Cramer, Waverly, la.\n\nOn motion, the meeting adjourned.\n\nEVENING SESSION.—Tuesday, February 28\nThe evening session was called to order at 8:15 p. m. by President Cooley.\n\nThe\n\nexercises were introduced by music by the Treble Clef Chorus of the Milwaukee Public\n\nSchools.\n\nThen followed an address on \" Some of the Conditions which Cause Variation of the\nRate of School Expenditure in Different Locahties,\" by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States\nCommissioner of Education, Washington, D. C.\nMusic by the Glee Club of Milwaukee-Downer College.\nAn addiess on \"The Group Morality of Children\" was delivered by George E.\nVincent, professor of sociology, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.\n\nOn motion, the meeting was declared adjourned to 9:30 A. m. Wednesday, March i.\n\nSECOND DAY\nMORNING SESSION.—Wednesday, March i\nThe department convened at 9:30 A. m., with President Edwin G. Cooley in the chair.\nMusic for the opening of the program was furnished by the Mandolin and Glee Club\nof Marquette College.\n\nN. C. Dougherty, superintendent of\n\nschools, Peoria,\n\n111.,\n\nreferred to the serious\n\nillness of two highly esteemed members of the Association, President Harper, of Chicago,\n\nand Bishop Spalding, of Peoria, and offered the following resolution, which was unanimously adopted:\nResolved, That we, the members of this department, extend to President William R. Harper and Bishop\nJohn Lancaster Spalding, by a telegram, expression of our sympathy in their aflBiction, and of our sincere\nhope that each may soon be able to continue his good work.\n\n\"Charter Provisions as Related to the Organization of School Systems\" was discussed by\nI.\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools for the city of New York, and President of the National\n\nEducational Association.\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\n1 57\n\na.\n\nF. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n3.\n\nHon. Edward C. Eliot, former president of the Board of Education, St. Louis. Mo.\n\nThe following telegrams were sent in accordance with the instructions of the department:\nPresident William R. Harper, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.:\n\nThe heartfelt sympathy of the Department of Superintendence is extended to you, and the confident hope\nis expressed that you will fully recover your health,\n\nand with renewed vigor and energy continue the great work\n\nof service to your fellow-men to which you have devoted your life.\n\nE. G. CooLEY, President.\n\nEvangeline E, Whitney, Secretary.\nHi. Rev. John Lancaster Spalding, Bishop of Peoria, Peoria, III.:\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association recognizes the great service\nyou have rendered to the teachers and children of the public schools of the coimtry, and of all schools, and sends\nloving greetings and heartfelt sympathy to you in your affliction. The department expresses the sincere hope\nthat you may soon be able to continue your great life work.\n\nE. G. CoOLEY, President.\n\nEvangeline E. Whitney, Secretary.\n\nBUSINESS SESSION\nThe business session of the department was called to order by the president at the\nclose of the\n\nmorning session.\n\nA report of the Committee on Simplified Spelling was\n\npresented by the chairman, Superintendent W. H. Elson, of Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SIMPLIFICATION OF SPELLING\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association:\nGentlemen: Your committee appointed last year to present to the Board of Directors of the National\nEducational Association, and to ask their acquiescence in, your resolutions petitioning them to appoint a committee of prominent and scholarly men to head and direct the movement toward simplifying our spelling, and\n*o put in its hands for this purpose a fund not to exceed $2,000 a year for five years, on condition that an equal\n\nfund be given to the committee from outside sources, begs leave to report that, in accordance with the spirit of\nyour instruction, steps were at once taken to ascertain the attitude, as far as practicable, of every active member\nof the National Educational Association on the points involved, in order that the directors and members of the\n\nCouncil might be duly informed as to the desire of all who were directly concerned in the proposed action.\n\nWe\n\nare gratified to be able to report that the votes footed up 1,545 approving the proposed action, and only 171\n\nopposing.\n\nA limited edition of the lists for and against, arranged alphabetically by states, was printed and\n\ndistributed to the directors and members of the Council.\n\nIt is an interesting document.\n\nThe remainder of the\n\nedition is here for distribution to those who desire to examine these lists.\n\nAt the St. Louis meeting of the Board of Directors your resolutions were duly submitted, together with\ntwo alternative outline plans for the business organization of the proposed commission. According to the\nusage of the Association, the resolutions and plans were received and referred for advice to the Council Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. This committee gave your representatives a patient hearing\nand carefully considered the whole subject, finally deciding to ask the advice of a committee of experts as to\nwhat course they had better recommend in the matter. They designated as this committee Superintendent\nW. H. Maxwell, President of the National Educational Association, chairman ex officio, H. H. Seerley, president\nof the Iowa State Normal School; C. M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, Minneapolis; George Herapl, professor of philology. University of Michigan; and Cahin Thomas, professor of the Germanic languages, Columbia\nUniversity.\nThis committee is asked to report to the president of the Council by June, t, 1905.\n\nWe are all awaiting with interest the action of this committee. The time seems ripe for a discreet, systematic, quiet, and thorogoing effort, on a business basis, to disseminate accurate knowledge in\n\nspelling and to promote its simplification.\n\nregard to English\n\nThis effort must be more or less of an experiment, of course; but the\n\nmore we study the problem, the more fully are we satisfied that the general business plan outlined in the petition\nof this department and indorsed with surprising unanimity by our active members, and by sixteen or more large\nstate and section associations of teachers, is one that is practicable and which should be put into operation with-\n\nout needless delay.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nW. H. Elson, Chairman, Grand Rapids, Mich.\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind.\nF. T. Oldt, Dubuque, la.\nA. W. Rankin, Minneapolis, Minn.\nEdwin B. Cox, Xenia, O.\n.\n\nCommittee\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n158\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nA motion to accept the report of the committee was unanimously carried.\nW. H. Elson: I think it must be evident to this body that there is much remaining\nfor this committee to do, and that it is advisable that this committee or a similar one be\nI wish, therefore, to suggest that the present committee be\n\nappointed for another year,\n\n— since\n\ncontinued, excepting myself\n\nI have become a member of the Board of Directors of\n\nI would recommend that Herbert M. Slauson, superintendent of schools,\n\nthe Association.\n\nAnn Arbor, Mich., take my place as a member of this committee, and that E. B. Cox, of\nXenia, O., be appointed chairman.\n\nwas moved, seconded, and unanimously voted that the Committee on Simplified\nCox act as chairman\nand Herbert M. Slauson be added to the committee to fill the vacancy left by the\nresignation of W. H. Elson, of Grand Rapids, Mich.\nE. O. Vaile, chairman of the Committee of Conference on a Universal System of\nKey Notation, on behalf of the conference committee composed of members of the American Philological Association, the Modern Language Association, and the Department of\nSuperintendence of the National Educational Association, reported that the joint com^mittee met at Boston at the time of the National Educational Association meeting in July,\n1903, and appointed a subcommittee to take the work in hand. This subcommittee\nconsists of Professor Calvin Thomas, Columbia University; Pjofessor George Hempl,\nMichigan University; Professor C. P. G. Scott, Yonkers, N. Y.; Professor O. F.\nEmerson, Western Reserve University, and E. O. Vaile. The most of the labor has\nbeen performed by Professor Thomas and Professor Hempl. The manner in which\nthey have accomplished their work proves their eminent fitness for it, and it is confidently hoped that the members of the Department of Superintendence will give the\nreport careful study, and take it up for discussion and adoption at their next meeting,\nthus joining in the movement to establish a rational and scientific substitute for our\nThe complete alphabet,\npresent cumbersome and compHcated system of diacritics.\nas recommended by the committee, provides a separate letter for each of our forty-two\ndistinct vocal sounds, adopting as its basis the vowel signs recommended in 1877 by\nthe committee of the Philological Association headed by Professor Whitney and\nProfessor March.\nThe present report merely adds enough new signs to provide\nsingle characters for the consonants and diagraphs, the step which Professor Whitney\nIt\n\nSpelling be continued for one year, with the provision that E. B.\n\navowedly left to be taken in the future.\nmitted for discussion and amendment.\n\nThe report of the committee is now subAll suggestions\n\nshould be sent to Professor\n\nThomas, the chairman, and will be carefully weighed before the report comes up for\napproval and adoption at the next meeting of each of the bodies represented in the joint\ncommittee.\n\nTwo hundred printed copies of the report will be distributed to the members present.\nOthers can be obtained by writing to Professor Calvin Thomas, Columbia University,\n\nNew York city.\nBy request, the report of the Committee on Resolutions was deferred until a subsequent meeting.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended that the following be elected officers\nof the department for the ensuing year:\n\n—\n\nFor President ^J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind.\nFor First Vice-President J. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.\nFor Second Vice-President Ida C. Bender, supervisor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y.\nFor Secretary Ella C. Sullivan, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nThe nominees were elected by a unanimous vote of the department.\nThe selection of a place of meeting was declared the next in order of business.\nLouisville. Ky., Niagara Falls, N. Y., Washington, D. C, and Hot Springs, Ark.,\nwere each in turn proposed.\nSuperintendent E. H.\n\nMark and Principal Reuben P. Halleck, of Louisville, Ky.,\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n1 59\n\npresented that city's claims to the honor, which was indorsed by letters of invitation from\nthe governor of Kentucky, the mayor of Louisville,\n\nand the presidents of the board of\n\nand of various civic clubs of Louisville.\nHon. John H. Hinemon withdrew the invitation to meet in Hot Springs, Ark., and\nindorsed the invitation of the city of Louisville, Ky.\nLouisville was then chosen by a standing vote as the next place of meeting.\nThere being no further business before the house, on motion, the meeting was declared\ntrade, of the school board,\n\nadjourned.\n\nAFTERNOON SESSION.—Wednesday, March\nROUND TABLE SESSIONS\n\nt\n\nThe Round Table of State and County Superintendents met in the large Colonial\n\nRoom of the Plankinton Hotel at 2:30 p. m., with Alfred Bayliss, state superintendent of\npublic instruction for Illinois, as leader, and\n\nW. T. Carrington, state superintendent\n\nof public instruction for Missouri, as secretary.\n\nThe topic under discussion was \"High-School Extension to the Children of Rural\nDistricts.\"\n\nA paper on the topic was read by C. P. Cary, state superintendent of public instrucMadison, Wis., and was discussed at some length.\n\ntion,\n\nThe committee appointed at the Atlanta meeting of the Round Table, on Interstate\nRecognition of High-Grade Teachers' Certificates made a report through its chairman,\nG. W. Nash, state superintendent of pubHc instruction for South Dakota. The\nreport was,\n\non motion, adopted.\n\nThe Round Table of City Superintendents met in The Arcade of the Plankinton\nHotel at 2:30 p. M.; the leader, Frank B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, O.,\npresiding.\n\nThe topic for discussion was \"The Merit System of Appointing and Promoting\nTeachers and Principals.\"\n\nBen Blewett, assistant superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. I,ouis, Mo.,\npresented a paper on \"The Merit System in the Public Schools of St. Louis.\"\n\nThis was followed by a series of brief outlines of \"Methods of Appointing and Advancing Teachers,\" presented by the superintendents of various cities.\n\nA general discussion followed.\nThe greatest mark of honor ever paid by the Department of Superintendence to one\nof its members was the banquet tendered to Dr. W. T. Harris, on Wednesday evening,\n\nMarch i.\n\nA dinner was laid for two hundred covers in the French dining-room of the Plankinton\nAt the close of the dinner President Cooley, with whom the idea of the banquet\nintroduced the guest of honor to whom he paid a high tribute, and\nthen made way for Superintendent William H. Maxwell, President of the National Educational Association, who officiated as toastmaster.\nThose who responded successively\nto toasts in honor of the guest of the evening were: Superintendent F. Louis Soldan,\nSt. Louis; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston; Superintendent J. M.\nGreenwood, Kansas\nHouse.\n\noriginated,\n\nCity;\n\nInspector\n\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto; Miss Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago.\n\nA\n\nresponse was made by Dr. W. T. Harris, the guest of honor.\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING SESSION.—Thursday, March 2\nThe meeting came to order at 9:30 A. m., President Edwin G. Cooley in the chair.\nThe exercises were introduced with music by a chorus from the German English\nAcademy of Milwaukee.\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nl6o\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nPresident Cooley announced the receipt of communications as follows: from the\nMilwaukee Teachers' Association, expressing appreciation of the honor to the city of\nMilwaukee conferred by the meeting of the Department of Superintendence in their midst;\nand from the Federal Council of the North American Gymnastic Union, inviting the\nmembers of the department to attend the Twenty-Ninth Festival of that body at Indianapolis, Ind., June 21-25, 1905.\nPresident Cooley then announced the absence on account of illness of Edgar\nGardner Murphy, executive secretary, Southern Educational Board, Montgomery,\nAla., and George H. Conley, superintendent of public schools of Boston, Mass., and\nstated that it had been suggested that the afternoon and morning meetings be combined\nby taking over the afternoon speakers into the morning session. He asked for an expression of choice by the department.\nA motion was made, seconded, and unanimously carried that the afternoon and\nmorning sessions be combined.\nThe first speaker on the program by rearrangement v/as James P. Haney, director\nof manual training. Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, City of New York, who\nspoke on the general topic, \" Manual -Training Work in the Elementary, High-School,\nand College Curricula.\"\nAt the close of Mr. Haney's paper the following members took part in general discussion: William H. Elson, superintendent of schools, Grand Rapids, Mich.; C. Valentine Kirby, instructor in art and m.anual training. Manual Training High School,\n\nCharles Milton Carter, director of art, public schools, Denver, Colo.;\nMiss Ella A. Rowe, teacher in city schools, Chicago, 111. and Miss Ida C. Bender, supervisor of primary grades, Buffalo, N. Y.\nThe next topic on the program was \"Child Labor,\" on which Miss Jane Addams, of\nHull-House, Chicago, 111., gave an address.\nAt the conclusion of Miss Addams' address, William H. Maxwell, superintendent\nof schools of the city of New York, stated the child-labor law in that city, and described\nhow the teachers were combating the circumvention of the law by parents. William F.\n\nDenver, Colo.;\n\n;\n\nSlaton, superintendent of schools, Atlanta,\n\nGa\n\n,\n\ngave a graphic picture of the conditions\n\nexisting under his own observation.\n\nLawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta,\nGa., described the conditions of the factory child in the South and the efforts to combat\n\nthe evils of child labor.\n\nThe last paper on the program was given by Calvin M. Woodward, dean of the School\nof Engineering and Architecture of Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., on the topic,\n\n\"Manual-Training Work in the Elementary, High-School, and College Curricula.\"\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nResolved, That our thanks are due, and are hereby extended, to Superintendent C. G. Pearse, to William\nGeorge Bruce, editor of the School Board Journal, and to Charles McKenny, principal of the Milwaukee\nState Normal School, for their untiring efforts and unusually complete arrangements for the success of this\nmeeting\", to the board of education, for their interest; to the Citizens' Committee of twenty-five, for the carefully\nplanned details; to the public schools. State Normal School, Milwaukee-Downer College, Marquette College, and\nGerman American Academy, for the most excellent music furnished at our sessions; to the city press, for the\nprominent space given and the full reports of the proceedings pubUshed; to the hotels, for the uniform courtesies\nextended to all; to the raibroads, for the usual reduction in rates granted; to the speakers on the program\nwho are not directly engaged in educational work, for the time and labor given in our behalf ; and to the\npresident and other officers of the department, for the excellent program prepared for our meeting, and successfully carried out at the various sessions.\n\nResolved, That the proper officers of the Department of Superintendence be directed to express the thanks\nof the department to Hon. Edward C. EUot, for the valuable paper\n\npresented at this session, and which the\n\nAssociation considers of great practical importance.\nResolved, That this department approves of the bill now before Congress extending the franking privilege\nto state educational departments covering the mailing of reports and other official documents,\n\nand urges the\n\npassage of the same.\nResolved, That the paramount educational question of the hour is the employment and retention of a\nsufficient number of well-qualified teachers to fill all of our public schools; and that this department pledge^.\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n161\n\nitself to use its best endeavors to secure sufficient compensation to enable teachers to prepare themselves properly\n\nfor their work, and to justify them in remaining permanently in the profession of teaching:.\n\nL. H. Jones, Chairman.\nC. G. Pearse.\n\nA. B. Blodgett.\nJ.\n\nA, Shawan.\n\nW. F. Cramer.\n\nOn motion, duly made and seconded, the resolutions were adopted.\nThe president then read an invitation from the South Division High School Girls'\nClub, inviting members of the Association to an \"at home\" from 2 to 5 p. m.\nOn motion, the department adjourned sine die.\nEvangeline E. Whitney, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTOPIC: REVIEW OF THE EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE\n\nUNIVERSAL EXPOSITION AT ST. LOUIS\nI.\n\nTHE FOREIGN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS\n\nHOWARD J. ROGERS, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR\nOF CONGRESSES\n\nThe Department of Education found most favorable conditions in St.\nLouis from the outset, inasmuch as the Exposition Company had fixed upon\neducation as the fundamental principle for the development of the exposition,\n\nand the National Educational Association was particularly anxious for a\ncomparative presentation of the educational methods of other countries.\n\nThe former condition predetermined a generous attitude toward the exhibit\ndepartment which embodied as a concrete science the ideal of the exposition;\nthe latter carried as\n\nits\n\ncorollary the\n\ncombined support of the educational\n\nefforts of the United States.\n\nFrom the favorable comments which had been made, both in foreign and\ndomestic journals, upon the educational exhibit of the United States Commission at the Paris Exposition of 1900, a discussion had arisen concerning\nthe relative merits of the different systems of education in various nations,\n\nand it was felt that a more thoro comparison could be made from the St. Louis\nexhibit.\nThat the theory of pubUc education in Europe was different from\nthat in this country was an admitted premise. Whether each was best adapted\nto the conditions underlying its\n\nown national development; whether each\n\ncontained methods that could be advisedly adapted to the system of the other;\n\nwhether the tendencies of the two were more widely, or less sharply, divergent\nthan formerly; and whether conclusions could be drawn clearly as to which\nhas had the most beneficial effect on the commercial and industrial develop-\n\nment of the country, were the larger problems for which the educational\nexhibit was to furnish the solution.\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nl62\n\nIMilwaukee\n\nThe educational exhibit was planned from two standpoints: first, its\nforeign participation; second,\n\nonly this paper has to do.\n\nits\n\ndomestic representation.\n\nWith the former\n\nOn its material side it was thoroly satisfactory,\n\n—\n\ninasmuch as twenty-one nations were represented five from Asia, twelve\nfrom Europe, and four from our Latin-American neighbors to the south.\nThis representation varied from a single institution, or class of schools, to a\ncomplete presentation of the educational activities of a country.\n\nHow best\n\nto present the saHent facts in this brief paper, whether by nations or\n\nby\n\nsubjects, is a problem which I shall probably solve by each method in part.\n\nTwo hues, widely divergent from American practice, stand out prominently\nand must always be in mind in comparing educational systems. The first is\nthe promotion of class distinctions by educational training, as illustrated in\nthe systems of primary and secondary instruction; and the second is the training of young men for commercial and political fields, particularly in reference\nTo these two general subjects, and to some\nto colonial and foreign service.\nspecial matters which seem to be of interest to the United States, I shall confine\n\nmy remarks.\nThe system of pubUc instruction in this country is articulated so as to form\nThe transitions from the elementary to the high school,\n\na symmetrical unit.\n\nfrom the high school to the college, and from the college to the professional\nA pupil\nschool, are made without a break, and form a steady progression.\n\nmay drop out at the end of the elementary, or at the end of the high-school, or\nin the middle of the high-school course; but he has had the same training as\n\nthose who go on to the end, and if he returns to his school after an interirii of\n\ntwo or three years, he can pick up his work where he left it, handicapped in no\nrespect but by age.\n\nWe have grown accustomed to see the entire sequence of\n\nstudies under one administrative head, and much of our recent thought has\n\nbeen given to so interrelating the different parts as to put forward the time\n\nwhen a student may become a self-supporter.\n\nIt is confusing to the standards\n\nof our teachers in considering foreign educational systems to see elementary,\n\nor primary, education displayed as an independent entity, controlled by a\n\nseparate administrative head,\n\nand designed to perpetuate the social castes,\n\nor orders, by training the children of the masses manually and artistically for\nthe trades in store for them.\n\nThe average age for completing this course in\n\nFrance and Belgium is nearly fifteen.\nParallel with this course, so far as the ages of the pupils are concerned, is\n\nthe system of secondary instruction under quite another administration,\n\nembracing a study of the classics and humanities in general, and leading to\nthe cultural professions.\nfree to the public.\n\nThis instruction, tho under public control, is not\n\nIt is not\n\nmy intention to draw comparisons between these\n\nradically different theories of free\n\npubHc education.\n\nI\n\nhave twice done it\n\nbefore this Association, and it is so interwoven with the history and develop-\n\nment of civilization, and with the social evolution of each country, that it is a\ndistinct topic in itself.\n\nMy only point is that no intelligent observation can\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n163\n\nbe made of the educational work of another country at an exposition, or elsewhere, that is not based upon a thoro appreciation of this truth.\n\nWe cannot\n\nassert that the European system is not the best for the social conditions that\n\nEuropeans have to face.\n\nWe only know that it is not in accord with the\n\ntheory of our institutions, and that a system of instruction which tended even\nin the slightest degree to promote class perpetuity could not stand.\n\nIt fol-\n\nlows, as a corollary to this proposition, that it is a sound policy to go slow in\n\nthe introduction\n\nof\n\nforeign\n\nmethods and ideas when they touch the roots\n\nThere are plenty of methods, and details\n\nof things.\n\n—\n\n—administrative, teaching,\n\nand other which we can adopt, and a neglect to observe which would prove\nus narrow and provincial.\n\nFrom this view-point in particular, the exhibit of training-schools for\nteachers was difficult to classify.\n\nThis matter is put very clearly in the report\n\nof the jury of Group I, Elementary Education:\nIn the chief foreign countries professional schools for the training of teachers are\neasily classified by virtue of their administrative relations;\n\nbut in our country the different\n\norders of pedagogical training merge into each other almost imperceptibly, because they\nare all based upon the same fundamental conception of the teaching profession.\n\nThere are also disclosed by the exhibits striking differences in the spirit and methods\nIn France the teaching is logical and analytical. The stress of pedagogical training in that country is upon the treatment of subjects, and the abiding effects\nof that training are seen in the theses by teachers and by school inspectors (the latter all\nmen of professional training) which form a very interesting and instructive part of the\nexhibit of that country.\nThe analytic principle is maintained in the manual training\nwhich, as shown by the examples presented, consists of a graded series of exercises upon\nthe elements that enter into simple constructions.\nGermany adheres more closely to\nthe authoritative method of instruction, a fact plainly shown by the photographs of classes\nin which every child seems listening with breathless attention to the word of the teacher.\nFrom the photographic displays one would readily infer that in our own country the\nemphasis of class exercises is upon the activity of the pupil; in Germany, upon the perof instruction.\n\nsonality of the teacher.\n\nThe second divergent line noticeable in the exhibit was the training given\nto young men by Germany, and some other nations, but noticeably Germany,\n\nin foreign\n\ncommercial relations.\n\nThe aim of the ''technical high school,\"\n\nas announced in the official catalog, is to afford a higher education for the\ntechnical professions in the civil and public service and in commercial undertakings, as well as to cultivate arts\n\nand science in so far as they come under\n\nthe head of technical instruction.\n\nIn one of the rooms devoted to technical\n\nexhibits was an exhaustive display of methods for colonial training, in which\n\nappeared not only the careful study of the geography and topography of the\ncountry, its routes of trade, its fertile and sterile regions, etc., but also actual\n\nspecimens, and a careful description including their commercial value, of every\nagricultural\n\nand mineral product of the country, together with an equally\n\ncomplete representation and description of every bird and animal native to\nthe clime.\n\nAll this as a matter of class routine and regular curriculum; so\n\nthat when an agent or employee goes to east Africa or the south Pacific,\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\ni64\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nhe goes as one familiar with every possibihty of the country and not as\na stranger.\nI might multiply this by similar examples drawn from Belgium and France,\n\nbut it would be duplication, and Germany seems to have a long lead.\n\nIt is a\n\nmatter which we can well take under consideration; for, blessed as we are with\nnatural advantages which have rendered easy thus far our commercial supremacy, it needs no tongue of a prophet to foretell that with the decrease of these\n\nadvantages, consequent upon a more thoro occupation of the country,\n\nwe\n\ncannot hold our own in the markets of the world unless we train equally well\n\nour agents and factors.\n\nWe have been prone to believe that to give a boy his\n\nelementary instruction, and a year or two, or perhaps all, of his high-school\ncourse, and then turn him into business, relying on his native shrewdness and\n\nadaptibiUty to push along, is sufficient for a business training.\n\nIt may have\n\nbeen under old conditions; it is not enough in the present-day world-competition.\n\nOur so-called business colleges have been a makeshift and devoted to\n\n—good enough in\n\nturning out bookkeepers and stenographers\n\na short way.\n\ntheir way, but\n\nThey can contribute nothing to the solution of the question\n\nunless they are thoroly reorganized.\n\nTwo or three cities have provided for\n\nhigh schools of commerce, but they are as yet John the Baptists crying in the\nwilderness.\n\nThe question has come, and come to vex us till we solve it.\n\nAmong the great crowd of scholars, statesmen, business men, and others\nwho visited us at St. Louis last summer, no nation was better represented than\nGermany. They came not only to see, but to take notes, and since their\nreturn their comments have been many and varied. These opinions have\nbeen carefully observed and reported by Consul- General Mason, of Berlin,\n\nand embodied in a report to the State Department.\n\nAmong other things he\n\nsays:\n\nThere are, say these critics, a pervading ignorance and indifference about everything\noutside the United States that, from the German standpoint, will be, unless corrected, a\nserious handicap in our quest for foreign trade.\n\nThe careless confidence with which\n\nagents and salesmen are sent abroad, with no special preparation and with no knowledge\nof any language but their own, to do business in countries where only a trifling percentage\nof the population understands English, strikes these careful, methodical European experts\n\nas amazing.\n\nThe meagerness of technical education, the trifling annual contingent of\n\nchemists, engineers, educated dyers, weavers,\n\nand electricians, as compared with the\n\nthrong of lawyers, physicians, dentists, and unspecialized graduates turned out by our\ncolleges and universities, seems to them short-sighted and improvident.\n\nThe high stand-\n\ning and excellence of a half-dozen great technical schools in the United States are frankly\n\nconceded; but what are these in a country of 80,000,000 of people, in which practically\nevery student is destined for an active and useful life ?\n\nBut most surprising of all appeared to the German visitors the absence of any adequate\nsystem of special education for commerce, banking, and foreign trade. Reduced to\nsimplest terms, these investigators generally conclude that the reliance on a general and\n\nmore or less superficial education, together with natural adaptability, to fit young men\nfor almost every walk in life, and the lack of speciahzed study in physical science, modern\nlanguages, and the industrial arts, will, if persisted in, neutralize much of the advantage\nwhich our country enjoys through natural resources and advantageous geograohical\nposition for the South American, Mexican, and Asiatic trade.\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "'\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n165\n\nWithout enlarging further, these seem to me the two greater lessons to be\ndrawn from the foreign educational exhibits. With the first we may well\nremain content, as our system seems absolutely unassailable; with the second\n\nwe shall have to reckon.\nConcerning some of the special features, no account of the exhibit would\nbe justified unless mention was made of the wonderful scientific exhibit of the\nfaculties of the\n\nGerman universities.\n\nFrom the elaborate medical exhibit,\n\nwhich was the delight of every physician who visited the grounds, to the\nexhibit of instruments of precision and scientific research, it was unsurpassed.\n\nThis is a scientific age, and naturally the exhibits of the universities would\n\nassume that form but everything has its reason, and this exhibit seems to me\n;\n\na magnificent attempt on the part of Germany to demonstirate that in the field\nof special training, particularly in biology and medicine, her universities are\nstill the foremost in the world.\n\nIn view of the marvelous advance of American\n\nuniversities in this respect in the last fifteen years, and the acceptance of the\n\nidea that it is no longer necessary for American students to be trained abroad,\nthe exhibit assumes a most interesting aspect, even if it may not be deemed to\nbecome historic in its purpose.\nThe Swedish exhibit was particularly interesting to Americans on account\nof its sloyd, which brought to many the source of inspiration pure and undefiled.\nA rich display of pupils' manual work was brought over, as well as a thoro\nexemplification of the Sloyd Training College at Naas, the original home of\nthe Swedish National system.\n\nAnother interesting feature of the exhibit was\n\nthe chart describing the lectures on social topics before the Secondary School\n\nAmong the topics for 1904 were: ''Features of the\nSwedish Poor-Law Administration,\" ''Private Charity in Stockholm,\" \"Hos-\n\nfor Girls in Stockholm.\n\ning Question,\" \"Legal Position of Swedish\n\nWomen,\" \"Social Settlement\n\nProjects and Their Practical Realization.\"\n\nPerhaps no exhibit was richer in suggestive details than that of Belgium.\nBlessed with a fruitful peace of seventy-five years, enjoying the respect and\nlegal protection of its powerful neighbors,\n\nit\n\nhas an enviable record for con-\n\ntinued improvement of the condition of its people, materially, intellectually,\n\nand morally.\n\nAll the elementary public instruction is directed by the com-\n\nmunes, represented by a council of seven members as a minimum, thus placing\nin a small board supervision over a small area.\n\nThe teachers enjoy security\n\nof position, with rights of appeal, guaranteed\n\nby the constitution. Their\nsalary is fair, bringing a regular increase at recurring intervals, and carrying\nwith it lodgings at the commune's expense. At the age of fifty-five or sixty\nyears they are entitled to retirement on a pension equal to two-thirds the\nhighest salary they have received.\nEfficient government and cantonal inspectors visit each school at least twice a year.\n\nFour times a year each cantonal\n\ninspector meets, by districts, every member of his teaching staff.\nis\n\ncompulsory; expenses are paid.\n\nAttendance\n\nTeachers selected by lot (here is a good\n\npoint) give to the children of the school where the conference is held two prac-\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Milwaukee\n\ntical lessons, relating to the theoretic questions treated in the papers submitted\n\nto the conference.\n\nAfter the pupils are dismissed, these lessons are criticised\n\nOver sixty per cent, of the teachers who begin in a commune finish their life-work in the same commune. You can readily infer the\ndevotion and pride they bring to the advance of their schools, and the power\nof their influence over the community.\nThe commune provides also a garden where the elements of agriculture\ntaught in school are practically explained and demonstrated. The trees and\nflowers planted are placed under the protection of the pupils, and, while contributing to their aesthetic development, promote also a respect and guardianby those present.\n\nship for pubUc property.\n\nMore might be said of their professional training,\n\ntheir continuation schools, their intensive study of agriculture; but the time\n\nHmit forbids.\nIn the three countries of France, Austria, and Italy the industrial training\nstood forth pre-eminent.\n\nFrance, it is true, gave in charts and printed volumes\n\na full record of the work of her primary, secondary, and higher instruction;\nbut, unfortunately, it was not so installed as to be easily studied, and all infor-\n\nHer attractive and carefully considered\ncame from the higher professional primary schools maintained by\nthe cities and under the supervision of the ministry of commerce and industry.\nThe exhibits of the art and industrial schools of Austria and Italy have\nnever been surpassed on American soil, and were at once the admiration and\nmation obtained had to be dug for.\n\nexhibits\n\ndespair of American\n\ncritics.\n\nThe exhibits of both nations were limited to\nThe international jury\n\nGroups IV and VI, Art and Industrial Education.\non Group IV said:\n\n\"^JKVe feel, as jurors, that it is a part of our duty to call the attention of American educators to these excellent exhibits [referring particularly to Austria], as showing that art is\n\nnot only an ornament, but an excellent investment when properly directed.\n\nThese schools,\n\nas well as the excellent schools of Great Britain and Ireland, are under the direct control\nof the government, and opportunity is given pupils to perfect themselves in all art-industrial\npursuits; special Ijaining being supplied for those who are fitting themselves for foremen\n\nand directors of manufacturing establishments wherein an art-knowledge is necessary.\nSpecial attention is given in various schools to local industrial demands.\n\nThe art schools of Great Britain and Ireland have been mentioned in the\nforegoing extract, but the typical feature of the English exhibit was the selection of certain features of schools, or of class work, and their presentation in a\n\nmost attractive manner.\n\nThis poHcy accorded very well with the unorganand varied educational efforts, pubUc and private, state and church,\nwhich are to the American mind inextricably interwoven in English educational\nIt certainly had the merit of clearly setting forth many\nadministration.\n\nized\n\nadmirable features of English schools.\n\nFrom the Orient the great exhibit was from Japan, whose statistical charts\na most graphic way the marvelous growth of education in that\ncountry since 1867, when the old system of education gave way to the western\nsystem. The development in the last ten years has to be seen to be credited.\nset forth in\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "EDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n167\n\nThe percentage of elementary-school attendance is nearly 92 per cent.\n\nEvery\n\nSuperintendence]\n\ngroup in the official classification contained Japanese exhibits, but, in accordance with the theory of the country's development, great stress was laid upon\nart as applied to the trades\n\nand industries.\n\nThe exhibit of the University\n\nTokio was specially remarkable in the field of applied science. It was\nvery easy to note the marks of American influence in every field of adminof\n\nistrative effort.\n\nThe exhibit of the Chinese commission was interesting from two facts.\nwas the first exhibit of Chinese education ever made, which gave it, as\ncoming from the oldest recorded civilization, an intense historical value; and,\nsecond, the interesting comparison between the old education and that introduced by means of foreign schools in the seaport towns. Little progress has\nbeen made by the latter compared with the field of possibilities, and the contrast with the supremacy in Japan of western methods is striking.\nThe exhibits of the Latin- American nations were attractive and instructive,\nparticularly Cuba, where the steady growth from the impetus given by American occupation is gratifying, and in Argentina, where the progress of public\ninstruction in the more thickly settled section, and the growth of normal\nBrazil showed great unevenness, ranging from\nschools, are highly creditable.\nthe excellent administrative system of the province of San Paulo to practically\nnothing in the northern provinces but unorganized private effort. The same\nIt\n\nmay be said of Mexico, but in each of the four countries were many beautiful\nand progressive exhibits from higher educational institutions.\nSuch is a brief resume of the more prominent features of the foreign exhibits.\nThose of you who attended the exposition know well their wealth of material,\nto which could have been given months of careful study; and their installation,\nwhich was characteristic in a high degree of the individuaHty of the nation.\nWe feel confident that an opportunity has been given for comparative study\nwhich will not occur again in our generation, and we shall rest highly content\nif the educational pubUc deems it worthy in a remote degree of the high ideals\nwhich governed the inception of the Exposition of 1904.\n\nII.\n\nTHE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT, EXCLUSIVE OF\nELEMENTARY EDUCATION\n\nELIPHALET ORAM LYTE, CHAIRMAN OF GROUP ONE AND OF THE DEPARTMENT\nJURY, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, AND MEMBER OF THE SUPERIOR JURY\nThere is a limit to the utility of the laboratory method in acquiring the\nart of teaching.\n\nExperience is a dear teacher often, and always when the\n\nexperiment must be\n\nmade upon the growing and aging mind.\n\nbeen accomplished by others blazes the way for us.\n\nWhat has\n\nAll exhibitions of the\n\nproducts of man are educational, both in teaching us what has been done\n\nand in showing us what may be done, and thus saving time and energy that\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1 68\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nwe might otherwise expend in doing again what has been done, or in trying\nto do what cannot be done.\n\nThe most striking characteristic of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition\nwas the predominance of the educational idea, not only in the Educational\nDepartment, but also in most other departments. While the exhibits of school\nwork in the Educational Department seemed in many cases to be almost too\nexhibitional\n\n— I may use the word—\nif\n\nit is\n\ntrue that many of the exhibits in\n\nthe various other departments of the exposition were largely educational.\n\nThe erection of a separate building in the most conspicuous part of the exposition grounds devoted to educational purposes was in harmony with the domi-\n\nThe incarnation of this idea at St.\n\nnant idea seen and felt in all departments.\n\nLouis was one of the most flattering testimonials which the world has offered\nto the profession of teaching, and its effects will be seen in the greater dignity\n\nwith which the vocation of teaching will be regarded in the twentieth century.\n\nWorld's fairs crowd upon us so fast that the recollection of one has not\nbefore the next one treads upon its heels. The changes\nmade in any department of progress can consequently be seen without effort.\n\nlost its vividness\n\nIn\n\nsome\n\nSt. Louis repeated Chicago, which in turn repeated\nBut there were many new and striking features in the educa-\n\nrespects\n\nPhiladelphia.\n\ntional department at St. Louis.\n\nThe rural-school exhibit stood out as never\n\nbefore, as witness Indiana and Pennsylvania the great high schools of the great\n;\n\ncommanded respect and admiration and many other institutions devoted\nto general education and numbers of special schools showed new methods\nand marked improvements on older ways. Too much credit cannot be given\nto Hon. Howard J. Rogers, chief of the Department of Education, for his\n\ncities\n\n;\n\nlabors in providing a suitable building for education, in arousing the country\nto the importance of the exposition, in securing from all classes of educational\n\ninstitutions representative products of their labor, and in the intelligence and\nskill displayed in so arranging the entire exhibit that it was easy for a\n\nto obtain\n\nan intelligent idea\n\nof\n\nit.\n\nstudent\n\nThe division of the exhibit into eight\n\ngroups and twenty-six classes enabled the student to find what he desired to\nsee without waste of time.\n\nThese eight groups consisted of:\n\nGroup I, Elementary Education, with its four classes:\n\n(i) kindergarten;\n\n(2) elemen-\n\ntary grades; (3) training and certification of teachers; (4) continuation schools, including\n\nevening schools, vacation schools, and schools for special training.\n\nGroup II, Secondary Education, two classes: (5) high schools and academies, manual(6) training and certification of teachers.\nGroup III, Higher Education, five classes: (7) colleges and universities; (8) scientific,\ntechnical, and engineering schools and institutions; (9) professional schools; (10) libraries;\n(11) museums.\nGroup IV, Special Education in Fine Arts, two classes: (12) art schools and institutes;\n(13) schools and departments of music, conservatories of music.\nGroup V, Special Education in Agriculture, one class: (14) agricultural colleges and\n\ntraining high schools, commercial high schools;\n\ndepartments, experiment stations, instruction in forestry.\n\nGroup VI, Special Education in Commerce and Industry, four classes: (15) industrial\nand trade schools, evening industrial schools;\n\n(16) {a) business\n\nand commercial schools,\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n(h)\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n169\n\nhigher instruction in commerce; (17) education of the Indian; (18) education of the\n\nnegro.\n\nGroup VII, three classes:\n\n(19) institutions for the blind, publications for the blind;\n\n(20) institutions for the deaf and dumb;\n\n(21) institutions for the feeble-minded.\n\nGroup VIII, five classes: (22) summer schools; (23) extension courses, popular\nlectures and people's institutes, correspondence schools; (24) scientific societies and\nassociations, scientific expeditions and investigations;\n(25) educational publications,\ntext-books, etc.; (26) school furniture, school appliances.\n\nOne could not help receiving the impression from some of the exhibits\nthat the serious purpose of the\nfully\n\nappreciated by\n\nall\n\nDepartment of Education was possibly not\n\nexhibitors.\n\nSome exhibits seemed to have been\n\nhastily gathered together, without a well-defined thought of the real object\n\nof the exposition\n\nMany exhibits seemed to show that the intention of the\n\nexhibitor was to exhibit a finished product, with the steps in the process of\n\nmaking the product hidden, instead of laying bare, or revealing the processes\nby which the exhibit was brought to the state in which it was shown. Some\nmight almost be said to have been too perfect for school exhibits.\nBut many of the exhibits were illuminating in clearness, and gave the educator\nan opportunity of learning what was done in the different fields of educational\nexhibits\n\nactivity, that left little to be desired.\n\nThe public high schools of the country have made remarkable progress\nin th\n\npast decade, and, as exhibited at St. Louis, present lines of work that\n\nindicate that the molders of these\n\nincreasing demands\n\n**\n\npeople's colleges\" are fully alive to the\n\nmade upon them by the busy business world.\n\nIt\n\nwas\n\nnatural that in an exhibition of school work, manual training, color-work,\n\nand photographs should be largely in evidence. The reasons for this are\nobvious. Manual training, drawing, and photography mix the mental and\nthe physical, and easily lend themselves to the exhibitor's art; while the more\npurely mental subjects are less easily displayed in cases or charts.\n\nIf one did\n\nnot remember this fact, one would think that time is wasted in our public\nschools in manual training.\n\nAnd yet a careful examination leads one to see\n\nmanual training does not receive an undue share of school\nMuch of the work in manual training deserved praise; some was\ntime.\nexcellent, as, for example, the exhibits from Philadelphia and one or two other\nplaces; some was mediocre; and a few exhibits were uneducational in both\npurpose and execution. Two or three leading manual- training schools\nshowed products of so great value that it was easy to see that the old apprentice system of learning a trade has been most admirably supplanted by the\ntraining in wood- and iron-work given by the pubUc schools of manual training and mechanic arts of our large cities.\nBut this side of manual training,\nas shown at St. Louis, is not the important side.\nOne could see that this\nthat probably\n\nbranch is used, with the other branches of school work, to develop the youth,\nto train his creative and artistic powers, and to give his\n\nmind control of his\n\nbody, to teach his physicial powers to obey his mental powers.\nIt s impossible, of course, to show in an exhibition more than a small part\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI70\n\nof the real work of a college or university.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nBut even here the scientific spirit\n\nof the age made itself felt, and there were fine displays of equipments for laboratories in which the secrets of nature were revealed to the student, for engineering,\n\nfor medicine and surgery, etc.\nThe literary side of college work was shown\nby the volumes exhibited by professors and students by charts, histories,\nphotographs, etc. Permit me to quote from an article in the Educational\nReview for December, by Miss Anna Tolman Smith, a member of the jury\nof one of the leading groups in the Department of Education:\n\nThe complete models of site and buildings presented by several universities, notably\nby the University of Wisconsin, Washington University, and the University of New York,\nexcited universal admiration.\nHarvard showed a fine model of its students' stadium\nand, on the scientific side, a remarkable representation of intestinal digestion as seen\nunder the Rontgen rays, and a case of the exquisite Blaschka glass models for botanical\nstudy; Columbia, a model of the beautiful new Ubrary building, with the majestic statue\nof Alma Mater in the foreground; and Yale suggested the highest outcome of university\nlife by portraits of famous alumni.\nFor aesthetic effect, pure and simple, the exhibits of\nthe University of Michigan and of Columbia University surpassed all their sisterinstitutions, while the University of California excelled in\n\nphotographic representations.\n\nThe transparent views of her mining school, including class, laboratory, and field operations, afforded the highest example of this mode of exhibit as regards technical finish and\nillumination.\n\nBut the special value of the university exhibits was in the conditions they illustrated\nThe lavish equipments answer to the expansion of\nknowledge and man's increased control over the forces of nature; beauty of environment\nand of architecture, to the hunger of the spirit for ideal things. Lessons such as these\ncould not fail to be caught by the mere casual observer, while the nature of the subjects\nrather than in their actual material.\n\nselected for representation brought clearly to mind the hnes of recent progress in matters\n\nand methods of university instruction.\n\nThe American exhibit of special education in fine arts, while it showed\nthat we have something to learn from foreign countries, was highly creditable\nto us.\n\nIn the entire exhibit one could not help noting with pleasure the growing\n\ntendency to combine the beautiful and the useful, or rather to beautify the\nuseful, so that many objects of utiHty were clothed in a beautiful dress, thus\n\nshowing, as quoted by my distinguished predecessor on the program, that\n\n\"art is not only an ornament, bu\ndirected.\"\n\nan excellent investment when properly\n\nTo quote from the report of the chairman of the jury of Group\n\nrV to the department jury:\nIn our own schools we find the same strivings as in foreign countries, but, lacking\ngovernment support, and working without the same sympathy and help, they have as yet\nbeen unable to produce that perfection of workmanship and execution which we find in\nsome of the foreign schools. This does not mean that we do not find the most excellent\nresults in the handicrafts, as taught in the American schools, but opportunity is not here\noffered on the same terms to young workers in the art industries by which they may perfect\nthemselves in their trade or profession.\n\nA volume might be written upon the exhibit in Group V, Special Education\nin Agriculture.\n\ngroup jury:\n\nLet me quote from the report made by the chairman of the\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n171\n\nIn the exhibits illustrating special education in agriculture by far the most notable\nwas the \" Collective Exhibit of Sixty Colleges of Agriculture and Agricultural Experiment\n\nNowhere on the exposition grounds, perhaps, were the\nmore completely exemplified, for here were model laboratories\n\nStations of the United States.\"\n\nprocesses of education\n\nfor every branch of agricultural education fully equipped, in charge of experts, and, so\nfar as possible, actual laboratory demonstrations were carried on.\n\nValuable as these model laboratories were, however, they were far surpassed in\nA well-known educator recently\n\ninterest by the research work displayed in this exhibit.\n\nsaid that in no field of education is there today so great an opportunity for a man to make\n\na name and fame for himself as in the field of agricultural research.\n\nFor, while the realms\n\nof the classics, of mathematics, and of pure science have been exploited through periods\nof time extending in some cases at least through centuries, research in agriculture is but\n\nThe jury was much impressed by the splendid results already attained,\nand by the yet more splendid promise of future gains in this field. We congratulate Chief\nRogers and the exposition management on the great success of this first collective exhibit\nof the agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the United States.\nBesides this collective exhibit, the United States is represented in this group by displays\nfrom various state agricultural colleges and experiment stations. Most notable among\nthe institutions thus shown were the agricultural colleges of lUinois, Missouri, and TenFrom each of these came exhibits showing original research and experimentation\nnessee.\nin its beginning.\n\nof a very high order.\n\nIt may be added that the beginnings of instruction in agriculture were\nshown in the exhibits of the rural schools of several states, and the study of\nthe products of the earth, their planting and cultivation, and of harmful\ninsects and their destructioi., was a fruitful subject of the agricultural schoolsThis subject, which touches everyone so closely on its practical side, is coming\nto the aid of the farmer and fruit-grower, and will bring rich blessings to\n\nmankind.\n\nThe chairman of the jury of Group VI, Special Education in Commerce and\nIndustry, said in his report to the department jury:\n\nThe exhibit of Indian schools was found limited in amount and poor in quality.\nThe only exceptions to this statement should be made in favor of the Indian schools on\nreservations in the state of New York.\n\nNegro schools were creditably represented by institutions in various parts of the\nSouth, and in states as far north as New Jersey and Missouri.\n\nIn the main, these exhibits\n\nwere of students' work in wood and metal for boys, domestic science for girls, and from\n\nThe amount\nThe jury would\nprobably concur in the statement that the wood- and metal-work from Hampton Institute\nwas the equal of any similar work examined. The negro schools of the state of Missouri,\n\nschools for such special trades as boot- and shoe-making, textile word, etc.\nof material represented by negro schools was large and its quality good.\n\nKansas City and the Lincoln Institute at Jefferson City, and the negro\nThese schools show much work which seems\nto indicate that they have gone far toward solving the problem of industrial education for\nparticularly in\n\nschools of St. Louis, call for special mention.\n\nthe negro.\n\nThe jury was disappointed at the limited showing of the evening-school work for\nthe United States, but, while making this statement, desires to call attention to the excellent\nexhibit of the evening school of trades in Springfield, Mass., and the work centers of the\ncity of Boston.\n\nThe exhibit of the evening schools showed that the idea of continuation\nschools\n\nwas a prominent one with them, with classes\n\nin millinery, dress-\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n172\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nmaking, typewriting, and other branches for young persons beyond the\nschool age.\n\nThe state institutions for the deaf and dumb and the bUnd from several\nstates\n\nwere represented by classes of students with their teachers, and the\n\nlatest methods of teaching these unfortunate persons were illustrated almost\n\nCrowds were constantly observing and studying the classes whenever\nan exercise was given, and were alike interested and instructed by the *' living\ndaily.\n\nexhibit.\"\n\nOf the special forms of education classified in Group VIII time will not\npermit me to say more than a word.\n\nThe latest text-books, school furniture,\n\nand appliances were displayed, plans for extension schools and vacation schools\nwere exhibited, and correspondence schools explained their modus operandi\nIn text-books and school furniture\nto 1 irge numbers of interested listeners.\nAmerica seemed to lead the world, and showed striking advancement over\nChicago ten years ago.\n\nNo report can be made of the exposition without at least a reference to\nthe charts and statistical tables that were found everywhere and that were\n\nOf the foreign exhibit it is not within my\nOur own country presented charts and tables that were\nstudied by large numbers. Thru the wide influence of the Bureau of Eduof great value to the student.\n\nprovince to speak.\n\ncation, exerted here as elsewhere to the great\n\nwere\n\nsufficiently\n\ngood of our schools, the charts\n\nuniform in plan and matter to form a valuable basis of\n\ncomparison in the data given by them, and the information presented by them\n\nbecame doubly important as a consequence.\nIt is to\n\nbe regretted that it is possible to present here only a superficial\n\nview of this marvelous exhibition of the work of American teachers.\n\nWhile\n\ndefects were seen and might be pointed out, the Educational Exhibit as a\n\nwhole made a most profound impression upon the thoughtful student, and\nwill prove\n\na source of encouragement and inspiration to the teachers of the\n\nland for many years to come.\n\ncan education in\n\nall\n\nThe predominance of the tendency of Ameri-\n\ngrades of schools toward reaching an end which\n\nexpressed in a material creation\n\nis\n\nis\n\nmost marked, and probably is an evi-\n\ndence of the impression that the mine and mill, factory and foundry, are\n\nmaking upon the education of our youth.\nIn a country that has no national system of public education, the striking\nresemblances of the state public systems must excite comment. This resemblance was seen not only in public-school systems, but also in the exhibits of\nthe most advanced institutions of learning, and confirms the opinion of the\noptimist that American schools are working in harmony with the intangible,\nyet none the less real, American idea, that has lived thru the generations, and\nthat is leading our beloved nation upward to the goal of a free, united, peaceful, prosperous, God-fearing, and man-loving people.\nAs we contemplate that marvelous array of cities and states, of empires\nand republics, presenting to the gaze of the world the choicest products of\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "Snverintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n173\n\nthe choicest minds of the world, forgetting for the while the intense rivalries\nthat have long existed,\n\nremembering only that each city, each state, each\n\nempire, each repubHc, brings its best gifts to teach its fellows, and comes to\nits\n\nfellows in humility to learn what better there is to learn\n\n—as we contem-\n\nplate all this, we feel that, below or above the bickerings of business and the\nstrife of\n\nwar, there exists a universal brotherhood, which is typified by the\n\nwonderful exhibition just closed at St. Louis; and we realize that the whole\n\nworld is not only wiser, but also better and nobler, because of the Universal\nExposition at St. Louis.\n\n///.\n\nLESSONS FROM THE UNITED STATES EXHIBIT OF\n\nELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nBEN BLEWETT, MEMBER OF THE JURY OF AWARDS, GROUP I, ELEMENTARY\nEDUCATION\nPOSITION ACCORDED EDUCATION\n\nThose of you who did not realize the fact thru the exquisite pleasure of\nseeing it have been told time and again how the scheme of organization of the\nUniversal Exposition at St. Louis recognized education as the alma mater\nof modern manhood, and enthroned her in her own magnificent palace,\nestablished in the seat of highest honor.\n\nYou know how the whole world,\n\nthe islands of the sea, and the great empires vied with each other in show-\n\ning what they were doing for the development of intellectual and moral\n\npower thru the training of their children and youth. You know the artistic\nform and the vast extent of the installation that made suitable setting for\nThese things need, at\nthis, the most significant part of the exposition.\nthis time, but be mentioned, not reviewed.\nIt was no accident that gave to education this recognition, unapproached\n\nin the previous universal expositions.\n\nThe recognition but measured the\n\ngrowth of an influence that had become a dominant power in the Hfe of men,\nin every occupation, in every land.\nof national living\n\n;\n\nIn other palaces you saw the processes\n\nin the Palace of Education and Social Economy you might\n\ndiscern the animating principles of these processes as shown in the national\n\ntoward which the youths were trained. One stood in open-eyed\namazement before the displays made by Japan in industries, manufactures,\nand arts; yet the explanation of her marvelous achievements was complete\nto one who studied her scheme of education and its development.\nEducation was accorded its honorable position on its merits, and to educators was given the most difficult problem to be worked out by exhibitors.\nMind manifests its power thru material forms that attract at a glance and\nthat, in large measure, may be comprehended without weariness.\nEven one\nideals\n\nuninitiated in the uses of machinery can quickly see the import of the rotary\n\nsteam-engine.\n\nThe processes thru which the powers of the intellect, of the\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n174\n\nwill, and of the soul are unfolded and trained are\n\ntrate in ways that will seize the eye and\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nmuch more difficult to illusTo illustrate\n\nbe easily understood.\n\nthese processes was the problem given to the educators, and its solution was\n\naccomplished with unparalleled success.\n\nINSTALLATION\nIn the Palace of Education, Group I was assigned to elementary education under four classes:\n1.\n\nKindergarten.\n\n2.\n\nElementary grades.\n\n3.\n\nTraining and certification of teachers.\n\n4.\n\nContinuation schools, including evening schools, vacation schools, and schools for\n\nspecial training.\n\nThe display from the United States in this group had distinct significance;\nfirst,\n\nin its evidence of the existence of\n\nan American system of education;\n\nsecond, in the demonstration of the treatment of the pecuUar and complex\n\nproblems of metropolitan schools; and, third, in the promise of a brighter\nfuture for rural schools. All the conditions of actual schoolroom li e were\nrealized as nearly as could be.\n\nOne state presented models showing the development of school buildings,\nfrom the log cabin, thru successive advances, to the modem high-school buildAnother showed a modern rural-school building, in size and equipment\ning.\nOther states, thru biogens, thru moving pictures\njust as it would be used.\nof large size, and thru photographs of almost every conceivable typical school\ncondition, left little for the imagination to supply.\n\nOne city, daily for a period\n\nshowed living classes of children engaged in such schoolroom\nwork as could be conducted under such distracting conditions.\nGraphic charts gave, in forms easily read, historic and statistical facts,\nand the relation of the various parts in lesson plans and courses of study.\nThe photographic illustrations were a distinct improvement over that old\ntype which showed rooms of children very conscious of the fact that their\nIn these the photographer had caught characpictures were being taken.\nteristic groups of children at typical school work; and every inch of the picture\nThe selected and t)^ical work of individual\ntold its tale to the examiner.\npupils, and the corrected or uncorrected work of whole classes, either in written\nexercises, in drawings, or in the materials employed in manual train'ng\nall\nthese made it possible for an earnest investigator to get close to the purpose\nof the work, its method and its results.\nThere were several distinct schemes of installation in the different states:\nfirst, that in which the work was grouped by towns and counties; second, that\nin which it was grouped by subjects, the work in any subject being collected\nfrom all parts of the state; third, that in which it was grouped by subjects, a\nsubject being assigned to some one town fourth, four large cities made exhibits\nof six months,\n\n—\n\n;\n\nindependent of the other parts of their respective states.\n\nand three territories were represented.\n\nTwenty-nine states\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n175\n\nHere was the state that justly boasts of its pubUc school established over\ntwo hundred years ago, and by its side the vigorous young territory that stands\nknocking at the door of the Union. Here was the great metropoHs with all\nits\n\ncomplex life and here the rural school of the wilderness into which only\nAnd here were all the stages of institutional\n\nthe pioneers had as yet pushed.\n\ndevelopment lying between the widely separated extremes.\n\nAN AMERICAN SYSTEM\nThat the participation in the exhibition was so universal excited the greatest surprise and admiration, and was most impressive in the evidence it gave\n\nWith the school unit\n\nof the existence of an American system of education.\n\nof organization being, as it is in almost every state, the small district with\nits local\n\nboard, and with no central authority to direct or even suggest plans\n\nand strengthening the work, a chaos of plans seemed inevitable.\nYet the direct opposite of this was plainly the actual condition of the work.\n\nfor shaping\n\nFrom Massachusetts\n\nto\n\nLouisiana, from Pennsylvania to California, from\n\nNew York city to the rural school of Arizona, the same purposes dictated\nthe general scheme of the courses of study, the same pedagogic philosophy\n\ndetermined\n\nthe\n\nrelation\n\nof the several parts of\n\nthe\n\nwork in\n\nthis general\n\nscheme; and the differentiations were only such as local conditions and individ-\n\nmade inevitable. One whose estimate was formed\nby that which attracted the eye easily, and who had no opportunity for close\nuality in administration\n\nexamination, would tell you that manual training was receiving an unwar-\n\nranted attention\n\n—\n\n^an\n\nattention\n\napparatus for educating.\n\nBut\n\nbeyond that given\nthis\n\nto\n\nimpression did not\n\nother material or\n\nremain with one\n\nwho read the outlines of courses of study, or examined those parts of the\nexhibits which,\n\nfrom their nature, need not and could not be conspicuously\n\ninstalled.\n\nAlthough the school journals, the 'reports of administrative officers, and\nthe frequent coming-together in great meetings have kept American teachers\nin close touch with each other, and\ntice, still this assembled evidence\n\nsiveness.\n\npresumably familiar with the actual prac-\n\nof unity in work was startling in its conclu-\n\nFrance and Germany, with their highly developed centralization of\n\ncommon directive principle, nor a\nThe United States has evidently accomplished\n\ncontrol, showed no closer recognition of a\n\ngreater uniformity of results.\nthis\n\nend thru the healthy incentive of friendly rivalry and thru sympathetic\n\nco-operation.\n\nThe creed of the American schoolmaster could be read in each\n\nunit and in the display as a whole as plainly as if\n\nit\n\nhad been printed on\n\nilluminated tablets:\n1.\n\nIt is\n\nour function to direct the natural and balanced development and training\n\nof the intellect, will, and soul of the child, giving to the spirit the power to comprehend\nthe environing world and to react upon it.\n2.\n\nUnder the conditions of our social institutions, there are but few artificial barriers\n\nof custom which can prevent the individual from selecting the life that he wills to follow,\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n176\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nand for which he has the innate or trained faculty. No social caste obstructs his path,\nand no tradition binds him as an apprentice to the trade of his forefathers or father.\n3. The education of our children must then give them flexibility for adaptation,\nstrength to choose and persist, and a sympathy that shall go out to the lives of all men.\n4.\n\nThe process of being educated is not alone the process of being acted upon.\n\nThis\n\nreceptivity has its complement in the reaction of the pupil which expresses itself sometimes\n\nthru language, sometimes thru music, and sometimes thru the grosser materials that must\n\nbe shaped by the hands.\n\nPECULIAR PROBLEMS OF METROPOLITAN AND RURAL SCHOOLS\nCertain features of the exhibit, however, were emphasized by their diver-\n\ngence from a scheme that in most respects was homogeneous for the entire\ncountry.\n\nAlthough the genius of our institutions demands a training for the\n\nchildren which shall throw down any artificial barriers that might bar their\n\nentrance into any attractive field of life, and tho the schools in every quarter\nof our country,\n\nunder the shaping of this genius, are remarkably similar in\n\ntype, still broad differences in conditions have developed characteristic modifications of the common type.\n\nTwo of these modifications must be noticed in a paper that hopes to present the salient lessons of the exhibit.\n\nthe administration of the\n\nOne relates to the conditions met in\n\nmodem metropoUtan school system; the other, to\n\nthe conditions met in the administration of rural schools.\n\nare as far apart as the poles.\n\nOne is the product\n\nof\n\nThe two conditions\nthe abnormally con-\n\ntracted Ufe of the grea*: metropolis; the other, the product of the natural, but\n\nunorganized life, of the rural districts.\n\nThese two fields of activity are attract-\n\ning the attention of the best talent for organization and development.\n\nMETROPOLITAN PROBLEMS\n\nThe mere mention of the annual expenditure for public schools made by\nTwenty-five million dollars is an immense sum\nof money; yet a study of the uses to which this money is put makes us lose. our\n\nNew York city startles one.\n\nadmiration for the amount expended in our admiration for the kind of work\nthat it does.\n\nAnnually the increase in the number of pupils seeking admission\n\nto the schools is about thirty thousand.\n\nAdditional accomodation and instruc-\n\ntion for this number must be provided.\n\nThis is in kind the same difficulty\n\nthat every growing town has to meet, the difference being only one of degree\n\nand increasing in arithmetical ratio only.\n\nBut the conditions that ar\n\npro-\n\nduced directly by this growth of population are so complex that the difficulty\nof hand ing them increases in geometrical ratio.\n\nThe great mass of humanity compacts by centripetal force till life in its\ncongested portions\n\nis\n\ndistorted out of all semblance to natural he 1th.\n\nA\n\nhome becomes a few square feet of standing-room in a caravansary, and the\nchild is deprived even of the solace of a neighbor's cellar door for a sliding\n\nplace;\n\nno refuge anywhere; the sky, the far-off roof of an\n\nartificial\n\nthe earth, a floor of granite; his neighbor, the fellow who crowds him.\n\ncanon;\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] £2)\n\nt/C^r/OiV^L FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n177\n\nThis seems like tragedy to us who, when children, looked thru clear air up\nto the sun and talked with the fairies under sheltering trees.\n\neducate into decent citizenship a child pent up in this way ?\ntion peculiar to the great city.\n\nHow can you\nHere is a ques-\n\nAnd it should be the glory of our profession\n\nthat there have been hearts that throbbed at the pathos of it all, and brains\n\nthat joyed in contending with the difficulties.\n\nThe public schoolhouse must be made the place where the child may\nThe floor rooms and the roof garden are his parks. Yet better\nstill are the playground where, from the piers, he may look out upon a space\nthat seems limitless to him, or where he may come in contact with the earth,\ntho its extent be only a city block. The evening schools, recreation centers,\ntrully live.\n\nvacation schools, historical excursions\n\n—\n\nall\n\nthese are skillfully devised to\n\nattract the youth away from suggestions that degrade to the things that interest,\n\nentertain, and cultivate his better nature.\n\nA few quotations from the report\n\nof Assistant Superintendent Evangeline E. Whitney will give some idea of what\nis being done to help city youths to right living:\n\nOnly those acquainted with life as it is in tenement districts can realize what these\nand well-lighted class-rooms mean to the children of the street,\nof whom none ought ever to knock at their doors in vain.\nBut our limitations necessitate\ndirecting efforts chiefly to boys who have left school, to become wage-earners, and who\nnightly roam the streets searching for amusements.\nBefore reaching his teens every\nboy of this class undoubtedly belongs to a group or gang for \"the boy is a gregarious\nanimal\" especially when fate makes him a city resident. A peculiar bond of sympathy\nwill hold a dozen or more lads together so that for months or years they will act as a unit.\nIf the leader has a strong bias for crime, Herculean tasks of mischief may be accompHshed.\nIn one of our centers a boy recently said to the principal: \"Say, I want to tell you something but don't tell the rest of the gang you have broken up a gang of thieves by keeping and interesting us fellows.\" That lad revealed a double secret, for the power that holds\nthe boys is the fulcrum on which all efforts for turning them into good citizens must rest.\nIn the buildings where shower-baths could be taken, this luxury was used as an incentive for securing obedience and fair play.\nOnly the good boys stood chances of getting\ntickets, but the bath never lacked patronage.\nOne school reported 1,125 making successful\nspacious, well-warmed,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\napplication in one afternoon.\n\n—\n\nIn the\n\nfifteen\n\nswimming-pools, the supervisor reported\n\nand girls took the required number of lessons and learned how to swim.\nThe roof playgrounds were the happiest places, I think, in the city. Thousands of\nfeet, nimble and slow, climbed the long stairs night after night, whether skies were bright\nor lowering. There for three blissful hours the people would play games or watch them,\ntalk or dance, sing together, or listen to the band music.\nThe program this year was\nsupervised by Dr. Damrosch, and had fewer numbers of the rag-time order than in former\nyears.\nFavorite airs from good operas and classical selections were interspersed with\npopular melodies. One night a poor woman, touched by some pathetic strain, stepped\nup to the leader and said: \"I don't expect to go to the cemetery but once; won't you\nplease give us a jig?\"\nTo refine and elevate taste is the work of the roof as well as of\nthe ground, and it is gratifying to note that in the general appreciation of good music in\nneater dress and more decorous manners a higher standard was reached than ever before.\nNot all of the schools were in the congested districts. It was felt that the children of\nthe well-to-do, remaining in town through the summer, were just as much entitled to\nthat 1,652 boys\n\n—\n\n—\n\nshare these special advantages as were those who excited our pity.\n\ngood neighborhoods were well patronized.\n\nSchools in the so-called\n\nIf they turned the attention of even a few boys\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n178\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nand girls toward the vast fields of industrial pursuits, which tomorrow will call for as\nwell-educated artisans as do the professional walks of today, these summer efforts will\n\nbe richly recompensed.\n\nThe following is Miss Whitney's tribute to the teachers in the recreation\ncenters:\n\nThe workers who patiently toil here month after month are the most heroic people\nI know several who spend freely their leisure time and money in efforts\n\nI have ever met.\n\nto raise the down-trodden and teach the ignorant;\n\nthey have visited every tenement and\n\nfamily within their districts, and their experiences are more thrilling than those published\n\nby sensational reporters; but with them confidences are too sacred to be made public.\nHaving intimate knowledge of the temptations, sorrows, and struggles of those among\nwhom they labor, they learn how to win them, how to infuse higher ideals of Hfe, and, by\nextending the sympathy and good-will of the new world, cause many of the ugly prejudices\nand customs of the old world to disappear. Here the youth of Latin, Slav, and Hebrew\nraces meet as comrades, and in learning to speak a common language gather some understanding of the duties and privileges of American citizenship.\n\nRURAL PROBLEMS\n\nThe condition of the rural school is the problem that involves the w Jfare\nThe importance of this problem lies both in\nthe number immediately affected and indirectly in the potency of these\nof more people than any other.\n\nHowever enticing it may be, the life\nand misshapen by the pressure of the great\nIn its atmosphere the human forces are devitalized and dwindle into\n\nlives in giving character to the nation.\n\nof the great towns\n\nthrongs.\n\nis artificial\n\nabnormal weaknesses.\n\nThis is so true that the great enterprises of the city are\n\nsustained only byythe infusion of the s rength of men who have he'd the plow\n\nhandles or wielded the ax.\n\nThe old story of the giant Anteus, like all great myths, is but the embodiment of a natural law. To get his strength and to hold his strength, the child\nmust touch hi mother earth, must struggle with the cold and with the heat,\nmust know how the plants grow, must experience how the knot yields to the\nski Iful wedge, must wrestle with labors that test his endurance, and must feel\nthe joy of his own masterfulness. The demands of his life develop in the\ncountry boy a self-reUance and a faculty for adaptation which, tho hidden under\na cloak of awkwardness, give him a power not possessed by the child who has\nnot had this natural training. It is from such people that the leaders of the\nworld come.\n\nThe great centers of population act as maelstroms which gather into their\nswirling rush all that the outermost circles of their influence can reach.\n\nTo\n\ncounteract this tendency, to hold the youth on the farms, so to organize his\nlife\n\nthere that his natural longing for social intercourse will be satisfied\n\n—\n\nto\n\naccomplish these ends, some of the strongest efforts of our school-masters are\nbeing made.\n\nThe exhibit from Winnebago county, 111., gave the most striking evidence\nof this activity,\n\nO. J. Kern:\n\nand its spirit glows in the words of County Superintendent\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL FEATURES OF THE EXPOSITION\n\n179\n\nMy fundamental proposition is that the country child is entitled to every whit as good\nan educational opportunity as that enjoyed by the most favored city child attending the\npublic school.\nTo have this equality of educational opportunity, the country people\nrtMsi spend more money in a better way.\nIn his address at the dedication of the first consolidated school building in\n\nWinnebago county, Eugene Davenport, dean of College\n\nof Agriculture\n\nand\n\ndirector of Experimental Station, University of Illinois, said:\nAll people should be educated in two environments and from two standpoint?.\nis\n\nthe world at large\n\n—\n\ngeneral and broadening; the other\n\nis\n\nOne\n\nthat in which his hfe has\n\nunfolded and his individuality developed, and in which in all likeUhood his future will be\ncast.\n\nThe only sufficient reason for changing one's environment at the school age is the\n\ncertainty that the future calHng is to be different from that of the family, and then some-\n\nthing of educational value has been lost if the transplanting has taken place too early.\nIt is better not to turn the back upon the things of childhood until we can look out upon\n\nthe world through the eyes of a man.\n\nThe consolidated school is the only solution for\n\nthe educational necessities of country people.\n\nThis new agriculture, therefore, demands three achievements in the way of education.\nOne is a better training in the technique of the profession in order to make the best farmers\npossible of the individuals who occupy our lands; the second is that this education shall\nbe secured without disrupting the country home; and the third is that, when it is over,\nthe product shall be a normal country child, to the end, if he remains in the country, he\nwill make a good country man, and that, if he later goes to the city, he goes intelligently\nand for a purpose, in which case he will make a good citizen.\nI hope now that you will meet these needs by doing the natural thing; and what I\nmean is this: I hope that this will not be a city school transplanted into a corn-field. I\nhope it will be a country school, surrounded by all that will make it attractive beautiful,\nand filled with all that will make it effective.\nWhy should this not be a city school ? Is not a city school as good as a country school ?\nYes, for city people; but a city school for country people is as far from what is best as would\n\n—\n\nbe a country school for city people.\n\nIt is not that one is better than the other,\n\nbut it is\n\nThe city school has been long developing, and it is to be assumed\nNow, the\nthat it has come to meet fairly well the conditions and needs of city people.\nthat they are different.\n\nconditions and needs of country people are not less and they are not greater, but they are\ndifferent.\n\nI would, therefore, have in such a school a good portion of agriculture,\n\nshop\n\nand of science in general. Why ? Because these are specially\ncharacteristic of country hfe.\nSome of them are also characteristic of city life, some of\nthem are not; the city people will look after that; but in the meantime it remains for us\npractice, household arts,\n\n—those things\n—that make the differences by which we\n\nto put into country schools the things that are characteristic of country life\n\nthat give it character, flavor, distinctness\n\ndis-\n\ntinguish it as country life.\n\nA number of the states have already achieved noticeable progress in revolutionizing the condition of the rural schools.\n\nThey have declared that the\n\nunsightly and unsanitary one-room district school must be abandoned, because\nit is unsightly\n\nand unsanitary; and in its stead must rise the modern building,\n\nequipped for comfort and health, and with rooms enough and children enough\nfor efl&cient classification of work.\n\nThis consolidation puts the school a long\n\nsome pupils. These pupils must be transported to and from\nschool at public expense, and to make this feasible good roads must be built.\ndistance from\n\nThis consolidated school, they tell us, will require fewer teachers\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\ni8o\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nsame number of pupils taught in the abandoned one-room buildings, and for\nthe same total of expenditure for salaries will secure a higher grade of professional skill.\n\nThe incidental expenses are reduced, altho the cost of trans-\n\nportation has been added.\n\nA single example will demonstrate the superiority of the consolidated\nschool as a business proposition alone.\n\nThe report of La Grange county,\n\nInd., for the school year 1903-4, shows the schools of the eight townships con-\n\nsolidated in fourteen buildings.\n\nThirty-eight old schools had been aban-\n\nThe number of\n\nhad been reduced by thirty-one, with a\n\ndoned.\n\nteachers\n\nAdd to this a saving in fuel and repairs, and\nFrom this subtract an expense of\nthere is a gross saving of $12,911.60.\n\nsaving in salaries of $16,051.60.\n\n$6,170.86 for transportation of children, and there remains a net saving of\n$6,734.74-\n\nThe new school radiates its influence in all directions.\n\nThe lawn and\n\ngarden surrounding it are part of its science and art work, and from them and\nthe decorations of the rooms taste develops\n\nand\n\nis\n\ncarried into the homes.\n\nThe school library brings to the children the best of the world's thinking\nand feeling, and expands the horizon of their sympathies and desires. The\nbuilding becomes a social center for the cominunity, offering opportunity,\n\nthru clubs or lyceums, for the discussion of questions that touch the business,\nthe recreations, and the Qulture of their membership.\n\nA scientific knowledge of the elements with which he is working makes\nnature the farmer's willing benefactor.\n\nan abundance.\nis\n\nThe field and the flocks return to him\n\nBetter roads and the telephone minimize distances, and there\n\nno longer the isolation that drives men to the towns for the companionsocial instinct demands for them and their children.\nThe\n\nship which the\n\nyouths are at home upon the land, and feel that their lives may be completer\nhere than in the shops or factories of the cities.\n\nThis is the vision of faith of the modern county superintendent.\n\nAnd thus,\n\nthru their faith and their works, he and his brother in the crowded\n\ncity,\n\nbrighten the lives of children, and become potent factors in shaping national\ncharacter\n\nTOPIC:\n\nMEANS OF INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY OF OUR\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\nI.\n\nJ.\n\nPROVIDING BETTER TEACHERS\n\nW. CARR, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANDERSON, IND.\n\nSome years ago I was chairman of a church committee to purchase a new\npipe-organ.\n\nWe were an ambitious congregation, and nothing but the biggest\nWe purchased a magnificent instrument—three\n\nand the best would suffice.\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSuperintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\ni8l\n\nmanuals, tracker, pneumatic action, 1,944 pipes, and all the necessary swells\n\nand stops; cost, $5,000.\n\nIt was a \"thing of beauty,\" and we expected it to be\n\na \"joy forever.\" The congregation was pleased; the committee was delighted.\nBut somehow things did not go well. Sister Jones, the old organist,\n\nwould not touch the new-fangled thing. \"Too much machinery and too\nOf course, we were adverse to going outside of the\n\nmuch show,\" she said.\n\ncongregation for an organist.\n\nSo we tried Minnie Wright, the deacon's\n\ndaughter; but Minnie could not manipulate the stops and swells.\ntried Josie Grayson, an orphan girl who really needed the place.\n\nWe next\nNow, Josie\n\ncould play with her hands, but when it came to playing with her feet also, she\ncould not do it.\n\nWe next tried Seth McGraw, who had been to college and who,\n\nin addition to his musical ability, was able-bodied and strong.\n\nSeth put all\n\nthe power on the motor, pulled out all the stops, and kicked and pawed with\n\nThe organ shrieked and bellowed and\n\nroared.\nAs for\nBut as for music well, it\nBashan were outclassed.\nrequires more than a big organ and a big man to produce that.\nThe congregation was disappointed, disgusted, and fast becoming desperate.\nThey said\nthat the organ was too big, too complicated, and that it had at least nineteen\nhundred pipes too many. There were charges of mismanagement and even\nfraud against the committee, and hints that \"something might be doing,\"\n\nmight and main.\n\n—\n\nthe bulls of\n\nnoise,\n\nNow, Indiana lies in the north central-portion of the lynching belt of the\nUnited States, so the committee felt a trifle uncomfortable.\n\nTo my way of thinking, there is a marked similarity between the musical\nexperience of this congregation and the educational experience of many communities in this country.\n\nWe have built great schoolhouses and prepared\n\nelaborate courses of study, with more manuals, stops, and swells than characterized the great organ of Newtown.\n\nThe old course of study, which was so\n\nsimple that even Sister Jones could play it by ear, has given place to a new,\nelaborate, and highly organized course which is difl&cult\n\n—\n\nentirely too difficult\n\nfor the Minnie Wrights and Josie Graysons, no difference if the one is a relative\n\nof some member of the school board and the other is the daughter of a poor\n\nwidow.\n\nIt requires\n\nsomething more,\n\ntoo,\n\nthan an able-bodied man to get\n\nproper results from the course of study, even if he has been to college and\nplayed full-back on the football team.\n\nHe may make a great ado about it,\n\nbut the results will be very similar to Seth McGraw's music on the pipe-\n\norgan\n\n—calculated\n\nto incite a riot.\n\nweak and poor attempt to carry out the course of study that\ncauses many good people to cry out against expense and the so-called fads in\nthe public schools, and to sigh for the good old times when we had only the\nthree R's, and when anybody could teach school.\nThere is no doubt in my\nmind but that the old-time teaching of reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic was superior to some of our attempts to carry out the modern course of\nstudy, with all its \"enrichments\" and \"culture studies,\" and a little reading,\nwriting, and spelling taught ncidentally.\nBut this does not necessarily mean\nIt is this\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1 82\n\nthat the course of study is radically wrong.\n\nIt more likely indicates our lack\n\nAfter listening to the feeble attempts of Minnie,\n\nof skill in carrying it out.\nJosie,\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nand Seth, a majority of the Newtown congregation was ready to us,e\n\nthe big organ for kindling wood and to prosecute the committee for the mis-\n\nappropriation of funds.\n\nThey longed\n\nfor Sister\n\nJones and the old reed-\n\norgan.\n\nBut, before consigning the organ to the scrap-pile, the committee decided\n\nHitherto they had employed only such persons\n\nto make one more attempt.\n\nas they could get cheap.\n\nThis time they agreed to give the organist jijty\n\nweek. Such extravagance! Would they ever receive forgiveness?\nBut the new organist wrought miracles. The feeble and discordant notes\ngave place to hymns and anthems of praise. Now it was a joyful Te Deum^\nas when David danced before the Lord; now it was a mournful lamentation,\nlike the exiles weeping by the waters of Babylon; anon it was a benediction,\nsweet and solemn, as when the Master spoke \"Peace\" to the raging waves of\nGaUlee; and when at last he played old \"Coronation,\" it seemed that the angels\ncame down among the people. That congregation had never heard such\nmusic before. The committee had been vindicated. There was nothing\nthe matter with the organ either. It only needed the master's touch. From\nthat day it was not too big nor too grand nor too costly for that congrega-\n\ndollars a\n\ntion.\n\nThe return of Sister Jones and the old reed-organ was now an imposThey had heard real music.\n\nsibihty.\n\nWhat is needed, above everything else in our pubUc schools, is the masterhand that can bring unity, harmony, and results out of our modern course of\nstudy.\n\nThe course is not too rich nor too complex nor too elaborate to suit\n\nthe tastes and to meet the needs of our enlightened and progressive people.\n\nThe dijficulty has been, and still is, that the art of teaching has not progressed\nas rapidly as the building and equipment of schoolhouses and the development\nof the course of study.\n\nWhat the public schools need even more than the\nthe man or the\n\ncommittee needed the master-organist is the master-teacher\n\n—\n\nwoman who knows his instrument and knows his art.\nBut we could not go backward if we would.\n\nWe may sigh for the old\n\ncurriculum and the citizen teacher of the olden time, but they will not return.\n\nWe might as well attempt to turn back the hands on the clock of fate as to\nWe live in a different age, and our people have\n\nattempt to bring them back.\n\ndifferent hopes and different aspirations.\n\nThe Newtown congregation could\n\nnever have gone back to the little frame house and the old reed-organ after\nthey had occupied the new stone church and listened to the grand music of\nthe new pipe-organ.\n\nSo it is not a question of desire, it is not a question of\n\nexpediency, it is not a question of expense; but it is a necessity thai; sufficient\n\nnumber of competent teachers be provided to fill the American public schools.\nThis is the first and chief requisite for increasing the efficiency of our publicschool work.\nI am aware of the fact that there are other educational problems whose\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\n183\n\nproper solution would greatly increase the efficiency of our school work.\n\nBut\n\nthe solution of most of these problems would follow as a result, if we once solve\nthe greater problem\n\n—the supplying of a\n\nteachers for the public schools.\n\nand\n\nelaboration, elucidation,\n\nsufficient\n\nTo illustrate:\n\nnumber of well-equipped\n\nThe course of study needs\n\nespecially elimination.\n\nBut the\n\neducational\n\ndoctrinaire can no more do this work properly without the guidance and assist-\n\nance of the practical teacher than John Locke could evolve a suitable scheme\nof government for the American colonies.\n\nThere is the problem of carrying\n\nout the course of study, after it has been formulated, so as to get the best\nresults.\n\nBut no number\n\nof\n\nrules\n\nor regulations will\n\nenable amateurs, or\n\nother persons poorly equipped for their work, to do this properly.\n\nThere is\n\nalso the problem of the recognition and proper development of the individuality\n\nof pupils while teaching the\n\nmass in classes; but it is folly to speculate on\nThere is\n\nthis\n\nproblem unless we place master-teachers in the schoolroom.\n\nstill\n\na greater problem.\n\nIt is the use of the course of study, the discipline, the\n\nplayground and the child 's whole range of school experiences so as to develop\nproperly his moral and religious nature, resulting in the formation of right\ncharacter.\n\nBut this miracle can no more be wrought without the child com-\n\ning into contact with a noble personality than Simon Magus could purchase\nthe gift of the Holy Ghost.\n\nIn making this special plea for better teachers and more of them, I am aware\nof the fact that I\n\nhave said nothing new.\n\nthe tritest thing that could be said.\n\nIndeed, it is about the oldest and\n\nBut it is what ought to be said and what\n\nmust be done, if the American public schools are not to prove the greatest\ndisappointment of the age.\n\nThe gospel is old, but nothing new has been, or\n\never will be, found to take\n\nits place.\n\nHow is a sufficient number of well-qualified teachers to be obtained for\nour public schools?\nCreate a greater public desire for good teaching by demonstrating the\ndifference between the counterfeit\n\nand the genuine article.\n\nBreak down the Chinese walls that seem to surround many towns and cities,\n\nand employ good teachers wherever they may be found.\nEliminate politics, nepotism, favoritism, and the whole brood of like isms\nfrom the management of school affairs.\nMagnify the office of the teacher.\nMake the tenure of position for good teachers absolutely secure; absolutely\ninsecure for poor ones.\n\nPromote for efficiency; dismiss for inefficiency.\nProtect\n\nprofessional\n\nteachers\n\nfrom\n\nruinous\n\ncompetition\n\nwith\n\nnon-\n\nprofessionals.\n\nPay teachers in proportion to the services rendered.\n\nNew York Sun,\n\nAccording to the\n\nthe \"dog-catcher \"of the city of Washington, euphoniously\n\nstyled the \"pound-keeper,\" receives $1,500 a year; grade teachers, $500 a year.\n\nWhenever the American people are willing to expend as much for great\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "MATIO^AL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1^4\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nteachers as they do for great school buildings, then we shall have great schools,\n\nand the next important step will have been taken to improve the efficiency\nof our school work.\n\nAnd so, in closing, I wish to make one appeal.\n\nI wish to appeal to the\n\nsuperintendents of the United States to use their utmost endeavor to secure\n\na higher degree of efficiency among teachers.\nofficers\n\neverywhere\n\nI wish to appeal\n\nto school\n\nto subordinate personal interests to the welfare of the\n\npubhc schools, and to employ none but the best teachers available.\n\nI wish to\n\nappeal to the teachers themselves, not only to make the best preparation posi\n\nible for their daily work, but to strive continually for clearer insight, broader\n\ns^\n\nmpathy, and greater power, in order that they may do the most possible for\nI wish to appeal to the great American\n\nthe children intrusted to their care.\n\n—the greatest press\n\n—\n\nto use its mighty power in building\nup a public sentiment that will demand a competent teacher for every child.\nI wish to appeal to the fathers and to the mothers of the nation not to be contented with any person but the best the best in character as well as in scholarship to teach their children.\nAnd, finally, I wish to appeal to the great American people to render such moral and financial support to the public schools\nas will enable them to employ and to maintain the best teachers, thereby mak-\n\npress\n\nin any country\n\n—\n\n—\n\ning it possible for the public\n\n//.\n\nchools to attain the highest degree of efficiency.\n\nADEQUATE LEADERSHIP, PROGRESSIVE TEACHERS, AND FEWER\nSUBJECTS\nCARROLL G. PEARSE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nThe topic we are asked to discuss this afternoon is one which everybody\nand a great many people feel called upon, to discuss, tho\nmuch of the counsel which is offered to us reminds one of that offered to the\nman whose horse is back-stepping or rearing or has fallen in the street. And\nsince the pubHc-school system has not yet attained perfection, we shall\n\nfeels quaUfied,\n\ndoubtless not only continue to receive counsel on the subject from\nfriends, but shall do as we are asked to do this morning\n\n—discuss\n\nit\n\nall\n\nour\n\nas a busi-\n\nness matter among ourselves.\n\nAlexander the Great, or some other ancient notable who was a successful\n\nwould rather have an army of deer\nThis is his way of\nexpressing the value of proper leadership; and proper leadership is just as\nwarrior,\n\nis\n\nreported to have said:\n\n''I\n\nlead by a lion than an army of lions lead by a deer.\"\n\nimportant in matters educational today as in matters industrial or political,\n\nand just as important in any of these lines as it was in the days of Alexander;\nand one of the great needs of our public schools is more adequate leadership\non the part of those who fill positions as superintendents and principals.\nThis is not to say that the persons who are doing this work are not of as\ngreat ability or as good intentions as those who fill positions of leadership\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nSuperintendence] EFFtCtElStCY\n\nOF OVR PUBLtC-SCHOOL WORK\n\nin other lines of business.\n\nIt is\n\nto\n\ncall\n\n185\n\nattention to the fact that in such\n\nplaces the schools today need, as much as any one thing, trained leadership.\n\nThere are schools without number where the\n\nscholastic qualifications\n\nneeded by the teacher or the principal or the superintendent can be obtained\n\nand\n\ncolleges\n\nuniversities, collegiate\n\ninstitutes\n\nready to supply this side of the equipment.\n\nand normal\n\nschools, are all\n\nThere are, too, many institu-\n\ntions in which teachers are trained in the principles and practice of instructing\n\nchildren.\n\nBut when it comes to the broader and more responsible duties of\n\nschool administrations, there has as yet been developed no institution in which\n\nyoung men or women planning to enter this particular department of educa-\n\nThe only way that has so far been\nway of experience \"exposure.\" The young\n\ntion can receive the necessary training.\n\nopened\n\nis\n\nthe time-honored\n\n—\n\nman has been obliged to begin his work without any adequate preparation,\nand has learned what he could by the actual practice of the duties of such a\nWhat he has learned he has learned from the the result of his own\nexperience.\nHe has not been able to profit by the experience of others, as\nhe would be if he entered most other professions.\nposition.\n\nTo be a successful administrator of schools, various sides of educational\nwork must be understood. The head of a school system needs to know the\nfinancial side of school management\nhow school revenues are gathered and\nshould be expended. He should know something of the development and\n\n—\n\noperations of the minds of children, as well as of the subjects of study which\nwill\n\ndevelop their minds and characters in the most satisfactory way.\n\nThis\n\nhe must know in order that he may include the proper subjects in the course\n\nand may arrange those subjects to the best advantage and in\nHe must have proper standards of school work and accomplishment; he must know how to direct and supervise the work of others.\nThese and many other things are necessary to his success and just now there\nis no place where he can learn these things, even theoretically, before beginof instruction,\n\nthe proper order.\n\n;\n\nning his work.\n\nThe need of training for the profession of law or medicine,\n\nis universally recognized, and\nample provision is made for it; but for this profession, which is more impor-\n\ncivil\n\nor mechanical or electrical engineering,\n\ntant, so far as future welfare of the\n\ncommunity is concerned, than any one\n\nof these, proper training has so far been left entirely to chance.\n\nStrangely enough, there is almost no Hterature upon the subject; the\nvolumes which treat of it are so few that they can almost be told on the fingers\nof one hand\n\n;\n\nand the treatment which it receives in current periodical literature\n\nis insufficient.\n\nTo supply even this lack would do something toward improv-\n\ning the quahty of the work done in the schools of the country.\n\nAnother way in which the average quality of work in American schools\n\nmay be bettered is for the corps of instructors to realize more fully the need\nfor keeping aUve intellectually, and for keeping abreast of the times, both in a\n\ngeneral way and educationally.\n\nIt is so easy for teachers, as well as for those\n\nwho oversee and direct their work, after having followed the employment long\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nl86\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nenough to become reasonably familiar with its outward forms and processes,\nto rest back upon the technical skill so far acquired; this enables them to do\n\nthe\n\nwork day by day in a mechanical way, but without proper thought or\nIf in some way those engaged in teach-\n\nthat originality which is so desirable.\n\ning could be impressed with the importance of a thoughtful attitude toward\n\nnew improvements of education, and a habit of questioning the methods\nand processes used; or could consider more frequently what improvements\nmight be brought about; if this duty could be seen and met by all engaged\nin the work of education, the results in our schools would be much improved.\nTo this should be added the value to the teacher of keeping alive his own\nintellectual life and his interest in the things of the mind and in the affairs\nof the world; this in order that he may be a better citizen of the world, and\nthus a better citizen of his community, as well as a well-rounded practicer\nall\n\nof his profession.\n\nAnother way in which we may improve the efficiency of our work is to\npresent to the pupils in our schools fewer subjects of study, and fewer items\nin these subjects, than is the general practice today.\n\nIf one of\n\nus goes into\n\na large department store and walks casually thru it, he gets very little impression of the contents of the store; it requires many such visits to get even a\n\ngeneral knowledge.\n\nIf\n\nwe meet a crowd of people, one thousand or two\n\nthousand, we must meet them many, many times in order to get a very good\n\nknowledge of even a part of them; but if we enter a room which contains\nonly a few objects, a few \\dsits will give us a pretty thoro knowledge of what\nthe room contains; and if we meet a small party of people for a reasonable\nnumber of times, we have not only a good knowledge of the individuals making up the company, but a pretty good knowledge of their characteristics\nand personalities. It is so with our subjects of study in the schools.\nI remember a conversation with a teacher working in a large city, who was\ndiscussing' nature study as taught in her school.\n\nments for \"nature study\" were so\navailable to study nature;\n\nShe said that the require-\n\nma y and extensive that no time was\n\nall it was possible to do was to\n\nplace the \"nature-\n\nstudy outline\" on the blackboard and have the children commit it to memory.\nIf,\n\nhowever, instead of such a long list of items in nature stu\n\ny, this\n\nteacher\n\nhad been permitted to take for the year spent in her grade, a bird and a flower\nand a tree and perhaps one or two other interesting objects in nature, and\nspend the year upon them with her class, the pupils would have grown not\nonly into a pretty good knowledge of the particular things studied, but into\n\nsome general interest in nature and into the habit of observing the things\nin nature.\n\nIn the same way we sometimes try to familiarize children with literature\nand the work of great authors; we present *.o them in kaleidoscopic fashion\nbrilKant selection after brilliant selection from the works of one after another\nof the galaxy of the writers who nave delighted us at different times during\n\nthe ages.\n\nAs a result, the child has only a confused impression of the bril-\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nliancy and\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\n187\n\nthe selections presented to him.\n\nHe gets no\n\nmagnificence\n\nof\n\nadequate knowledge of, and no satisfactory acquaintance with, any author,\nor with the works or the characteristics or the message of any of those whom\n\nhe has looked upon so briefly.\n\nIf,\n\ninstead of covering so many authors, he\n\nhad been permitted to dwell upon the works of some good author for a year,\nuntil he had become famiUar with the writer's characteristics, and his friends,\nand the notable events of his life, with the writings and the message which\nthese contain, and with the characteristic note sounded in them, he would\nhave acquired strength from the study and a liking for the author and the\nThis would not only have been a pleasure to him thru hfe,\nauthor's work.\nbut a standard to j.-dge of other authors, and a suggestion that he might\nacquire familiarity with their works.\n\nThe carrying out of such a plan as\n\nthis thru the grades of the common schools would put the child into intimate\n\ntouch with a Hmited number of our best EngHsh authors, and would be of\nfar more value than the desultory glance at a great number of authors which\n\nwe now so frequently give.\n\nWhat is true in\n\n**\n\nnature study\" and in the study\n\nof our authors is equally true in many other subjects in our curriculum.\n\nThose children who attend schools in cities and large towns may have\nwork much improved, and their strength and usefulness after\nleaving school materially increased, if we will cultivate in them more than\nwe do the power of initiative and of independent judgment in the use of minds\nand hands; if we will develop in them greater self-reHance. Our town\nlife furnishes so httle for children to do outside of the schoolroom, so Uttle\nwith which they may employ themselves, and particularly so little in which\nthey may employ their hands and cultivate the habit of doing things, of\nstudying out ways to do things, that we are coming to recognize more and\nmore the necessity for cultivating this side of the child 's powers in the schopls.\nHence the growing tendency toward giving children things to do in school\nor suggesting things for the children to do with their hands as a part of their\nschool work. Where a boy lives out among the things of nature, and has\nhis horse and his dog, his boat upon the lake, his playhouse which he builds\nfor himself, his sled which he makes for his coasting, he has his constructive\nquahty developed and strengthened. He learns to use the natural things\nabout him for his pleasure and the promotion of his purposes. But where\nthe boy has no place to be but in the house or upon the paved street, there\nOur methods\nis little which he can do to develop this side of his nature.\ntheir school\n\nin school, too, are sometimes\n\nshaped too much to secure drill\n\n—promptness\n\nof response, rather than thoughtfulness on the part of the pupils and abiHty\nto\n\naccomplish things independently.\n\nNow,\n\nif\n\nour courses of study were\n\nso planned as to include more of those subjects in which children cannot rely\n\non the answer given them by the teacher or by the book, but require the\nanswer to be worked out by their hands or by independent thinking, the\nquality of self-reliance will be increased,\n\nboys and\n\ngirls will also be increased.\n\nand the general efficiency of our\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1 88\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nDISCUSSION\nClarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester N. Y.\n\n—The\n\nfirst\n\nspeaker of the afternoon took as a major topic \"Providing Better Teachers,\" affirming\nthat as the teacher so is the school.\n\nThis is true, but ought to be assumed without dis-\n\nThe second speaker referred at length to the \"Training of Teachers.\" This\nbrings us much nearer to our subject, which is \"How to Improve the Public Schools.\"\ncussion.\n\nIt would have been, not only entertaining, but helpful, to the superintendents present,\nhad Superintendent Pearse given some account as to his methods of training his teachers.\nI shall assume that this topic calls for an informal discussion, and that the experience of\nsuperintendents is in order. Acting upon this theory, I shall venture to refer to the method\n\nof training the teachers in service adopted in Rochester.\n\nInstead of the institute week found in mariy states and cities, the teachers of a given\n\nAt this meeting the superintendent\nand his primary supervisor set forth such suggestions or directions as may seem desirable.\nThe supervisors of special subjects are also allotted a part of the time. The most important feature of this institute day is found in the class recitations which are observed by the\nteachers present.\nOne part of the hall, in which the meetings are held, is organized as\nnearly as may be possible in the form of a schoolroom.\nClasses best illustrating methods\nor principles are brought before the teachers. Sometimes several lessons upon a given\nsubject are presented, sometimes a variety.\nSuggestions from the lessons are freely disgrade are called together on Friday for an entire day.\n\ncussed later.\n\nThe influence of these meetings, especially of the grade lessons, is very powerful and\nfar-reaching in the system.\n\na large scale, and affords\nand theory of education with\n\nIt provides regulated visitation on\n\nthe most excellent opportunity to present the philosophy\nthe best illustrations that can be provided.\n\nIndeed, the lesson may be made a demonstra-\n\ntion of a general principle.\n\nAt least three series of these grade meetings are held in each school year; that is, the\ngrade, for example, is three days in session under the conditions prescribed above.\nThis system was organized before I assumed charge of the schools, and therefore I claim\nno credit for originality, except to say that in the schools of Worcester, Mass., we had for\nmany years such class recitatiotis and grade meetings, held, however, usually after school\nfirst\n\nor during a part of the afternoon school session.\n\nSuperintendent Pearse referred at length to the study of hterature in the schools.\nI shall venture to present a bit of experience upon this point.\n\nFrom the primary grade thruout, literature has become a large element in school\ninstruction everywhere.\n\nFolk-lore, traditions,\n\na large part, of our best reading-books.\n\nand classic myths constitute the bulk, or\n\nWe are likely, however, to pass so rapidly over\n\nthis vast, delightful realm of childhood as to leave only vague impressions.\n\nA seventh-grade class recently gave The Lady of the Lake at an institute meeting.\nThe pupils had become familiar with every part of the story, with the setting, geographical\nEach pupil could repeat pages of the poem, and in the form of dialogue\nThey were\nsupplied with paraphernalia of the Scottish chiefs, and were dressed in their costume.\nThey entered seriously into the play, showing no evidence of self-consciousness, which\nis always visible in every superficial effort of this kind.\nThe head of the English department of the high school was present and pronounced the work to be, from his standpoint,\nof the very highest character.\nThe pupils had studied this play for its content avoiding,\nfor the most part any technicalities, and yet their written reproduction, illustrated and\nilluminated from the art side, was certainly creditable as composition exercises. The\nmost interesting thing, however, that I can say with reference to this dramatization was\nthat these pupils had studied The Lady of the Lake intensively for several months.\nOther\nshorter selections had been taken up for the time, but this play was made their principal\nand historical.\n\nthe pupils were able to dramatize effectively almost every act and scene.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\n189\n\nbusiness and afforded numerous exercises in oral language, in written composition, in art,\n\nand in free constructve work in connection with manual training.\nIt\n\nmay be of interest to the members of the Association to know that for the coming\n\nsemester the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the entire city will make such an intensive\n\nstudy of some longer poems selected from a list of eight or nine productions formerly a\npart of the high-school curriculum; that is, these literary productions, instead of being a\n\npart of the high -school work, will now be relegated to the grammar grades.\n\nThe par-\n\nwhich these will be taken up in each grammar-school building will be\ndetermined by the principals and the teachers.\nWe have come a long way to this meeting, from the East and from the West. It is\nticular order in\n\nalways a disappointment to the professional superintendent that so little is said that bears\ndirectly\n\nupon the class-room.\n\nUpon this program, as upon other programs, we have\n\ndevoted a half-day to school organization, another half-day to child labor, another to the\n\nThe program is useful to the superintendent of larger\nand interesting to all; but it touches only in spots the real business at hand. If\na company of physicians or a company of lawyers should travel thousands of miles and\n\nSt.\n\nLouis Exposition, and so on.\n\ncities,\n\ndiscuss only the construction of hospitals or jails, or the mechanical operation of forces\n\nand influences that support and control these institutions, they would be railed upon by an\ninterested and critical public.\nThe lawyer discusses rather the increment of law, and the\nThese are conphysicians discuss disease germs, antiseptics, pathology, and remedies.\nWhenever such\nstructive arts and our profession should be based upon constructive art.\na professional discussion is launched in this body, there is breathless attention, and the\ndeepest interest is shown. This is not intended as a criticism upon the program nor upon\nthis body.\nI speak a deep conviction, which I know is voiced by many present, that we\nneed often to discuss questions of the schoolroom which are pressing upon us in our daily\nwork.\n\nThe question of the individual pupil;\n\nof the physial life of the schoolroom;\n\nof free\n\nconstruction as a part of education; of grouping children in a class-room; of individual\ninstruction as opposed to group instruction\n\n;\n\nsuch vexed questions as the teaching of read-\n\ning by so-called phonic systems; of grade examinations, and of many others, are upon\n\nour hands, and yet they are seldom mentioned here.\n\nYou will recall that at the Atlanta meeting a year ago a lady spoke upon her experience\nin the class-room.\n\nI can safely say in this presence that nothing so impressed this audience\n\nor was so well remembered as were the words of wisdom based upon her experience.\n\nThe whole question of the self-activity of the child bears down upon us with treThose of us who live in cities and have families of our own know very\n\nmendous weight.\n\nproblem is in trying to find proper stimulus for self-activity and\nThe city child is at a serious disadvantage, however\nwell trained in school; however well dressed and entertaining, he is likely to lack power\nwhen he has finished his school course. The reason for this is chiefly because city life is\nlimited in its opportunity and in its incentives to independent effort.\nI trust the time will come when the pubHc school will provide as much time for manual\ntraining and free construction work as it gives to the study of books.\nThis principle is\nthe secret of the attempt of the southern schools for the uplifting of the negro. This\nprinciple has found a place in our schools, but has advanced so painfully and so slowly\nwell that our hardest\n\nproper opportunity for its exercise.\n\nthat it has affected but Uttle the status of the city boy.\nIt is the business of this organization to address itself seriously to some of these problems which we carry upon our hearts, and with which we are earnestly struggling at home.\n\nBut the question before us is: What can we do to improve the public schools? I\nhope my suggestions have not been off the question. I am simply pleading that the\nmarvelous strength and judgment and the wisdom of this great body be so directed that\nthe American child shall be benefited by our deliberation, and that we shall not waste\nour time upon questions of less importance.\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nI90\n\n///.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nCHANGING THE VIEW-POINT^\n\nWILLIAM I. CRANE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MARSHALLTOWN, lA.\n(an abridgment)\n\nTHE VIEW-POINT\n\nThe view-point which we hold in any matter of thought or of action deterIn all judgments,\n\nmines our opinion or conduct with reference to that matter.\nthe human mind must have a measuring unit.\nextension, capacity, weight, of\n\ngood,\n\nof\n\nIt\n\njoy, or\n\ncannot judge correctly of\nof\n\nbeauty, except by the\n\npossession and application of a correct measuring unit.\n\nand action, one's view-point is his measuring unit.\nin all cases.\n\ngoverns his opinion\n\ngoverns his actions; for these are guided by his\n\nA battle is a very different thing to victor and to vanquished; yet\n\nopinions.\nit is the\n\nIt therefore\n\nIn matters of opinion\nIt\n\nsame battle.\n\nIn our school work, our courses of study and our teach-\n\ning are the necessary sequences of our view-points.\n\nThere are two view-points held generally by school people.\n\nThe one\n\nwhich prevails directs the chief attention toward the subjects of instruction,\nwith little regard for the child.\n\nWe hear much of teaching arithmetic, geog-\n\nraphy, English, and Latin, but little or nothing of teaching the child.\n\nThis\nmere quibble; for the advocates of the old view-point believe that if\nthe course of study be properly hammered into the child, the child must be\nproperly prepared for life. To them the child exists for the system, and not\n\nis not a\n\nthe system for the child.\n\nThe other view-point is that the system exists for the child, and that a\ncourse of study can be rationally determined only by a study of Hfe and of\nthe child's needs in meeting the conditions of that life.\n\nIt holds that tradi-\n\ntions and customs count for nothing, but that the child and the human ideal\n\nare all.\n\nIt\n\nholds that the so-called courses of study should be simply pre-\n\nscriptions suggested by a diagnosis of the child's needs.\nIf\n\nwe study the purposes of our work, we shall find that the old view-\n\npoint has led us far astray; and that the best thing we can do to improve the\n\nwork of our schools will be to study carefully the view-points before we go\nIf we do so, we shall find that in life we need qualities more than\nwe need learning, which is the main purpose of the old view-point. The\nmen we admire are the men of qualities. But in our educational plans we\nforget this fact and plan for learning almost to the exclusion of qualities.\nfarther.\n\nKNOWLEDGE\nKnowledge is clearly subordinate to qualities.\ncarpenter's tools are to his skill.\nIt is\n\nIt is to quah'ties\n\nwhat a\n\nIt is indeed necessary, but always secondary.\n\nmost easily acquired, not by itself, but while doing.\n\nFacts acquired\n\n'Since this paper as presented exceeded the limits allowed for publication, the following abridgment has\n\nbeen made by the Editor.\nof illustrations.\n\nEditor.\n\nThe changes from the text have been almost altogether confined to the omission\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\nwhile doing have glue on them\nis\n\n—and in them.\n\nI rejoice that\n\n191\n\nmodem science\n\nrapidly crossing Pizarro's line to the new and true view-point; that she is\n\nwalking hand in hand with nature and talking with her face to face.\n\nI shake\n\nhands with you, brother of the college and the high school, who has reaHzed\nthat books are only about things;\n\nthat they are not things, and cannot take\n\nthe place of things.\n\nThe tragedy of the race was when men, who had lived next to things,\nbegan to fancy that if all that men knew could be gathered into contrivances\ncalled books, and the children shut in a building with these books, they could\n\nlearn all about the world on which gravity chains us, without the trouble of\n\never looking at the things themselves.\n\nWhen I was a Httle boy I was once studying in geography the animals of\nthe Rocky Mountains.\n\nJust then a boy rushed in breathless, and said that\n\nthere were \"four men outside with three big bears.\"\n\nThe teacher shut the\n\ndoor and cracked me on the head for looking out over the high window-sill.\n\nAnd yet those men had brought to our door the very real things concerning\nwhich we were studying.\n\nBut school was about book bears, not real bears.\nOnce in the University of Cincinnati I saw a young woman assiduously\nstudying an oyster. Perplexed, she looked up and asked the professor a\nquestion about the thing which she was studying.\nThe professor walked\nto her table, looked carefully at the oyster, and answered her.\nWhy didn't\nshe ask the oyster ? Even the professor had to do so. The oyster was the\ncourt of last resort, and it was in session before her; but the old view-point\nhad so walled in her vision that she could not even see the decision before\nher eyes.\n\nTo read things out of books requires a former experience of things.\nus go back to things.\n\nLet\n\n*\n\nThe old view-point takes much stock in what its advocates are pleased\nBy this are meant the \"three R's,\" especially Arith-\n\nto call the \"essentials.\"\n\nmetic.\"\n\nThis word \"essentials\" has been so long accepted that few seem\n\nSometime we shall wake up to the. fallacy of these\nand we shall be as much surprised as was Monsieur\nJourdain when he discovered that he had always been talking prose.\nto think of questioning it.\n\nso-called essentials,\n\nFrom the old view-point, if the money for the schools should run short,\nthe first thing to be cut out of the course of study would be manual training.\n\nThen the pubUc would dispense with music. But they would hang on to\narithmetic like a Chinaman to his queue. And yet, strange to say, a fair\nexamination would show that if we had to dispense with any study, many\nparts of arithmetic should be the\n\nfirst to go,\n\nand manual training the very\n\nlast.\n\nAn ounce of manual training is worth a pound of arithmetic both for\n\nutility\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nmanual\n\nlibrary of arithmetics.\n\ntraining;\n\nand trained\n\ncreative\n\npower\n\nis\n\nworth a\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n192\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nHas it occurred to us that creative designing has always preceded computation in the history of the race ?\n\nChair existed before three chairs.\n\nNum-\n\nber did not arise in human consciousness until things designed and made had\noccurred.\n\nAnd yet in our schools there is almost no attempt to develop the\n\npower to design or to create mentally, while years of precious time are wasted\non useless arithmetic and worse than useless Latin, another of our precious\n''essentials.\"\n\nThe old view-point takes but little cognizance of the child. We do not\nwe say, \"Teach arithmetic, teach geography, etc.\"\nYet nothing can be taught except an animate thing. The old view-point has\nsay, ''Teach the child;\"\n\nno tenable purpose.\n\nIts chief\n\ntraditional course of study.\n\nconcern\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nto\n\nhave the children complete a\n\nimmolates our children on the altar of our\n\nancestral traditions.\n\nEvery system must stand or fall by its results.\nthe old or traditional view-point ?\n\ngood.\n\nIt is safe to\n\nWhat are the results of\n\nsay that they have not been\n\nThe average high-school graduate is but ill prepared for life; and\n\nto prepare for Hfe is what a school should do, or it is a failure.\n\nIn fact, school\n\noften sequesters the student from Ufe.\n\nOne's education is not in what he can recite of books.\n\nIt is the \"gumption\nBut our course of study does not\nKnowledge comes, but gumption lingers.\n\nhe has when he has forgotten his books.\ncontain this commodity.\n\nThe old view-point smoothes the way and arouses us from our slumber\nThen comes life's\n\nwith the touch of a rabbit 's foot with the claws removed.\n\nWe are ill prepared for the shock with which she awakens\nWe\n\nrude awakening.\n\nus, for our path has been carefully cleared of difficulties and hardships.\n\nhave had\n\nlittle\n\npractice in surmounting obstacles.\n\nSo we\n\nsit\n\ndown on a\n\nmilestone of life and wait for them to get out of the way, while the rightly\ntrained boy sets his jaw\n\nbruised knees.\n\nand clambers over regardless of torn hands and\n\nSo our boys pull back and whine at hardships; they quit\n\nat a tough proposition in geometry where the life-qualities of initiative, pluck,\n\nand perseverance are required.\n\nThey will buck the line in football, but\nThe habit of bucking the\n\nthey will not buck the line between two points.\n\nline will be worth more than the knowledge of geometry.\n\npoint calls for the geometry only.\nof study.\n\nBut the old view-\n\nLet us study life for the basis of our course\n\nIt will teach us to quit smoothing the way ;\n\nit\n\nwill teach us instead\n\nand will teach us to put a strong but gentle\nhand on the shoulder of the boy and whisper in his ear with a loving voice:\nto put rocks and hurdles in it;\n\n\"Now, Jim, don't squeal!\"\n\nA naturalist was watching a butterfly get out of its chrysalis. He watched\nthe poor thing in\n\nits\n\nagonizing efforts to escape to the realms of air.\n\nlength it got its body out beyond the attachment of its wings.\n\na horrible struggle to escape into life.\n\nAt\n\nThen began\n\nThe tender-hearted naturahst, over-\n\ncome by his sympathy, picked up the chrysalis and tenderly helped the\nstruggling occupant to liberty. But he had for the moment forgotten that the\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\n\"\n\nEFFICIENCY OF OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL WORK\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n193\n\nichor of white blood of the butterfly is driven into the muscles and filaments\n\nby this very struggle. That butterfly never sailed the seas of\nit had been helped too much.\n\nof its wings\n\nair on gauzy wings;\n\nTHE NEW VIEW-POINT\n\nThe better view-point teaches us to ask a few questions before requiring\nthe children to do things.\n\nhe work\n\nin a\n\nWhy should a child do this or that ? Why should\n\n\"pin-drop\" silence?\n\nLife isn't thus.\n\nA bank bookkeeper\n\nmust figure on, even tho there be a dog-fight outside the rail, and make no\nBut he can't learn to do so in a \"pin-drop\" school. The better\nmistakes.\nview-point tells the teacher that a good school should have the movement\nof business in it, if the pupils are to learn to work amid the bustle of life.\nWhy should all the pupils stand and move alike? It is pretty, I admit;\nbut does it tend toward the true purpose ? Life isn't that way. Such school\ndiscipline may make good Russian soldiers, but it will not make men and\nwomen of initiative and individuality. The best school I have ever seen was\none in which there was absolute freedom and individuality of movement.\nWe do these things because it is \"customary.\" It is like grandmother's\nmedicine; it is \"good for the child.\" But grandmother did not know the\ntherapeutic effect.\n\nWhy should children be stuffed with more things than they can assimilate ?\nMen tack the feet of geese to the floor and stuff them willy-nilly with balls\nThat will do when one's purpose is to make enlarged goose livers,\n\"Cover the ground,\"\nthe watchword of the old view-point, would make a better sign over the gate\n\nof food.\n\nbut it is a poor way to teach children how to live.\nof a cemetery.\n\nSome one\nsystem.\"\n\nobjects:\n\n\"Your plan\n\nHis question proves\n\nis\n\nimpossible in the present graded\n\nmy proposition that we sacrifice the child\n\nto save the system.\n\nNo intelHgent human act can ever begin without a purpose.\ndoing there are at least four steps\n1.\n\n2.\n\n3.\n4.\n\n;\n\nIn all rational\n\nnamely\n\nThe formation of a purpose.\nThe determination of the steps necessary to attain the purpose.\nThe finding of means to take the steps to attain the purpose.\nThe application of the means to enable one to take the steps to attain\n\nthe purpose.\n\nYet we begin with number four, or the application, with juvenile haste,\nof traditions which are not means;\n\nmined upon\nder we fail.\n\n;\n\nto take steps which have not been deter-\n\nto attain purposes which\n\nhave not been thought of.\n\nNo won-\n\nNo wonder that our product is not fitted for life.\n\nWe are like the little girl who started out to draw a picture—not a picture\nof anything, but just a picture.\n\nsaid\n\n:\n\nAfter\n\nmany futile efforts, she sighed and\n\n\"I dess I '11 put a tail to it and call it a dog.\n\nWe should first determine carefully and thoughtfully that the true purpose\nA school has no right to exist\n\nof a school is to fit- the pupils for true living.\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\n!\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n194\nif its\n\noperation does not tend toward this end.\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nThen we should carefully\n\nstudy life to determine what would fit the children for their lives.\n\nWe should\n\nfrom this study what qualities and what knowledge they would\nThen, with these as our purposes, we should carefully work out the\n\nfind out\n\nneed.\n\nThen we should look around\nmeans to aid the children in taking these steps. These means would\n\nsteps necessary to attain these purposes.\nfor\n\nbe a \"course of study,\" as it is called.\nof living.\n\nI should prefer to call it a course\n\nThen we should apply these means carefully, always remem-\n\nbering that the ultimate principles are those of evolution and that the children,\n\nand not ourselves, should go thru the processes.\n\nChildren cannot possibly\n\nbe wisely interested in a state of passive receptiveness.\n\nHow contrary to every principle of the attainment of qualities is it when\nteachers will persist in going thru the processes themselves!\n\nFor example,\n\na teacher desires her pupils to learn to think and *'to speak on their feet,\"\nas we say.\n\nYet the teacher does all the talking.\n\nIt is just the\n\nsame thing\n\nas if Lou Dillon's trainer should hitch her to the fence while he ran around\nthe track to make her swift.\n\nIn the better view-point, the schoolroom will be considered the practice\n\nground for processes for the children, for processes planned to attain certain\nqualities necessary to fit the child to live.\nAnd what a pruning there will be\nWhat a brush-pile of arithmetic, names of capes, ancient languages, and\nmemorized but not comprehended definitions\nAnd what joy as the children,\n1\n\nwith long-suppressed shouts, dance around that bonfire\n\nWe shall teach them to follow directions as a first quality necessary for\nWe shall teach them initiative, and how to plan, and to will and to be\n\nlife.\n\nprompt; how to care for their bodies, and many other things without which\nlife\n\nmust be a failure.\n\nWe shall not be content until these things are habits,\nWe shall diagnose our patients day\n\nnot mere possessions of knowledge.\n\nby day as does the physician who has the true method.\n\nWe shall give them the rational freedom which is demanded by both their\nand the conditions of life. We shall cease to be jug funnels,\nand become directors of the energies of children. We shall walk hand in\nhand with the children thru the dark valleys of processes. We shall climb\nself-activity\n\nwith them, not for them, the rocks and mountains of the difficulties of life.\n\nWe shall diagnose before we treat. We shall learn from the piano teacher\nthat the pupil, and not the teacher, must do the practicing.\n\nO let us break down the wall of tradition of the old view-point!\n\nLet us\n\nremember that books are only about things, only men's opinions about things.\nLet us lead our children, as did the immortal founder of the kindergarten,\n\nback to things, back to realities.\n\nLet us purpose more wisely.\n\nLet us not\n\ntreat till we have diagnosed.\n\nThen we shall no longer treasure our normal\n\nschool notebooks of devices;\n\nfor every stick\n\nand stone and leaf and living\n\nthing will, in response to our search for a means to attain a clear life-purpose\nleap up and say, \"Take me!\"\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n1 95\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ. F.\n\nKeating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo.\n\n—The great objection\n\nto\n\nthe paper just read is that it does not represent the educational thought and spirit of this\nrepresentative\n\nThe paper will give the impression abroad that the\n\nbody of educators.\n\neducators of this country are opposed to manual training, domestic science, and other\npractical phases of school work;\n\nthese reforms\n\nwhereas the fact is that they have long ago accepted\n\nand are adopting them as rapidly as conditions will permit.\n\nIt is this\n\nmisrepresentation of the attitude of the great teaching forces of the country that calls\nfor direct and positive refutation.\n\nHere, too, we must challenge the statement that the\n\nmuch arithmetic.\n\nToo much time may be spent in the learning the\n\nchildren get too\nlittle\n\nthey get, but it remains to be proved that any of them have an excessive amount\n\nof arithmetical training.\n\nNeither is the statement true that honor men are failures in hfe.\n\nThe fact is that\n\ncome from those who stand in the front ranks of their classes. The\nstatement of the paper, carried to its logical effect, would discourage effort and place a\npremium on the mediocre and the trifler. The best answer to all this is the progress\nthe great leaders\n\nof this country whose citizenship has received its training in the public schools.\nIt is time to substitute constructive criticism for such destructive criticism.\n\nIn this regard the paper of Superintendent Carr has the right ring.\n\nHe proposes,\n\nmeans of increasing the efficiency of the schools, paying teachers salaries that\nwill encourage preparation for their work, and will also invite to the ranks of the proas one\n\nfession the best minds.\n\nEverything possible should be done to promote this idea.\n\nGeorge H. Martin,\n\nsecretary, State\n\nview-point presented by Mr. Crane\n\nis\n\nBoard of Education, Boston, Mass.\n\nnot wholly new.\n\nIt\n\n—The\n\nhas been presented many\n\ntimes before this body, and the superintendents of the county are wholly in sympathy\n\nwith it and have been endeavoring to modify school practices in accordance with it.\n\nHow far they have succeeded may be inferred from the testimony of the members\nof the Mosely Commission, many of whom in their reports express their interest in Ameri-\n\ncan methods of instruction as tending to develop initiative, self-direction, and independThey found less bondage to text-books in America than in England.\nence.\nIt would appear from this testimony that things are not quite so bad as Mr. Crane\nhas represented in his paper, and that the members of this department may take courage\n\nand go forward.\n\nSOME OF THE CONDITIONS WHICH CAUSE VARIATION IN\nTHE RATE OF SCHOOL EXPENDITURES IN DIFFER-\n\nENT LOCALITIES\nW. T. HARRIS, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nTHE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SCHOOL FINANCES\nPolitical\n\neconomy has borne the name of \"the dismal science.\"\n\ndeserved this name when it stood for Malthusianism\n\nIt\n\nhas\n\n—the doctrine that the\n\nworld will in time become so thickly populated that there will not be food\nenough to support the people. \"Population increases in a geometric ratio,\nwhile food increases only in an arithmetical ratio.\"\nsurely.\n\nThe doctrine which this suggests is:\n\nThis is a dismal outlook\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n196\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nLet there be no charities, and no studies with a view to pubHc hygiene.\n\nFor it is\n\nthe support of the poor, and the prevention of pestilence and famine and epidemics, that\nwill hasteri the dreadful day when the strong will struggle with the weak for a morsel of\n\nfood\n\n—the strong getting the morsel and the weak growing weaker from hunger.\n\nSuch a political economy is not only dismal, but it is subversion of all moral\nideals of the race of\n\nmen.\n\nNo thorofare to civilization on that road: only\n\nretrogression to savagery; for it says that ''vice and crime are beneficent checks\nto the increase of population\"!\n\nPeople of this generation need not be told that the one hundred years\nfollowing the pubhcation, in 1798, of the Malthusian doctrine of overpopulation was a progressive demonstration of its falsity; for it was found that food\n\nincreased in a geometric ratio, while population fell to an arithmetric ratio,\n\non the whole, in the most highly civilized populations, as in France and generally in families of wealth and nobihty,.\n\n—\n\nThen there was another dismal doctrine a theory of rent, advanced by\nRicardo about the year 1820. The richest soils are first taken possession of\nby man\n\nthe less fertile soils later when the rich lands have all been taken\nThen rent begins; the rich soils demand enough rent to make up the\n\nup.\n\n;\n\nwhich may\nBy and by all the rich soils\nand all the poor soils, too, for that matter and human\n\ndifference in value of crops between them and the poorer lands,\n\nbe had free by the people who will take them.\nwill\n\nbe occupied\n\n—\n\n—\n\nlabor will be rewarded by a continually decreasing product of food and creature comforts.\n\nThis Ricardian view assisted Malthusianism in discrediting the ideas of\na Christian civilization that sent out its devoted missionaries, ''from Greenland's icy mountains to India's coral strand,\" to deliver the lower and lowest\n\nraces from error and superstition, and all manner of savagery.\n\nness, it did it in the name of other- worldliness.\n\nAt home this\n\nand if it practiced worldHAnd what has been the verdict\n\nChristian civilization preached other- worldliness\n\n;\n\nof the century following Ricardo?\nAn age of rapid transportation has followed an age of exploration and discovery. We have learned that the soils\nof northern Europe, of which Ricardo wrote as the rich soils first taken pos-\n\nsession of, are as nothing in the matter of fertiUty to the soils of the tropical\n\nThe Amazon valley, with its two\nwhen cultivated to its full capacity, will supply\n\nregions as yet scarcely occupied by man.\nmillion square miles, alone,\n\nten times the food and clothing needed by the present population of the entire\nglobe.\n\nThe age of machinery has come upon us\n\n—a new Avatar succeeding upon\n\nthe Avatar of hard labor and physical drudgery; and men are called up higher\n\nThe intelligent mind armed\nmind is commanding the forces of nature;\nthe elemental powers of heat and electricity, reinforcing the bodily force of\n\ninto directive power out of mere muscular labor.\n\nwith science\n\n—the\n\ntools of the\n\n—\n\nman by multipliers of ten, one hundred, one thousand; annihilating, by\ncommerce and its means of transportation, the intervals of distance that\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n197\n\nseparate man from man in space to such an extent that food, clothing, and\nshelter come everywhere they are wanted;\n\nand a myriad of natural produc-\n\ntions that were formerly not property, but only a useless incumbrance where\n\nnature had placed them, now by transportation become real wealth to the\ndistant people who need them.\n\nAt the beginning of the nineteenth century political economy was a dismal\nscience.\n\nAt the end of the nineteenth century everybody is buoyant with\n\nhope, so far as food, clothing, and shelter are concerned a plenty is in sight even\n;\n\nfor the poorest races of mankind,\n\nand possibilities of migration are right at\n\nhand for any countries that are really overpopulated.\n\nGladstone estimated\n\nin 1870 that labor-saving machinery was doubling the world's production of\n\nwealth once every seven years.\n\nEight millions of laborers in Great Britain,\n\narmed by machinery, were at that time producing as much as one or two\nhundred milhons of laborers of the entire world at the beginning of the nineteenth century.\n\nThis was the cheerful response of political economy at the\n\nend of the nineteenth century to the dismal Sphinx-riddle propounded by\n\nMalthus and Ricardo at the beginning of that century.\nAltho there are dismal enough doctrines preached even at the end of that\ncentury, they are not doctrines of starvation, but only of relative poverty with\n\nLuxury and an abundance of creature comforts, it\nHenry George thought that\nthe persistence of poverty in the midst of advancing wealth is due to private\nownership of land. But careful investigation has shown that the rental of\nplenty to eat and wear.\n\nsays, shall be forbidden to the poor household.\n\nland in\n\nthe United States\n\nis\n\na small burden, only one-eighteenth of the\n\nannual earnings of the people in 1880\n\n—two and\n\none-fifth cents per day, as\n\nagainst an actual average production of more than forty cents a day for each\ninhabitant.\n\nA grain of economy or thrift on the part of individuals will\n\nEven in Great\nhad not doubled in eighty years, altho the values of\nother property houses and machinery and means of transportation, and\ncreature comforts had increased seven times.\nLand for the purposes of mere agriculture is everywhere cheap; it is only\nfor building purposes that land commands a high price.\nThe land on which\nNew York city stands is worth one-seventh of all the land in the United States.\nThe same amount of acreage on a rich borderland can be had for thirty thoucompensate for all the rental of land in the United States.\nBritain the land value\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsand dollars, but the land of New York city is assessed at three biUion dollars,\n\nand is worth much more in market; it is worth one hundred thousand times\nas much per acre for international business purposes as for mere agricultural\n\nland without a city market near by for its produce.\n\nKarl Marx, the father of recent socialism, in his famous work on Capital^\nabout 1870, wro':e the German words which I translate as follows: \"Along\nwith the constantly diminishing number of great capitalists who monopolize\nthe instruments of production, there is a constantly increasing mass of misery,\noppression, bondage, deformity, and extortion.\"\n\nBut this law of Karl Marx,\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n198\n\n[MUwaukce\n\nwhich has been adopted by Henry George in the terse form of the epigram,\n\n\"The rich are growing richer, and the poor are growing poorer,\" has not\nbeen found to be vahd even in England, where Marx made his generahzation\nfor the income-tax returns showed in 1885 that the class of the very poor had\n\ndecreased by the transfer of a large number to the lower middle class, which\n\nlower middle class was nearly three and one-half times as large in each miUion\nof the population as it had been thirty years before.\n\nThe same transference\n\nof the lower middle class into the higher middle class had been going on, and\n\nfrom the higher middle class to the wealthy class, and so on to the very wealthy\n\nmany in each of the higher classes per\nAnd the average earnings of the lowest class,\n\nclass, so that there were three times as\n\nmillion as thirty years before.^\n\nthat of people who get less than $750 per family and do not pay an income\ntax,\n\nhad nearly doubled in thirty years (it had been $265 in 1851, and had\n\nrisen to $415 in\n\n1 881).\n\nIt\n\nhad increased whether measured in money or in\n\nthe comforts of life that can be bought for the increased wages.\n\nThe question of present annual earnings, in the form of wages, salaries,\nor profits from a business, is only a single one of the many items that have to\n\nbe considered in the year's income.\n\nThere goes down from the savings of a\n\npeople a certain amount of wealth from one year to another and from one\n\nThe people that come after do not have to earn this\nmoney over again, but they have the annual use and benefit of it as an inheritance. Thus the previous generations, in so far as they were thrifty and\n\ngeneration to another.\n\naccumulated property in the form of permanent improvements, assist the later\ngenerations to\n\nlive.\n\nPubUc buildings, business houses, and dwelling-houses\n\nbelong to this kind of property; also highways, bridges, railroads, canals, waterworks, sewers, ships and steamboats, etc.\n\nThe rental of these buildings and\n\nthe use of the railways as a means of transportation, as well as the improve-\n\nments on the farms, appear in the annual output of productions; but the actual\nrental value of the dwelling-houses is a separate affair,\n\nand must be added\n\nto the bulk of productions as tho it were actual earnings for the year.\n\nThe\n\ngrowth of the United States in production has been carefully estimated and\nre-estimated by the directors of the United States census.\n\nThe bulk of the\n\nwealth transmitted from year to year did not amount to any considerable sum\nuntil after the introduction of steam navigation on rivers, lakes, and the ocean,\nand after the first building of railroads. This had begun and was an appreciable item by 1850, when the valuation of the United States was reckoned at 7\nbillions of dollars.\nIn the decade 1850 to i860 this had increased to 16 billions;\nin twenty years\nthat is, by 1870 to 30 billions; in 1880, to 44 billions; in\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSee Leoni Levi, Wages and Earnings of the Working Classes (London: John Murray, 1885), pp. 48\nand 58; also see Robert Giffen, The Progress of the Working Classes, \"Economic Tracts\" No. 16 (New\n'\n\nYork).\n\nLeoni Levi reports incomes from $750 to $1,500 in 1880 as three and one-half times as many as in 1850;\nincomes of $1,500 to $2,500, three times as many; incomes of $2,500 to $5,000, two and one-half times as\nmany, incomes of $5,000 to $10,000, two and one-half times as many; incomes of $10,000 to $15,000, two\nand three-quarter times as many. The laboring class, whose annual incomes are less than $750, averaged\n\n$265 in 1851, and in 1881, $415. One hundred and eighty thousand of these had ascended to the class of\nincomes between $750 and $1,500, during the thirty years after 1850.\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n199\n\n1890, to 65 billions; in 1900 it is estimated by some at 94 billions of dollars.\n\nThe average amount of property in 1850 for each inhabitant was therefore\n$308; in i860, $514; in 1870, $780; in 1880, $870; in 1890, $1,036; in 1900,\n$1,235.'\n\nThis property, which is transferred from one generation to another, consisting of the machinery of production, and of improved\n\nfarms, city buildings\n\nlots and buildings, includes nearly all of the taxable property in a community,\n\nand it will be seen at a glance what a difference in that power which capital\ngives there is in the United States owing to increase of the taxable wealth of\n\nThe taxable wealth of 1900 is $1,235 per individual\nwas only $308. The individual of 1900 is\nrepresented by four times as much realized wealth, and therefore can bear a\n1850 over that of 1900.\n\ninhabitant, while that of 1850\n\nburden of taxation equal to four times that of 1850 with greater ease, because\nthe larger the income from vested property, the greater the tax possible with-\n\nout stinting the individual in his necessities.\n\nIn 1880, after studying the census and such other sources of information\nas then were accessible as to the earnings and taxable property of the United\nStates and Great Britain, I constructed a table stating as nearly as I could\n\nascertain the actual annual income of the nation from various sources for the\n\nyears 1850 and 1880.\n\nWhen the census report of 1890 had become available\n\nin 1895 ^-nd 1896, I continued the comparison so as to include 1890.\n\nIt is not\n\nyet quite time to construct such a table for the year 1900, but two of the three\n\nmost important items have been accessible for some time, and I have partially\nreconstructed my table so as to include 1900 in four of its items, agricultural\n\nand manufacturing items being accesssible in the census returns. The items\nneeded are the statistics of the productions of mines, freight by water, fisheries,\nand a number of small items.\nThere is no study more illuminating in political economy than the study\nof the actual earnings of a people in the several classes of productions.\n\nThe\n\nactual total earnings of the United States in 1890 I made to be 51.5 cents per\n\nday per inhabitant.\n\nThis was an increase over the earnings of 1880, which\n\nsummed up 44.5 cents per day for each person.\n\nThe earnings for 1850, cal-\n\nculated on the same basis, but with less reliable data to go upon, were 30 cents\n\na day for each person; for 1900, 58.12 cents.\n*\n\nSee United States Census for 1890, Wealth, Debt, and Taxation, p. 14.\n\nPER CAPITA WEALTH IN THE UNITED STATES FROM CENSUS REPORTS, iSSo-QO\n\nThe United States\n\n1890\n\n1880\n\n1870\n\ni860\n\n1850\n\n$514\n528\n537\n598\n436\n\n$308\n363\n333\n290\n208\n\n434\n\n187\n\n$1,036\n\n$ 870\n\n$ 780\n\nNorth Atlantic Division,\n\n1,232\n\n1,209\n\n1,243\n\nSouth Atlantic Division.\nSouth Central Division.\n\n579\n569\n\nNorth Central Division.\nWestern Division\n\n1,129\n2,250\n\n495\n435\n932\n\n384\n334\n735\n843\n\n1,291\n\n•\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n200\n\nI insert the results of\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nmy studies in the two tables following:\nTABLE I\n\nEARNINGS PER DAY PER INHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES IN I9OO\nValue\n\nValue of farm products\nValue of manufactured products\nValue of mineral products (estimated)\nValue of products of fisheries (estimated)\nFreight earnings (land)\nDrayage, etc. (estimated at 18 per cent, of freight earnings)\nFreight earnings (water) estimated\nExpressage (estimated)\nHouse rent (estimated)\nFurniture rent (estimated)\nRailroad building (estimated)\nHousehold manufactures not reported (estimated)\nAgricultures not repxarted (estimated)\nMiscellaneous (partly estimated)\n\nPer inhab-\n\nfor\n\nitant\n\n1899\n\nper Day\n\n$3,742,129,357\n5,656,521,284\n704,469,710\n55,476,039\n1,052,602,235\n189,468,402\n166,428,129\n55,476,040\n1,109,520,79s\n416,070,298\n360,594,258\n1,109,920,795\n1,109,920,79s\n415,680,325\n\n$o.i3S\n.203\n•\n\n0254\n\n.002\n.038\n.0068\n.006\n.002\n.040\n.015\n.013\n.040\n.040\n.015\n\nTotal earnings per inhabitant per day\n\n$0.5812\n\nTABLE II\nEARNINGS PER DAY PER INHABITANT OF THE UNITED STATES AT DIFFERENT EPOCHS\n\nAgricultural, including live stock\nManufactures as reported\nFrom transportation in enhanced value of products.\nAgricultural products consumed in the household and\n\nnot reported\n\n1850\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n$0.1200\n\n$0.1450\n.1080\n370\n\n$0 1080\n.1840\n.470\n\n$0.1350\n\n.580\n.120\n.320\n.480\n.075\n.025\n.200\n\n.410\n.440\n.180\n.220\n-300\n\n.400\n.400\n.130\n.424\n.400\n\n.460\n.400\n.130\n•424\n.550\n\n$0.4450\n\n$0.5144\n\n$0.5812\n\n,\n\nHousehold manufactures not reported\nBuilding of railroads\nMining, fisheries, and miscellaneous\n\n,\n\n,\n\nHouse and furniture rent\nTotal cents per day for each person\n\n$0 3000\n.\n\n•\n\n,\n\n.\n\n.2030\n.528\n\nA city that has a history extending back for eight generations has accumulated vast property in the way of buildings and improvements, graded streets,\n\nsewers, bridges, water-works, etc., and can realize a large sum of money for\n\nthe support of its city government, charities, schools,\ntively small tax rate.\n\netc.,\n\nfrom a compara-\n\nIn considering school finances, one must remember\n\nthat the borderland, with the unfinished condition of its public and private\n\nproperty, has by far more needs for taxation for the purpose of public and\nprivate improvements than the old\n\nand thickly settled states; while, on the\n\nother hand, it has a small assessed value to be taxed even for the absolutely\n\nnecessary expenses of the year, without counting in any investments for new\npublic works.\n\nContrast the city of Boston with St. Louis, Kansas City, or\n\neven Chicago.\n\nThe population of Boston is estimated at 621,000 people for\n\nthe year 1905;\n\nits\n\nassessed valuation of\n\nvaluation are the same\n851).\n\nall\n\n—one and one-quarter\n\ntaxable property and\n\nits\n\nreal\n\nbillions of dollars ($1,237,038,-\n\nChicago has more than three times the population (1,968,800) and less\n\nthan one-third of the assessed valuation ($411,424,280) of the taxable prop-\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nerty.\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\n20I\n\nThe real value of the property of Chicago, however, is something more\n\nthan two biUions of dollars ($2,057,121,400); for it is assessed at only one-fifth\nof its true value; its tax on the real value of its property is about one and onesixth per cent., against\n\none and one-half per cent, in Boston.\n\nThe Boston\n\ntax yields about $30 per inhabitant; the Chicago tax yields about $11 per\ninhabitant.\n\nThe population of St. Louis is estimated at 750,000; it is assessed\n\nat $466,201,650; but its true value is $666,000,000.\n\nIts\n\nannual tax is about\n\none and one-third per cent, on the true value, and yields $13.60 per inhabitant.\nCity land can reimburse itself, whatever its rate of taxes, from the rentals\n\npaid by its tenants.\n\nIf the business is sufficient to afford the rental, the lessee\n\ncan afford to pay it.\n\nIf not rented or rentable, the property must fall in value\n\nuntil\n\nit\n\nreaches an assessable value which can be covered by the rental; for\n\nthe rental must cover the proper interest on the real value of the property, and\nits\n\nannual taxes; if not, the assessment must be corrected.\n\nThis is the weak\n\npoint in the single-tax theory; for the agriculturist cannot recover his tax from\nthe crops he raises, having to compete with all other localities.\n\nBut the city\n\nhas its reason for existence in local conditions, which force a transfer of\n\nmerchandise there, it being necessary to collect and redistribute at that point.\n\nWhatever profits are made by collection and redistribution create the rental\nprice of the land which must be used there for commerce and the accompanying\n\nmanufactures, and this real value cannot be arbitrarily affected.\nInequality of the census divisions as regards the amount of wealth:\n\nIn\n\n1890 the total real wealth of the South Atlantic Division of states per individual was $579.\n\nThis is not quite one-half of the average value in the North\n\nAtlantic Division, which was $1,232.\n\nCentral Division was $569.\n\n$1,129 per individual\n\nThe per capita wealth in the South\n\nIn the North Central Division the wealth equaled\n\n—almost exactly one-half of the amount of wealth per\n\ninhabitant in the Western Division ($2,250).\n\nThe average inhabitant of\n\nthe South Atlantic Division would procure by taxation, at the rate of\ncent,\n\ni\n\nper\n\non the taxable wealth, less than one-half as much money for schools as\n\nthe average inhabitant would procure in the North Atlantic Division.\n\nAnd in\n\nthe North Central Division, where the taxable wealth is nearly the same as in\nthe North Atlantic Division, the amount procured by a i per cent, tax would\n\nbe one-half what each inhabitant of the Western Division of states would\nprocure at the same rate of tax.\n\nIf we\n\ncompare these census divisions as to\n\ntheir annual earnings in agriculture and manufactures, the disparity is quite\n\nas great, for the daily earnings of each inhabitant in the South Central Division for 1900 amounted to 5.6 cents for manufactures, and 14.9 for agriculture,\n\nwhich makes 20.5 cents earnings for each inhabitant per day; while the North\nAtlantic Division produced 38.4 for manufactures, and 6.4 for agriculture\ntotal of 44.8 cents per\n\nday for each inhabitant.\n\n—\n\nThat of the South Atlantic\n\nDivision was nearly the same as that of the South Central Division, being\n(See Table III.)\n20.3 cents per day per inhabitant.\nTherefore, in these\ntwo most important items of production the inhabitant of the Gulf states or\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\n202\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Mflwaukee\n\nTABLE III\nManufactures.\n\n—Amount\n\nEarned per Day by\nEach Inhabitant\n\nUnited States\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\n.\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\nSouth Central Division\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nNorth Central Division\nWestern Division\n\n1900\n\n1890\n\n1900\n\n$0,184\n\n$0,203\n\n$0,085\n\n$o.i3S\n\n357\n.075\n.048\n.163\n\n.384\n.097\n.056\n.187\n.175\n\n.049\n.079\n.103\n.103\n.122\n\n.064\n.106\n.149\n.186\n193\n\n.230\n.348\n.221\n.471\n.561\n.504\n.389\n.379\n.345\n\n.067\n.073\n.110\n.028\n.028\n.051\n\n.108\n.106\n.175\n•033\n\n.278\n.226\n.278\n.086\n.091\n.061\n.051\n.060\n.110\n\n.084\n.056\n.004\n•OS9\n.060\n\n.no\n\n075\n\n•\"i\n.128\n\n.093\n.049\n.041\n.018\n.060\n.042\n.025\n.oos\n\n.091\n.060\n.OSS\n\n.081\n.071\n.107\n.138\n.121\n.120\n.106\n.016\n\n.130\n.119\n.122\n.160\n131\n.188\n138\n257\n.162\n\n.224\n.121\n.272\n.161\n.167\nISS\n.066\n.150\n.029\n.018\n.066\n.060\n\n•254\n.178\n.295\n.178\n.201\n.140\n.078\n.150\n.031\n.030\n.107\n.079\n\n.078\n.118\n.101\n.083\n.08s\n.119\n.16s\n.083\n.268\n.147\n.132\n.140\n\n.132\n.170\n.ISO\n.124\n153\n.200\n323\n.142\n.463\n•359\n.320\n.300\n\n.06s\n.058\n.144\n.CIS\n.027\n.061\n.040\n.025\n.171\n.171\n.211\n\n.274\n.072\n.182\n.037\n.286\n.082\n.OS3\n•033\n.199\n.132\n.212\n\n.107\n.08s\n,071\n.029\n.042\n\n.26s\n•295\n.136\n.128\n.138\n•134\n.335\n.248\n157\n.211\n.218\n\n•\n\n.183\n.277\n.148\n.508\n•52s\n\nMassachusetts\n\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\n\n•\n\nNew York\nNew Jersey\n\n.384\n.313\n\nPennsylvania\n\n.291\n\n459\n\n.267\n.210\n.263\n.063\n\nDistrict of Columbia\n\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\n\n•05,4\n\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\n\n.030\n.031\n.049\n.071\n\nFlorida\n\nTennessee\n\nAlabama\nMississippi\n\nLouisiana\n\nTexas\nArkansas\n\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory\n\nNorth Central Division\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nMinnesota\nMissouri\n\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nWestern Division\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado.^\n\nNew Mexico\nArizona\n\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\n—\n\n•\n\n034\n\n.067\n.069\n\nOSS\n\n.044\n.046\n\n•\n\n051\n\n.066\n\n•\n\n.081\n.008\n.109\n.105\n\n.112\n\n.no'\n\n.114\n.084\n\n•075\n\n•\n\n033\n\n.077\n.047\n.044\n.018\n.012\n\n•\n\n•\n\n•\n\n—\n\n•\n\nIowa\n\n•\n\n—\n\nKentucky\n\nOhio\n\n•\n\n—\n\nDelaware\nMaryland\n\nSouth Central Division\n\ntant\n\n—\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nper\n\ni8qo\n\n•152\n\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\n—\n\nAmount Earned\nDay by Each Inhabi-\n\nAgriculture.\n\n•\n\n•\n\n•\n\n•\n\nOS3\n\n.124\n.102\n.091\n.139\n.177\n\n'\n\n•\n\nof the South Atlantic states produced as daily earnings less than one-half what\n\nThe North Central\nand 18.6 in agriculture, making a\n\nthe inhabitant of the North Atlantic Division produced.\n\nDivision produced 18.7 in manufactures,\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "VARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\ntotal\n\nof 37.3\n\n203\n\ncents per inhabitant per day, as against 44.8 in the\n\nNorth\n\nAtlantic Division.\n\nThe Western Division averaged 17.5 in manufactures and\n\n19.3 in agriculture,\n\nmaking 36.8 cents per day per individual\n\n—half a cent\n\nper day less than the North Central Division.\n\n—\n\nThe less received from taxation at a given rate for public expenses say,\nthe more the individual must pay from his own earnings;\n\nschool expenditure\n\n—\n\namount with a census division that\namount of assessable wealth per capita. Hence, if the\ninhabitants of the South Atlantic and South Central Divisions, possessing less\nthan one-half of the amount of assessable wealth per capita, are to continue their\nschools for the same length as the school session in the North Atlantic Division,\nand if they are to pay as high salaries as in that division, a very large sum\nwould have to be made up from the annual earnings of the individuals, or\nelse a rate of taxation nearly double that in the North Atlantic Division must\nbe adopted. But the individual earnings in that section, as it appears, are\nless than one-half those in the North Atlantic Division, and any tax paid by\nthat is to say, if he is to expend an equal\n\npossesses a greater\n\nthe individual for schooHng\n\nis to\n\nthe average citizen of\n\nthe\n\nSouth a far\n\ngreater burden than in the northern community.\nI quote here from\n\nmy annual report for 1902 a series of tables, showing a\n\ncomparison of 1880, 1890, and 1903, as to the true valuation of real and\npersonal property in the several states, together with the amounts expended\n\npubhc schools^ and also for the three epochs, i88o,\nand\nshowing\nthe number of cents actually expended on each $ioo\n1890,\n1903,\nof true valuation of all property.\nThe amount on the $ioo valuation varies\nfrom 53 cents on the $100 in New Jersey to 22.5 cents in Connecticut. Contrasting this with the South Atlantic Division, as to the amount of school\nfor current expenses of\n\nexpenditure per $100 of true valuation, the South Atlantic Division expends\nfrom 43 cents in West Virginia down to 14 cents in North Carolina, the aver-\n\nage for the whole division being 23 cents on $100, while it is 27 cents in the\n\nNorth Atlantic Division.\nabove discussed\nDivision\nwill\n\nis\n\nTaking these\n\n—namely, the\n\nfigures in\n\nconnection with those\n\nfact that the assessment in the North Atlantic\n\nmore than twice as great as in the South Atlantic Division\n\nSouth is less than one-half of that raised in the North.\ntral\n\n—\n\nit\n\nbe seen that the amount of money raised by the rate percentage in the\nIn the North Cen-\n\nDivision the amount expended on $100 varies from 47.5 cents in North\n\nDakota to 16 cents in Wisconsin, and the average is 27.5 cents.\n\nThe Western\n\nDivision varies from 40 cents on $100 in Utah to T0.3 cents in Wyoming and\n\nNevada.\n\n(See Tables IV-IX).\n\nThe next set of tables (X-XV) shows the average monthly salaries of teachers\nfor the different sections of the United States and the average number of days*\nschooUng given. Here we find the results of the figures as to daily earnings\nand as to amount of taxable property.\nThe North Atlantic Division, with\nits\n\ndouble of daily earnings and double the amount of taxable property, gives\n\n$58.64 per month for its male teachers and $39.50 for its female teachers,\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n204\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nas against $30.84 per month for male teachers in the South Atlantic Division\n\nand $29.02 for the women teachers.\n\nThe salaries of teachers in the South\n\nCentral Division average considerably more than for the South Atlantic Division, the\n\nmen getting $43 a month and the women $35;\n\nbut another item\n\ncomes in here: the average length of the school term in the South Central\nDivision is 105 days, while in the North .Atlantic Division it is 178 J days.\n\nThe school term in the North Atlantic Division is practically a scholastic year;\nhence the male teacher in the North Atlantic Division can be hired by the\nyear and can depend upon his salary for his yearly support; while in the South\nthe period of schooling includes about one-half of the days (105) in the regular\n\nand hence the teacher must shift to some other employment\nThe North Central Division pays, on an average, $5 less per month than the North Atlantic Division to its men teachers\nscholastic year,\n\nto make up his years' income.\n\n($53.96 against $58.64).\n\nThe next set of tables (XVI-XXI) shows the expenditure per capita of average attendance for various school purposes.\n\nIn the whole United States the\n\namount expended for buildings and sites is $4.19, as against $14.21 for salaries.\n\"But the North Atlantic Division, having the most wealth and the highest rate\nof earnings per day, leads with an average of $8.09 for buildings and $20.16 for\nsalaries of teachers.\n\nThe South Atlantic Division spends about one-seventh\n\nas much for buildings and sites, and a little more than one-third as much for\nsalaries.\n\nThe Gulf States expend one-tenth as much for buildings as the\n\nNorth Atlantic, and a trifle more than one-third as much for salaries of teachers*\n\nThe North Central Division expends not quite one-half as much per capita\nfor buildings and sites as the North Atlantic Division, and only three-fourths\n\nas much as the North Atlantic for salaries.\n\nThe Western Division expends a\n\nmore for salaries, and about three-fourths as much for buildings.\nIt is well known that the number of persons five to eighteen years of age\n\ntrifle\n\nis a larger fraction\n\nof the whole population in the South than it is in the North;\n\nthere are more children and fewer adults to support them.\n\nThe total amount\n\nexpended for schools on an average for the whole nation is $11.17 ^^^ ^^ch\nperson five to eighteen years of age, and $11.32 for each adult male. In the\nNorth Atlantic Division the amount raised for each person between five\nand eighteen years of age is $18.13. The amount for each person of\nschool age (five to eighteen) in the South Atlantic Division is- $4.18, and the\n\nThe amount raised in the South Central\nThe amount for each person of school age in the North Central Division is $12.75. The Western\n\namount per adult male is\n\n$5.56.\n\nDivision is only $3.94 for each person of school age.\n\nDivision in its amount per individual of school age exceeds that of the North\nAtlantic, being $20.16 for each person.\n\nThe number of\n\nchildren of school\n\nage in the population is a larger percentage of the whole than it is in the North\nAtlantic or any of the other divisions.\nIt is noteworthy that all of the southern states are increasing their pro rata\n\nof manufactures\n\n—steam- and water-power are reinforcing the power of the\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nhand.\n\n205\n\nNorth Carolma has doubled its manufactures per inhabitant in the last\n\ndecade, rising from 3 to 6.1 cents per day; and the whole South Atlantic\nDivision\n\nhas increased from 7.5 to 9.7 cents per day for each inhabitant.\n\nBut agriculture has gained in the same ratio and keeps much in advance of\nIn the South Central Division, the great cotton states, agri-\n\nmanufactures.\n\nculture predominates still more over the manufactures, although even there the\n\nmanufactures have increased 17 per cent, faster than the population.\n\nA political economy that sees the gradual, but continuous, growth of man's\nconquest of nature for human purposes; that sees how man's use of the instru-\n\nments of civihzation unites all peoples into one by commerce; that avails to\nelevate all who study it into a theoretical understanding of the ultimate purpose\nof the conquest of nature, which is to unite all peoples by religion into a partici-\n\npation of the same view of the world\n\n—the Christian view of the world —this\n\nsort of political economy is not the dismal science of Malthus and Ricardo, of\n\nKarl Marx and Henry George, of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.\n\nTABLES IV-IX\nand personal property for 1880, 1890, and 1903 (i88o and 189\ntaken from census reports; 1903 calculated from data given in World Almanac, 1905); (2) expenditures for\npublic schools (excluding debt paid) for 1880, 1890, and 1903; (3) amount expended for public schools on\nShowing:\n\n(i) true valuation of real\n\neach $100 of true valuation of all real and personal property for 1880, 1890, and 1903.\n\nTABLE IV\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nExpenditure for PubUc Schools (Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nTrue Valuation of Real and Personal Property\n\nExpended for PubUc\nSchools on Each $100\nof True Valuation of\nall Real and Personal\nProperty\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n$43,642,000,000\n\n$64,829,040,611\n\n$97,142,708,523\n\n$78,094,687\n\n$140,506,715\n\n$251,457,625\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n\nCents\n21.7\n\nCents\n25.9\n\n17.9\n\nTABLE V\nNORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\n\nExpenditure for PubUc Schools\n(Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nTrue Valuation of Real and\nPersonal Property\nState\n\nPersonal Property\n\n1880\n\nMe\nN.H\n\n1890\n\n$ 511,000,000 $ 489,134,128\n363,000,000\n302,000,000\n2,623,000,000\n400,000,000\n779,000,000\n6,308,000,000\n1,305,000,000\n4,942,000,000\n\nvt\n\nMass\nR.I\nConn\n\nN.Y\nN.J\nPa\nTotal\n\nExpended for Public\nSchools on\nEach\n$100 of True Valuation of all Real and\n\n. .\n\n325,128,740\n265,567,323\n2,803,645,447\n504,162,352\n835,120,219\n8,576,701,991\n1,445,285,114\n6,190,746,550\n\n1903\n\n$\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n559,093,487 $1,067,991 $1,327,553 $ 1,952,083\n363,167,582\n1,167,464\n565,339\n844,333\n711,072\n275,429,141\n446,217\n1,093,238\n8,286,062\n5,171,268,181\n4,983,900\n15,170,070\n526,112\n884,966\n:,856,376\n676,458,76s\n1,575,341,188\n2,157,014\n1,408,375\n3,526,61s\n16,922,900,288 10,296,977 17,543,880\n41,418,095\n1,481,320,550\n1,873,465\n7,824,147\n3,340,1907\n7,369,682 12,928,422\n24,354,888\n9,689,140,474\n\n$36,714,119,656\n\n$98,362,976\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n20.9\n15-6\n\nCents\n27.1\na6.o\n26.8\n29.6\n17.6\n25.8\n20.5\n23.1\n\nCents\n34.9\n32.1\n39.7\n29.3\n\n18.9\n\n\\l\\\n16.3\n14.4\n14.9\n....\n\n20.9\n\n27.4\n22.4\n24.5\n52.8\n25.1\n\n....\n\na6.8\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n2o6\n\n529\n\n52\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nTABLE VI\nSOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\n\nExpenditure for PubUc Schools\n(Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nTrue Valuation of Real and\nPersonal Property\nState\n\nPersonal Property\n\n1880\n\nDd\nMd\n\nD.C\nVa\n\nW.Va\nN.C\nS.C\n\nGa\nFla\n\nExpended for PubUc\nSchools on\nEach\n$100 of True Valuation of all Real and\n\n$136,000,000\n837,000,000\n220,000,000\n707,000,000\n350,000,000\n461,000,000\n322,000,000\n606,000,000\n120,000,000\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n\nCents\n\n26.4\n18.6\n\nCents\n22.7\n19.3\n34-9\n24.2\n\n273\n\n42.7\n\n12.2\n\n133\n\n14.1\n21.5\n21.7\n18.9\n\n...\n\n22\n\n$ 175,678,795\n\n$ 200,000,000\n\n$ 207,281\n\n275,000\n\n$ 453,670\n\n152\n\n1,085,473,048\n343,596,733\n862,318,070\n438,954,881\n584,148,999\n400,911,303\n\n1,313,902,873\n441,085,362\n883,005,583\n563,219,516\n1,083,432,350\n486,680,664\n1,929,893,769\n420,378,061\n\n1,544,367\n\n1,910,663\n\n438,567\n946,109\n707,553\n376,062\n324,629\n471,029\n114,895\n\n905,777\n1,604,509\n\n2,549,497\n1,540,279\n2,137,365\n2,403,555\n1,523,041\n1,046,144\n2,240,247\n792,919\n\n18.5\n19.9\n13-4\n20.2\n8.2\n10.1\n7.8\n9.6\n\n389!489!388\n\nTotal\n\n$\n\n1,198,493\n\n714,900\n450,936\n1,190,354\n516,533\n\n$6,421,598,178\n\n^s-i\n17.6\n\nII.\n\n14.0\n\n$14,686,717\n\n.\n\nTABLE VII\nSOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION\n\nTrue Valuation of Real and\n\nExpenditure for Public Schools\n(Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nPersonal Property\n\nall Real and Personal\n\nState or\nTerritory\n\nProperty\n\n1880\n\nTenn\nAla\nMiss\n\nLa\nTexas\n\nArk\n\n$902,000,000\n705,000,000\n428,000,000\n354,000,000\n382,000,000\n825,000,000\n286,000,000\n\n1890\n\n$1,172,232,313\n887,956,143\n622,773,504\n454,242,688\n495,301,597\n2,105,576,766\n455,147,422\n\n1903\n\n$1,419,268,885\n818,053,881\n768,759,031\n474,143,670\n640,883,451\n2,925,911,994\n657,313,443\n\n1880\n\n$1,069,030\n744,180\n500,000\n830,705\n411,858\n1,030,000\n287,056\n\n1890\n\n$2,140,678\n1,526,241\n890,000\n1,109,575\n817,110\n3,178,300\n1,016,776\n\nOkla\nI.\n\nExpended for Public\nSchools on Each $100\nof True Valuation of\n\nT\n\nTotal\n\n$7,704,334,352\n\n1903\n\n$2,662,863\n2,159,444\n1,057,906\n1,868,544\n1,551,232\n5,682,123\n1,550,697\n1,179,409\n481,516\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n11.9\n10.6\n11.7\n23-5\n10.8\n12.5\nlO.O\n\nCents\n18.3\n17.2\n\nCents\n18.7\n\n143\n24.4\n16.5\niS-i\n22.3\n\n....\n\n$18,193,734\n\n26.4\n13.8\n39.4\n24.2\n\n193\n23-4\n\n23.6\n\nTABLE VIII\nNORTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nTrue Valuation of Real and\nPersonal Property\n\nExpenditure for Public Schools\n(Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nall Real and Personal\nProperty\n\nState\n\n1880\n\nOhio\nInd\nlU\n\nMich\nWis\n\nMinn\nIowa\n\nMo\n\nN. Dak\n\nS.Dak\nNeb\nKan\nRTotal\n\nExpended for Public\nSchools on Each $100\nof True Valuation of\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n1880\n\n$3,238,000,000 $3,951,382,384\n$4,373,955,555 $7,166,963\n1,681,000,000 2,095,176,626\n3,318,158,875\n4,491,850\n6,769,068,618\n3,210,000,000 5,066,751,719\n7,014,092\n3,670,000,000\n1,580,000,000 2,095,016,272\n2,775,917\n4,380,962,406\n1,139,000,000\n1,833,308,523\n2,177,023\n792,000,000 1,691,851,927\n2,487,150,437\n1,328,429\n1,721,000,000 2,287,348,333\n2,790,576,443\n4,484,043\n1,562,000,000 2,397,902,945 , 3,356,330,067\n2,675,364\n450,786,480\n337,006,506 f\n118,000,000 J\n245,000\n1\n524,868,888 1\n425,141,299 t\nI\n1,108,617\n385,000,000 1,275,685,514\n1,965,194,960\n760,000,000 1,799,343,501\n1,991,238,952\n1,818,337\n$36,078,291,681\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n$10,602,238 $15,691,039\n9,216,082\n5,245,218\n11,645,126 20,266,618\n5,349,366\n8,777,252\n3,801,212\n7,009,159\n4,187,310\n6,774,336\n6,382,953\n9,834,319\n5,434,262\n8,363,128\nr\n626,049 f 2,140,565\n1 1, 199,630 \\ 1,847,813\n3,376,332\n4,390,751\n4,972,967\n4,804,563\n$99,115,625\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n22.1\n26.7\n21.9\n17.6\n19.1\n16.8\n\nCents\n26.8\n25.0\n23.0\n25-5\n20.7\n24.7\n27.9\n22.7\n/18.6\n128.2\n\nCents\n34-9\n27.8\n29.9\n23.9\n15-9\n27.2\n35-2\n24.9\n\n26.\n17.\n\n[20.\n\n(47. S\n135.\n\n28.8\n23-9\n\n27.6\n\n22.3\n24.1\n\n....\n\n....\n\n27.\n\n26.\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "61\n\n5\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n1\n\n207\n\nTABLE IX\nWESTERN DIVISION\n\nExpenditure for Public Schools\n(Excluding Debt Paid)\n\nTrue Valuation of Real and\nPersonal Property\n\nExpended for Public\nSchook on Each $100\nof True Valuation of\nall real and Personal\n\nState\n\nProperty\n\n1880\n\nMont\n\n1890\n\n$ 613,651,848\n\n$\n\n40,000,000 $ 453,135,209\n54,000,000\n169,773,710\n240,000,000 1,145,712,267\n40,000,000\n231.459,897\n41,000,000\n188,880,976\n114,000,000\n349,411,234\n180,323668\n156,000,000\n29,000,000\n207,896,591\n62,000,000\n760.698,726\n154,000,000\n590,396,194\n1,343,000,000 2,533,733,627\n\nWyo\nColo\n\nN.Mex\nAriz\n\nUtah\n\nNev\nIdaho\n\nWash\nOreg\nCal.\n\n1880\n\n1903\n\n$\n\n245,773,363\n2,447,368,421\n220,171,400\n302,185,580\n375,264,320\n202,794,657\n562,282,391\n1,029,175,789\n619,856,746\n3,605,840,141\n\nTotal\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\n78,730 $ 364,084\n225,000\n28,505\n1,681,379\n395,227\n85,000\n28,973\n61,172\n181,914\n132,194\n394,68s\n161,481\n220,245\n169,020\n38,4\"\n112,615\n958,111\n307,031\n805,979\n5,187,162\n2,864,571\n\n$1,236,253\n253,551\n3,100,855\n300,531\n397,972\n1,496,056\n209,484\n826,598\n3,580,742\n1,526,366\n8,170,165\n\n$21,098,573\n\n$10,224,364,656\n\n1880\n\n1890\n\n1903\n\nCents\n19.7\n\nCents\n\nCents\n\n8.0\n13-3\n14.7\n\n30.\n\n.11\n5-9\n14.9\nII.\n14.\n\n132\n18.2\n19.9\n21.3\n\n1:1\n11.3\n\n1°\n\n10.3\n12.7\n13-6\n13.2\n39.9\n10.3\n\n12.6\n13-7\n20.\n....\n\n20.6\n\nTABLES X-XV\nShowing:\n\n(i)\n\naverage monthly salaries of teachers;\n\naverage length of school term in days; (3)\n\n(2)\n\naverage number of days' schooling given for every child five to eighteen years of age (for 1902-3 imless\notherwise indicated).\n\nTABLE X\nTHE UNITED STATES\nAverage Number\n\nAverage Monthly Salaries of\nTeachers\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\n$49-98\n\n$40.51\n\nAverage Length\nof School\nTerm in Days\n\nof Days' Schooling Given for\nEvery Child 5 to\n18 Years of Age\n\n147.2\n\n71-8\n\nTABLE XI\nNORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nAverage Monthly Salaries\nof Teachers\nState\n\nMaine\n\n.\n\nVermont\n\nRhode Island\n\n...\n\n...\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\n$ 37-37\n\n$27.60\n\n43-58\n47.16\n145-27\n119.06\n102.44\n\n29.11\n29.68\n54. 61\n51-90\n45-26\n\nAverage Number\nAverage Length of Days' Schoolof School\ning Given to\nTerm in Days Every Child 5 to\n18 Years of Age\n\nNew York\nNew Jersey.\nPennsylvania\n\n44-82\n\n34-11\n\nAverage\n\n$58.64\n\n$39-50\n\n178-S\n\n92.3\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n208\n\n[Milwau kee\n\nTABLE XII\nSOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nAverage Monthly Salaries\nof Teachers\nState\n\nDelaware (1889-90)\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia (1897-98)\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\n\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina (1897-98)\nGeorgia\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\n$36.60\n\n$34.08\n\n94.48\n34 56\n\n64.31\n27.20\n\n26.72\n25.96\n\n24.28\n23.20\n\nFlorida (1901-2)\n\n39.68\n\n33 67\n\nAverage\n\n$30.84\n\n$29.02\n\nAverage Number\nAverage Length of Days' Schoolof School\ning Given to\nTerm in Days Every Child 5 to\n18 Years of Age\n\nZ18.0\n\nTABLE XIII\nSOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nAverage Monthly Salaries\nof Teachers\nState or Territory\n\nTennessee\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\n$50.90\n41.00\n31.00\n36.25\n56.00\n36.17\n31.93\n\n$39.18\n33.70\n27.00\n29.46\n31.43\n42.30\n32.7s\n26.20\n\n$42.97\n\n$34.79\n\nMississippi\n\nArkansas\n\nAverage Number\nAverage Length of Days' Schooling Given to\nof School\nTerm in Days Every Child 5 to\n18 Years of Age\n\nIndian Territory\n\nAverage\n\n105.6\n\n43.9\n\nTABLE XIV\nNORTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nAverage Monthly Salaries\nof Teachers\nState\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\nIowa\n\n$45.00\n66.80\n65.83\n54.76\n81.93\n55.40\n45.99\n\nMissouri\n\n44. 55\n\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota (1901-2)\nNebraska\nKansas (1901-2)\n\n45 46\n40.03\n52.03\n\n$40.00\n48.00\n55.62\n38.72\n40.78\n38.87\n32.60\n42 o^\n39.00\n\nOhio\nIndiana (100 1-2)\nIllinois\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nMinnesota\n\nAverage\n\nAverage Number\nAverage Length of Days' Schoolof School\ning Given to\nTerm in Days Every Child s to\n18 Years of Age\n\n33 52\n\n44.24\n\n40.84\n36.55\n\n$53.96\n\n$41.09\n\n[56.9\n\n83.6\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n209\n\nTABLE XV\nWESTERN DIVISION\nAverage Number\nAverage Length of Days' Schoolof School\ning Given to\nTerm in Days Every Child 5 to\n18 Years of Age\n\nAverage Monthly Salaries\nof Teachers\nState or Territory\n\nMontana.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nColorado\n\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\n\nMales\n\nFemales\n\n$ 76.89\n73-68\n69.63\n64-77\n80.33\n\n52.04\n43 36\n53-04\n64-77\n\n108.69\n63.00\n57-54\n51.30\n97-21\n\n67.53\n48.31\n63.64\n53-00\n46.82\n40.02\n80.44\n\n$70.82\n\n*59-35\n\n71. II\n\nOregon\nCalifornia\n\n146.3\n\n85.3\n\nTABLES XVI-XXI\nShowing: (1) amount raised for each person five to eighteen years of age, (2) amount raised per adul\nmale; (3) progress of School expenditure: total amovmt expended for schools.\n\nTABL5: XVI\nTHE UNITED STATES\nPer-\n\n18 Age\nto of\n\nRaised\n\nEach\n\n5\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended for Schools\n\nll\n\nars\n\nW>\n$11-17\n\n$11-32\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-80\n\n1889-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$69,107,612\n\n$78,094,687\n\n$140,506,715\n\n$214,964,618\n\n$251,457,625\n\nTABLE XVII\nNORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nto of\n\n5\n\n1^\n\nRaised\n\nEach\nYears\n\nState\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended\nfor Schools\n\nPerson\n\nfor\n\n18 Age\n\nAmt.\n\nMe\nN.H.(i9oi-a).\nVt\n\nMass\nR.I\nConn\n\nN.Y. (1901-2).\nN.J\nPenn\nAverage.\n\n.\n\nTotal....\n\n|S3\n\n$12.70\n11.29\n\n16.13\n15-78\n20.61\n15.27\n16. ca\n\n10.07\n16.97\n12.77\n11.73\n16.40\n12.94\n14.74\n\n18.13\n\n11.32\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-80\n\n1880-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$ 950,662\n\n$1,327,5.53\n\n$1,712,795\n1,052,202\n\n1,496,981\n9,607,904\n2,302,341\n8,479.918\n\n$1,067,991\n565,339\n446,217\n4,083,900\n526,112\n1,408,37s\n10,296,977\n1,873,465\n7,360,682\n\n13,826,243\n1,548,675\n3,189,249\n33,421.491\n6.608,692\n21,476,995\n\n$i,9S2,o83\n1.167,464\n1,093,238\n15,170,070\n1,856,376\n3,526,615\n41.418,095\n7,824,147\n24,354,888\n\n$29,796,835\n\n$28,538,058\n\n$48,023,492\n\n$8.^,910,564\n\n$98,362,976\n\n418,545\n499.961\n5,579,363\n\n461,160\n\n844,333\n711,072\n8,286,062\n884,966\n2,157,014\n17,543,880\n3.340,190\n12,928,422\n\n1,074222\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "..\n\n.\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n2IO\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nTABLE XVIII\nSOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nto of\n\n5\n\nEach\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended\nfor Schools\n\n.!2'3\n\nRaised\n\nState\n\nYears\n\nPerson\n\n1^\"\n\n18 Age\n\nfor\nAmt.\n\nVa\nW. Va\n\n8.10\n7.58\n24.21\n3-52\n7.62\n\nN. C\n\n2. II\n\nc\nGa\n\n2.32\n2.74\n4-58\n\n17.49\n4-61\n9.08\n^.18\n3-79\n4.05\n5.36\n\n$4-18\n\n$5-56\n\nDel. (i899-'oo).\nMd. (1900-1)...\n\nD. C\n\ns.\n\nFla. (1901-2)..\n\nAverage.\n\n.\n\nTotal....\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-8C\n\n18S9-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$ 153,509\n\n$ 207,281\n\n$ 275,000\n\n$ 453,670\n\n$ 453670\n\n1,214,729\n373,535\n587,472\n\n1,544,367\n\n1,910,663\n\n2,803,032\n1,076,620\n1,989,238\n2,009,123\n950,317\n\n2,549,497\n1,540,279\n\n577,719\n177,498\n275,688\n292,000\n129,431\n\n438,567\n946,109\n707,553\n376,062\n324,629\n471,029\n114,895\n\n$3,781,581\n\n$5,130,492\n\n905,777\n1, 604, .509\n\n1,198,493\n714,900\n\n894,004\n\n450,936\nt, 190,354\n516,533\n\n1,980,016\n765,777\n\n$8,767,165\n\n$12,921,797\n\n2,403,555\n1,523,041\n1,046,144\n2,240,247\n792,919\n\n$14,686,717\n\nTABLE XIX\nSOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nto of\n\nI3\n\n5\n\nRaised\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended\nfor Schools\n\nEach\n\nState or\nTerritory\n\nYears\n\nPerson\n\n|k3\n\n18 Age\n\nfor\nAmt.\n\nKy\nTenn\nAla. (1901-2)..\nMiss. (1900-1).\n\nLa\nTex\nArk\nOkla. (1901-2).\n\nT\n\nInd\n\nAverage.\n\n.\n\n$3-94\n3-14\n1.50\n3-35\n3-29\n5-15\n3-54\nS.79\n3.14\n\n$4.81\n4.14\n2.21\n5. 07\n\n$3.65\n\n$4-98\n\n4.54\n7.13\n\n500\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-80\n\n1889-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$1,075,000\n758,000\n370,000\n950,000\n531,834\n650,000\n520,000\n\n$1,069,030\n744,180\n500,000\n830,705\n411,858\n1,030,000\n287,056\n\n$2,140,678\n1,526,241\n890,000\n1,109,57s\n817,110\n3,178,300\n1,016,776\n\n$3,037,908\n1,751,047\n923,464\n1,385,112\n1,135,125\n4,465,25s\n1,369,810\n686,09s\n\n$2,662,863\n2,159,444\n1,057,906\n1,868,544\n1,551,232\n5,682,123\n\n6.61\n4-31\n\n1,170,409\n\n481,516\n\nTotal....\n\n$4,854,834\n\n$4,872,829\n\n$10,678,680\n\n$14,753,816\n\n$18,193,734\n\nTABLE XX\nNORTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nto of\n\n5\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended\nfor Schools\n\nRaised\n\nEach\n\nState\n\nYears\n\nPerson\n\nfor\n\n18 Age\n\nf^\n\nAmt.\n\nInd. (1901-2).\nIll\n\nMich. (1901-2).\n\n11.21\n13.81\n15-51\n\nWis. (1901-2)..\n\nMinn\nla\n\nMo\nN. D\nS. D. (1901-2)\n\n/\n.\n\nNeb.\nKans. (1901-2)..\nAverage\nTotals\n\n$12.76\n11-45\n13-34\n\n$14.06\n11.86\n14.16\n12.76\n\nOhio.\n\nI\n\n8-43\n17.18\n14-73\n13-11\n10.36\n$12-75\n\n/\n\n1\n\n11.61\n12.05\n14.02\n15-52\n9.00\n17.25\n16.25\n14-03\n10.92\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-80\n\n1889-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$6,831,035\n2,897,537\n6,656,542\n2,840,740\n1,932,539\n960,558\n3,269,190\n1,749,049\n\n$7,166,963\n4,491,850\n7,014,092\n2,775,917\n2,177,023\n1,328,429\n4,484,043\n2,675,364\n\n$13,335,211\n8,182,526\n17,757,145\n7,297,691\n5,493,370\n5,630,013\n8,496,522\n7,816,050\nf 1,526,090\n\\ 1,605,623\n4,403,222\n4,622,364\n\n$15,691,039\n9,216,082\n20,266,618\n8,777,252\n7,009,159\n6,774,336\n9,834,319\n8,363,128\n/\n2,140,565\n\\ 1,847,813\n4,390,751\n4,804,563\n\n$86,165,827\n\n23,000\n\n245,000\n\n365,520\n904,323\n\n1,108,617\n1,818,337\n\n$10,602,238\n5,245,218\n11,645,126\n5,349,366\n3,801,212\n4,187,310\n6,382,953\n5,434,262\nf\n626,949\n\\ 1,199,630\n3,376,332\n4,972,967\n\n$28,430,033\n\n$35,285,635\n\n$62,823,563\n\n1\n\n$12.55\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n3\n\n5\n\n1\n5\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n211\n\nTABLE XXI\nWESTERN DIVISION\nto of\n\n5\n\nProgress of School Expenditure: Total Amount Expended\nfor Schools\n\nRaised\n\nState or\n\nEach\n\nYears\n\nTerritory\nPerson\n\n18 Age\n\nfor\nAmt.\n\nMont\n\n$20.68\n\nWy.(i899-'oo).\n\n12.02\n29.82\n5.18\n10.76\n15.18\n27.05\n18.06\n22.25\n18.75\n21.42\n\nColo. (1901-2)..\n\nN.M\nAr\nUtah\n\nNev. (1901-2)...\nId\n\nWash\nOreg. (1901-2).\nCalif\n\nAverage\n\n111\n\n1870-71\n\n1879-80\n\n1889-90\n\n1899-1900\n\n1902-3\n\n$ 35,600\n7 000\n\n$ 78,730\n\n$ 364,084\n\n$ 923,310\n\n117,000\n85,000\n19,003\n35,000\n160,000\n1,713,431\n\n28,504\n395,227\n28,973\n61,172\n132,194\n220,245\n38,411\n112,615\n307,031\n2,864,571\n\n225,000\n1,681,379\n85,000\n181,914\n394,685\n161,481\n169,020\n958,111\n5,187,162\n\n253,551\n2,793,648\n343,429\n299,730\n1.094,757\n224,622\n400,043\n2,375,753\n1,594,420\n6,909,351\n\n$1,236,253\n253,551\n3.100,855\n300,531\n397,972\n1,496,056\n209,486\n826,598\n3,580,742\n1,526,366\n8,170,165\n\n$2,244,329\n\n$4,267,673\n\n$10,213,815\n\n$17,212,614\n\n$21,098,573\n\n$10.99\n7.01\n21.41\n5-63\n7-76\n20.37\n13-76\n\n67,395\n4,900\n\n15-51\n14.91\n14-13\n13-35\n\n$20.16\n\n805,979\n\n$14.28\n\nTotals\n\nTABLES XXII-XXVII\nShowing:\n\n(i) expenditure per capita of average attendance: (o) for sites, buildings, etc.; (6) for salaries;\n(c) for all other purposes; (d) total per pupil; (2) average daily expenditure per pupil: (a) for salaries only;\n(a) sites, buildings, etc.; (b) salaries; (c) all other\n(b) total.\n(3) per centage of total expenditure devoted to\npurposes; (4) expenditure for schools per capita of population; (s) same per capita of average attendance.\n\n—\n\nTABLE XXII\nTHE UNITED STATES\nExpenditure per Capita of Average\nAttendance\n\nFor Sites,\n\nFor\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nings, etc.\n\nries\n\n$4.19\n\n$14.21\n\nFor All\nOther\nPurposes\n\n$4-35\n\nAverage Daily Expenditure per Pupil\n\nPer cent, of Total Expenditure Devoted\n\nto—\n\nFor Sala-\n\nper\nPupil\n\nries Only\n\n$22.75\n\ng. 7 Cents\n\nTotal\n\nAverage\n\nBuild-\n\nSalaries\n\n•Other\nPurposes\n\nPopu-\n\nings,\n\nlation\n\nAttendance\n\n6a.\n\n19.\n\n$3-15\n\n$22.75\n\netc.\n\n15.5 Cents\n\nof—\nAll\n\nSites,\n\nTotal\n\nSchool Expenditure per Capita\n\n18.4\n\nTABLE XXIII\nNORTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nExpenditure per Capita of\nAverage Attendance\n\nAverage Daily\nExpenditure\n\nPer cent, of Total Expenditure Devoted\n\nper Pupil\n\nto—\n\nState\n\nFor\nSites,\n\nFor\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nings,\n\nries\n\nFor All\nOther\n\netc.\n\nMe\nN.H.(i9oi-2)\nVt\n\nMass\nR.I\nN. Y ..\n\nN.J\nPa.......\n\nAverage\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nPurposes\n\nFor\nTotal\n\nries\n\nP^pU\n\n$4.xo\n2.92\n3.93\n7.24\n8.20\n4-73\n12.14\n7.09\n5.88\n\n$13.24\n15.02\n14.47\n23.67\n21.86\n18.57\n25-82\n19.96\n14.20\n\n$2.70\n5-75\n4-oS\n8.13\n6.51\n6.28\n6.66\n7.08\n7-47\n\n$20.04\n23-69\n22.45\n39-04\n36.57\n29-58\n44-62\n34-13\n27-55\n\n$8.09\n\n$20 16\n\n$6.94\n\n$35.19\n\n.\n\nSites,\n\nSala-\n\nTotal\n\nOnly\nCents\n9-3\n\n13-7\n10.4\n8.5\nII.\n\n19.7\n\n\",i\n\nSala-\n\nings,\n\nries\n\netc.\n\nCents\n14.0\n16.9\n14-S\n21.0\n19.0\niS-7\n23.7\n17.9\n16.6\n\n10.7\n9-3\n12.7\n\nBuild-\n\n20.4\n12.3\n\nb) average attendance\n\nPurposes\n\n13-5\n24-3\n\n18.6\n22.4\n16.0\n27.2\n20.8\n21.4\n\n66.1\n63.4\n64.5\n60.6\n59.8\n62.8\n57.9\n58.4\n51-S\n\n23.0\n\n57.3\n\n19.7\n\n17.\n\nSchool expenditure per capita of\na) population\n\nAll\n\nOther\n\n$ 4* 44\n35. 19\n\n18\n20 8\n17.8\n\n27.1\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\n—\n\n.\n\no\n\n9\n\n15\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n212\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nTABLE XXIV\nSOUTH ATLANTIC DIVISION\nExpenditure per Capita of\nAverage Attendance\n\nAverage Daily\nExpenditure\n\nPer cent, of Total Expenditure Devoted\n\nper Pupil\nState\n\nFor\nSites,\n\nFor\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nings,\netc.\n\nries\n\nS.C\n\nGa\nFla. (1901-2)..\n\nAverage .\n\nries\n\n1. 13\n\n951\n\n.53\n\n3-57\n1.36\n\n.34\n.76\n1.31\n\n1.20\n\n15.46\n5. 56\n5.00\n7.22\n10.41\n\n$1.45\n\n$10.17\n\n6.4\n\n$11.05\n15.08\n25.10\n\n$17.93\n\n$3-75\n2.79\n6.73\n\n18.81\n\n40.49\n\n.28\n•13\n\n$x.is\n\n$7.57\n\nAll\n\nSites,\n\nTotal\n\nOnly\n\n.92\n\n8.66\n.\n\nFor\nSala-\n\n2.42\n\n$3 13\n.94\n\nD. C\nVa. ( iQoo-i)\n\nW. Va\n\nTotal\nper\nPupil\n\nPur-\n\nCents\n6.5\n7-9\n14.4\n6.1\n7-7\n4.3\n4.8\n5-4\n7.6\n\nDel. (i899-'oo)\nMd. (iQoo-i)..\n\nN. C. (1901-3)\n\nFor All\nOther\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nings,\n\nries\n\nposes\n\netc.\n\nCents\n10.5\n\n8.6\n\nOther\nPur-\n\n17.5\nS-o\n4\n\n61.6\n80.2\n62.0\n\n9IS9.\n6.\n10.\n12.\n\n61.2\n66.7\n87.8\n87.6\n75.9\n\n78.\n\n74-4\n\n20.9\n14.8\n16.6\nII. 9\n23.1\n24.1\n5-5\n1.9\n11.5\n\n14.3\n\n(i) School expenditure per capita of-\n\na) Population\n\n.$ 1.34\n\n6) Average attendance\n\n.\n\nlO.I'i\n\nTABLE XXV\nSOUTH CENTRAL DIVISION\n\nExpenditure per Capita of\nAverage Attendance\n\nState or Territory\n\nFor\nSites,\n\nFor\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nings,\n\nries\n\netc.\n\nKy\n\n$0.95\n\nFor All\nOther\nPurposes\n\n$ 7.16 $0.48\n\nTenn\n\n.62\n\n5.17\n\n.51\n\nAla. (1901-2)\n\n*\n\n396\n\nMiss\n\n.23\n.64\n\n6.75\n8.06\n10.66\n6.22\n8.29\n\n45\n1.03\n1.26\n\nLa\nTex\n\n1-43\n.64\n2.98\n\nArk\nOkla\n\nInd.T\nAverage\n\n$0.83\n\nTotal\nper\nPupil\n\n$8.59\n\n14.61\n\n2.62\n17.86\n\n6.30\n4.41\n8.01\n9.96\n12.78\n7.27\n13.89\n32.47\n\n$7.24\n\n$0.85\n\n$8.92\n\n•\n\n.69\n.41\n\nAverage Daily\nExpenditure\n\nPer cent, of Total Expenditure Devoted\n\nper Pupil\n\nto—\n\nFor\nSalaries\n\nOnly\nCents\n8.0\n5-4\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nOther\n\nings,\n\nries\n\nPur-\n\nCents\n9.5\n\n7-9\n15.6\n20.5\n\n83.3\n82.1\n89.7\n84.2\n80.9\n83.5\n85.6\n59.7\n45.0\n\n10.3\n12.9\n12.7\n5-4\n5.6\n18.9\n55.0\n\n8.4\n\n81.\n\n9.6\n\n6.6\n4.3\n6.5\n\na.\n\n7.7\n\n6.4\n\n* Included in \"expenditures for all other purposes.\nSchool expenditure per capita of\na) population\nh) average attendance\n\nposes\n\netc.\n\nII.\n\n6.9\n\nAU\n\nSites,\n\nTotal\n\n$1.22\n8.92\n\n5.6\n8.0\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "——\n\n. .\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n19\n7\n\n9\n5\n\n3\n1\n\n71\n\nVARIATION IN SCHOOL EXPENDITURES\n\n1\n\n213\n\nTABLE XXVI\nNORTH CENTRAL DIVISION\nExpenditure per Capita of\nAverage Attendance\n\nFor\nSites,\n\nFor\n\nFor All\nOther\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nPur-\n\nings,\n\nries\n\nTotal\nper\nPupil\n\nAverage Daily\nExpenditure\n\nPer cent, of Total Expenditure Devoted\n\nper Pupil\n\nto—\n\nFor\nSalaries\n\nAU\n\nSites,\n\nTotal\n\nOnly\n\nBuild-\n\nSala-\n\nOther\n\nings,\n\nries.\n\nPurposes\n\n64.0\n62.3\n60.7\n60.5\n61.9\n64.6\n63-S\n63.1\n47-2\n\n25-3\n27.0\n17.8\n22.6\n\netc.\n\netc.\n\nOhio\nInd. (1901-2)..\nMich.'.!!;!!.*;\n\nWis\n\nMinn\nla\n\nMo\nN.D\nS. D. (1901-2).\n\nNeb\nKans. (1901-2)\n\nAverage\n\n$3.96\n\n.\n\n$16.36 $ 6.45\n13.76\n5.97\n16.30\n4.78\n13-23\n4.96\n15-39\n4-73\n2.48\n16.79\n6.60\n17.42\n2.96\n11-34\n17.86\n13-71\n6.86\n15.50\n4.02\n16.54\n12.12\n3-56\n\n$25-54\n\n$15.00\n\n$23.98\n\n$5.02\n\n22. 10\n\n26.84\n21.88\n24-85\n25-97\n27.44\n17.98\n37-79\n25.37\n24.85\n17.59\n\nCents\n9.9\n9.4\n10.2\n8.0\n8.5\n10.6\n10.9\n7.8\n\nCents\n15.5\n16.8\n13-3\n13-8\n16.4\n\n10.7\n10.7\n21.5\n16.9\n19.0\n25.8\n\n17.\n\n12.\n\n20.5\n16.5\nII.\n\n61.\n\n9.9\n9.6\n\n12.3\n25.2\n19.2\n14.9\n14.0\n\n9.6\n24.0\n16.4\n36.3\n27.0\n\n17.3\n10.9\n\n66.5\n68.9\n\n16.2\n20.3\n\n9.6\n\nIS.\n\n16.\n\n62.6\n\n30.9\n\nII.\nII.\n\n15.\n\n19.\n\nSchool expenditures per capita of\na) population\n\n$ 3 61\n23. 98\n.\n\nb) averjige attendance\n\nTABLE XXVII\nWESTERN DIVISION\nExpenditure per Capita of\nAverage Attendance\n\nAverage Daily\nExpenditure\n\nPercent, of Total Ex-\n\nper Pupil\n\nto—\n\npenditure Devoted\n\nState or Territory\n\nFor\n\nFor\n\nSites,\n\nSala-\n\nBuildings\n\nries\n\nForAU\nOther\nPurposes\n\nTotal\n\nFor\n\nper\nPupil\n\nSala-\n\nAll\n\nSites,\n\nTotal\n\nBuild-\n\nries\n\nSala-\n\nOther\n\nries\n\nPur-\n\nOnly\n\nposes\n\netc.\n\nMont\nColo. (1901-2)..\nN.M. .........\nAriz\n\nNev. (190 1-2)..\nIdaho\n\nWash\nOre\nCalif\n.\n\n$6.91\n4-72\n9-29\n1.69\n8.17\n7.26\nS-15\n10.83\n3-42\n3.89\n6.87\n\n$39.28\n26.27\n35-24\n11-53\n32.82\n26.23\n39-53\n24.04\n35-42\n23-77\n38.38\n\n$6.15\n\n$20.32\n\n$6.38\n\n$32.85\n\n1.62\n5- 30\n6.05\n.,S8\n\nUtah\n\nAverage\n\n14.04\n3-54\n4.90\n\n$20.71\n18.69\n21.40\n8.22\n19.35\n12.92\n31.80\n13-21\n17.96\n16.34\n26.61\n\n$11.66\n2.86\n4-55\n\nWyo. (i899-'oo)\n\n.\n\nCents\n19.4\n17.0\n14. o\n\nCents\n36.7\n23.8\n23.0\nI3-I\n25.6\n18.7\n\n15.\n\n21.8\n\n29.7\n10.9\n12.9\n14.0\n16.2\n23.0\n6.5\n*\n39.6\n14.9\n12.8\n\n13.9\n\n23.5\n\n18.7\n\n9- 3\n15- I\n9- 2\n\n20. 4\n\n6\n15-5\n10.6\n\n25-4\n19.4\n30.5\n15-5\n\nIncluded in total expenditure per pupil.\nSchool expenditure per capita of\na) population\nb)\n\naverage attendance\n\n$ 4.80\n32-85\n\n52.\n71 I\n\n60.7\n71-3\n58.9\n49-3\n80.5\n54-9\n50.7\n68.7\n\n17.6\n18.0\n26.4\n14.7\n\n693\n\n24.9\n27-7\n13-0\n45.1\n9 7\n16.4\n17.9\n\n61.\n\n19.4\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n214\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nTHE GROUP MORALITY OF CHILDREN\nGEORGE\n\nE.\n\nVINCENT, PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO\n[an abstract]\n\nSocial psychology\n\nis\n\nrestating problems of life\n\nwhich for more than a\n\ncentury and a half have been formulated in terms of an abstract individualism.\n\nThe new view regards social groups as unities in which persons live, and from\n\nTo \"place\" a stranger is to relate him to\n\nwhich they get their meaning.\n\nvarious groups, and then to read into him what one knows of these groups.\n\nThe group not only molds and cozens, but consciously coerces the person into\nconformity.\n\nMoreover, the ideals and standards of a group change with a\n\nchanging environment.\n\nIn time of war military heroes eclipse the captains\n\nof industry who in days of peaceful prosperity are exalted for emulation.\n\nChildren's Uves are largely spent in juvenile groups, nursery groups, play\n\ngroups, \"gangs,\" schools, classes.\n\nBy these associations children are formed\n\nand modified in important ways. The child, like the savage, is conventional,\nand suffers keenly from ridicule. He is coerced by his group standards. The\n\" tattle-tale \" is to the child group what the \"scab \" is to the labor union. The\nchild's group changes its values in adjustment to the conditions it confronts.\n\nUnder a tyrannical and exacting teacher, sullenness and rebellion will be social\nvirtues, natural means of protection against a common enemy.\n\nthetic\n\nTo a sympa-\n\nand friendly instructor a class will respond by exalting co-operation\n\nand courtesy.\nChildren recognize the existence of adult groups\n\nneth Graehme calls them\nviews of Ufe.\n\n—with\n\n—the Olympians, as Ken-\n\ntheir own peculiar, and too often unalluring,\n\nA child is \"goody-goody\" when he conforms, not to the ideals\nOne aim of modem educa-\n\nof his comrades, but to these grown-up standards.\n\n—and largely\n\ntion is to substitute for the direct\n\nfutile\n\n—imposition upon children\n\nof these mature ideas, the indirect and sympathetic control of child-life by fos-\n\ntering the growth of the worthy ideals which germinate in these juvenile groups.\nIt behooves all who deal with children to study carefully their social organi-\n\nzation; to look at the woild thru their eyes; to hve with them, not to lord it\n\nover them; and ever to remember that we adults with all our wisdom are but\n\"children of a larger growth.\"\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS AS RELATED TO THE ORGANIZATION\nOF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR THE CITY OF NEW\n\nYORK\nIn any consideration of the regulations that ought to be inserted in a city\ncharter with regard to the public-school system to be conducted for the people\nresident within the city's borders, the fundamental principle to be borne in\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\n215\n\nmind is that the state, and not the city, is primarily responsible for public education.\n\nIn all the duties imposed on the city regarding education, whether\n\nthey pertain to the physical side, as in the building and maintenance of schoolhouses, or to the intellectual and moral side, as in teaching and supervision, the\n\nThe members of the board of educa-\n\ncity acts only as the agent of the state.\n\ntion, whether they are elected by the people or appointed by the mayor, and the\n\nexecutive officers of the board, such as the superintendent of schools and the\n\nsuperintendent of buildings, are primarily state officers and only secondarily\ncity officers.\n\nLike all other social and political distinctions, this principle has its roots\nin a remote antiquity.\n\nAmong the laws attributed\n\nto\n\nSolon in Athens is\n\none enjoining on parents to have their children instructed in music and\ngymnastics,\n\nand providing\n\nfather in old age\n\nif\n\nthat\n\nalso\n\nthe father\n\nno son was bound\n\nhad neglected\n\nin a trade at which he could earn his living.\nitself\n\nto\n\nto\n\nsupport his\n\nhave the son instructed\n\nIn Sparta the state charged\n\nwith the entire education of all male children after six years of age.\n\nand more\n\nPlato,\n\nparticularly Aristotle,\n\nfunctions of government.\n\nof public instruction, charged\n\npopular education.\n\nmade education one\n\nof\n\nthe chief\n\nEvery European country has now its ministry\nwith the duty of providing and enforcing\n\nA long series of decisions in the courts in several of\n\nour states has enunciated and confirmed the principle. The most recent,\nand perhaps the strongest, of these decisions was rendered only a year ago by\nthe Court of Appeals of New York. In expressing the unanimous judgment of\nthe court, Judge O'Brien wrote as follows:\n\nWe have seen that the policy of this state for more than half a century has been to\nseparate public education from all other municipal functions, and intrust it to independent\n\ncorporate agencies of its own creation, such as school districts and boards of education,\n\nwith capacity to sue and be sued in all matters involved in the exercise of their corporate\npowers.\n\nThis view of the law is in accord with the fitness of things.\n\nNo agency less\n\nextensive and less powerful than the state has the necessary authority and the\n\nnecessary resources to provide and to enforce universal education.\n\nAll history\n\nshows that, when education is not provided and enforced under the authority\nof the law, it is poorly provided and never enforced.\nIt\n\nwould scarcely be worth while to occupy your time and attention with\n\nthis principle, were it not that there is constant necessity to restate the funda-\n\nmental truths on which our institutions are constructed. In the storm and stress\nof\n\nmodern life, in\n\nthe emulation\n\namong individuals and communities, the\n\nrespective rights and duties of the state and of local authorities are either for-\n\ngotten or mingled in inextricable confusion.\n\nSuch is the condition of thought\n\ntoday in many places with regard to the attitude of the state, on the one side,\n\nand of local authorities, on the other side, toward public education. The time\nwas in the older states when the local community was entirely willing that the\nstate should\n\ndo as it pleased regarding education, as long as the local tax-\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5i6\n\npayer was not called upon to pay the bills.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nA striking example of this dis-\n\nposition was the attitude of the Free School Society of New York city, which\n\ncame into being just a century ago.\n\nThat society proposed to found schools\n\nfor poor children that were not under instruction in the schools of any rehgious\nsect,\n\nand to support them by voluntary contributions with such aid as might\n\nfrom time to time be obtained by grants from the state.\n\nIn his address deliv-\n\nered at the opening of the society's first school building in 1809, De Witt Clinton, great statesman tho he was, argued against local taxation for the support\n\nof public schools\n\non the ground that such taxation would\n\nset\n\nthe people\n\nHaving instanced the tax for free schools in Pennsylvania,\nhe went on to say: ''The people of Pennsylvania are therefore interested\nagainst a faithful execution of the plan, because the less that is appHed to\neducation, the less they will have to pay in taxation.\" How false this view\nwas, the history of public schools testifies. As the school tax has increased,\ninstead of becoming interested against public schools, the people have become\ninterested in and for public schools.\nAnd this sentiment is altogether natural.\nPeople are always interested in what they are paying for, and particularly\nwhen the object of their disbursements is so near to them as the education\nagainst education.\n\nof their own children.\n\nSuch an opinion as that expressed by De Witt Clinton\n\nis possible only where free schools are regarded as charity schools\n\n—schools for\n\nthose who cannot afford to pay for the tuition of their children.\n\nWith the\n\nadvent of a broader view of the objects and possibilities of public education,\n\n—\n\nWhen men begin to understand and the\nmen do not yet fully understand that public schools are the\n\nsuch opinions tend to disappear.\ngenerality of\n\n—\n\npeople's schools, that they are for all, rich and poor alike;\n\nwhen they realize\n\nthat one of the prime objects of public education\n\nprovide, as far as\n\nis to\n\npublic education can provide, equal opportunities for all;\n\nand when they\n\nbring home to themselves the profound truth that democratic institutions will\n\nremain democratic only on condition that the people remain enlightened;\nthen will they take a keen interest in their own schools.\n\nBut in every com-\n\nmunity there are those who realize these things only in part; in every community there are forces that would use the schools for wrong or selfish purposes.\n\nThese persons may perhaps be divided into two classes:\n\nfirst, those\n\nwhose\n\nopinions have not advanced beyond those of De Witt Clinton, and his friends\n\nwho founded the Free School Society of New York, and who argue that, as free\npublic schools should be only for the children of the poor, their work should be\n\nconfined to the rudiments of an English education\n\n—the three R's, so\n\nto speak;\n\nsecond, those who beUeve, tho they proclaim their faith by their acts rather\n\nthan by their words, that the position of teacher, principal, or superintendent\nis one of the spoils of office,\n\ncal influence to obtain it.\n\nand should go to whoever has the requisite politi-\n\nThe complete triumph of either class would set edu-\n\ncation in any community back at least a generation.\n\nWhen the community is unable or unwilling to protect itself and its public\nschools against these evil influences, it has a right to the protection of the state,\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\nexercised thru the state's proper officers.\n\n217\n\nIn view of the duties to be performed\n\nand the dangers to be avoided, the functions of the state regarding education\n\nmay be regarded as threefold\nFirst, either to provide education for all, or to require that suitable educa-\n\ntion be provided by each community.\n\nSecond, to provide, or to require the community to provide, the means of\nenforcing education upon all children; because the man who fails to give his\nchildren education commits a twofold crime\n\n—a crime against\n\nhis children,\n\nwhom he deprives of much of the happiness and success of life, and a crime\nagainst society, whose strength and prosperity are diminished by the ignorance\nof any of its members.\n\nThird, to provide such laws and such machinery as will protect the schools\nagainst the attacks either of foolish doctrinaires or of unscrupulous politicians.\n\nThere is one great danger, however, in the exercise of the state's educational functions; namely, that,\n\nif\n\ntoo much dependence be placed upon the\n\nstate, local spontaneity and local effort\n\nmay be discouraged.\n\nThe best means\n\nhitherto found to enable the state to reinforce, without discouraging local\n\nby its legislative branch, of laws laying down\nminimum requirements, and the making of regulations by its educational officers which have the force of law.\nThese laws may either be general enactments, or they may be embodied in city charters. They should embrace at\n\nauthorities, is the enactment,\n\nleast the following provisions:\n\nThe limits of age within which all children must go to school.\nThe minimum extent of school buildings which each community must provide\n\n1.\n\n2.\n\nin order to\n\naccommodate its school population.\n\nThe minimum amount of time to be spent in academic studies and professional\n\n3.\n\nby candidates for teachers' licenses.\n\ntraining\n4.\n\nThe establishment of institutions in which such training may be given.\n\n5.\n\nA method of appointing teachers that shall eliminate political, social, and every\n\nother consideration, except that of merit.\n6.\n\nA sure and certain means of raising revenue that shall increase as population\n\nincreases.\n7.\n\nA minimum salary for teachers that shall be in some degree commensurate with\n\ntheir training and with the social position they ought to occupy.\n8.\n\nPensions for old age after physical and mental disqualiiSication.\n\nIt should be made by law the duty of the state's educational executive offi-\n\ncer\n\nsuperintendent, commissioner of education, or what you\n— him\n— see that such laws are enforced by local authorities, and determine,\ncall\n\nwill\n\nstate\n\nto\n\nto\n\nalways with the aid of a council of educators, minimum courses of study for all\ngrades of public schools\n\n—elementary\n\nschools, high schools, and training schools.\n\nIt follows that he should be clothed with ample authority to carry the laws into\n\neffect and to enforce his own ordinances.\n\nThe community or the municipality should always have the authority to go\nas far beyond the minimum requirements of the state as the people, or their\nrepresentatives in a board of education,\n\nmay determine.\n\nIn this way the\n\nschools have the protection of the state, while local enterprise is encouraged\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nIn proof of this statement I cite the experience of New York.\n\nIn 1895 that\n\n2i8\n\nstate enacted a law laying down the minimum amount of time to be spent in\n\nacademic and professional training by candidates for teachers' licenses in\ncities,\n\nand authorizing the state superintendent to lay down minimum courses\nThere is not a\n\nof study for the institutions in which such training is given.\ncity in the state that\n\nhas not made requirements exceeding\n\nminimum\n\nthe\n\nrequirements both in duration and in extent.\nIt has fallen to\n\nmy lot in this discussion to set forth the reasons why the\n\nstate should prescribe minimum requirements with regard to the training and\n\nappointment of teachers in cities.\n\nFor the present I shall confine myself to the\n\ntraining and appointment of teachers in elementary schools.\nthis presence that there is no difference of opinion as to\n\nI shall assume in\nwhat should be the\n\nminimum amount of time a teacher in elementary schools should devote to\ntraining.\nThe academic training should be not less than four years of highschool or secondary-school work, which should include English, mathematics\n(at least algebra\n\nand plane geometry), a foreign language, history, biology,\n\nphysics, drawing, music, and gymnastics.\n\nAll of these subjects are required to\n\ndevelop and strengthen the powers of the mind, and to provide the foundation\n\nupon which professional training may afterward be built.\nThe minimum\namount of time to be devoted to professional training should be two years.\n\nThe specific question, however, arises:\n\nShould a city of considerable size\n\n—be required\n\none, say, that requires a hundred or more new teachers each year\n\nby law to maintain a training or normal school for teachers ? This question\nshould be answered in the affirmative for the following reasons:\n1.\n\nWhile it is highly desirable that a considerable proportion\n\nfourth or one-third\n\n— the new teachers appointed\nof\n\n—\n\nsay, one-\n\nin a city school system each\n\nyear should come from outside the system, yet experience has shown that in all\n\nour large cities the majority of the teachers are and must be drawn from the\n\nLocal sentiment enforces this policy; necessity compels it.\n\nsystem itself.\n\nIn\n\nany one of our rapidly growing cities it is simply impossible to obtain a sufficient number of teachers from outside to fill vacancies, and to teach the new\nclasses which it is necessary to form each year in order to meet the increase in\n\npopulation.\n\nIt follows, therefore, that each large city must train the greater\n\npart of its own teachers.\n2.\n\nThe pressure from politicians, on the one hand, to have the sons and\n\ndaughters of their friends, or of those whom they desire to favor, appointed\nteachers,\n\nis\n\na constant force with which we must reckon.\n\nThe pressure of\n\nparents, on the other hand, to secure teacherships for their children, particularly the daughters, at the earliest possible age, is also a constant\n\nand even\n\nThese two forces acting together are ever tending to lower, or\neven to break down, the barriers which local educational authorities set up to\nstronger force.\n\nexclude untrained teachers from the schools.\nthat a city training school\n\nis\n\nSo powerful are these forces\n\nin constant danger of being emasculated, if not\n\noverthrown by their corrosive strength.\n\nIt should, therefore, as a necessary\n\ncondition of good schools, be established and protected by law.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "9\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n3.\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\n21\n\nIn a large city a training school for teachers is necessary to maintain edu-\n\ncational standards.\n\nIn a city school system, owing to the rapid multipHcation\n\nof schools and teachers, there is a constant tendency to sag, to lower the stand-\n\nard of results.\n\nIf\n\nanyone doubts this statement, he has only to reflect for a\n\nmoment on what must be the effect of bringing a large number of inexperischools.\n\n—\n\n—\n\neach year into the\nin New York it is over one thousand\nOf the measures that may be adopted to neutraUze the demoraUz-\n\nenced teachers\n\n—particularly\nHere\n— probably the most\n\ning effects of too rapid growth, a training school for teachers\n\nembrace, as it should, a model school\n\nis\n\nif it\n\neffective.\n\nwill be a school which is always manned by teachers of experience and of the\n\nlargest ability; a school which is never weakened by an influx of inexperienced\n\nteachers.\n\nSuch a school is a model, a standard, a tonic for all the other schools\nIts establishment and maintenance under the authority of law\n\nof the system.\nis,\n\ntherefore,\n\ndemanded as one of the protective measures which the state is\n\ncalled upon to enact for the preservation and uplifting of its public schools.\n4. City training schools are necessary, because, if I may judge from my\nown experience, there are very few institutions, other than city training schools,\n\nwhich provide the specific training that teachers in large cities require.\n\nUnder\n\nthe conditions of life in our large cities, the schools must supply, as far as schools\n\nmay, the training which in the country is obtained by work in the home or on the\nThe country boy who does chores about the house or on the farm before\n\nfarm.\n\nand after school, who cuts firewood, or brings in water, or tends the cattle, or\nhelps to train a colt, or who plants seeds and protects the seedUngs from birds\nand weeds, is acquiring a knowledge, and receiving a training in the use of his\nhands and eyes, in judgment, in carefulness, and in executive power, which is\ndenied to the city boy. If the crowded populations of our great cities are not\nto degenerate physically and mentally, the city teachers must be trained to supply in some measure the deficiency.\nIt is not enough that a city teacher should\nbe able to teach language and grammar and penmanship and arithmetic and\ngeography and history and drawing. She must be a trained observer, in order\nto detect and to treat properly the idiosyncrasies of children brought up under\npeculiar and always artificial conditions; she must be an athlete, to teach gymnastics and lead in children's games; she must be a mechanic, to give boys the\nuse of their hands thru exercises in wood and metal; and she must be expert\nwith scissors and needle, to teach girls to sew and to make their own dresses.\nIt is chiefly in the large cities that all these qualifications are demanded.\nAs\nfar as my experience goes, the city training school is almost the only institution\n\nthat is turning out teachers adapted to the city's needs.\n\nThe lectures of the\n\nuniversity professor of pedagogy on the principles and history of education are\n\nadmirable in their stimulating, knowledge-giving, and view-enlarging effects\nfor teachers of experience ; but they constitute a poor preparation for the young\n\nteacher, full tho his head may be with theory, when he suddenly finds himself\n\nconfronted with fifty unruly urchins, who perceive their teacher's defects and\nlimitations\n\nmuch more quickly than he does himself.\n\nThe state normal\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n220\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nschools, with some exceptions, have not adapted themselves to city conditions.\n\nFor the most part they are still secondary schools, with a little professional training thrown in. They have not yet risen to the height of the great argument that\nteaching is a profession, and requires a peculiar institution in which its intend-\n\ning professors shall devote their whole time and thought and energy to learning the science and acquiring the art of teaching.\n\nFor the present at least,\n\ntherefore, we must depend upon city training schools to develop the pecuHar\n\ntype of teacher which the conditions of life in our large cities demand.\n\nFor purposes both of minimum requirement and of protection, city training schools should be established under the authority of law.\n\nWe may now pass to the second part of the subject—the licensing and\nappointing of teachers.\n1.\n\nThe theses which I lay down may be stated as follows:\nand should be made permanent only after\n\nAll licenses should be probationary,\n\nthe ability to teach well has been demonstrated and the habit of skillful teaching has been\nacquired.\n2. Teachers should be nominated and appointed and promoted by an expert, or a\nbody of experts, as nearly as possible in the order of standing from eligible lists prepared\nas the result of examination by an independent board of expert examiners.\n\nThe first thesis\nuntil success\n\n—that teachers'\n\nlicenses should be temporary and revocable\n\nhas been demonstrated\n\n—\n\n^is\n\nso obviously in the interest of the\n\nschools and the people, and, indeed, is now so generally adopted, that I shall\n\nnot consume time in stating the arguments in its support.\n\nNor is it necessary to discuss at length the proposition that teachers should\nbe appointed and promoted, not by laymen, but by experts in teaching and\nschool management.\n\nIf the principle of\n\nappointment in order of standing\n\nfrom an eligible Ust is accepted, the principle of assignment to duty by experts\nAppointment, then, means assignment to posifollows as a matter of course.\ntion ;\n\nand surely, if any part of the procedure requires expert knowledge, the\n\nplacing of each teacher at that kind of work which she can do best,\n\nis\n\nthat part.\n\nThe real crux is:\n\nShould appointments be made in the order of standing\n\nfrom eHgible Hsts prepared as the result of competitive examination?\n\nTo\n\nmake appointments of teachers in this way is to apply to the teaching profession the principle of civil-service reform which has now been introduced\nwith comparative success into other branches of the public service, municipal,\nstate, and federal.\n\nplanted.\n\nSuch a system is imdeniably better than the system it sup-\n\nSaid George WilUam Curtis, before this department fourteen years\n\nago.\n\nWhatever foolish questions may be asked, whatever possible frauds practiced in an\nexamination, they are wholly insignificant when compared with the unspeakable folly and\nthe certain fraud of appointment by patronage, or mere personal and partisan favor.\n\nHaving closely watched appointment of teachers by personal and partisan\nfavor for nearly twenty years, and having participated both in examination\nand appointment under the merit system for nearly six years, I am fully pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSuperintendence!\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\n221\n\npared to say that the merit system is as far superior to the personal system in\nthe appointment of teachers as Mr. Curtis found it in other branches of the\n\npublic service.\n\nsystem ?\n\nWhat are the objections that are argued against the merit\n\nIt is said that\n\nroom duty.\n\nan examination cannot determine fitness for class-\n\nWere examination the exclusive test,, there might be some force\n\nin the objection; but\n\nit\n\nis\n\nnot: probation\n\nis\n\na\n\nvital condition of the\n\nmerit\n\nsystem ? Examinations, however, may be so conducted as to determine fitness\n\nEvery well-conducted\n\nvery closely, certainly to exclude the grossly unfit.\n\nexamination consists of two parts\n\n—a written and an\n\noral.\n\nA well-ordered\n\nwritten examination is an almost infalhble test whether an examinee has the\nability to marshal his resources at a sudden call, whether he can think clearly\n\nand coherently, whether he has an adequate mastery of written discourse, and\nwhether he has the executive abiUty to adjust the task to the allotted time\nwith due sense of proportion.\nskillful\n\nAll of these powers are powers\n\nwhich the\n\nteacher ought to possess, and which may be fairly tested by a written\n\nAs the lawyer who cannot think of the proper argument to put\n\nexamination.\n\nforward, or the physician of the appropriate drug to prescribe, until after the\ncritical\n\nmoment, is at an enormous disadvantage, so the teacher who cannot\n\nthink of the right thing to do or say, or the principal whose pedagogical knowl-\n\nedge is so profound that he cannot give it expression, is at as great a loss in\nthe class-room as in the examination hall.\nits purposes,\n\nThe written examination, to serve\n\nmust, of course, be a test of whether or not the applicant has the\n\nknowledge, the power of thought, and the facility in expression that a teacher\n\nAn examination that would test mere book knowledge or\n\nought to have.\n\nmemory would be practically useless for the purpose in view.\nThere are certain things, however, which a written examination cannot\ndetermine.\n\nIt is\n\nnot a certain test of moral character, or of personal charm,\n\ncleanliness, address, or\n\neven of teaching power.\n\nIt\n\ndoes not reveal bodily\n\ndeformity, sickness, faulty enunciation, or foreign accent.\n\nIt is even within the\n\nman may write well who talks very badly and,\nhence, is unfit for teaching work.\nTo determine these matters, other methods\n\nlimits of possibility that a\n\nof examination\n\nmust be resorted to.\n\nThe other methods which we use in\n\nNew York I shall now describe briefly\nI.\n\nAn oral examination is given only to those whose marks in the written\n\nexamination indicate that they are worthy of further consideration.\nII.\n\nBy the term \"oral examination\" we mean not merely the presentation\n\nand answering of oral questions, but also an exhaustive investigation of the\npast history and present qualifications of the applicant, both personally and\n\nThe ratio of the maximum record mark to the maximum oral\nmark varies according to the license sought. Some licenses require little or no\nprofessionally.\n\nteaching for\n\neligibility,\n\nas, for instance, the initial license.\n\nrequire large teaching experience,\n\nOther licenses\n\nand this experience must necessarily be\n\nmade a matter of investigation.\nJust here let me say that written statements regarding teachers must be\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\n:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n222\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nreceived and rated with the utmost care.\n\nThey must be rated for what they\n\ndo not say, no less than for what they say.\n\nFor instance, I have before me, as\n\nI write, the record of a graduate of a largely attended normal school.\n\nThe\n\nprincipal reports her as \"good\" in scholarship, as \"high\" in pedagogical work,\n\nas \"good\" in practice-teaching.\n\nHe further says that his estimate of her gen-\n\neral teaching ability is \"good,' 'and, in answer to the question, \"Does the appli-\n\ncant speak the English language articulately and correctly ? he replies \"Yes.\"\n\nAt the close of her first year of work in New York schools the principal of\nthe school was called upon to report upon this teacher's work under several\n\nheadings, as\nAbility to comprehend instructions;\" skill in blackboard work; skill in questioning; thorcr\n\nness in developing subjects;\nof voice;\n\nuse of objective illustration; self-control and manners; use\n\ncontrol of class.\n\nHer statement is\nMiss Blank is deficient in all these qualifications.\n\nHer imperfect knowledge and\n\nvery deficient enunciation of the English language render her incompetent to control\nor interest any class in this department.\n\nThis is only one sample out of hundreds which I might adduce to show that\nschool authorities often use unnecessarily roseate language in writing\n\nmonials.\n\ntesti-\n\nEpisodes of this kind have led the board of examiners to lay great\n\nstress upon what they term the \"oral examination. \"\n\nThey now lay such stress\n\nupon the mark on record, personality, and ability to speak the English language\nthat a bad mark in any one of these particulars nullifies the whole examination.\nTurning from processes of examination to results, I am happy to be able to\nreport that recent investigations have shown\nFirst, that those\n\npersons who have received the highest standings at our\n\nexaminations have, upon the whole, done better than those who received the\nlowest standings that were considered possible.\n\nSecond, nine-tenths of those whom it has been necessary to dismiss at, or\nbefore, the close of the probationary term, are to be found in the class of per-\n\nsons who received comparatively low standings at the examination.\n\nThird, the examinations have been the means of bringing to the New York\nschools many teachers of high character and ability from other places, whose\nservices it would not have been possible to obtain in any other way.\nis\n\nWhen it\n\nknown that the teachers in a city school system are appointed as the result of\n\ncompetitive examination, honestly and skillfully conducted, the best teachers\n\nfrom all over the country will flock to that city.\nI\n\nam very far from claiming that the New York system of examination is\n\nperfect.\n\nI only say that it has served the purpose for which it was intended,\n\nupon the whole, in an admirable way.\n\nIndeed, I quite agree with professor\n\nCaddell, who recently said:\n\nTo devise and apply the best methods of determining fitness is the business of the\npsychological expert, who will probably represent at the close of this century as important\n\na profession as medicine, law, or church.\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n223\n\nSome of my audience may be inclined to say that much better than the\nNew York plan of appointment by competitive examination is the plan, which\nhas been tried in some cities, of committing the entire matter of selecting,\nappointing, and promoting teachers to one man, the superintendent.\n\nIf,\n\nas\n\none of my colleagues in New York recently expressed it, a man could be found\n\nwho is infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justness, goodness, and truth, we should all be entirely willing to place\n\nAs such men are not to be found, the following objections to \"one-man power\" are, it seems to me, not unreasonable:\nsuch vast powers in his hands.\n\nI.\n\nNo one man has the ability or the knowledge to perform so colossal a\nHe might do it in a city of forty or fifty thousand inhabi-\n\ntask in a large city.\n\ntants, but not in a city of half a million.\nII.\n\nWhere this plan has been tried it has not infrequently resulted in the\n\noverthrow of the superintendent who has honestly tried to perform a task, too\ngreat for any individual, under most distressing circumstances.\nIII.\n\nThe effect upon the teaching force is not good.\n\nIt is one of the weak-\n\nnesses of our poor human nature that men and women will cringe before the\n\nman who has the power to aid or to injure.\n\nTeachers tend to lose independ-\n\nence of thought and action when they are placed absolutely in the power of a\nsuperintendent; and, just in proportion as they lose legitimate independence\nof\n\nthought and action, by so\n\nmuch\n\nis\n\ntheir\n\ngood influence as teachers\n\ndiminished.\nI trust I have said enough to show that, in our large cities, training schools\nand the appointment or promotion of teachers as the result of competitive\n\nexamination, should be established by law.\n\nA NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW\nEDWARD C. ELIOT, FORMER PRESIDENT OF BOARD OF EDUCATION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nit\n\nIn accepting the invitation of the Department of Superintendence to address\nupon the subject of school legislation, I take it for granted that my chief,\n\nif\n\nnot only, usefulness in that respect arises out of my experience with the St.\n\nAn essay upon the theory of the subject, derived from\nan examination of the books, is available to any person interested in the matter.\nLouis public schools.\n\nIt is the practical side, illustrated by the situation in one of the leading cities\n\nof the Union,\n\nwhich is of interest to you.\n\nThe original organization of the St. Louis public schools was under a\nspecial act of the Missouri Territorial Legislature, enacted in 1819, followed\n\nin 1833\n\nby a more formal incorporation of the free white inhabitants of the\n\ncity of St. Louis into a body politic, dignified by the formal name of \"President\n\nand Directors of the St. Louis PubHc Schools.\"\n\nThe city was small, having\n\nthen a population of less than eight thousand people, and was divided into\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n224\n\nfour wards, representation being provided for each ward.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThe board was\n\nunwisely given the power to control the election of its own members.\n\nThis\n\nlaw continued in operation until 1897, when the city had grown to nearly\nits present size.\n\nVarious intermediate acts of the legislature had entered into\n\nthe law affecting the schools, and the number of members of the board had\n\nbeen increased, by the addition both of representatives from new wards and\n\nmembers elected at large, until it had become overburdened. The two\nthe district or ward representation, and the power of the board over the election of its own members.\nIt would be a great injustice to the large number of conscientious and\nable men who took part in the public-school government in the long interval\nbetween 1833 and 1897 to intimate that the system was not a success; on the\ncontrary, the results were generally good, and there was a considerable numof\n\nmost dangerous features of the law remained\n\n—\n\nber of years in which, under the efficient administration of Mr. W. T. Harris,\n\nnow your honored Commissioner of Education, when the public schools of\nBut, as the city grew in size, and became\nSt. Louis took the first rank.\nmore subject to the corrupting influences which attend the expenditure of\nlarge revenues, an era of bad poHtics and jobbery came in, and it became\napparent to thinking men that the system had been outgrown, or that its\ninherent faults could no longer be offset in«so large a community.\nA bill was submitted to the legislature providing for a board of nine members, to be appointed by the mayor, one of whom should give his entire time\nto the affairs of the schools, and receive an adequate salary.\nThe remaining\neight were to be appointed with reference to their special quaUfications for\ndifferent\n\ndepartments of school work.\n\nThe bill failed to pass, but it served\n\npubHc attention to the necessity for change,\nand contained the idea of individual responsibility which is at the bottom of\nthe law operating at present.\nIn 1897 ^ committee of citizens was selected,\nof which Mr. Frederick N. Judson, now the able counsel of the Board of\nEducation of St. Louis, was made chairman, and the frame of the present\nlaw was prepared.\nUnder the new charter the board consists of twelve members, elected\nthe useful purpose of calling\n\nat large\n\n—that\n\nis to\n\nsay, without individual constituency, each member repre-\n\nsenting equally the entire public of the city.\n\nThe term of office is six years.\n\nGreat pains were taken to remove the schools from the influence of politics.\n\nThe members are precluded from holding any other office, and must make oath\nthat they will not be influenced by any consideration except that of merit\nand fitness in the appointment of officers and the engagement of employees.\nThey receive no compensation.\n\nThe business of the schools is divided under the law into four departments,\nwhich take the names of \"Instruction,\" ''School Buildings,\" \"Finance,\" and\n\"Auditing and Supplies.\"\n\nOver each of these is required to be placed an\n\nadministrative officer, whose position is one of great independence.\n\nTo make\n\nclear its force, in its administrative portions, I call attention to the following\n\nparts of the law:\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n225\n\nThe board of education shall have general and supervising control, government, and\nmanagement of the public schools and pubUc-school property of the city.\nThe superintendent of instruction shall be appointed by the board of education for a\nThe board\nof education may, on the nomination of the superintendent of instruction, appoint as many\nassistant superintendents as it may deem necessary, whose compensation shall be fixed by\nthe board, and who may be removed by the superintendent with the approval of the board.\nThe superintendent of instruction shall have general supervision, subject to the control of\nterm of four years, during which term his compensation shall not be reduced.\n\nthe board, of the course of instruction, discipline, and conduct of the schools, text-books,\n\nand studies; and all appointments, promotions, and transfers of teachers, and introduction\nof text-books and apparatus, shall be made only upon the recommendation of the superin-\n\ntendent and the approval of the board.\n\nThe commissioner of school buildings shall be appointed by the board of education\nfor a term of four years, during which term his compensation shall not be reduced.\n\nHe\n\nshall devote all his time to the duties of his office, and shall be charged with the care of the\n\npubhc-school buildings of such city, and with the responsibiUty for the ventilation, warming, sanitary condition,\n\nand proper repair thereof.\n\nHe shall prepare, or cause to be pre-\n\npared, all specifications and drawings required, and shall superintend all the construction\n\nand repair of all such buildings; shall make a report each month to the board of education,\nshowing in detail the costs of repairs and other work for the previous month on each building, embodying therein the amount of bills outstanding for work ordered by him, and stat-\n\ning specifically the cases where work was done, or ordered, without public letting; shall\n\nsuperintend all the advertisements for bids and the letting of contracts; and shall, within\nthe limits of appropriations theretofore made by the board of education for repairs, make\nall contracts for the repairs of school property,\n\nexcept where the cost of such repairs shall\n\nexceed the sum of fifty dollars.\nSubject to the approval of the board of education as to the number and salaries, the\n\ncommissioner of school buildings shall have power to appoint as many engineers, janitors,\n\nand other employees and agents as may be necessary for the proper performance of the\nduties of his department, for whom he shall be responsible, and whom he shall have power\nto remove; but the board of education may provide for a competitive examination for the\n\npositions of janitors and engineers; and when such provision shall have been made, the com-\n\nmissioner of school buildings may be required by the board to appoint janitors and engineers from the list obtained by such examination.\n\nHe shall appoint such assistants and\n\ndeputies as may be authorized by the board of education, whose compensation shall be fixed\n\nby the board; and one of said assistants shall be a trained and educated engineer, qualified\n\nand construct the heating, lighting, ventilating, and sanitary machinery and\nSuch assistants and deputies shall\nbe subject to removal by the commissioner of school buildings, who shall be responsible\nto design\n\napparatus connected with the public-school buildings.\nfor the proper performance of their duties.\n\nThe board shall select a competent secretary and treasurer, who shall hold office for\na term of four years.\n\nHe shall exercise, subject to the control of the board, a general supervision over the\nand payment of funds to\nmoneys belonging to the\nboard. He shall have supervision, under the direction of the board, of the permanent\nschool fund of the city and the investment thereof, and all invested property of the board.\nfiscal affairs of\n\nthe public schools of the city, the collection\n\nthe school depository, and the disbursement of all revenues and\n\n.... He shall be the custodian of all securities, documents, title papers, books of record,\nand other papers belonging to the board, under such conditions as the board may direct.\nIt shall be his duty to see that no liability is incurred or expenditure made without due\nauthority of law, and that appropriations are not overdrawn.\nSubject to the approval of\nthe board as to number and salaries, he shall have power to appoint assistants, for whom\nhe shall be responsible, and whom he may remove.\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n226\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThe board shall appoint a competent person as auditor, who shall serve for a term of\nIt shall be his duty to examine and audit all accounts and demands\n\nfour years\n\nagainst the board, and to certify their correctness to the secretary and treasurer of the\n\nboard.\n\nThe law declares that the superintendent of instruction shall be responsible\nThe comfor the condition of the instruction and discipline of the schools.\nmissioner of school buildings is charged with the care of the public-school\nbuildings and responsibiUty for their ventilation, warming, sanitary condition,\n\nand repair.\n\nIt is made the duty of the secretary and treasurer to see that no\n\nliability is\n\nincurred or expenditure made without due authority of law, and\n\nthat appropriations are not overdrawn.\n\nThe auditor must examine and\n\ncertify all accounts.\n\nAll of the officers have fixed terms of office and may be removed for cause\n\n(which involves a trial) by a two-thirds vote of the board or by the courts.\n\nThe officers have the sole power to appoint their assistants and clerks.\nOnly the superintendent of instruction can nominate teachers. Only the\ncommissioner of school buildings can appoint janitors. The power to discharge teachers rests practically with the superintendent. The power to\nremove janitors lies wholly with the commissioner. All text-books and apparatus for the use of the schools must be recommended by the superintendent.\nThe plans for all buildings must come from the commissioner. The board\ncannot attend to any of these matters on its own initiative.\nWhen the first surprise at these facts passes away, it becomes a natural\ninquiry: What is left for the board to do ? The answer is: Only those things\nwhich lie within the qualifications of men of general intelligence and business\nability,\n\nnot experts in education or construction.\n\nThe board may adopt\n\nrules governing the conduct of the officers in general terms, so long as such\n\nrules do not impair their expressed powers and responsibiUty.\n\nIn this way\n\ngeneral policies are laid down.\n\nThe officers must come to it for\nThe appointment of teachers must be approved\n\nAll contracting power rests in the board.\n\nthe right to expend money.\n\nby the board, and it may, by express provision in the law, regulate the appointment of janitors under civil-service rules.\n\nThe levy of taxes, within constitutional limits, rests with it.\n\nIt is the\n\nultimate source of power, chooses the administrative officers, and, having\nthe power of removal, is responsible to the public for their efficiency.\n\nSupplementing the provisions of the law, and strictly within its purpose\nand spirit, the first board elected adopted rules which preclude the individual\nmembers from exercising any executive function, and from directing in any\nwise the action of the administrative officers.\n\nBoth the law and rules prohibit members from being directly or indirectly\ninterested in contracts with the board,\n\nand the ownership of stock in a cor-\n\nporation dealing with the schools has been held to be within these provisions.\n\nThe twelve members are divided into four committees, permanent in char-\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "A NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nacter, the personel of the\n\n227\n\ncommittee changing only at long intervals, corre-\n\nsponding to elective changes.\n\nThe rules provide:\n\nThe president of the board of education shall be an ex-officio member of all committees.\nHe shall, upon his election, assign the other members of the board to the committees, filling\neach committee, as nearly as practicable, with members holding office for long and short\nterms. Upon each reorganization of the board and election of a president, the assignment\nof members to the committees shall be revised and rearranged, if deemed necessary by the\npresident.\nNo member of the board shall serve upon two committees, except by reason\nof death, absence, or other disability of a member of the board, or insufficiency in number\nof members to fill all committees otherwise.\nA new member, by appointment of the\nmayor, shall take the'place of his predecessor upon all committees until the next reorganization of committees.\n\nWhen the assignment of members to the committees is made, a\n\nrecord thereof shall be entered in the minutes of the board.\n\nA list of the committees and\n\ntheir members shall be posted in the office of the secretary\n\nand treasurer, and of the\n\nsuperintendent.\n\nThe committees provided for shall have supervision over the departments of publicschool work to which their names, respectively, apply, and all of the administrative business\nof the school shall be subdivided among such departments.\n\nIn the event of any question\n\narising as to which department any matter of business pertains, or of\n\nany difference of\n\nopinion between the committees as to which has charge of the same, the matter shall be\nreferred to the president for temporary action, and to the board for permanent assignment\nat its next meeting.\n\nEach committee shall be responsible for the affairs of its department,\n\nand shall see that the administrative officer in charge of each department fully and adequately performs the duties pertaining to the same.\n\nTo each committee shall be referred\n\nin the first instance all complaints which may be presented to the board, or any member\nthereof, respecting the conduct of any officer, employee, or subordinate in its department,\n\nand of any defective or insufficient service therein.\n\nAll such complaints shall be consid-\n\nered by such committee, and acted upon by denial or reference of the same to the board,\nat its discretion.\n\nEach committee shall have power to present charges against any officer\n\nor employee in its department, and it shall be its duty to do so whenever it finds that there\nis sufficient evidence\n\nof inefficiency or misconduct on the part of any officer or employee.\n\nThe chairman of every committee shall be prepared, at all times, to make written or\nverbal reports to the board, when it is in session, as to any matter pertaining to its department. Each committee shall, from time to time, recommend to the board such action in\nrespect to its department as it may deem advantageous for the interest of the schools.\n\nEach committee has the supervision of a department, but not the slightest\npower to direct. Practically the committee is the adviser of the executive\nofficer,\n\nand the intermediary of the department and the board.\n\nIt keeps\n\nin\n\ntouch with the affairs of the department and its necessities, and is the source\nof information at\n\nboard meetings.\n\nhears them and reports.\n\nIf\n\ncomplaints are made, the committee\n\nIt has the power to call to its sessions any officer or\n\nsubordinate, and to investigate errors and abuses.\n\nIf it disagrees\n\nwith the\n\ndepartment head, it may express its disapproval to the board, and that body\n\nmay act accordingly; but the member has no power, except when occupying\nhis chair at the sessions of the board.\n\nThe board greatly facilitates the dispatch of business by requiring the substance and subject-matter of all proposed action to be forestalled in print, and\n\nhanded to each member and officer a few days before the meeting.\n\nWhen the law went into effect, the public mind of St. Louis was ready for\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n228\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThe people were thoroly disgusted with the effect of partisan politics upon\n\nit.\n\nthe school revenues, and welcomed the idea of a nonpartisan administration.\n\nFortunately for the success of the new Jaw, the members first elected were highclass citizens, fully intent upon carrying out the law and in sympathy with its\n\nWithout this, during the period when its principles were new and\n\ntheory.\n\nbattles were to be fought,\n\nit\n\nmight well have failed.\n\nits\n\nBut under honest and\n\nefficient administration it has steadily gained in public confidence.\n\nThe origi-\n\nnal board was composed of eight Republicans and four Democrats.\n\nAt the\n\nelection held two years later this disproportion was changed, so that thereafter and until the present time the number affiliated with each party has been\n\nequal.\n\nThis, of course, is in theory bipartisanship, but it is intended as non-\n\npartisanship, and has so operated in practice.\n\nWhen the terms of members\n\nexpire, the two political parties divide the candidates, or both nominate the\n\nsame persons.\n\nAmong the party managers the memberships in the school\n\nboard are spoken of as *non-poUtical offices.'\n'\n\nwillingly accept election.\n\n'\n\nCitizens of the best standing\n\nAt the present time, eight years after the original\n\nelection, the board is composed of three lawyers of\n\nhigh standing; three busi-\n\nness men at the head of their respective occupations; two civil engineers, one\nof whom has a national reputation; a physician; the manager of\n\nthe lead-\n\ning German newspaper in St. Louis, and well known to you as the director in\n\ncharge of the Department of Education at the World's Fair; a retired railroad\ncapitalist, ripe in years and experience; and last, but not least, Dr. C. M.\nWoodward, director of Manual Training School, and dean of School of\nEngineering and Architecture of Washington University.\nFor officers the board has men of training and capability, among them Mr.\nWilliam B. Ittner, the commissioner of school buildings, whom we regard as\n\nthe leading school architect in the United States;\n\nand Professor F. Louis\n\nSoldan, superintendent of instruction, for whom my personal friendship is too\nclose and\n\nmy admiration too great to admit of commendation from me.\n\nOne of the consequences of an honest administration of the school business\nhas been a substantial increase in the amount of money available for new build-\n\nA saving of three or four hundred thousand dollars a year out of jobbery\nand corruption has certainly been made; and an intimation from the board of\neducation, backed by the Commercial Club of St. Louis, resulted in an amendment to the state constitution which has increased the available school\nrevenues by nearly seven hundred thousand dollars annually. This money is\nings.\n\nrapidly going into the best school buildings which can be constructed.\n\nThe absence of district representation has been most beneficial.\n\nThe edu-\n\ncational needs of the city can be handled as a whole, without regard to local\n\nprejudices and demands.\n\nThe ward worker has not been present, with his\n\nfalsely pretentious claims for the improvement of his district; and no substantial complaint has been\n\nmade by the people of any part of the city of unfairness\n\nin the placing of new schools.\n\nThe law and its administration have been most satisfactory and receive\nunstinted public approval.\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nA NONPARTISAN SCHOOL LAW\n\n229\n\nEight years is a short time within which to change the whole school aspect\nof a city of six or seven hundred thousand people; but that has been done in\nSt. Louis.\n\nwe must, of course, see primarily the integrity and\nBut the board members became available\nby the nonpartisan declarations of the law; and the independence of the ofhcers\nwas made possible by the frame of the charter. Now, for 'independence' read\n\"expert abihty,\" given its opportunity to do unhampered work; and for \"nonIf we look for causes,\n\nindependence of the men in charge.\n\n*\n\npartisanship\" read\n\n\"common honesty.\"\n\n'\n\nThis is the gist of the situation.\n\nThere is something radically wrong with the public conscience when it can\nhear patiently breaches of public trust called by the name of \"party loyalty,\"\nI\n\nam addressing the right body of men to\n\nlook to for a cure in that respect.\n\nIn the daily press men of like poHtical\n\nand stealing called \"poUtics.\"\nfaith are praised and flattered.\n\ndemned and beaten down.\n\nMen of the opposite party are too often conThe wrong is paUiated and excused, if it is\n\nis depreciated and minimized, if it\nBut the men and women who have the education\nand guidance of the children in the schools can and ought to inculcate a\njuster standard.\nThe youth of the land ought to be taught that no office\nis filled unless it is filled unselfishly and honorably; that no politics is worth\nanything unless it is honest; that party loyalty is a disgrace if it means the\ntheft of public money and the debauchery of the public service.\nMy experience with the St. Louis law and its operation leads me to beheve\nthat the best results can be obtained in all municipal affairs by clothing\nmen with ample power, fully commensurate with the purposes of their ofl&ces,\nand holding them to full responsibility for the results to be obtained. The\nless machinery provided in this respect, within reasonable limits, the better\nit will be.\nThere is nothing which a corrupt body of men, intent upon\nmaking pubhc affairs a means for personal ends, more thoroly desires than\na comphcation of law which hides the responsibility. Bureaucracy and\nred-tape are the meat upon which corruption feeds.\nThe system of checks and balances which has been so long vaunted as the\nprotection afforded the people under the rule of democracy often fails of its\npurpose. This happens when it serves to restrain an officer in the exercise\n\nchargeable to our side, and the right\n\ncomes from the other side.\n\nYou\nmay remember the incident which is told of the Russian system of govern-\n\nof his legitimate functions, or to obscure the real nature of his actions.\n\nment, where it is said that, upon a wager, the Lord's Prayer, in writing, was\n\npushed thru all the departments and received the official approval of the government as a document of state, without any person having stopped to read\n\nwhat was written.\n\nUnder such a system no one is held\n\nresponsible, since\n\neach official act has its prior justification.\nI venture to predict that in the march of events the over-legislative process\n\nwhich has been going on so extensively for many years will be followed by\nforms of government greatly simplified and plain enough to read.\n\nThe next\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n230\n\n[Milwaukee\n\ncharter of Greater New York may be nearer a dozen pages in length than\n\nthe five hundred and sixty which it now covers.\n\nI go so far in this respect\n\nas to deprecate very seriously the lengthening of constitutions of the state\n\ngovernments, which are incorporating into their provisions so\n\nmany legal\n\ndetails affecting the affairs of the people that constitutional conventions become\nIt would be better for the organic\n\nas necessary as sessions of the legislature.\n\nlaw to be confined practically to the\n\nof rights\n\nbill\n\nand adequate provisions\n\nfor honest elections.\nIt is\n\na radical mistake to frame the laws for administration by bad, or\n\neven indifferent, men.\n\nThat this has been done largely accounts for the fact\n\nthat the people have been willing to elect bad and indifferent men to office.\nIt would be better to suffer for\n\na time from the faults of tyrannical officials\n\nmuch\nThe severity of the experience would inevitably result in resort\n\nclothed with extensive powers, than to clog public affairs with too\n\nmachinery.\nto the\n\none ultimate necessity of a republican form of government, the\n\ntion of honest and competent officials.\n\nNecessity is a great teacher.\n\nmuch impressed recently, upon a visit to Texas, to\nAmerican people responded to a severe experience.\n\nsee\n\nelec-\n\nI was\n\nhow one body of\n\nAfter its great flood in\n\n1900, the people of Galveston found themselves in a situation which did\n\nAt the time in question the city's\nwas subject to the usual troubles\nin municipal affairs.\nBut the luxury of bad government would not be\nafforded thereafter. The affairs of the city were intrusted to a committee\nof citizens which gave its services devotedly to the interests of the city.\nNotwithstanding the immense loss of property, $17,000,000, and of lives,\n6,000, necessary abandonment of portions of the city, the exodus of people,\nthe loss of business, and the urgent necessity of protecting the city from\nnot admit of\n\ntrifling\n\ncredit was not\n\nwith public funds.\n\nparticularly good, and\n\nit\n\n.\n\nthe inroads of the sea by the construction of a sea wall\n\nand the raising of\n\nthe level of the city itself as an entirety, the people of Galveston, I was told\n\non my visit in November last, had all of\n\nits\n\nbills paid,\n\nthe treasury, and an absolute credit for anything\n\na large surplus in\n\nthat they want.\n\nSuch a\n\nresult almost makes us pray for calamity.\n\nReverting to\n\nmy subject, it may readily be conceded that the St. Louis\n\nIf a new school law for a large city were to be prepared,\nwould be best to eliminate from the form of the St. Louis law many of\nits detailed provisions which are not quite consistent with its theory, and\nwhich hamper rather than increase the value of its main purpose. There\n\nlaw is not perfect.\n\nit\n\nshould be incorporated into the organic law some of the matters which now\nrest solely in the rules of the board; particularly the provisions which qualify\n\nmembers and make their positions valueless for\nThere should be emphasized, in the draft of such a law,\nstill more strongly the power to be given to the administrative officers.\nWithin the limits of appropriations to be made by the board, there should\n\nthe initiative of individual\npolitical objects.\n\nbe left to them more completely than now appears in\n\nthis law the responsi-\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\nbility for policies, as well as for administration.\n\nmen could be developed.\n\n231\n\nUnder such a system great\n\nA railroad president of the highest rank who has\n\nattained a leading position while still quite young in years, said to me a short\n\ntime ago that no one knows what a man can do until he is given the opportunity.\n\nIt\n\nwas the principle upon which\n\nhis success\n\nhad been attained.\n\nPromising men were placed in positions of responsibility and let alone to see\n\nwhat they could do.\nof\n\nNo system for the administration of business affairs or\n\npubhc affairs is well devised which makes automatons of its officers or\n\nemployees.\n\nA soldier is a\n\nThis fact has been discovered even in warfare.\n\nbetter soldier for knowing what he is about, and for being intrusted with the\n\ndirection of all that is beneath him.\nI\n\nhave heard John\n\nFiske say, with his usual clearness of mind and expression:\n\n\"The power of\nThe scien-\n\nBut you are quite at Hberty to reject these theories.\n\ngeneralization is an excellent servant, but a very bad master.\"\ntific\n\nway is to take the facts and to make deductions, when the accumulation\n\nin that respect is sufficient to justify a hypothesis.\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS AS RELATED TO THE REORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\nF.\n\nLOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST.\nLOUIS, MO.\n\nDuring the last decade changes in the laws controlling city school adminhave been made which\n\nistration\n\ndiffer\n\nfrom previous methods in several\n\nrespects.\n\nThe following are some general features of the new charters\n1.\n\n2.\n\n3.\n\nThey aim at the elimination of political influences.\nThey propose to give more scope to the educational expert.\nThey attempt to locate definitely the responsibility for mismanagement.\n\nA widely spread dissatisfaction with the administration of school affairs\nwas the chief reason for the new charters. In not a few cities boards of education contained elements whose apparent purpose in serving was individual\ngain or the promotion of private interests.\n\nPersons connected with some\n\nbuilding trade, or engaged in certain kinds of business that made the patron-\n\nage of teachers a source of profit, sought places on the school board, while it\n\nbecame at times difficult to get the prosperous business or professional men to\nto serve.\n\nThe erection of new school buildings and the repairs presented opportunities for\n\nimproper profit which were not always neglected.\n\nIn the appoint-\n\nment of teachers, political or social influence made itself strongly felt.\n\nThere\nwas little possibility of rescuing the children from the hands of an incompetent\n\nteacher, when the latter happened to have influential friends.\n\nIn the appoint-\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n232\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nment of janitors, political considerations were pre-eminent, and the lower class\nof ward politican found a refuge and sinecure in the janitorship of some public\n\nschool.\n\nWhile these evils were by no means universal, they were common enough to\nconstitute a general danger, and to invite the best elements in the cities affected\n\nby this disease to find a cure. To these conditions the new laws owe their\nThey were to furnish the remedy for existing evils.\n\nexistence.\n\nThe boards created under the new laws are in some places appointed by the\nWhere the mayorality\n\nmayor; in other places they are elected by the voters.\nis occupied by a\n\nworthy man, the school board is, as a rule, well chosen, and\n\nthe many contingencies of proper selection and nomination which the direct\nelection by the people involves are avoided.\n\nHowever, where the mayor him-\n\nself is an unfortunate choice, or where he is under strong party bias, his appoint-\n\nments are likely to be poor and objectionable.\n\nThe character of the whole\n\nschool board depends on the contingency of the qualifications of one man.\n\nthe\nis\n\nWhere the school board is elected by the voters of the city, the tendency of\nnew laws is to free the nominations from political partisanship. This\n\noften brought about\n\nby a tacit understanding between the two leading\n\nparties to have an equal representation.\n\nInstead of the old system of ward representation, the new charters favor\nthe election of a ticket at large, because experience has shown that it is easier to\n\nmake good nominations if the candidates can be selected from the whole city,\nregardless of their residence in one ward or another.\n\nEach man elected on a\n\nticket at large feels that he is the representative of every school interest in the\n\nwhole city, instead of thinking of his ward as the center and limit of his duties\n\nand efforts.\nAnother direction in which the new charters attempt to bring about a\nchange\n\nrelates to the functions of school boards.\n\nIn every large\n\ncity the\n\nadministration of school affairs is a business of extensive, technical, and labori-\n\nous character.\n\nIt requires special information, skill, experience,\n\nemphatically, time.\n\nand disinterestedly.\n\nand, very\n\nAs a rule, members of school boards serve gratuitously\nThe new charters have not adopted the proposition, so\n\noften discussed, to make these positions salaried ones, because salaried positions would be likely to attract persons who are in poUtics for a living,\n\nand\n\nwould probably repel the class of persons who are willing to serve because of\nBut the new charters have lightened and\nthe honor of such service.\nadjusted the duties of the school board so as to make it possible for an energetic business man or professional man to serve without an undue tax on his time.\n\nAnother proposition which has been advanced is to intrust the management of public schools in large cities to a commission of five or seven men who\ndevote their whole time to this work and receive liberal compensation for their\nservices.\nThis body was to be composed of experts in the various lines which\nare covered by the pubhc schools. The commission was therefore to include\nan educator, an architect, an engineer, an attorney, and a business man.\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\n233\n\nWhile such an organization would place the administration into the hands\nof experts, it would separate it too much from the direct influence of the com-\n\nmunity, and would lessen the touch between the school administration and the\n\nMoreover, such a board, with the salaries and patronage controlled\n\npeople.\n\nby it, would inevitably become the prey of poUticians. The slowly accumulating skill and experience of one set of officers would be wasted by the periodic changes which are characteristic of all political offices.\nIf,\n\ntherefore, a board of education, appointed by the mayor, or elected\n\nby\n\nthe people, is the proper body for the administration of the public schools in\n\na large city, what shall be its function, and how can its work be so constituted as to\n\nmake it possible for the pubHc-spirited business or professional\n\nman to serve without giving to this gratuitous work an undue share of his time ?\nThe new charters answer these questions by making the functions of the\nschool board legislative, administrative, and supervisory, while they assign the\n\nlaborious executive duties to salaried chiefs of departments, whom they invest\n\nwith large and independent powers, so that they can be held responsible for the\n\nconduct of their respective departments.\n\nThe board controls the revenues and\n\nthe annual appropriations which Umit the expenditure for each hne of service;\n\nit\n\nelects\n\nthe officers and controls their action\n\nby rules; it approves or\n\nrejects the appointment of teachers, the recommendations for text-books and\n\nsupplies;\n\nit decides\n\nwhat schoolhouses shall be built and repaired.\n\ninitiative in these actions and the\n\nBut the\n\nconduct of the daily business, it leaves in\n\nthe hands of the experts whom it employs.\n\nThe gentlemen who have preceded in this discussion have dwelt on the\nYork and St. Louis, respectively. Leaving the discussion\n\ncharters of New\n\nof the general features, I desire to present a few additional details in the prac-\n\nworking oi the new charter in St. Louis.\n\ntical\n\nNew school sites are selected and recommended to the board by a committee of\n\n1.\n\ncomposed of the superintendent, the architect, and the treasurer.\nTeachers are nominated by the superintendent and appointed by the board.\n(The appointment of teachers and the marking of their standing by the principals will\nbe fully discussed by Mr. Ben Blewett, assistant superintendent, in the afternoon meeting,\nofl5cers\n2.\n\nand, in order to avoid repetition, a further treatment of this topic is here omitted.)\n3.\n\nThe superintendent has power to arrange the course of study, subject to the\nIn actual fact, the present course of study was worked out in\nby the grade teachers and principals of the city, who met n committees for this\n\napproval of the board.\ndetail\n\npurpose.\n4.\n\nThe charter prescribes that the initiative in selecting text-books is in the hands\n\nHe recommends, and the board confirms or rejects. A sweeping\nchange was made in the books eight years ago, after a thousand opinions from the teachers\nhad been solicited and received.\n\nof the superintendent.\n\nThe charter requires that the\n5. Contracts for supplies are awarded once a year.\nawards for all educational supplies be made on recommendation of the superintendent.\nIn practice, the selection of the proper supplies, pens, and pen-points, crayons and slates,\npaper and pencils, is left to the workers who are to use them every day. The workman\nselects his own tool.\n\nCommittees of principals and teachers are formed who test the samples\n\nof the various bidders and report their recommendations to the superintendents\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n234\n6.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThe charter gives to the superintendent the right to appoint his own clerical force,\nThe board decides the number of clerks and their salaries.\n\nwithout further confirmation.\n\nThese details show the underlying principle of the new law: The administration of the schools is intrusted to pedagogical and technical experts, under\n\nthe supervision of the representatives of the people.\n\nIt\n\nmay be said that in the\n\nnew charters the teaching profession is on trial, as far as its abiUty is concerned,\nto take an important share in the government and administration of public-\n\nschool systems.\n\nIn St. Louis a new charter has been in force for eight years, and it must be\n\njudged not only by the apparent reasonableness of its provisions, but by what\nit has actually accomplished.\n\nIt must be known by its fruit.\n\nIf the following conclusion of this paper recites briefly what\n\nhas actually\n\nbeen accomplished in the public-school management in St. Louis during that\nperiod, I beg to disclaim any spirit of boastfulness.\n\nmuch or more.\n\nOther cities have done as\nBut it is necessary for my argument to show that the practical\n\nworking of an ideal law has led to material results.\n\nUnder the new charter the whole system of schools in St. Louis has been\nAn absolutely new type of school building, fire-proof and two\n\nreorganized.\n\nstories high, has been devised.\n\nThe new school plan embodies the best pro-\n\nvisions for heating and ventilation.\n\nBuildings of this kind have been erected\n\nin every part of the city, and antiquated buildings are being gradually replaced\n\nby them. The new sites purchased are located by experts, and a whole block\nIn the most recent\nof ground is not considered too large for a school site.\nbuildings, gymnasiums and shower-baths are provided.\n\nA new course of study, made by the co-operation of the whole teaching\nforce of the city, has been adopted.\n\nAn entirely new set of text-books has been\n\nintroduced, selected by teachers and superintendent with no other consideration than the merits of the books.\n\nA library of supplementary reading, in sets of no less than twenty-five to\nthirty books of each title, has been gradually placed into each school building,\n\namounting to no less than 140,000 volumes at present.\n\nTwo large high schools, each costing about $500,000, have been erected in\nEach of these schools has the usual literary and scienmodern high schools, and, in addition thereto, a fully equipped manual-training department for boys, including bench- and lathe-work,\nFor the girls there is a domestic-science departforge- and machine-work.\nment, including artistic needle-work, dressmaking and fitting, millinery work,\nand art- work in leather, wood, and metal the lessons in cooking are connected\nwith the study of the hygiene of the home, and the chemistry and physiology of\nthe last three years.\ntific equipment of\n\n;\n\nfood.\n\nOver fifty new high-school teachers have been appointed in the last two\nselection being made with no other consideration than that of\n\nyears, the\nefficiency.\n\nThe service of the colored schools of St. Louis has been entirely recon-\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nstructed.\nschools.\n\nCHARTER PROVISIONS OF SCHOOL SYSTEMS\n\n235\n\nTheir standard of scholarship is now equal to that of the white\nThe corps of teachers in the colored high school has been practically-\n\nrenewed in order to obtain the most efficient service.\n\nA fully equipped manual-\n\ntraining department has been added to it.\n\nManual training and domestic science have been introduced\n\ninto the\n\nNo boy leaves the schools\nwithout having had some training in the use of the ordinary tools. No girl\ndistrict school\n\ncourse of\n\nall\n\nthe\n\ncity\n\nschools.\n\nleaves the higher grades without having had instruction in the household arts\n\nand household knowledge.\n\nThe evil of early withdrawal of children from school has, in a measure, been\nThe attendance in the higher grades has increased. The enroll-\n\nchecked.\n\nment in the high schools has doubled in five years, from 1,500 in 1900 to 3,500\ntoday.\n\nTeachers' salaries, while still low, have been raised.\n\nIn case of the ordi-\n\nnary grade teacher, the increase amounts to 25 per cent.\n\nThe increase of the\n\nprincipals' salaries, in first-class schools, amounts to about 20 per cent.\n\nThe text-books in all grades, including the high school, are furnished to the\nchildren at public expense.\n\nSo is all stationery used in school.\n\nIn the teaching force inefficiency is being steadily eliminated; but the\nteacher feels absolutely safe that her continuance in office depends on no\none's favor, but on her own efficiency.\n\nvated in value and dignity.\nis of\n\nThe principal's position has been ele-\n\nEvery teacher feels that his opinion of her efficiency\n\nimportance, and that his suggestions are heeded.\n\nIn the daily teaching a spirit of greater freedom prevails.\n\nSupervision no\n\nlonger tests results only, but appreciates the methods of the teacher, and her\nefforts at self-culture and progress.\n\nThere has been a strong awakening of the pedagogical spirit. There are\nnumerous grade meetings, at which attendance is voluntary; no record of\nattendance is kept.\n\nIt is rare for such meetings not to draw a full quota.\n\nfirst principals' meeting,\n\ncalled\n\nThe\n\nby the superintendent at the beginning of this\n\nyear, which was open to all, was attended by 1,200 teachers.\n\nThe pedagogical\n\nSociety of St. Louis, which is a voluntary organization for self-improvement\n\nand professional study, and which meets every second Saturday in each\nmonth, enrolls over 1,500 members.\nThe spirit of the whole teaching\nfraternity is loyal and thoroly harmonious.\n\nThe conduct of the business of the board under the new law has been\nThe board exercises its controlling power constantly, and\n\nfree from friction.\n\nscrutinizes every officer's action with great care.\n\nIt uses freely its supreme\npower to decide the policy of the schools and to regulate it by legislation. But,\n\nat the same time, it encourages the chief officers to use their own independent\n\njudgment in the conduct of pubUc business, within the Hmitations of its rules.\nI do not know of any friction between the board, or members of the board,\nand its officers. The actual condition is in full harmony with the spirit of the\n\nnew law.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n236\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nROUND TABLES\nROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\nHIGH SCHOOL PRIVILEGES FOR COUNTRY PUPILS\nC. p. CARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS.\n\nThat it is desirable for the country boy and girl to have educational privileges equal\nand girls may be taken for granted. The intelligent people\nof our country and this means the vast majority of our citizens are no longer satisfied,\nif indeed they were ever satisfied, with the mere rudiments of an education such as is comprised in the common-school curriculum. The education of the country boy and girl is\na matter in which all are vitally and zealously concerned. It is a truism that country\npupils should have every possible facility and encouragement to develop thru secondary\nand higher education in all their latent possibilities. Such facilities and encouragements\nmany of them do not now have. It is the business of all persons of influence in the molding of afifairs of this sort to do all in their power at this time to place the country pupil\nand the secondary school in the closest possible proximity. Our problem is one of ways\nand means.\nWithin the past few years numerous attempts have been made to bring the high\nschool within reach of the country child. In some states county high schools have\nbeen established; in others township high schools have been encouraged; and in still\nto those offered city boys\n\n—\n\n—\n\nothers district high schools, all looking toward the training of the country child.\n\nThe\n\ncounty high school has received more attention in Kansas than in any other state, and,\nas I am informed, the results have been satisfactory.\n\nThere are some reasons, however,\n\nwhy a high school established with the county as the unit should not be popular.\nThe location of the school would naturally be at some central point, and it will readily\nappear that if the county is of average extent, the school would in many cases be so\nremote from the homes of the inhabitants that the expense of attendance would probably\nequal, if not exceed, the expense necessarily incurred in attending some normal school,\nor other educational institution, offering equal or superior advantages.\n\nThe burden of\n\nsustaining a county high school must, of course, be borne by the taxpayers, a very large\n\nmajority of\n\nwhom are in no position advantageously to avail themselves of the oppor-\n\ntunities offered by the school.\n\nThe remoteness of the homes of the patrons would cer-\n\ntainly have a marked deterrent effect upon the attendance.\n\nThe township high school is better in respect to the matter of facilities for attendance,\nbecause the territory from which the attendance is drawn is much more limited.\n\nOn the\n\nother hand, the equipment of the school for eflficient work is likely to be somewhat inferior,\nfor the reason that the support of the school depends upon a comparatively small area\n\nand consequently the burden falls with greater weight upon the taxpayers. This is not\nan argument against township high schools. It is simply the limitation which is found\nin the less thickly settled townships, where no city or village is at hand to assist in its maintenance. The town or township is a convenient unit for high-school purposes, and such\nschools should be encouraged in all sections of the country remote from good high schools.\nIn this round-table discussion I shall discuss Wisconsin conditions only, leaving to\nWisconsin has\n\nother superintendents the discussion of conditions in their own states.\n\nbeen liberal in the encouragement of free high schools. Thirty years ago special state\naid was provided for, to be paid annually to such schools, in amounts not to exceed $500\nIn 1885 the legislature made provisions for township free high schools\nto any one school.\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nsupported by districts comprising all the territory in a town.\n\n237\n\nThe legislative act provided\n\na separate fund of $25,000 as special state aid; and also provided that one-half the amount\n\nexpended for instruction in these township free high schools should be paid to such school\ndistrict each year.\nIt was supposed that this would stimulate the organization of free\nhigh schools of this class.\n\nThe result was that a very large part of the special aid for\n\nthe township free high schools remained uncalled for in the state treasury.\n\nLater on the\nunexpended balance of this fund should be placed in the\ndistrict free high-school fund.\nThis largely increased the apportionment to each district\n•\n\nlegislature provided that the\n\nfree high school organized at that time.\n\nThe total number of free high schools in the state at the present time is 248, of which\nThe nimiber\n\n232 have adopted, and are now maintaining, four-year courses of study.\n\nof three-year free high schools in the state is rapidly diminishing; that is to say, they are\n\ndeveloping into four-year schools.\n\nThere are now but sixteen three-year-course high\n\nschools, whereas there were thirty-two in operation during the year ending June 30, 1904.\n\nThere are also fifteen schools known as independent high schools.\nout exception offer strong four-year courses of study.\nthe larger\n\ncities,\n\nMilwaukee alone having four.\n\nThese schools with-\n\nThey are located principally in\n\nIt is evident that the greater the\n\nnum\n\n-\n\nber of high schools, the more accessible they become for the rural population, provided\n\nattendance is duly encouraged.\nI now come to the consideration of a law that has within the past few years worked\n\nvery beneficial results in Wisconsin.\n\nThis law has for its title \"An Act relating to encour-\n\naging attendance upon free high schools by residents of towns and villages having no free\nhigh schools, and prescribing the conditions entitling persons to attend.\"\n\nThis is com-\n\nmonly known as the high-school tuition law, and reads as follows:\nThe free high-school board of any free high-school district organized under the laws of this state shall\nadmit to the high school under its control, whenever the facilities for seating and instruction will warrant, any\nperson of school age prepared to enter such school, who may reside in any town or incorporated village, but\nnot within a free high-school district, and who shall have completed the course of study in the school district\nin which he resides or one equivalent thereto.\n\nProvision is made in another section of the statute for the payment of tuition by the\ntown in which the pupil resides, the maximum rate being fixed at fifty cents per week.\n\nThe free high-school district may charge a higher tuition than fifty cents per week, but\nthe town in which the pupil resides\n\nis\n\nunder no obligation to pay more than the rate\n\nThis law is proving exceedingly stimulating and valuable in the\nThe average annual increase\ndirection of bringing high-school privileges to country pupils.\nof attendance of rural pupils at high schools prior to the passage of this law was about\ntwo hundred (the total attendance at high schools of country pupils was about 3,500),\nbut the annual increase since the law went into operation is about five hundred, or two\nfixed in the statute.\n\nBased on the actual attendance, the increase for the past\nThis increased attendance means more of a\nforward movement in the matter of high-school education than appears on its face. It\nis well known that whenever a member of any family, or for that matter of any community,\ntakes work in advance of the common-school course, other members of the family or community are stimulated thereby in the same direction. The free high schools are in this\nway extending their sphere of influence in every community that is within reach of a high\n\nand one-half times as great.\n\nthree years has been 1,334, or 37 per cent.\n\nschool; and with 248 free high schools in the state, high-school privileges are convenient\nto a very large percentage of the school population.\n\nAgain, high -school graduates are in Wisconsin quite largely drawn upon, in counties\n\nwhere county training schools do not exist, to fill positions as teachers in rural schools.\nThis means a large improvement over the \"home product\" of past years in the preparation and ability of those placed in charge of the common schools, with a consequent\nstimulus to pupils and encouragement for them to take high-school courses.\nThe number of graduates from all free high schools in the state for the year ending\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n238\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nJune 30, 1903, was 2,441, and of this number 1,103 are reported as having taught in the\npublic schools for the year ending June 30, 1904.\nA few quotations from letters received from high-school principals and county superintendents will show how the free high-school tuition law is regarded by those who are in\n\nA city superintendent writes thus: \"The attendance in this high-\n\na position to judge.\n\nschool [from the country] has nearly doubled in the past three years because of this law.\n\nThus the poorest country pupils may have the advantage of a high-school education.\"\n\"The results of the law is that the attendance has been doubled and is\nrapidly increasing now, and the county superintendent tells me that a larger number of\nAnother writes:\n\npupils finish the common-school course, their ambition being to attend the high school.\"\nIt is needless to multiply examples.\n\nThey are numerous.\n\nHigh-school principals, with\n\nrare exceptions, report an increased attendance of country pupils of from 20 to 100 per cent,\n\nCounty superintendents report that in the country schools there\nI shall quote the words of two or three\n\"The effect upon rural\nof these officers. The superintendent of Dane county writes:\nschools has been excellent.\" The superintendent of Sheboygan county writes: \"This\nlaw seems to have created a new incentive for the young people to complete the common\nschool course, and secure the common -school diploma.\" Candor compels me to state that\na few superintendents do not find the law so satisfactory. One writes: \"The attendance of non-resident pupils has not increased to any great extent, if at all, because of the\nlaw. Parents bring pressure to bear upon teachers to graduate pupils, even if they are\nweak, because the children wish to attend high school.\" This last statement, however,\nreveals the fact that there is a powerful incentive at work, and that it draws pupils toward\nin the past three years.\n\nis an increased attendance and more interest shown.\n\nthe high-school course.\nI desire to say a few words, parenthetically, bearing\n\nupon the desirability of modify-\n\ning the high-school courses in a measure to adapt them to the needs of country boys and\ngirls.\n\nThere should be, it seems to me, courses of study, which country boys and girls may\n\nat least elect, which will look toward the farm and farm life,rather than professional life.\n\nWe do not want to make it necessary for a young man to go into the profession of law,\nfor example, in order to get the practical benefits of his high-school education.\n\nHe ought\n\nto be able to get the practical benefit of his four years* work in school when he turns his\n\nattention to farming.\n\nWe have in Wisconsin two kinds of schools that, in some measure at\n\nleast, take the place of\n\ncounty high schools, tho their purpose is different from that of the\n\nhigh school and the courses of study are shorter.\n\nI refer to the county agricultural school\n\nhaving a two-year course, and the county training school for teachers with a one-year\nThe agricultural school, especially, may in a few years develop into the equivacourse.\nlent of a high school, with large emphasis on the science and art of agriculture.\n\ntraining school for teachers\n\nThe county\n\n—and there are seven of them in active operation and well\n\n—\n\nprovides especially for training in methods of instruction in rural\nAs a rule, the students in these schools are of somewhat matvire age, and some of\nthem have already had experience as teachers. It is not probable that these training\nschools will,for years to come, if at any time,take upon themselves high-school responsibilities, altho review and advanced work in academic branches is necessary, and thus the\neducation of those who attend is extended and strengthened.\n\nattended at this time\n\nschools.\n\nSTATE GRADED SCHOOLS\n\nOne of the results of the agitation for better conditions of the rural schools is the state\ngraded school.\n\nIn the year 1900 a committee that had been previously appointed by the\n\nState Teachers' Association recommended, first, that the system of direct aid to high schools\n\nbe extended to graded schools not connected with high schools; second, that state inspection be provided for supervision and perfection of organization of these schools, to the end\n\nthat they may become, in every sense of the word, higher rural schools, and thus bring\n\nequally to rural districts a realization of higher ideals.\n\nLater this suggestion was framed\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\ninto a bill, and in 1901 the bill became a law.\n\n239\n\nUnder this law, $60,000 annually is granted\n\nas state aid to state graded schools.\n\nIn order that the schools may receive state aid, the following requirements must be\nmet:\nFirst, the school must be maintained at least nine months during the year, and the average daily attendance\nmust not be less than fifteen pupils for the entire school year, in two departments, in schools of the second class,\nand in at least three departments in schools of the first class.\nSecond, the teachers employed must be competent. The principal of a state graded school of the first\nclass must hold some form of state certificate.\nOne assistant may hold a third-grade certificate, one a second\ngrade, and the other assistants first-grade or state certificates. In the state graded schools of the second class\nthe principal must hold a first-grade certificate, or a state certificate of some form. When third-grade teachers\n\nare employed, one year's experience in teaching is required.\n\nThird, the schoolhouse, grounds, and accessories shall be ample, and free from unsanitary features, and\nthe furniture and equipment shall be adequate for meeting the needs of the school.\n\nCountry schools of one department have been stimulated to organize state graded\nGraded schools of two departments have pushed on and organized schools of three or more departments.\nThe larger graded schools have organized\n\nschools of two departments.\n\nhigh schools.\n\nThruout the state these schools are being equipped with all necessary apparatus. In\nThe work has been\norganized and graded in conformity to the state course of study. Better teachers have\nbeen procured at higher salaries. Sanitary conditions of school buildings and outbuildings have been greatly improved, and the general tendancy in these schools has been\ntoward a steady advancement.\n\nmany instances systems of heating and ventilating are being put in.\n\nThe course at the present time correlates well with the high-school course.\n\nThoro-\n\nness in the common branches, followed by systematic study of the higher branches in the\nlarger schools, has been a wonderful incentive to the smaller schools to add to their teach-\n\ning forces in order to carry advanced work, and to the larger schools to push on and\nestablish high schools.\n\nI attribute it to the results of the work accomplished in the graded\n\nschools that more high schools have been established within the last two years than any\n\nequal length of time in the history of the state.\n\nThe marked increase in the number of state graded schools, the increased efficiency\nand growth of each individual school, together with the estabhshment of such schools in\nremote farming sections, supplementing the large one-room school, and causing in other\ninstances two or more schools to unite to form a state graded school, verifies the statement\nthat no educational law passed in recent years has done more to advance the cause of\neducation than the state graded school law of 1901.\nTo restate briefly, in slightly modified form, what I have already said, the laws in\nour state give every facility for organizing high schools. Almost any group of people,\nregardless of district boundaries,\n\nmay decide to organize as a free high-school district.\n\nThe only conditions for securing state aid are that they must have within the district\ntwenty-five or more pupils prepared to take up the high-school work, as determined by\n\nthe examination given under the direction of the state superintendent, and must organize\n\nand conduct the school according to statutory enactment.\n\nThe demand for high-school\n\nprivileges is rapidly growing, and every year finds the interest in and demand for secondary\n\nThe county high school has not made\nany headway in Wisconsin, and probably will not do so, because of the fact that in nearly\n\neducation spreading to the more remote districts.\n\nevery community there are already convenient high schools that serve the purpose.\nship high schools exist in about a dozen places in the state.\n\nTown-\n\nMany more would doubtless\n\nbe desirable, but the idea has not thus far met with a hearty response from the people.\n\nThe reason for this is that in most of the townships of the state there are villages and\nsmall cities as centers of population.\n\nThese are frequently located at one edge or one\n\ncorner of the township, and consequently there are many inhabitants situated so far from\nthe high-school building that it would be necessary, in case of attendance of their children\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n240\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nto make arrangements for board and lodging.\n\nThey often claim that they may as well\nmake arrangements for attendance at high schools in the district, or for attendance upon\nsome of the state normal schools. Upon the whole, the best thing we have found for\nextending high-school privileges, and for stimulating country pupils to remain in school\nuntil they have completed the common-school course, and then moving on to the secondary\n\nschools, is the law requiring the township in which the pupil resides to pay the tuition at\n\nthe high school.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INTERSTATE RECOGNITION OF\nHIGH GRADE TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES\nTo the Members of the Round Table of State and County Superintendents:\nA meeting of the committee, appointed by this Round Table at Atlanta, in February,\n1904, to consider the \"interstate recognition of high-grade teachers' certificates,\"\n\nand to\n\nreport at the next meeting, was held in the Palmer House, Chicago, 111., December 14 and\n15, 1904.\n\nThe following members were present: State Superintendents G. W. Nash, of South\nDakota; W. T. Carrington, of Missouri; C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, and E.A.Jones, of\nOhio. Superintendent W. W. Stetson, of Maine, was unable to attend. Superintendent\nNash, chairman of the committee, presided, and Superintendent Jones was appointed\nsecretary.\n\nThe chairman presented the results of his correspondence with the educational departments of the different states. From the letters read it appeared that, while many of the\ncertificating authorities were in favor of a limited recognition of certificates from other\nstates, they had no legal authority, under present statutes, for such action.\nAfter much informal discussion, it was unanimously decided to recommend:\n1. That such legislation be secured as will authorize state departments of education\nto indorse and validate state certificates of high grade issued by departments of education\nin other states.\n2.\n\nThat a certificate be so recognized which has been issued under the direction of\n\nthe state department upon the following conditions:\n\nOn examination in reading; orthography; penmanship; arithmetic; grammar; composition; pohtical\n\nand commercial geography; United States history; civics; physiology;\n\nelementary algebra; physical geography; scientific agriculture; literature; pedagogy (including principles of method, management,\n\npsychology, and history of education); any\ntwo of ancient history, mediaeval and modern history, English history, advanced American\nhistory; any one of botany, zoology, geology; any one of physics, chemistry, astronomy;\neither geometry or advanced algebra; and any one of rhetoric and advanced English literature, Latin,\n\nGreek, German, or French.\n\nIn addition to the foregoing, an applicant for such certificate shall pass an examination in some academic or professional subject in which he has specialized, and one other\nallied subject, the two taken together being an equivalent of the last two years of under-\n\ngraduate work in the chosen subjects in a college of high rank.\nProvided, that a diploma from any approved college having a course of study in which\nat least four years'\n\nwork above an approved four-year high-school course is required,\n\nmay be accepted in lieu of an examination in the subjects named, if the applicant has in\nhis college course pursued pedagogical studies for at least two years.\n\nIn case the holder\n\nof such diploma has not taken the required work in pedagogy, the deficiency may be made\n\ngood by examination.\nProvided, further, that a diploma from any state normal school having a course of\n\nstudy in which at least two years' work above an approved four-year high-school course\nis required\n\nmay be accepted in lieu of an examination in the subjects named.\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n241\n\nThose who apply for such certificate by examination shall submit evidence of at least\nforty months' successful experience in teaching.\n\nApplicants who present diplomas shall\n\nafter graduation teach for at least two years on a provisional certificate before being entitled\nto the permanent certificate.\n\nG. W. Nash, of South Dakota, Chairman;\nE. A. Jones, of Ohio;\n\nW. T. Carrington, of Missouri;\nC. P. Gary, of Wisconsin;\n\nCommittee.\n\nROUND TABLE OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\nCONDUCTED BY F. B. DYER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, O.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nTHE MERIT SYSTEM OF APPOINTING AND PROMOTING\nTEACHERS\n\nI.\n\nThe advisability of a merit system of appointing teachers, and the difficulties in the way.\n\nMethods of ascertaining fitness of candidates, and of rating them for appointment.\nMethods of promoting teachers on merit. Should there be promotion by grades ?\nIV. The influence of promotional examinations, and of other methods of promotion based upon efficiency\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nand scholastic advancement.\n\nTHE MERIT SYSTEM IN ST. LOUIS\nBEN BLEWETT, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nIt seems quite impossible that one should now seriously raise the question whether\nany criterion but merit should determine the appointment and promotion of teachers.\nIt seems axiomatic that, if a teacher is to be chosen for the training of children, the mos\n\ncapable and the best-trained persons that could be obtained for the money available should\n\nbe employed.\n\nThe importance of the interests involved would suggest this as the only\n\nlogical procedure,\nall\n\nand this is the procedure that wise men follow in the administration of\n\nbusiness enterprises.\n\nA teacher should be selected because of her peculiar fitness for\n\nthe work to be done, and for no other reason.\n\nFitness determined by competent authority.\n\n—What constitutes\n\nthis pecuhar fitness is\n\na complex question, which can be properly answered only by competent and responsible\njudges.\n\nThose who are to make the selection should, thru professional training and an\n\nextended experience, know the essential qualifications of a skillful teacher and the require-\n\nment of the particular work to be done.\n\nThey should, further, be held responsible for\n\ntheir selections, that errors if made, may be traced to the source and the responsible party\n\nbe made to bear the biurden of his mistakes.\n\nIf the superintendent, to\n\nwhom is intrusted\n\nthe direction of the schools, is not to have the power of nominating all teachers, how can\n\nhe be held responsible for results ?\n\nOn the other hand, if this power is given him and\n\nhis selection proves to be inefl&cient, the responsibility is traced back directly to him, and\n\nthe remedy is quickly suggested and easily brought about by removing the cause of the\n\nmistakes.\n\n—\n\nThe promise of fitness. That the teacher selected must be peculiarly fitted for the\nwork to be done, does not mean that no one must enter upon the work of teaching until\nshe be sure that her first efforts will be rewarded with eminent success.\nits\n\nperiod for development and has its beginning in weakness.\n\nAU strength has\n\nThe one who judges of\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n242\nfitness must\n\n[Milwaukee\n\ntake all this, with a thousand other things, into consideration, and be able\n\nto foresee the possibilities that lie concealed under the cloak of inexperience, to recognize\n\nthe power that will develop with experience.\n\nFew mistakes will be made if the choosing\n\nof teachers is assigned to experts, and they are held responsible for their selection.\n\nDegrees of efficiency.\nall\n\n—But even when these\n\nselections have\n\nbeen wisely made, and\n\nthe teachers chosen prove to be valuable, still different degrees of efficiency are sure\n\nand the recognition and classification of these ranks should be\nsame competent and responsible authority that recommended the original\n\nto manifest themselves,\nleft to\n\nthe\n\nappointment.\nDegrees of compensation.\n\n—These differences in\n\ndifference in compensation.\n\nefiiciency suggest and justly demand\nThe increased experience is in itself an increase in value,\n\nand, consequently, if the teacher is retained there should be an annual increase of salary\nfor a certain number of years, altho she were not advanced by promotion to a higher rank.\n\nA growth in power that is unusual should be recognized by promotion to a rank receiving\na higher class of salary, and there should be an annual increase in salary in this new rank\nfor a certain\n\nnumber of years.\n\nStill\n\na third rank would give opportunity for a greater-\n\ndegree of efficiency as it manifests itself in the second rank.\n\nThe natural selection in\n\nthese three ranks suggests logically a decreasing number of teachers in each rank in the\n\nascending scale and an increasing schedule of salaries in the ascending ranks.\nSecurity in tenure.\n\n— One of the fundamental conditions of success\n\nin the educator of\n\nchildren is a spirit loosed from annoying anxieties, and a teacher should be absolutely\n\nsecure in her position, provided her work is valuable.\n\nShe should have no occasion to\n\nfeel that her fate is at the mercy of the narrowness, prejudices, or whims of a principal or\n\nThe character of these officers should be a sufficient guaranty against\nany littleness, and boards of education should see to it that the superintendents are largeminded men. The feeling of security in tenure, however, is not dependent upon an appointment for a long term, but upon the certainty of repeated reappointments as long as efficient\nservice is rendered; and there are some pronounced advantages to both the teacher and\nUnder this arrangement\nthe public in appointment for a short term, a year for instance.\nit is possible to dispense with the services of an undesirable teacher simply by not reappointing her, and such teacher is by it saved from the notoriety of a dismissal after a more or\nless public announcement of the reasons for dismissal.\nsuperintendent.\n\nPrincipals of schools.\n\n—The same general principles that govern the\n\nselection, appoint-\n\nment, promotion, retention, or discharge of assistants apply to principals of schools, with\nthe modifications naturally suggested by the difference in rank.\n\nAs the principal must be\n\nintrusted with the responsibilities of administrative duties, his position presupposes experi-\n\nence with ripened knowledge and judgment, and\n\nless tolerance\n\nshould be accorded to\n\ndeficiencies that may appear in his work.\n\nTo recapitulate\n1.\n\nA teacher should be apix)inted because of her promise of proper fitness for the work to be done.\n\n2.\n\nThe right of nomination should be vested in the superintendent.\n\n3.\n\n4.\n\nHer salary should increase with increasing value of services, within the limits of available funds.\nShe should feel assured of retention as long as her work is efficient.\n\nA practical application of these principles has already been made under the following\nplan:\nEligible list.\n\n— For supplying the new teachers needed, a\n\nboth of two sources of supply.\n\nOne of these sources\n\nis\n\nlist is\n\nprepared from one or\n\nthe training class maintained by\n\nthe city; the other, the teachers from out of the city, who are selected thru diplomas, certificates,\n\nor the result of written and oral examinations, submitted as evidence of their\n\npreparation and experience.\n\nThe candidates from the city training class are put on the\n\nlist in the order of the date of their graduation\n\nand of their standing in their several classes.\n\nThe candidates not coming from the city training classes are placed on the list in the order\nof relative strength, as nearly as a competent authority can determine from the evidence\n\nsubmitted.\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuptrintendence]\n\n243\n\n—\n\nAssignment to work. Assignment to teaching positions in the lowest rank are made\nfrom the eHgible list, arranged as just described in the order in which the names appear\non the list. The young teacher acts in the capacity of a substitute for a period of several\nmonths which is used as a term of probation, and she is not regularly appointed as a\nteacher until this time of probation is completed, and her efficiency has been attested by\nthe principal of the school and the visiting supervisor. When these conditions have been\ncomplied with, her appointment is recommended by the superintendent, and his recommendation is approved or rejected by the board of education.\nPromotion. After the teacher has been assigned to her school, the principal becomes\nthe responsible officer of the board of education in promoting her success, and in making\nan impartial and sufficient report in regard to her work; and his report is worthy of, and\nreceives, respect.\nShould he recommend promotion or discharge after consultation with\nthe supervising officers, his recommendation is approved by the superintendent and made\n\n—\n\npart of his report to the board.\nPrincipals.\n\n—The plan does not include a training school of grades suitable\n\nfor pre-\n\nparing men and women for administrative school work; consequently, the material for\nthese positions must be selected from the graduates of the universities or teachers' colleges,\n\nor from candidates who have had successful experience in this class of work in other places,\n\nBecause it is not practicable to hav6 as complete an eligible list for this class of positions\nas for assistants, and because it is neither proper nor practicable to depend upon a proba-\n\ntionary trial as an introduction to their work, the superintendent is left very free in selecting\nhis candidate for a principalship vacancy.\n\nAfter the principal has been appointed by the\n\nboard, his efficiency is estimated thru the observation of the superintendent and his assistants.\n\nWhen a vacancy in a more important position occurs, the nominee for the position\n\nis selected by a conference of the superintendent and his assistants, and the choice is deter-\n\nmined by the best qualifications, including length of service, as shown in the record of\nhis work.\n\nRecords.\n\n—To eliminate as far as possible reliance upon the unaided memory of\n\nsupervising officers, a system of records is kept on file in the office of the superintendent.\nthis\n\nfile\n\nthere\n\nis\n\na card placed for each teacher when she enters the service.\n\nIn\n\nThe card\n\nshows the date of her entrance upon the work, her previous training, and the three reports\n\nmade upon her work annually by the principal.\n\nThese reports from the principals\n\ncover six points:\n1.\n\nManagement of children.\n\n2.\n\nInstruction.\n\n3.\n\nAttention to details of school business.\n\n4.\n\nScholarship.\n\n5.\n\nProfessional zeal.\n\n6.\n\nPersonal qualifications.\n\nTheir ranking on each point is classed as \"excellent,\" \"good,\" \"medium,\" or \"unsatisfactory,\" and is indicated by the initials «, g, w, or u.\n\nIn addition to this abbreviated\n\nmarking recorded on the card three times a year, the principal makes each year a detailed\nreport on each teacher who has come under his supervision that year for the first time,\nor upon any of his former assistants who remain with him and whose work has so changed\nas to merit a changed report.\nIn this detailed report the principal writes out his reasons\nfor the markings given under six heads.\nAs supplementary to the marking card, a teachers,\ndeportment file is kept, into which is placed correspondence, notes of supervisors, records\nof pecuhar incident, or other information that form important evidence of the teacher's\nweakness or strength. Where papers of this kind are filed, the envelope containing them\nis numbered, and the number is placed on the teacher's card, so that the card shows their\nexistence and tells where to find them readily.\nA record of the principals, similar in character, but differing somewhat in detail, is made from the reports of visiting superintendents.\nThese records not only aid the memory of officers who have known the whole of the work\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n244\n\n[MUwsukee\n\nof a teacher, but are of the greatest value where principals and superintendents clange,\nthese records standing as important evidence of what the teacher has been to the school.\n\nThe following outline of the report on principals, made by assistant superintendents\nof instruction, indicates the scope of the records of merit:\nI.\n\nPersonalUy.\n\n—What\n\nscholarship ?\n\nis his\n\nIs\n\nhe active and industrious ?\n\nAre his persona] habits in\n\nevery way such as you would expect from a teacher ? Does he bear a good reputation concerning payment of\nIs the school of which he has charge, in your opinion, too large for his abilities ?\nhis debts ?\na.\n\nProfessional qualifications.\n\n—Is he a progressive principal, in the sense that he adapts himself readily\n\nto modern methods of management and instruction ?\n\nwith his school work ?\n\nDoes he give any attention to other work, that interferes\n\nHow does his present work compare with work observed heretofore ?\n\nIf there is any\n\nchange, to what do you attribute it ? Would you recommend his continuance in his present position ?\nWhat is the quality of the discipline of the\n3. Practical work with regard to instruction and discipline.\n\n—\n\nWhat is your estimate of the educational work of the school of which he has charge ?\n\nschool ?\n\nsuflBcient attention personally to class-room\n\nwork ?\n\nIs\n\nDoes he give\n\nhe amenable to direction from his superior oflBcers,\n\nwithout difficulty or sensitiveness ?\n4.\n\nBusiness qualifications.\n\n—Has he good executive ability? Is his care of the premises,\n\ntext -books,\n\nAre the reports required by the instruction department satisfactorily\nrendered in points of candor, regularity, and completeness? Does he lend willing and intelligent support\nto the rules of the board ?\nDoes he secure the respect and co-operation of his teachers ? Does he show the\n5. Relation to teachers.\nnecessary frankness and directness in his professional intercourse with them? Does he give them proper\nsupport in the discipline of their rooms? Is he efficient in training his teachers, thru his general inBuence,\n\nand other school property sufficient?\n\n—\n\nteachers' meetings, etc.\n6.\n\nRelation to the community.\n\n—\n\nIs his relation to parents and community satisfactory ?\n\nIs he courteous\n\nIs he weU adapted to the class of children and parents in the locality of his\n\nand considerate in his manner ?\nschool?\n\nOUTLINES OF METHODS OF APPOINTING AND ADVANCING\nTEACHERS IN VARIOUS CITIES\n\nTHE BALTIMORE METHOD\nJames H. Van Sickle, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md.\n\n—In Baltimore\n\nthe responsibility of the superintendent in the appointment of teachers is set forth in the\nfollowing charter provisions:\nIt shall be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction and his assistants, as examiners, to ascerby appropriate committees, appointed as hereinbefore, provided, the training, knowledge, aptness for\nteaching, and character of every future candidate for the place of teacher, and to report to the board of school\ncommissioners graded lists of those whom they deem qualified for appointment, from which graded lists all\nnominations of teachers shall be made by the superintendent of public instruction and his assistants to the\n\ntain,\n\nboard of school commissioners.\nAll such nominations of teachers shall be made in the order in which the names of the nominees appear\nupon such graded lists. In the preparation of these graded lists the superintendent of public instruction and\nhis assistants shall ascertain by competitive examinations the relative qualifications of those candidates who\ndesire appointment, and shall place the names of the accepted candidates upon said graded lists in the order\nof their relative qualifications, so ascertained by such competitive examination.\n\nAfter a substitute period, the apphcant, if successful in substitute work, is appointed,\nfor one year on trial.\n\nIf successful in the work in the trial year, the appointment becomes\n\npermanent, and removal can be effected only upon \"charges made and\n\ntrial\n\nhad.\"\n\nSalaries increase automatically by annual increments, until the regular minimum salary is\n\nreached.\n\nFurther promotion depends upon superior efficiency, as determined by observa-\n\ntion of regular schoolroom\n\nwork and an examination, the character of which is left\n\nto the superintendent of schools.\n\nThe superintendent is required to make annual report to the board of the work of\nThe board thus has the power from year to year to\n\nteachers thus selected for promotion.\n\ndetermine whether all such teachers are entitled to remain upon the promoted list.\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\n245\n\nThe plan of promotion embraces a careful record of efficiency of all teachers in the\nThe various items entering into the record of\n\nservice made annually by the principals.\n\nefficiency have been copied from the St. Louis plan.\n\nAny teacher admitted to the exami-\n\nnation must have the approval of the principal and the superintendent of schools.\n\nPro-\n\nmotion does not depend upon the grade in which the teacher works, nor does it mean a\ntransfer to a higher grade.\nIt is open to teachers in the primary grades and grammar\ngrades alike. The plan of examination aims not to withdraw the teacher's interest and\nattention from the work in which she is engaged from day to day, but to make it possible\nto secure promotion by study\n\nand thought in fields that will contribute to her increased\n\nefficiency in the grade in which she teaches.\n\nTo this end, she is allowed to choose a\n\nsubject from a list of subjects approved by the superintendent, and to prepare a thesis.\n\nThe examination consists in an oral defense of the thesis before the board of examiners,\nconsisting of the superintendent and two assistants, the examination lasting from twenty\n\nand embracing references to at least two standard educational books\nwhich the teacher has studied carefully.\nIn the past three years 250 teachers have thus been selected and promoted, and about\nto forty minutes,\n\ntwenty -five vacancies in the list have been filled.\n\nAs the advance in salary available was\n\nnot large, $100, it did not seem best to make promotion dependent upon extremely rigid\n\nrequirements as to examination, the main purpose of such examination being accomplished\n\nby the impetus given to professional study both on the part of those invited to take the\nexamination, and upon the part of others who look forward to the time when they may\n\nhave the same opportunity.\n\nAn examination conducted in this way attains a dignity\n\nthat the ordinary examination lacks, and\n\nit affords the superintendent and his associates\nan opportunity to know more fully the professional equipment of a teacher than is\npossible by the observation of schoolroom work alone or by the ordinary written test.\nThe most important qualification insisted upon is superior skill in regular schoolroom\nwork. Those who do not manifest this skill are not invited to take the examination.\n\nTHE DENVER METHOD\nL. C. Greenlee, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo.\n\n—We are fortunate in\n\nDenver in having a great number of applications from teachers of other cities and states.\nOur teachers come from almost every state in the Union, as Colorado cannot yet supply\nthe demand. The examination board is appointed by the superintendent. We have\nwhat we are pleased to call a scholarship examination and a personal examination. All\napplicants must take the scholarship examination except the graduates of the Colorado\nState Normal School. Two days are given to the scholarship examination, and the third\nday to this personal examination or interview before the board of education and the superintendent. No outside application is considered, unless the applicant has had at least\ntwenty-four months of successful experience in some other school. We employ no normal\nschool graduate who is not unqualifiedly recommended by the president of that school\nthereby making him in a way responsible for those employed from his institution. The\nexamination is competitive. The written examination and the personal examination are\nmarked separately on a scale of one hundred. These two standings are added and\ndivided by two for an average standing. The eligible list is made up by placing at the\nhead of the list the one who has the highest average standing, and so on down, until we\nhave a sufficient number on the hst to fill all places made vacant during the year. If we\nwere in need of a certain number of teachers, we send before the board twice that number,\nand the selection would be made from these. A teacher is placed upon the force, as the\nman said when he was taken into the Methodist church, \"on six months suspicion.\"\nThe probation period in no case can be shorter than three months. The superintendent\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n246\n\n[Milwaukee\n\ndepends largely upon the report of the principal as to the fitness for the work.\n\nAt the end\n\nof the third month 63 per cent, of the teachers employed last September received perma-\n\nAt the close of the sixth month, 15 per cent, was added to this list,\nrecommended at some future time or to be\nrejected.\nAfter a teacher is once confirmed in her appointment, she is in the school permanently until she resigns or is dismissed for cause. There is no difference in salaries below\nnent appointments.\n\nleaving 22 per cent, of the teachers to be\n\nthe high school, except those of principal\nreceive the same salary.\n\nand assistant principal.\n\nAll grade teachers\n\nWomen are paid the same as men for the same work.\n\nTHE OMAHA METHOD\n\n—\n\nWm. M. Davidson, stiperintendent of schools, Omaha, Neb. The plan used in\nOmaha was worked out by former superintendent, Carroll G. Pearse. We believe in\nbreadth of preparation. To be eligible for examination, candidates must have two years\nof experience in teaching, or a diploma from a state normal school.\nfirst,\n\nThree lists are made\n\nassigned for a year or less of service, to prove their worth; second, elected upon the\n\nrecommendation of the superintendent, upon his warrant of their successful experience;\nNo\nthird, permanent appointment, after five years of successful teaching in Omaha.\n\"pull\" or outside pressure is permitted. There is, with us, no difficulty in getting teachers\ninto the schools on merit; but it is a great problem how to keep them constantly improving.\n\nTHE CHICAGO PLAN\nCharles D. Lowry, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\n—Teachers for\n\nthe elementary schools in Chicago are obtained either from the Chicago Normal School\nor upon examination.\n\nThe graduates of the Chicago Normal School are given certificates\nExperienced teachers, who have had the required\n\nto teach in the elementary schools.\n\namount of academic training, are granted certificates upon passing an examination which\nincludes the various subjects taught in the elementary schools.\n\nAll certificates are valid\n\nfor one year, but become permanent after two renewals.\n\nGraduates of the normal school are assigned to the various schools as cadets.\n\nThere\n\nthey work under the supervision and instruction of the principal, and also do substitute\n\nwork when necessary.\n\nAs cadets, they receive no salary, but as substitutes they receive\nAfter serving in this manner for a period of four months, if\ntheir work has been successful, they are put on the list for appointment.\nTheir mark on\nthis list is the average of the mark given at the Normal School and that given for efficiency\na salary of $2.50 per day.\n\nof services during the four months' cadetship.\n\nTeachers who come in by examination are required to serve four months' probation\nas substitutes.\n\nTheir mark on the eligible list is the average of the scholarship mark\n\nobtained by the examination and the efficiency mark obtained during substitute service.\n\nAppointments of teachers in the elementary schools are made from the eligible list in\nThe names are placed on the ehgible list by action of the board\nof education, on recommendation of the superintendent of schools.\nAfter the teacher receives appointment, she advances in salary each year, until at the\nend of the sixth year of service she reaches the maximum of the second group of salaries,\nthe order of standing.\n\nwhich is $850 per annum for teachers of grades I-IV, $875 for teachers in grades V-VII,\nand $900 for teachers of grade VIII. Teachers of experience are given credit for successful experience on the salary schedule when they enter the system.\nA teacher whose work is considered unsatisfactory is, upon the recommendation of\nthe superintendent of schools, placed on probation.\nThis probation lasts four months,\nand during that time the teacher is entitled to a transfer to some other school, in order\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n247\n\nthat she may have the judgment of a new principal.\n\nDuring this time her work is careby the principal and the district superintendent. If her work improves\nIf it does not improve sufsufficiently, her name is removed from the list of probation.\nThis\nficiently for her to be satisfactory, her name is dropped from the list of teachers.\naction is final, if not disapproved by the board of education.\nIf a teacher's name remains on the list for appointment more than a year, she is given\na second mark for efficiency, provided she has substituted or cadeted for a period of two\nmonths during that time. Her mark on the eligible list now becomes the average of the\nfully inspected\n\ntwo efficiency marks.\n\nThe teachers in the system are marked twice each year by the principals in the dif-\n\nAn important\nThe\nSince different principals may\n\nThese marks are filed in the office of the superintendent.\n\nferent schools.\n\npart of the marking system is the work of the board of district superintendents.\n\nmarks received from the principals are often inequitable.\nhave different standards of marking, and since the marks of the teachers must all go on\nAll the marks\nthe same list, it is necessary that they be reduced to a common standard.\nand all the information about the various cadets, substitutes, and teachers are referred to\nThe marks\nthe board of district superintendents, which acts as a board of equalization.\nof the principals are not filed until approved by this board.\nAny teacher whose mark of efficiency is 80 or above, and who has reached the maxi-\n\nmum salary of the second group of teachers, is entitled to take the promotional examination,\nand upon passing the same is advanced to the first group and receives an increase of salary.\n\nThe promotional examination for teachers of elementary schools consists of (i) an examination in professional study, psychology, pedagogy, and history of\n\neducation; (2) an\n\nexamination in one of a number of academic subjects, such as English, any foreign language, physical, geographical, or biological science, manual training, household arts, drawing, music, etc.\n\nThe mark of a teacher in the promotional examination is the average\n\nof the mark which she obtains in her academic subject, that obtained in the professional\n\npaper and the mark she has obtained for efficiency of service in the school.\nof these three\n\nmust be eighty or above.\n\nThe average\n\nA somewhat similar plan is carried out with\n\nreference to the promotion of principals of elementary schools and teachers in high schools.\n\nThe system of promotional examinations has been in effect for three years. When\nsuch a large number of teachers sought opportunity to take up various lines\n\nfirst adopted,\n\nof study that it was found difficult to find teachers for them.\n\nboard has adopted a plan of normal extension.\n\nTo meet this difficulty, the\n\nAccording to this plan, wherever a group\n\nof teachers, in any part of the city, agrees to take up a certain line of study, the board\n\nfurnishes the room necessary and provides a teacher free of charge.\n\nThe plan has proved\nThe work is carried on in various schoolhouses thruout the city, in the Chicago Normal School, and in various rooms in the central part of\nthe city.\nThe enrollment of these classes at present numbers 3,025. This enrollment\nis much lower than it was some months ago, when it was found that some teachers had\nbeen enrolling in a number of classes and were doing more work than their strength pervery popular and very successful.\n\nmitted.\n\nAs a consequence, a rule was adopted to the effect that no teacher could be\nIt is probable that in time the work will become so\n\nenrolled in more than two classes.\n\nfully organized that credits in these classes will be substituted for a part or the whole of the\n\nBy no means all the work done in these classes is for the sake of preparaThe classes are opgi to teachers in private schools as well\nas public schools.\nMany teachers are taking up the work who have already passed the promotional examinations, and many others are taking up classes of a sort which do not fit for\n\nexaminations.\n\ntion for examination, however.\n\nthe examinations.\n\nThis is especially true of such work of the normal school instructors as\n\ndeals\n\ndirectly with\n\nlum.\n\nThis work, when presented to normal-school students, is often but little under-\n\nthe\n\nproper presentation of various subjects in the school curricu-\n\nstood, because these students have no body of experience with which to interpret it, but to\n\nteachers of experience it is of the greatest value, because they see its bearing and are able to\ntest its value at once in school work.\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n24.8\n\n[MHwaukce\n\nTHE KANSAS CITY METHOD\n\n—\n\nJames M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo. In Kansas\nCity our rules were revised in June, and a provision was made that after the fourth\nyear of service, the salary being $720, an examination\n\nmay be taken in\n\nprofessional\n\nsubjects and literature, upon passing which, teachers shall be entitled to receive a salary\n\nAfter one year they shall be eligible to take a second examination, and, upon\n\nof $760.\n\nshall receive a salary of $800 for one year, and shall thereafter, upon\nrecommendation from the superintendent's ofl&ce, receive a salary of $825 per year with-\n\npassing\n\nit,\n\nout further examination.\nEligible\n\nlists\n\nmade for appointment somewhat as in St. Louis, but power to\n\nare\n\nappoint or dismiss rests with the board; the superintendent\n\ncan only recommend.\n\nRecords are kept of the teacher and her school, including the following particulars:\n1,\n\nThe Teacher.\n\n—Appearance in school; personal\n\npeculiarities; air of refinement;\n\nability to secure co-operation of the pupils; special and general scholarship; power to hold\n\nattention and secure honest work; seeing all that is going on; skill in imparting and fixing\ninstruction; mode of questioning and getting repHes; assigning lessons; method of recitation; mastering points in detail; keeping school records; working for the good of the school;\n\nprofessional spirit and etiquette; disposition to improve.\n2.\n\nThe School.\n\n— Orderly and neat appearance;\n\nclass\n\nand individual movements;\n\npupils' attention to business; the character of pupils' work; care of school property.\n\nThe promotional\n\nplan has led to a remarkable awakening.\n\nClasses of teachers\n\nhave been organized, lecture courses arranged, syllabi of work prepared, and mental activity aroused which indicates a genuine revival of learning in the city.\n\nTHE LOWELL METHOD\nMiss Gertrude Edmund, Principal of the Training School for Teachers, Lowell,\nI am not in sympathy with the sentiment that a merit system is applicable only to a\nlarge city.\nI believe it is just as necessary in a small city, and I know it is possible, for, in\nMass.\n\n—\n\nspite of strong opposition from politicians, the merit system has controlled the appointment\n\nof teachers in the elementary schools of Lowell for more than fifteen years.\n\nTo take appoint-\n\nments entirely out of politics, the Lowell Training School for Teachers was opened in 1899.\nAt present we take into the school only college and normal-school graduates who have\npassed a satisfactory examination in mathematics and English, and have shown physical\nfitness\n\nand ability to teach.\n\nThe examination is conducted by the superintendent of\n\nschools and the faculty of the training school and is open to graduates from any first-class\ncollege or\n\nnormal school in the United States.\n\nLast year we had applicants from such\n\ncolleges as Cornell, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Radcliffe, Boston University, Smith, and Wellesley.\n\nAs the school was established to provide teachers primarily for the Lowell schools,\nmade upon us by\n\nthe number of students in the entering class is limited to the demands\nthe city schools.\n\nThe applicants admitted to the Training School are those who stand\n\nhighest on the examination list.\n\nThe course of study comprises one year's work in pedagogy and actual charge of a\nroom in the practice school. At the end of a year the teachers who are graduated are ranked\naccording to character, ability to teach and discipline a school, and scholarship. There\nare three lists primary, grammar, and high school.\nThe substitute work is entirely in the hands of the principal of the Training School,\nand the teacher ranked first on the primary or the grammar list is the first to be sent out to\nsubstitute in primary or grammar work, and the first to be elected to a permanent place in\n:\n\nthese schools.\n\nIn the high-school work the rule is slightly modified, providing for the appointment of\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n249\n\na teacher in the department of physics, for example, who has specialized along such lines,\nrather than one who has made a special study of Latin or Greek.\n\nTHE NEWARK METHOD\nAddison B. Poland, superintendent of schools, Newark, N. J.\n\n— am asked\nI\n\nto\n\ndescribe briefly the system employed in Newark, N.J. At the present time our board employs\n\nover fourteen hundred teachers.\ntransfers shall be\n\nA rule provides that all appointments, promotions, and\n\nmade only upon the recommendation\n\nthat the superintendent's recommendation shall\n\nof the\n\nsuperintendent;\n\nalso,\n\nbe based upon the experience, merit,\n\nand fitness of candidates, to be ascertained as far as practicable from the records filed\nThis necessitates a careful inquiry into the scholarship, merit, and fitness\nof all teachers in the employ of the board, as well as of candidates seeking positions.\nThe first step toward providing an efficient merit system was the creation of a city\n\nin his office.\n\nboard of examiners.\n\nThis board consists of the city superintendent of schools, the princi-\n\nThe city\nBy a provision of the state law, this\n\npal of the city normal school, the principal of the high school, and four others.\n\nsuperintendent is chairman ex officio of this board.\n\nboard has the sole power to issue teachers' Ucenses in and for the city of Newark.\n\nEligi-\n\nble Usts have been created by this board from time to time for positions of every grade.\n\nFrom these Hsts the superintendent makes his nominations when vacancies occur.\n\nCandi-\n\ndates are usually rated by the board of examiners upon the following basis: scholarship, 50\n\nper cent.; experience, 25 per cent.; fitness, 25 per cent.\n\nCandidates for the lowest grade license who are graduates of a four-year high-school\ncourse and a two-year normal-school course, or of a college course, are exempt from written\n\nexamination.\n\nAll candidates, however, are required to pass an oral examination to deter-\n\nmine experience and fitness.\nIn order to secure reliable information as to class-room efficiency of teachers, reports\nPrincipals are required to send to the superintendent their\n\nare called for twice a year.\n\nestimates (ratings) of the efficiency of their teachers under two heads, namely, (a) instruction and (b) discipHne.\nratings.\n\nSupervisors, both general and special, are required to make similar\n\nTeachers are grouped (rated) under the following heads: \"excellent,\" \"good,\"\n\n\"satisfactory,\" \"poor,\" and \"failure.\"\n\na stated increase in salary.\n\n,\n\nThe first three groups of teachers are entitled to\n\nAbout 95 per cent., generally speaking, of our teachers are\n\nincluded in the first three groups.\n\nOur salary schedules are based upon years of experience and giade of license.\n\nmaximum salary is reached at the end of five years.\n\nThe\n\nThis salary is $750 for kindergarten\n\nteachers and teachers in grades I-VI, inclusive.\n\nTo teach a seventh or eighth grade a candidate must obtain a first assistant's license.\nTliis Ucense is given to those only (college graduates excepted) who pass a written exami-\n\nnation in certain academic studies.\nefficiency.\n\nAll must possess a satisfactory record for class-room\n\nThe maximum salary of this grade is $800 to $1,000.\n\ngrade is that of vice-principal, which is obtained in the same manner.\n\nThe next promotion\nThe maximum sal-\n\nary in this grade is $1,200. In all elementary grades men and women are paid alike. We\nhave also a head assistant's Hcense a teacher in charge of a floor who receives a maxi-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmum salary of $900.\nThe introduction of this system met with some opposition at first on the part of both\nprincipals and teachers; but it has steadily won favor, until today few, if any, of our teachers\n\nwould be willing to go back to the old system, namely, \"to get a promotion is to get it.\"\nRarely, if ever, is the justice or wisdom of the superintendent's nomination from the\neligible list challenged either in the board or outside the board.\nIf a board of examiners\nis careful and impartial, so that its records of experience and fitness are to be relied upon,\nthe superintendent will be able to make his nominations with impartiality and with reasonable certainty of general approval.\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n250\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nTHE NEW YORK METHOD\nWilliam H. Maxwell, superintendent\n\nof schools,\n\nNew York city— Let us not\n\nattempt to settle questions by a show of hands.\nAt the close of Superintendent Poland's remarks the question had been asked whether teachers in\nA large majority indicated that there should be no distinction\nin salary with regard to grade below the high school.\n\nhigher grades should be paid higher salaries.\n\nIn New York there are three grades of salaries: the lowest, from the kindergarten to\nthe sixth grade; the second, in the seventh and the first half of the eighth grade; the highest,\n\nupper half of the eighth grade. The lowest salary is $600 and increases annually\nby $40 thru the seventh year of service. The progress of the teacher and her work is then\ninspected, and the board of superintendents determines whether the particular teacher\nshall be advanced to a higher grade and salary.\nThis is done again at the end of her\ntwelfth year.\nThe last advance is to $1,240.\nWe believe that teachers do better work when confined to a specialty; therefore in the\nhigher grades we have one teacher for Enghsh, another for history, etc. Our teachers are\nthus stimulated to aspire to broader knowledge and a higher grade of service. What we\nwant in the teachers of today is knowledge of matter quite as much as knowledge of\nmethod. We must hold out the hope of advance and betterment to teachers; otherwise they are a disheartened lot.\nI desire to state that in New York, as in Kansas\nCity, with a merit system of promotion there has come a revival of learning.\nI was\nimpressed with the suggestion of Mr. Van Sickle, that there may be a better way of securing scholastic advancement of teachers than by resorting to the ordeal of protracted written\nin the\n\nexaminations.\n\nDISCUSSION\nClarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.\n\n— Superintendent\n\nMaxwell has described the system of promotion in the schools of the city of New York. If\nI understood Mr. Maxwell correctly, he stated that the tendency is for teachers to seek promotion from the lower grades to the higher grades in the elementary schools.\nsalaries paid in the upper grades would naturally have this effect.\n\nThe higher\n\nIn consequence, the\n\nprimary teacher would always be inclined to look forward to the day when by examination\n\nand by promotion she might leave the service of little children and aspire to teach children\nI must assume that the primary teacher in the New York schools\nregards herself from the first as performing only a temporary service, and that the best talent cannot therefore be retained in the primary grades, for the ambitious and artistic\nteacher would eventually, attain her aim and secure her promotion.\nThis proposition will, I am sure, ''appear to the average superintendent as a menace to\nthe work in the early grades.\nIt has been my experience, and I am quite sure it has been\nyours, that the first-grade teacher ought to be a good teacher.\nThat is stating it mildly. I\nmay put it in stronger terms and affirm that no service rendered to any human being is\nhigher than that of the successful primary teacher in the public schools and kindergarten.\nI should be interested to know if Mr. Maxwell would place the same stimulus before\nkindergartners to lead them constantly to seek \"advancement\" from their work.\nCertainly in every community in which I have ever labored the work in the kindergarten and\nearly grades has been regarded as a post of honor.\nThis work calls not only for skill, but\nfor culture, for insight, and for consecration.\nI should be compelled to* say that any propo\nsition to discount the importance of this early work, any influence which would tend to\nmake teachers doing such work dissatisfied and discontented, would be a public calamity.\nUnder the influence of such a system as Mr. Maxwell has described it would not be\njust for us to blame teachers for seeking this so-called \"advancement.\"\nThe theory itself\nof the grammar grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n25I\n\nappears to me to be vicious, first, in that it places this service to httle children relatively\nbelow that rendered to the older children, and, second, in that it would tend to destroy in\nthe lives of a host of noble women the highest impulse ever given to woman, and to blight\nIt\nthe sentiment that has so long dignified the kindergarten and primary schoolroom.\nwould, I believe, tend to put back the progress of the pubHc-school system and the progress\nof civilization indefinitely, if these principles were to be generally adopted and acted upon.\n\nThere are present many women supervisors, who are authorities in their work.\nThey are our dependence and strong support, and their work is done more especially in\nthat part of the school system where the highest efficiency and the finest results are usually\nattained, namely, in the primary grades.\n\nIt is\n\nmy earnest hope that some of these ladies\n\nmay be called upon to carry forward this discussion.\n\nIf we should hear oftener from the\n\nlady members of this department, especially when there is anything to be said that really\n\nhas anything to do with the schoolroom, we should get much nearer to the heart of the ques-\n\nSo much of our time is given to organization, and to other parts of the mere\nit is comparatively seldom that they have the opportunity of\njoining in our discussions. I am certain, Mr. Chairman, that you will not fail to take advantage of their presence and of their wisdom.\ntion at issue.\n\nshell of our habitation, that\n\nMiss Ellor E. Carlisle,\nteachers should be\n\nSupervisor,\n\npublic schools, Boston, Mass.\n\n— Primary\n\nmade to feel that they have the highest, noblest, and best-paid work\n\nopen to them. All teachers should continue their habits of academic study, for inspiration in their work, and for the renewal of their youth. I should like\nthat their qualifications\n\nto see\n\nprimary teachers receive an increase of salary after some years of work, on giving\n\nevidence of efficiency and scholastic advancement.\n\nThe greatest thing this association can\n\ndo is to forward the idea in the pubhc mind that appointment and promotion should be\nonly thru the merit system.\n\nAaron Gove, ex-superintendent of schools, Denver, Colo.\ndesirability of the\n\n—\n\nOur agreement upon the\nappointment of teachers upon merit is pronounced. It is difficult to\n\nunderstand how the superintendents can approve any other method.\n\nThe larger part of\n\nthe discussion relates to the application of such machinery as is necessary to execute the\n\nplan of appointment upon merit, chiefly upon examination, followed by confirmation based\n\nupon successful trial, according to the report of inspectors.\nMost of us are engaged in administering school systems of cities of a hundred thousand\npeople or less. The greater cities, which latterly are so admirably conducted, are scarcely\nprofitable examples for the superintendents in smaller communities.\n\nThe impersonality of the superintendent in Greater New York or Chicago has no place\nin the smaller jurisdictions.\n\nIn a city of fifty thousand people the superintendent is a dis-\n\ntinct personality, known socially and politically to every inhabitant.\n\nIn the initial exami-\n\nmet by individual remonstrance from the friends; then\nafter a year's trial, if the reports concerning the novice do not justify a confirmation of the\nappointment, the superintendent is forced to meet people and discuss each case.\nHow\nmany of us are obliged to hear unanswerable questions from dear and influencial friends\nquestions from which the superintendent of the great city of New York is far removed:\n\"Why was she not confirmed?\" \"Is not her scholarship proved by her certificate?\"\n\"She has a good room; I have been in it.\" \"Miss B. and Mr. C. tell me she is superior.\"\n\"Here is a petition signed by thirty of the mothers asking that she be retained.\" \"The\nother candidate, who is the daughter of an alderman, was confirmed. My friend has no\naldermanic relation.\" One also hears from the judge, the senator, the ward \"captain,\"\nand so on. Each one knows personally the superintendent; and so I submit that we need\nmost, at a time like this, to hear how to remove the obstacles in the way whereby the superintendent of the small city seeks to base appointments upon merit.\nInaUenable rights are assumed to belong to the daughters and kinfolk of several classes\nfound in each community. Of such are \" the man who has always paid taxes for the\nnation of a candidate, failure\n\nis\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n252\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nschools,\" \" the man whose daughter went thru the schools, \" \" the man whose home is there,\n\nand who must have a living for his daughter,\" \"the clergymen of the great churches,\" \"the\nleading politicians, \" and the large class whose methods of intrigue are wickedly powerful\n\nwhen assaults are to be made upon the school management, and who threaten seriously to\nharm the whole structure, unless the given candidate be assigned to a position.\nThese intimations will be recognized in some smaller cities as obstacles in the proper\nexecution of appointing teachers upon merit and they are not encouraging.\nGreater\nNew York stands as the shining monument today of proper methods of appointment\n\n—\n\nsuccessfully accomplished, but even there frequent threats are already heard from unfriendly\npolitical powers.\n\n—\n\nVernon L. Davey, city superintendent, East Orange, N. J. A large majority of the\nmembers in attendance are from cities having a population of less than seventy-five thou-\n\nTo be of value to them, the discussion should embrace the following points: (i) the\n\nsand.\n\nsource of supply; (2) the method of selection; (3) the appointing power; (4) promotion of\nteachers.\nIt is not customary or necessary for small cities to maintain training schools.\n\n1.\n\nThe\n\nproduct of the state normal schools should be sufficient in quantity and much better quali-\n\nThe source of supply should be unlimited as regards area.\n\nfied.\n\nEach schoolroom is for\n\nthe benefit of forty-five children, not for the benefit of one young woman.\n\nHome talent\n\nshould receive equal consideration with that from other localities, but not greater.\nAll appointments should be made on the nomination of the superintendent, who\n\n2.\n\nshould be given unlimited control.\n\nIn the smaller cities he should be expected to nominate\n\nonly those persons of whose ability and qualifications he is morally certain.\n\nTo insure\n\nthis, he should be given the privilege of visiting candidates in their schoolrooms, and should\n\nbe expected to use the privilege.\n\nThe nomination of the superintendent should guarantee appointment by the board\nThis in effect gives him appointing power.\n\n3.\n\nof education.\n\nPromotion may be in salary or grade, or both.\n\n4.\n\nIf salaries are equal in all grades\n\nup to the highest in the grammar schools, as I think they should be, but few teachers will\ncare to be advanced in grade.\n\nIncrease in salary should, in my opinion, be by schedule,\n\nwith the consideration that there shall be no advance at the end of any year if the principal\n\nand superintendent do not agree in recommending the teacher as having done at least good\naverage work.\n\nThe above plan is in operation in East Orange, a city of 25,000 people. The chief\nfirst, the overcoming of the demand for places for home talent; second,\n\nobstacles are two:\n\nthe increased cost if nonresident teachers are employed.\n\nA judicious and well-balanced superintendent should be able, by his own efforts and\nthe influences that he can bring to bear, so to mold the sentiment of the members of the\n\nboard of education, and thru them the community, that these methods of appointment will\nbe approved by the taxpayers and the necessary funds will be provided.\n\nA. B. Blodgett, superintendent of schools, Syracuse, N. Y.\n\n—\n\nIt is certainly gratifying\n\nto find the merit system in such general use; it is still more gratifying to find such remark-\n\nable unanimity of sentiment in favor of it.\n\nI rise to question whether a system that seeks\n\nto reward merit can rely wholly on examination,\n\neven in first appointment.\n\nattainments and professional preparation are good, but they are not all.\n\nScholastic\n\nThe personality\n\nand character of the candidate are to be considered, and that fine thing called teaching\npower which cannot be weighed in the scales of an examination, whether oral or\nwritten.\nIt\n\nseems to me that there are three things to be considered in rating teachers for\n\nappointment: (i) scholastic and professional preparation; (2) character and physical fitness; (3) efficiency in the schoolroom; and two things for which teachers should be rewarded\n\nby promotion:\n\n(i)\n\nmarked and increasing efficiency;\n\nscholastic advancement.\n\n(2) professional\n\nimprovement by\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nJames L. Hughes, inspector of schools, Toronto, Can.\nIt is solved for us by the government.\n\nproblem.\nbasis.\n\n—In Canada we have not\n\ni:53\n\nthis\n\nEverything there is on the civil-service\n\nTeachers are trained in government schools, and inspected and graded by educaThere is no outside influence whatever.\n\ntional experts in the employ of the government.\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\nJAMES PARTON HANEY, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING, BOROUGHS OF MANHATTAN AND THE BRONX, NEW YORK CITY\n\nThe term \"manual training\" has no well-defined meaning, and in conSome think of it only as constructive work;\n\nsequence no well-defined practice.\n\nothers, as motor training in general.\ncils of its\n\nAt the present time, in the higher coun-\n\nadvocates, there is an active debate on the question of how far the\n\nnatural activities of the child shall determine the industries he pursues in\nthe elementary school.\nBoth sides agree that the child must have manual\nwork in abundance, if he is properly to develop. Both sides agree also that\nhis natural interests must be consulted in determining what special phases\nof manual work he is to do.\nBut one side holds that his natural activities\nform a reliable guide to the industries which he should undertake, while the\nother protests that no activities seen in school are really natural. All rise more\n\nor less, say they, in response to the stimulus of the teacher;\n\ntherefore they\n\nurge that stimulus be given to lead to interest in those activities which now\n\nmake up the world's work.\nhistory of man's rise;\n\nThe first would give the child insight into the\n\nthe second would prepare him for future work in the\n\nworld.\n\nFaint echoes of this discussion have reached the class-rooms wherein\n\nelementary teachers are essaying to present the different phases of manual\nwork.\n\nAs a discussion they look upon it as theoretic and of small concern,\n\nwhile they turn to their immediate superiors for specific directions as to the\n\nmanner in which they are to treat the practical problems which the arts present.\nWhether they solve the latter well or ill depends largely upon the teaching\nof these leaders and upon the standards which they erect.\nBut leaders are fallible. Many a superintendent regards all motor work\nas ''special,\" and is content to turn it over to a special teacher to organize\nand develop as best she may. But special teachers, as a rule, come to their task\nwith training limited and one-sided. They are ill advised as to the underlying principles of the curriculum, and believe that success lies in keeping\ntheir special subject intact.\nTo this end they labor, striving by isolation to\nmagnify its importance. Thus there results much manual work taught in\na manner not justified by sound pedagogy. Often there is an attempt to\ndistinguish sharply between related activities.\nArt and manual training are\nheld apart, despite the fact that they are to the little child common means for\nexpression\n\n—concrete, graphic expression. Thus the\n\nfirst canon in the manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n254\n\ntraining creed is violated.\n\nform the manual arts\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThis states that drawing, construction, and design\n\n—one subject—and as such should be developed. Many-\n\nThe arts are necessary to one another in practice.\nThey cannot be successfully taught apart. Knowledge of drawing is needed\nThe teaching of exerin design, and knowledge of design in construction.\nshould not be tolerated. The beauty the child\nart for art's sake\ncises\nDesign unappHed is jejune and pointless;\nlearns should be beauty for use.\nreasons urge this identity.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nconstruction without art is an offense.\n\nTheir natural relations are obscured\n\nDeveloped apart, the arts suffer.\n\nand their technical requirements exalted. Each appears to exist only for\nSuch teaching is a mistake; it exalts\nthe cultivation of some peculiar skill.\nthe technical ideal. Whenever rapidity and skill are sought at the expense\nof original expression, one recognizes worship of this ideal.\nseeks, the\n\nsmooth product of automatic performance.\n\neven\n\nIt accepts,\n\nIt praises\n\nexercises\n\nwhich have required hours of mechanical work, tho they may not have had\ngiven to them ten minutes of actual thinking.\n\nIt adheres to rigid sequences,\n\ndespite the fact that neither the child's interest nor his understanding conform\nto steps so ordered.\n\nOveremphasis upon the technical side violates another canon.\ndeclares that the arts\n\nThis\n\nmust be made developmental, not technical in aim;\n\nthat they must be offered in each stage of the child's growth with specific consideration of his characteristics in that stage,\n\nand of the changes he must\n\nundergo before he can advance to the next higher stage.\n\nTechnical ideals\n\nlook to the product; developmental ideas, to the producer.\n\nWe may distinguish three growth periods in the child's Hfe. From the\nsixth to the ninth year he develops thru sensory channels.\n\nHis language is\n\nlimited, and drawing and making form his chief means of expression.\n\nnine to twelve his interests multiply.\nfree.\n\nin\n\nFrom\n\nExpression thru speech becomes more\n\nHis brain reaches its maximum size, and a desire for motion and things\n\nmotion becomes marked.\n\nDifficult\n\nmuscular adjustments are now easily\n\nacquired, and habits of action readily fixed.\n\nThe period from the twelfth to the fourteenth year sees the pupil pass\nfrom childhood to adolescence. The girl precedes the boy by a year or more.\nIn this change nature shows to us a mystery. Striking alterations occur in\nthe child's physical and mental make-up.\n\nAs a child he was a sensory being;\n\nHe rises now to heights of appreciation and understanding quite beyond his power to express; to him may be\n\nas an adolescent he is a sensitive one.\n\npresented those ,Testhetic relations heretofore beyond his comprehension.\n\nThe arts on the physical side make a direct response to each of the periods\nnamed above. Arrest of motor development follows a failure to offer them\nat the proper time and in the proper manner.\n\nIf they are begun and aban-\n\ndoned, a distinct atrophy of the developed power occurs.\n\nAs educational ele-\n\nments they require early presentation and constant use.\n\nOn the mental side they conserve individuality. They foster personal and\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n255\n\nnot mass instruction. They necessitate constant judgment concerning form\nand pattern. They seek initiative and self-expression, and markedly stimulate\nthe imagination.\nThey deal with concrete ideas and concrete things, and\nthus aid to build up that apperceptive background to which the child must\nrelate all that he truly learns.\n\nThe arts, besides, act as a moral or disciplinary agent thru the periods of\nThey cultivate habits of cleanhness, system, and order. They\ninculcate perseverance, and hold up ideals of self-rehance and honesty.\nThey\ndevelopment.\n\nlead by interest and are undertaken willingly\ntheir presence\n\n—with avidity. Discipline in\n\nbecomes more natural and rational; the atmosphere\n\nof the\n\nschoolroom is made by them less formal.\n\nThey give pleasure in their doing,\nand serve thus to balance outside attractions. They are of marked service\nin keeping the child in school.\n\nThe specialization and segregation of the arts tend to violate another important principle of their teaching.\n\nThis principle defines them as socializing\n\nagents of marked service in revealing to the child his physical environment.\n\nThe arts naturally relate themselves to the life about the pupil and help disclose\nThey develop social action and lend themselves to joint or communal work.\nTheir exercises are never so interesting\nas when they offer results of service in the class-room or the home, or when they\nto him his relations to his fellows.\n\nmeet the child's interest in the world outside the school, by reflecting in miniature the tools and appliances used in real life.\n\nThe social conscience may be best wakened in the little child in this way.\nThe interests of the arts are so varied, and their forms of expression so various,\nthat they give in iheir pursuit too many points of view.\nSuch social impressions react as expressions,\n\nand the good teacher will seek to have the child\n\nmake such reaction habitual.\nto\n\nNever is the drawing or the making so interesting as when it responds\nsome present need.\nThose who seek to develop technical ideals are\n\napt to ignore or slight this fact.\nexercises, and to this\n\nThey endeavor to secure well-finished\n\nend require copy after copy for practice sake.\n\ndoing they traverse a fourth\n\ncanon of\n\nsound\n\nteaching.\n\nIn so\n\nThis requires\n\nit\n\ndemands that they concern\n\nthemselves with real processes and real things.\n\nThe child passes thru the\n\nthat in the arts the element of reality appear;\n\nsymbolic stage at the threshold of school life.\n\nLater his play spirit may lead\n\nhim to many games of make-believe; but even in his game§ he seeks reality\nwherever he can find it.\n\nIn school it is important that he be not asked to\n\nundertake work the meaning of which he does not understand.\n\nThe arts\n\nfrown on formal expression built upon a basis of dictation and command,\n\nand robbed of all motive save that of fear.\nReal reasons should move the child to his work.\n\nEach exercise should\n\nhave behind it inteUigent purpose and before it concrete achievement.\nsteps to develop\n\nany process must be followed by an\n\nFormal\n\n(.opportunity for free\n\nexpression ; for a chance, that is, to do original work in which the new process\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n256\nappears.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nThru formal training and practice exercises the child never gains\n\nthe incentive to application; he never acquires conscious\n\ndrawing, design, or construction to definite purpose.\n\npower to use his\n\nHe may learn to make\n\na neat drawing or model; but this, however attractive it may seem, has served\nsmall purpose if it has not the child's own thought in it.\n\nConscious power\n\ncomes when the products of the child 's labor are tangible and useful.\n\nIn the\n\nearher years immediate results are necessary, but at the close of the preadolcscent period the child\ntechnical excellence.\nof actual experience.\"\n\nis\n\nprepared to accept practice as necessary to\n\nTechnique is a subject which demands \"a background\n\nThe child should learn to look upon original expres-\n\nsion as the goal of all preparation.\n\nThe aim of technical training should be to put the child in a position to\nThe skill taught should\n\nuse his knowledge for practical and personal ends.\n\nappear of real worth, the beauty as a positive excellence to be sought in all\n\nThe plans drawn should be for serand the constructed forms. In short, every\n\nconstructive and decorative expression.\nvice;\n\nso should\n\nthe designs\n\nphase of practice of the arts should be instinct with reality.\n\nFour principles have been presented as guides in teaching.\n\nTo these\n\nmust be added a fifth. This sees the error of allowing the arts, even as a wellco-ordinated group of subjects, to remain a group separated from the other\nsubjects of the curriculum.\n\nAs a principle, this requires that the relation\n\nbetween the arts and other branches be made direct and intimate.\n\nThe arts\n\nThey should help in teaching, lending\ninterest thru doing, and aiding to give concrete form and shape to cloudy\nshould act in the spirit of service.\n\nmental images.\n\nTo find the various v/ays in which they may thus assist in\n\nthe development of language, nature study, number, and other school interests\nthe business of class and special teacher.\nSome courses of study look to\nthem as central subjects, while some admit them only as related topics; but\nwhether developed from within or related from without, it must be the busi-\n\nis\n\nness of the teacher to see that they lend themselves to the teaching of all\n\nThere is no surer way than this of identifying them\nOne who has once discovered their power to make vivid and\n\nphases of the curriculum.\nas essentials.\n\ndirect her teaching in other subjects will not again attempt to teach without\n\nthem.\nFive of the principal tenets of the manual-training creed have been cited.\n\nPut into a single statement, these declare that the arts are one\n\n—that they are\n\npart of the birthright of the little child, and should form, as developmental\n\nand socializing agents dealing directly with use and beauty, an integral part\nHow, in the light of the principles, would\nof the course of study he pursues.\nthey appear in the ideal school?\n\nIn the first or primary stage we should not find them as separate subjects\nat\n\nall.\n\nWe should discover them being 'used, as a means of teaching, as\nmany subjects of the curriculum. We\n\nagents injecting the concrete into\n\nshould find the teacher constantly turning to her drawing and her making, in\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nconnection with her language work, her folklore\n\nnumber lessons, and the like.\n\ntales,\n\n257\n\nher nature study, her\n\nThe arts would be, as it were, dissolved In\n\nthe curriculum, serving constantly as modes of teaching, as means for secur-\n\ning the child's personal expression.\n\nSome of the children's work would deal with those occupations which have\nbusied man thru the centuries, but such pursuits would appear, not as devices\npresented for the sake of having the pupil reconstruct the primitive industry,\n\nbut rather as instruments giving him insight into the simplest elements of the\n\nabout him.\n\nlife\n\nThru such work we should find him learning his own social\n\nsetting, his studies turning about those things\n\n—food,\n\nshelter,\n\nand clothing—\n\nwhich make for his comfort and sustenance.\n\nThe\nNone of it would\n\nTechnical accuracy thruout these years we should find subordinated.\n\nwork done would require no fine muscular adjustments.\nbe small\nto\n\n—trying both to sight and fingers—and none mechanical, leading\n\nhours of automatic performance in braiding or weaving.\n\nused would be many.\n\nThe materials\nThe\n\nOriginal expression would constantly be evident.\n\nthings made would belong to their makers.\n\nWith the children of the pre-adolescent stage we should not find as marked\nemphasis on free expression thru drawing and construction. With such pupils,\nthe arts would be found servdng as agents giving precision of handling, and\nof self-control.\n\nMany processes would appear in the class-room—drawing\n\npainting, cutting, pasting, sewing, binding; envelopes, calendars, booklets, etc.;\nall in\n\nuse in developing concrete forms of immediate value.\n\nWe should find,\n\ntoo, the pupil 's rising critical sense being employed to determine the necessity\n\nfor drill, and drills being undertaken as failures showed the need of them.\n\nHigher in the school we should find the children well advanced in knowledge of processes, the boys in the school shop, and their sisters studying the\nprinciples of domestic economy in the school kitchen.\n\nbeing used in the shop\n\n—\n\nPlans we should find\n\nplans made by workers busy in carrying them out.\n\nAt times we should find the boy working in individual fashion; at other times\nas one of a group employed on some elaborate model for the school.\ndesigns, too, of\n\nno\n\nHttle beauty,\n\nwe should\n\nfind\n\nApplied\n\nhim making and\n\nusing.\n\nHis knowledge of both construction and design should appear in the simple\nlines of\n\nhis self-planned\n\nmodel and\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nsuitabiHty of\n\nthe decoration\n\ndesigned for it.\n\nThe fourteenth year should find our pupil with his elementary school Ufe\n\nHe stands with his native interests heightened by cultivation. His\nhand is gifted with no little skill. He can perform some score of operations\nand is familiar with some score of tools. He will make for you a simple plan\nand use it. He can design a simple decoration and apply it. He has completed, during his school life, half a hundred models or more— books, toys,\nhome utensils, and simple pieces of scientific apparatus. Thru his work he\nhas conceived a strong constructive bent and has learned to see the world\nabout him as a constructive world. He has had wakened in him an aesthetic\ncompleted.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n258\n\nsense, has had his eyes opened to beauty.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nHe has learned to know it thru search-\n\ning for it to discover fine lines, harmonious proportions, and fitting decorations.\n\nAbove all, he has had revealed to him himself; he knows something of the power\nwhich lies in his creative brain and in his dexterous hand, something of his own\nability to mold and shape the environment in which he lives.\n\nThus the arts\n\nhave served their purpose as essential elements to his elementary schooling.\n\nWe have stated our theory and pictured our ideal. The question that\nremains is to state how this ideal may become real, how this theory is to be\n\nmade practice.\nIf\n\none is at perfect liberty to organize a course of study, the theory may\n\nbe followed closely, and we may make the arts central, using them as forms\nof industrial and social activity from which all the other work of the class-\n\nroom proceeds.\n\nCertain isolated schools have thus developed them.\n\nSuch\n\ndevelopment leads to perfect unity in the course of study.\n\nAnother method of affecting close relationships is to organize the general\ncurriculum on the culture-epoch plan.\n\nHere the pupil in studying the lives\n\nof primitive peoples faces man's elemental needs for food, shelter, and clothing.\n\nIn such a curriculum the arts spring from the child's study of primitive\n\noccupations, from essential elements in his re-solution of the first great prob-\n\nlems of his kind.\nIt will\n\nbe noted that these two plans represent in practice the beliefs of\n\nthe two parties in the debate to which reference has been made.\n\nBoth develop\n\nthe arts as essentials; but the first makes them central, presenting them as\nactivities\n\nevoked in response to a study of immediate surroundings; while\n\nthe second sees them as forms of industry which must be studied if the child\nis to re-live\n\nthe life-history of the race.\n\nBoth plans have advantages; but it is not the purpose to discuss their\nrelative merits.\n\nCourses of study which follow the lines indicated are not\n\ncommon. To the great majority of teachers the problem of the arts is to\nrelate them to a curriculum organized in manner suggested by the Report of\nthe Committee of Fifteen.\n\nFive co-ordinate branches, present themselves\n\nin such a curriculum, the greater emphasis being upon language.\n\nTo relate\n\nthe arts directly to these branches, it is necessary that in the early years certain centers be selected, to which the drawing, construction, and design may\n\nbe immediately referred.\n\nMany such centers offer in language work, nature\n\nstudy, geography, etc., the first course of study at hand suggesting the follow-\n\ning in its syllabus on English:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nplaythings, pets, games, outings.\nSecond year the home, occupations, holidays, and seasons. ^\nThird year Readings on the Indians, Eskimo, Arab, Dutch, and Chinese.\nFirst year\n\nAround each of these may be gathered the work of a week or more, as\neach gives rise to a variety of lessons in drawing, construction, and design.\nIn a practical development of this scheme the writer has seen the work of a\nthird-year class revolve for several weeks about the hero Hiawatha.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD LABOR\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n259\n\nstory was read and talked about, the hard words spelled, the scenes illustrated\n\nThe\n\nin graphic fashion.\n\ntepees, canoes,\n\nweapons, moccasins, snow-shoes,\n\nand the like were made of simple materials, and suitable designs were thought\nout and applied. The whole series of lessons was alive. The children vied\nwith one another in offering suggestions for possible use in drawing or making.\n\nTheir keen attention followed as their interest led.\nIn the higher grades it will not be found possible to relate the arts, as\ndirectly as in the lower, to other branches of the curriculum.\n\nIt is\n\nnow a\n\nmatter of having the pupil express himself thru the arts, as of having him\nskillfully construct\n\nsome form of use and permanent value.\n\nof such forms are to be developed about school and home.\n\nA great variety\nThe school offers\n\nopportunity for the making of various communal or group models in connection with the study of science, nature study, geography, and mathematics.\n\nOther very satisfactory exercises\n\nwill\n\nbe those which gather some score of\n\nlessons in free-hand and mechanical drawing, in color, design, and construction\n\naround a form, useful in the class-room or needed in the home.\n\nVarious questions regarding materials and methods must here perforce\n\nThose relating to expense may be briefly considered\nand dismissed. A Hberal school board means the possibility of working in\nmany media; an economical one means that pencil and paper must suffice,\nremain undiscussed.\n\nwith such additional material as the children themselves are in a position to\nfurnish.\n\nIt\n\nis,\n\nhowever, to be understood that the spirit of the creed which\n\nhas been presented may be maintained, however liberal or meager the supplies.\n\nThis spirit looks to see the arts in use, helpful, vivifying.\n\nUnderstood,\n\nit\n\nmakes possible their successful development as well in the one-room country\nschool as in the great city system. This spirit must find expression as well\nin the office of the school superintendent as in the class-room of the lowest\n\ngrade.\n\nThus do we return to our first proposition.\n\nFailure in the arts must lie at the door of the school officer who leaves\n\nthem as specialties to work out their way alone. Success comes to him who\nstudies them, and who causes his teachers to study them in their relations.\nThat curriculum will develop best in which they are taught by those who\ncomprehend their peculiar power, and who have been led to employ them\ndirectly, and in personal fashion.\nSuccess in the arts is to be measured in\nterms of use. They must be taught for use and not for show.\n\n—\n\nCHILD LABOR\nJANE ADDAMS, HULL-HOUSE, CHICAGO\n[an abstract]\n\nThe labor of Httle children has never been so valuable to the business\nThe\nheavy work which formerly required a man's strength is now done by machinworld as in the past twenty-five years, fifty, or 100 years, if you choose.\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDVCATtONAL ASSOCIATION\n\ni6o\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nery which a child may guide, and so we have the temptation to use the labor\nchildren, because they can be obtained at less wage.\n\nof\n\nlittle\n\nin\n\nEngland there have been made,\n\nsince\n\nGradually\n\n1832, simple legislation against\n\nThe evil has gone on into the third generation now,\n\nthe evils of child labor.\n\nand child labor is almost 100 years old.\n\nMany of our states have very defective laws, if any at all, with regard to\nIn Pennsylvania they are inadequate;\n\nchild labor.\n\nyears can work all day and all night.\n\nwork\n\nof sixteen at\n\nchildren over thirteen\n\nThere are more children under the age\n\nin the Pennsylvania\n\nmines and factories than in all of\n\nthe cotton states of the south.\n\nWe wonder why the public conscience is so slow to take up this question.\nThere are many reasons.\n\nOne J'ne of responsibility lies with the educators.\n\nSo rapidly as the children have left the schoolroom the educators have lost\nall interest and responsibility, and have turned the children over to the business\n\nworld.\n\ndo their full duty to the children within the four walls of\n\nIf they\n\nthe schoolroom, they feel they have no further duty or responsibility.\n\nIndustry\n\nis\n\nconstantly wearing out the children at the period of their\n\nwhen they possess abnormal strength, a strength that should naturally\ngo into growth and development. The state furnishes vastly expensive\npublic school buildings and systems of education, and then, when the child\nlives\n\nleaves school, merely because the state laws ofiFer no protection to the child\n\nagainst this premature labor, the state\n\nmust afterward resume\n\ntheir care\n\nwhen they are worn out and thrown aside. And the factories are constantly\nsaying to the schools: \"Give us more; we have worn out and used up that\nwhich you gave.\"\nIt is\n\na fact that children employed in these heartless factories,\n\nand unable\n\nif\n\nthey\n\nto work\n\nand support\nthemselves after they have reached years of manhood and womanhood, and\nmust be supported in the public asylums and hospitals. Children are commercially most advantageous between fourteen and eighteen years, for most\n\nlive at all, are broken, absolutely crippled,\n\nemployments.\nIf this great\n\nbody\n\nof public school instructors\n\nhad been interested in\n\nthe children as citizens, they would have asked, ''What becomes of the children\nafter they leave the schoolhouse door?\"\n\nIs there such a thing as regulating\n\nhours of labor, such a thing as continuing instruction, preparing them for\ncitizenship ?\n\nWhat are we doing to protect them ?\n\nTeachers are only one factor in the problem, but we have a right to expect\n\nmore help from them than the past child labor campaigns have shown.\n\nIn\n\nVirginia the children cannot go to work until they are thirteen, are guarded\n\nthen and allowed to work but certain short hours, and prohibited from injuri-\n\nous industries until twenty-one.\n\nThere is getting to be a strong sentiment in the United States that we\nhave banked too long on the quantity of our products, and that we will soon\nbe required to judge our work by its quality instead.\n\nWe must protect and\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD'LABOR\n\nSuperintendence]\n\n261\n\neducate our children in order to raise up the trained, skilled workmen necessary\nto the product of fine qualities.\n\nThe child is waked up when he leaves the routine of the school and begins\nmoney. When that takes place prematurely, we have a boy-man,\n\nto earn\n\nwithout the initiative of the man, or his reliabiUty, but with an aggressiveness\n\nbom of his pride in being an earner.\n\nHe is unable to make the connection\n\nbetween what he learned in school and what he sees in the factory.\n\nIf\n\nwe\n\ncould only get hold of him when the amount earned is all his pride, if the\nschools could only assume that\n\nmany of the children are going into the fac-\n\nand give them a little of what the factory life means!\nWe have allowed industry to modify education more than education\n\ntories,\n\nhas modified industry.\neffect\n\nof\n\nWe are cowards if we will not acknowledge the\n\npremature labor on premature child workers.\n\nThe compulsory\n\neducation and factory laws are coming together more and more, and in some\nplaces where both are good and well enforced they are working marvelously\ntogether.\n\nThus we get a faint idea of what would happen if educators would\n\nremain interested in the child until he tumbled into his grave, and if he tumbled\ninto his grave prematurely\n\nwould feel in a measure responsible.\n\nIt is too\n\ntrue that factory inspectors in many states are but too easily influenced\n\ncommercial\n\nby\n\ninterests.\n\nThe enthusiasm\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nAmerican schoolmaster would carry him over\n\ninto the child labor agitation for the protection of the child very quickly\n\nhe were once interested.\n\nif\n\nDISCUSSION\nLawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga.\n\n— am in intimate contact\nI\n\nwith the conditions that have been referred to by Miss Addams, and the improvement of\n\nThe question\nWhat shall we do after the mills exclude the children, and compulsory\neducation laws force them upon our hands ? What kind of education should we provide\nwhich should be the care of every superintendent of a mill community.\narises before us:\n\nfor\n\nthem ?\nI do not believe that manual training, as we know it, quite meets the case of the factory\n\nchild.\n\nThe whir of wheels has already drowned the sweet voice of life, and the tool has\nWhat they really need is less of machinery and\n\nalready cut away all the joys of existence.\n\ntools, and more of books, music, pictures, flowers, and the spiritual side of Hfe.\n\nAllow me to tell you of a model home enterprise, at a minimum of cost, and at a maxi-\n\nmum of adjustment to the real needs in the hfe of the factory child.\n\nNear one of the large\n\nfactory schools in our city a house was rented, by the teachers, just such as the children live\n\n—no more no\n\nin\n\nless.\n\nIt was painted, inside\n\nand out, roof and all, in artistic color; it was\n\n—\n\nfurnished with kitchen, dining-room, sewing-room, and library furniture\n\nbut dainty sort that every family ought to have.\n\njust the cheap\n\nThe equipment of pictures, bric-k-brac,\n\nand curtains was inexpensive, but in perfect taste.\n\nThe girls are taught the woman's side of housekeeping, decorating, cooking, sewing,\nand whatever else belongs to her sphere as a home-keeper. The boys are taught the man's\nside of home-keeping\nprotection, provision, repairs, gardening, wood-work.\nThe reading-room is open all afternoons for reading and simple games. The design at large is to\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n262\n\n[MUwaukce\n\nteach pupils, who soon will have homes of their own, the real meaning of a wholesome,\nattractive home, and all without expense beyond their means.\n\nHow eagerly their starved\n\nnatures have responded is evident by the crowded classes, by the willingness to do and provide, and by the great pride they are showing in their handiwork.\nI do not know of any better work than this for children of the factory who have their\n\nafternoon hours free.\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN THE SECONDARY GRADES AND IN\nCOLLEGES\nCALVIN M. WOODWARD, DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE, WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nManual training, properly so called, is from its very nature and content a\nsecondary-school subject, and the colleges and technical schools should rele-\n\nand should recognize a full course of manual\nIn ofher words, they should treat manual\ntraining as they now treat algebra, geometry, and Latin grammar.\ngate it to secondary schools,\n\ntraining as a preparatory study.\n\nThis change cannot be made immediately, since but a small part of the\nhigh schools and academies have full courses of manual training, and as it is\n\nan essential preparation for technical schools, the latter must supply it until\nthe high schools are equipped.\n\nThe logic of my suggestion is readily seen.\n\nIn a technical school the\n\npupils need a knowledge of materials, tools, and processes in their laboratory\n\nwork.\n\nTake, for instance, the laboratory of engineering, in which the pupils\n\ncome immediately in contact with engineering appliances, with machines for\ntesting the strength and elasticity of materials, with hydraulic apparatus,\nwith electrical appliances, with ventilating machines, and with mechanical\ninventions of\n\nall\n\nkinds which involve theory as well as practice.\n\nAll such\n\nwork requires continual use of mechanical knowledge and skill; adjustments\nmust be* made; pieces must be fitted; and auxiliary apparatus must be constructed.\nWhile this work is going on, it is a dead waste of time to stop to\nlearn the use of tools.\n\nOne might as well stop to learn the rules of arithmetic\n\nwhile performing the duties of an accountant, or elementary algebra and\n\nNo,\nmanual training is strictly preparatory work preparatory to a great many\nthings, and especially to the laboratories of a technical school, as well as to a\nthousand and one operations in practical life.\nIn what I shall say further please remember that I am thinking and talking\nof pupils who are not less than fourteen years of age, and who may be eightgeometry and calculus while solving problems in applied mechanics.\n\n—\n\neen or twenty years of age.\n\nI\n\nam not thinking of little boys, but of those who\n\nhave considerable physical maturity, physical strength, some knowledge of\nalgebra and perhaps of geometry, and who are quite familiar with mechanical\n\ndrawing. They are supposed to be able to read drawings readily, and to\nmake projections, sections, and developments, as may be required.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES\n\n_—\n\n263\n\n-\n\nI regret that I must confine myself, during the few minutes in which I\n\nam\n\npermitted to speak, to manual training for boys, excluding the girls; but I\n\nwish it understood that girls can with almost equal profit take all the wood-\n\nwork and all the drawdng that the boys\n\ntake.\n\nSuch subjects are highly\n\neducational, very interesting, very helpful in their studies,\n\nand extremely\n\nserviceable later on.\nI assume that every boy in the secondary school takes manual training for\nat least one year.\n\nhim to give it.\n\nEvery boy owes it to himself to take it, and we owe it to\n\nWhen properly taught, it opens up a new field, and it furnishes\n\neducational opportunity that no one can afford to miss.\n\nAfter a year qf such\n\nwork the secondary schools should differentiate between those which have\nmanual training and those which have none.\nI do not approve of pupils taking \"occasional\" shop lessons; that is, join-\n\ning a class of ''regulars\" whenever they feel Hke it, or whenever they have\n\nand confessedly doing less than the full amount of work in it. Such\nwork is very disappointing, and such students are very demorahzing to a\nManual training should be treated with respect. The student should\nclass.\nbe held to strict account, and his work should be graded and counted as other\nwork is graded and counted.\nBoth the appliances for manual training and the nature of the work itself\nWhat is its great object and\ndepend upon the purpose of manual training.\nwill\nquestion,\nit\nbe\neasy\nto\nspecify how best to secure\nanswer\nthat\naim ? If we\nwhat we are aiming at.\nThe object of manual training is mastery mastery of the external world,\nmastery of tools, mastery of materials, mastery of processes. Only recently\nhave the mechanical arts been studied, analyzed, and arranged in logical\norder for the purpose of being taught. It was formerly assumed without\nargument that the only way to learn to use tools and to master materials and\nmechanical processes was to go into a shop as an apprentice, or associate\none's self with workmen engaged in the execution of ordinary commercial\nwork. The idea of putting the mechanic arts into a school and teaching\nthem step by step was a new thought, just as it was a new thought when law,\nmedical, naval, and military schools took the place of the court-room, the\nBut the world has\ndoctor's office, the deck of a ship, and a military camp.\nmade progress in educational matters during the last fifty years, and in nothing\nmore emphatically than in this one item of teaching the mechanic arts.\ntime,\n\n—\n\nI\n\nYou will notice that I am not thinking of future occupations so much as\nam of a general preparation for life, altho I do recognize that not only the\n\nindustries, but the physical, the chemical, the biological, the engineering, the\n\narchitectural, the dental, and the medical laboratory\nin their preparatory courses.\nit\n\nshuts nothing out.\n\n—\n\nall need manual\n\ntraining\n\nManual training leads up to all studies, and\n\nOn the other hand, it opens the doors, and lifts the\n\nshades which hide or obscure the activities of the world in which we live.\n\nMany mistakes have been made, arising from a wrong notion of the object\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n264\nof\n\nmanual\n\ntraining.\n\nHence in one locality manual\n\n[Milwaukee\n\ntraining has a strong\n\ntendency to run into trade work; in another it runs into art work; in another\nit\n\nruns into the factory idea and aims at production rather than education.\n\nSome people fancy that manual labor is the same thing as manual training.\n\nWe are frequently told that the boy from the farm has had manual training;\nand it is true he has had some manual training, but he has had a great deal\nI know because I was a farm boy and learned\nof manual labor along with it.\neverything that could be learned on a farm previous to my college course. I\nlearned to use correctly the hoe, the shovel, the plow, the scythe, the cradle,\n\nand tp swing an ax; but I never learped the proper use of bench tools, nor\nhad we a machine tool of any kind. I knew nothing of drawing, nothing of\nNineteen -twentieths of my time was\nthe mechanic arts, properly so called.\nspent simply in hard labor, which had no education in it beyond the study of\ncrops and soils, and the market. Manual training would have been of great\nvalue, and a few lessons would have saved me much time and much money.\nRecently I heard a gentleman from New York city, who evidently had\nseen somewhere a kind of manual training that was of very Httle value, say\nthat a boy would learn more about the use of tools in half an hour by watching a good workman than he would learn in a month in a manual-training\nschool. No man could have made that remark if he had seen manual training,\nproperly so called, for the very thing which he wanted he would have found\nHe would have seen an expert workman\nin a good manual -training school.\nusing his tools correctly, treating his material correctly, and following the\nHe would have heard every step fully\ndetails of a process in logical order.\nexplained, seen every movement shown and justified; and then, in addition\nto the demonstration and the explaining, he would have seen that the boy\nhimself had an opportunity to test the methods and to acquire something of\nThat is exactly what a manual-training school\nthe same skill and mastery.\nis\nthere\nHe is put there to explain and\nfor.\nThe\nteacher\nput\nto teach.\nis\nanalyze, to illustrate, and to show how to solve mechanical problems.\nI am reminded of a remark made to me recently by a gentleman in middle\nlife, a very excellent carpenter, whom I saw watching my boys, twenty-four\nHe seemed\nof them, at work making their first weld in the forging shop.\nintensely interested as he watched one of the young men at his work.\nI said:\n\"Youseem tolike to see theboys work. Do you understand what they are\ndoing ?\" ** Yes,\" said he, \"I worked a year once in a blacksmith shop.\" \"Well,\"\nsaid I, \"then I suppose this operation of welding is a very simple matter to\n\nyou.\" \"Not at all,\" said he; \"I never made a weld in my life.\nchance.\n\nI never got a\n\nI kindled the fire and blew the bellows, and I did some striking for\n\nother men; but they never let me try to make a weld.\"\n\nThen he added, with\n\na good deal of feeling: \"These boys learn more in one week about the really\nessential art of forging than I learned in half a year.\"\n\nAnd the secret of it is\n\nthey have a thoroly skilled workman who is competent both to teach and to\n\ndemonstrate every principle involved.\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "MANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES\n\n265\n\nThe factory idea has done nothing but harm in manual training.\n\nIt has\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nresulted in a great waste of time and a great loss of interest and respect.\n\nA\n\nteacher once said to me that he had had what they called manual training\n\nAmong other things, he said he was shown how\nmake a wooden hat-rack with a variety of pins and joints, and he found\nthe work interesting and profitable while he made a single hat-rack to fasten\n\nduring his freshman year.\nto\n\n\"But,\" said he, ''after I had learned all there was in it, I was\nThey had received an order for six, and I\n\nto a wall.\n\ntold to make six more hat-racks!\n\nmust make them. I rebelled and said it would be a great waste of time on\nI wanted the time to be learning something new; but they had the\nThe correct course is to abandon a process the\norder, and I had to fill it.\"\n\nmy part.\n\nmoment one has mastered it, and go forward to the mastery of a new one.\nIn that way every day is a step forward, and the pupil never has the feeling\nof a waste of time.\n\nNow for the appliances.\n\nAs I have already clearly intimated, the most\nTo be sure, he is an\nexpert mechanic, but he is a great deal more than an expert mechanic. He\nis a well-educated man, familiar with mechanical drawing; familiar with\nelementary physics; familiar with algebra and geometry; and withal a man\nwho can both talk and write good EngHsh. He must be a bom teacher,\nlogical, clear; and he must understand boys and understand what they are in\nimportant appliance in manual training is the teacher.\n\nhis shop for; that they are not there to fill orders, to execute work, or to have\n\nthe tools taken out of their hands and their exercises done for them; he\n\nthem how to do the exercises.\nthe how and the why every time.\n\nto teach\n\nis\n\nHe is to show them the what and\n\n—\n\nThe first teacher I ever engaged to teach tool-work and that was thirty\nwas reputed to be the best workman in St. Louis. He utterly failed\n\nyears ago\n\n—\n\nas a teacher.\n\nHe could see only one object in all that he and his pupils were\n\ndoing, and that was the finished article;\n\nand again and again he found it very\n\nmuch easier to do the work himself than it was to teach the boys to do it; and,\nbesides that, his work was much better than theirs and made a much better\nshowing.\n\nI discharged him within two months of his engagement.\n\nSecondly, the shop or tool laboratory where manual training is to be taught\n\nmust be large, light, and wholesome. It must not be relegated to the basement. It must be furnished with blackboards, blue prints, charts, and complete benches and outfits of tools for the individual pupils.\nIn the case of edge tools, which the pupil should be taught to keep in\n\nand for these he\nOnly unusual and occasional tools should be\nrepresented by single specimens and kept in charge of the teacher.\n\nperfect order, each pupil should have his individual set,\n\nshould be strictly responsible.\n\nI object to a very expensive outfit,\n\ncommercial estabUshments.\n\nand to outfits which attempt to rival\n\nI know of two or three manual-training schools\n\nin the East which have shops fitted, as I think, in a very extravagant and\n\nunnecessary manner.\n\nThe men in charge have designed their outfits, not\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n266\n\nfrom an educational standpoint, but from a commercial standpoint.\n\n[Milwaukee\n\nAccord-\n\ningly they are prepared to undertake work unnecessarily large and unneces-\n\nThe fundamental principles can be taught at\n\nsarily special in character.\n\ncomparatively little expense, and it is not wise to make arrangements for the\nconstruction of\n\nshow pieces, and\n\noften\n\nit\n\nis\n\nfoolish\n\nand wasteful to build\n\nappliances for the shop itself.\n\nThe shops I recommend are wood- working shops in which ordinary bench\ntools are used, where a variety of hard and soft lumber is wrought upon, and\n\nwhere the fundamental principles of workmanship are taught; secondly, a\nwood-turning shop, which is always a pattern shop, where opportunities for\nlearning the complete alphabet of steps in wood-turning are provided; thirdly,\nthe\n\nfirst\n\nmetal shop, in which metals are heated and thereby made ductile\n\nand pliable.\n\nThe fundamental processes of a forging shop are very few in number,\naltho their applications are countless; but these fundamental processes must\n\nbe learned step* by step, studying all the while the degree and influence of\nheat, and the behavior of iron and steel when heated, and heated to different\n\ndegrees.\n\nThere is so much in a forging exercise for the learner to master that it\n\nis better to divide it, the first step being a question of form and of manipulation\n\nthe second, a question of heat and the flow of metal under the hammer.\nfirst\n\nThe\n\ncan be learned with an extremely ductile metal like lead; the second,\n\nwith hot iron and then with hot steel.\n\nUp to this time forging shops have been largely equipped in the oldfashioned way, with coal forges and a blast.\n\nThe new forge will be a gas\n\nforge, where a mixture of gas and air is driven by a pressure blower, producing\n\nexactly the heat required with a minimum expenditure of time and dirty work.\nI\n\nam at the present time equipping a forging shop for twenty-four students,\n\nthe outfit being twenty forges for the students, partly gas and partly coke,\n\nand a coke forge for the instructor,\nI may say here that the appliances for instruction should be of the best\nsort.\n\nIt is the function of the teacher to teach both the art and the science of\n\nthe art, and he must have the best of opportunities for doing so.\nIt is a popular fallacy to assume that the master- workman, who is skilled\n\nin the use of the best tools, is relatively unskilled and helpless in the presence\nof but a few tools and those inferior.\n\nSimilarly, is it held to be a truism that\n\nthe accomplished cook, who is familiar with the cooking appliances of a mod-\n\nern first-class hotel, would utterly fail if put into an ordinary kitchen with a\ncoal stove and a common kitchen outfit.\n\nare totally wrong.\n\nIn point of fact, both assumptions\n\nThe true expert is always an expert, whether in tuxedoes\n\nor jumpers; in a palace of machinery, or shipwrecked on a desert island; and\nhis skill is never more apparent than when he makes poor tools seem like good\n\nones, and when he gives to narrow appliances a range which the untrained\n\nplodder never dreamed of.\n\nDid you ever hear a first-class organist perform\n\non a third-class organ, and did he not make it talk and sing thru all its octaves\nin a\n\nmanner most surprising?\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Supferintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES\n\n267\n\nBrazing and soldering are arts which involve the behavior of certain alloys\n\nwhen heated, and they can be readily taught with few appliances, either in\nthe pattern shop or in the forging shop.\n\nThe fourth shop is the molding and casting shop, where the use of patterns\nand the methods of making molds are mastered so far as\nthe elements go. The process of molding and casting determines many of the\ndetails of patterns, and the pupil learns how patterns must be divided; what\ncores are for, and how they are made; and what core-prints are, and how they\n\nis fully illustrated,\n\nare used.\n\nThe quality of a mold is determined by filling it with a Hquid which readily\nThe liquid may be\nI do not recommend iron or\nthin plaster-paris, or molten lead, or an alloy.\nsohdifies, and thus takes on the form of the mold itself.\n\nsteel casting, inasmuch as it is very expensive to test molds with such metals,\nand it is almost impossible to work successfully with small quantities of material.\n\nIf the school uses large quantities, there is a great deal of coarse labor\n\nand expense which is not justified by the educational result. Commercial\nwork should never be thought of in a school. In practical life a great many\nthings are cast in molds, such as works of fine art in bronze, in plaster, in brass,\nand other alloys; as well as in iron and steel in the industries.\nIt is a great mistake to multiply simple castings the patterns for which are\nborrowed or constructed elsewhere. For example, a purchased medalUon in\nlow relief may be molded and cast with little difficulty and the product put\nup as an evidence of \"art work\" on the part of the students, when really there\nis but a minimum of art work in it\nno more art work than there would be\nin molding and casting a plane geometrical solid.\nThe most expensive shop of all is the fourth, in which the use of tools for cutting and fitting the harder metals without the assistance of heat is learned. This\nis ordinarily known as the \"machine shop,\" inasmuch as the tools are largely\nmachine tools of considerable complexity, altho there is always a certain proportion of bench work connected with all machine work.\nIt is in this shop\nthat we find the most elaborate, the highly scientific, appliances, and it is a\n\n—\n\nfine educational\n\nachievement for the pupil to master the separate tools, to\n\nlearn their uses and their requirements.\nfiling, drilling,\n\nThe whole theory of metal-chipping,\n\nplaning, and turning is new to him, and intensely interesting.\n\nAccordingly, the shop should be equipped with certain standard tools for the\nprocesses I have named.\n\nThe lathes, drills, and planers need not be large,\n\nbut they should be ample for such exercises as are found useful in the course\nof instruction.\n\nAs the pupil's mastery grows, he sees more quickly the logic\n\nof a machine, and he thinks over again the thoughts of the designer or inventor,\n\nand appreciates, as he never appreciated before, the high qualities of the\nskilled expert.\n\nThe machine shop, Uke all other shops, should be fitted for regular sections\nof students\n\nnumbering not over twenty-four, nor should it accommodate less\n\nthan twenty.\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n268\n\n[Mflwaukee\n\nIn a modem school all the machinery should be driven by electric motors,\nand the machinery in any one shop should be absolutely under the control of\nthe teacher of that shop. While he is giving his demonstration of theory and\npractice, the shop machinery should be still, and such as he needs at his own\ninstruction table should be driven by a separate motor.\n\nThe cost of the tools for a well-regulated manual-training school, containing\nthree hundred boys, should not be less than $10,000, and it need not exceed\n\nunder any circumstances $15,000.\nI shall have little to say upon the course of instruction other than to follow\n\nthe lines suggested by the shops and tool appliances.\n\nThere is no royal set\n\nof models or exercises in shop work, any more than there are royal selections\n\nThe live teacher\nwho studies both his subject and his pupils will never be content to use this\nyear just the series of exercises he used last year. He will see how they can\nbe improved, how certain fundamental principles can be more clearly presented and illustrated, and how both time and material may be saved by\nin literature or royal examples in arithmetic and algebra.\n\njudicious combinations.\n\nMore and more every year, from what I see in my own school and elsewhere\n\n—and my observation has been very wide—do\n\nI deplore the waste of\n\nopportunity in needless repetitions, and the folly of bad arrangements.\n\nI have\n\nseen incompetent teachers yielding to the lawless whims and fancies of pupils,\n\nwhen those whims and fancies should have been guided and controlled.\n\nThe\n\nuntaught boy has no appreciation of the importance of sequence, nor the neces-\n\nknowing just how tools should be used before he undertakes to use\nthem in a project. If left to himself, he undertakes what he is not prepared\nto do; he uses the wrong tools, or the right tools in the wrong way; and his\nworkmanship is invariably bad. His object is not manual training; it is a\nproject; and his estimate of the value of manual training is based upon the\nvalue of the completed exercise. Again and again have I stated and my\njudgment is confirmed by the judgment of any number of mature students\nwho look back upon their training that the main thing is the boy and not\nthe article; and that, were all the exercises of the year shoveled into the furnace and burned, so far as they are combustible, all the manual training\nwould survive in the developed brains and trained functions of the pupils.\nAt the same time, as a justification of the logic of every series of elementary\nsity of\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsteps, the pupil should be required, under the direction of the teacher, to make\n\nwhat we call a synthetic exercise, in which the elements are combined into an\nuse or beauty, or both. Such exercises we call \"projects,\" inasmuch as they are supposed to be the fruit of a mastery of the elements; and\n\narticle for\n\nit is\n\ndesirable that every pupil should be made to understand that when one\n\nhas mastered the elements he can then be a master-builder.\n\nThese projects\n\nnaturally form a large part of a manual-training exhibit, but they should not\n\nmislead anyone, as it should always be understood that they are based upon\n\na preliminary mastery of the elements involved.\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSuperintendence]\n\nMANUAL TRAINING IN GRADES AND COLLEGES\n\n269\n\nIn connection with every branch of manual training, pupils should be held\nto a clear\n\ncomprehension of the principles involved in good workmanship.\n\nExaminations, not in descriptive phrase or language learned from books, but\nin actual laboratory performances, and reports of personal experience, should\n\nbe frequent, and all exercises should be carefully criticised and graded, both\n\nby the student himself and by the instructor.\nIn the weekly program manual training should have its proper place, and\nIt is extremely\nthat place should not be interfered with by other exercises.\ndemorahzing to do what is often done, viz. keep a boy away from the shop\n:\n\nin order to punish\n\nhim for failure in some other line.\n\nWhile it is a severe\n\npunishment, it is absolutely destructive of all standards in manual training.\n\nShop periods should never be so long as to tire the pupils and dull the edge\nmoment the work becomes tiresome and the mind wanders, education stops.\nBoys of fifteen can work two hours with unabated\nPupils of eighteen or\nzeal and interest, but three hours would be too long.\ntwenty years can work three hours, but it would be a mistake to have them\nwork four. This has been tried, and there was no doubt about the ill effects\nPlease remember that I am not talking about men at\nof the longer period.\nThey are working for\ntrades or in factories, or engaged in industrial work.\nwages and not for education, and, as we all know, there is but little education\nof interest; for the\n\nand a good deal of the automatic in it.\nIn a four-year course of study six hours of work a week of shop work during\nthe first two years and nine hours a week of shop work during the next two\n\nThese hours include the time spent in\nAs a general rule, pupils ought not to be allowed to\nwork without supervision, for the reason that the method of working, the tools\nthey use and how they use them, the material employed and how it is used\nyears is a fair proportion of time.\n\nwashing and dressing.\n\nthese are the very things which are of chief importance; and, accordingly, they\n\nshould be under constant supervision.\nto\n\ndo the work\n\nIf you answer that the boy knows how\n\nperfectly, and therefore\n\nneeds no supervision, then I reply\n\nthat he need not do the work; he should do something else that does need\nsupervision.\n\nProbably the best fruit of manual training is the power of mechanical\nanalysis.\n\nThis power cannot be learned from books, nor from lectures, nor\n\nfrom endless notes and drawings. It must be learned by actual work with\ntools and materials, under the best possible guidance, and with the constant\nuse of drawings.\n\nThe abiUty to analyze a complicated series of operations\n\ninto a series of simple steps, logically arranged, leads to the habit of always\n\nmaking an analysis in every concrete problem; and that habit once formed\nhas its influence upon every mental operation, whether concrete or abstract.\nIt\n\nruns into every exercise the student has in mathematics, in language, in\n\nliterature, in science, in ethics, and in art.\n\nIn it one finds the great intel-\n\nlectual value of manual training.\nI\n\nhave not time to dwell upon the importance of mechanical drawing,\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n270\n\n[MUwaukee\n\nwhich from the beginning to the end should accompany shop work.\ndrawing easily outruns the shops.\n\nIt\n\ncomplicated for the shop teacher to follow, but\nthoroly intelligible at every step;\ncrafts,\n\nThe\n\ngoes into fields too difficult and too\nit\n\nshould be thoro and\n\nnot for art work merely, nor for the\n\nbut for both, and for the culture of the geometric imagination.\n\nSo\n\nlong as drawing is based upon principles which can be clearly stated and\n\nand every pupil,\nbecome a fair draftsman; and even in the\nrealm of free-hand drawing great progress can be made and a fair degree of\nskill acquired almost without the pupils being aware of it.\nI regret that I have not time to point out more fully some of the more\nunderstood,\n\nit\n\nis within\n\nthe reach of every rational pupil\n\n;\n\nboy or girl, fast or slow, can\n\nflagrant instances of mistaken emphasis; perhaps with a clearer idea of the\n\nmeaning of it all, the cultivated teacher will correct the emphasis.\n\nI have,\n\nhowever, time to say to you superintendents; you who stand at the helms of\neducational systems, who arrange courses of study, approve of weekly pro-\n\ngrams, and direct the supervisors of manual training\n\n—that we\n\nrely on\n\nto see to it that the manual-training contingent does not shipwreck\n\nyou\n\non the\n\nshoals and shallows of whims and fancies of untaught children, and the ethical\nand aesthetical delusions of unskilled teachers, on the one hand and, on the\nother, that it shuns the depths and whirlpools of blind constructions born of\nambition and lack of sense. Keep the smooth, safe channel of common-sense\n;\n\nand approved educational methods.\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION'\nPREAMBLE\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest\n\nand public importance, and the\n\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of th? discussions and the conclusions\n\nformulated.\n\nIt shall\n\ntional questions;\nits\n\nbe its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educa-\n\nand, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting\n\ndiscussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the\n\nsubject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\n\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject.\nIt shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the same.\n\nIt shall further require\n\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, when-\n\never grounds have been furnished for the\n\nsame by members of the Council.\n\nIt shall\n\ninvite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions.\n\nAny member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the\ngrounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\nIt shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Associa-\n\nsetting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year,\nand placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accompUshed. It shall\nembody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any\naction on the part of the Association.\nThe Council shall appoint, out of its own number,\ncommittees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the\nexchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of\ntion,\n\nthe profession or of the public.\n\nAJITICLE I—MEMBERSHIP\nThe National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association.\nAny member of the Associa1.\n\ntion identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\n\nthe\n\nfirst election,\n\nsuch membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\n\nprovided.\n2.\n\n—four members\n\nIn the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members\n\nand two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided for (sec. 5), to serve\n\nfor six years, two for four years,\n\n—\n\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3.\n\nThe annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\n\nthe annual meetings of the Association.\n\nIf the\n\nBoard of Directors shall fail, for any\n\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancv or vacancies shall be filled by\n\nthe Council.\n\n271\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n272\n4.\n\n[National\n\nThe term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first\n\nelection shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5.\n\nThe absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\n\nbe considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\nshall\n\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term.\n\nAll persons who have belonged\n\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\n\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\n\nNo state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\n\nARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\n\nEducational Association.\n\nARTICLE III—MEETINGS\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nand at least two days previous to\nThere may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nthis meeting.\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association,\n\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\n\nARTICLE IV—THE WORK OF THE COUNCIL\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council;\n\nalso\n\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association^ or\n\nany of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\n\nARTICLE V—THE APPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEES AND\nEXPERTS\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall\n\nbe the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\n\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best quaUfied to conduct investigations.\n\nARTICLE VI— OFFICERS\nAt the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\n\nand the secretary\nand thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officers\n\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years,\n\nfor a term of one year;\n\nshall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\n\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exi.sts.\n\nARTICLE VII—STANDING COMMITTEES\nThere shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\nThe Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\n2.\nof three other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\n1.\n\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "OFFICERS AND STANDING COMMITTEES\n\nCouncil]\n\n3.\n\n273\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide an annual program by\n\nselecting,\n\nwhenever feasible, subjects\n\nconduct such investigations.\n\nIt shall\n\nfor investigation,\n\nand appointing committees to\n\nbe the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\n\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall\n\nbe the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\n\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n\nThe Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\n4.\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may\nbe filled every year, beginning with 1899.\n<;.\n\nThere shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\n\nmeeting, a report on \"Educational Progress During the Past Year,\" in which a survey\nof the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is. given.\n\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6.\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903.\nNo proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\n\nARTICLE VIII—THE DUTIES OF THE COUNCIL\n1.\n\nIt shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\n\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2.\n\nThe meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\"\n\ncharacter.\n\nARTICLE IX—AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\n\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING COMMITTEES, MEMBERS\nOFFICERS FOR 1905-1906\nELMER E. BROWN\n\nBerkeley, Cal\n\nPresident\n\nAUGUSTUS S. DOWNING.... Albany, N. Y\nJOHN W. CARR\nDayton, Ohio\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1908\n\nEXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\nThe President,\nAnna Tolman Siirrn\nHoward J. Rogers\nJames M. Greenwood\n\nex officio\n\nWashington, D. C\nAlbany, N. Y\n\nKansas City, Mo\n\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1908\n\nCOMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP\nW. T. Harris\nAlbert G. Lane\nChas. D. McIver\nLivingston C. Lord\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nE. Oram Lyte\n\nWashington, D. C\nChicago, 111\n\nGreensboro, N. C\nCharleston, 111\n\nKansas City, Mo\nMillersville, Pa\n\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1908\nTerm expires in 1908\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "11\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n274\n\n[National\n\nCOMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS\nKansas City, Mo\nTerm expires in 1906\n\nJames M. Greenwood Chairman\n\n'.\n\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer E. Brown\nEdwin A. Alderman\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D, Harvey\nNicholas Murray Butler\nNewton C. Dougherty\nWilliam R. Harper\n\nBoston, Mass\nBerkeley, Cal\nCharlottesville, Va\n\nAlbany, N. Y\n\n'.\n\nMenomonie, Wis\nNew York, N. Y\nPeoria, 111\n\nChicago, 111\n\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires in 1908\nTerm expires in 1908\nTerm expires in 1908\n\nMEMBERS\nNote.\nciation-,\n\n—^The\n\nletter\n\n\"A\" following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the Asso-\n\nthe letter \" C,\" by the Council.\n\nTerm expires\n\nA 1906\nA 1906\nA 1906\nA 1906\nA 1906\n\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind\n*J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\n\nLivingtson C. Lord, Charleston, HI\n\nC James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\nC. C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal\n\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\n\n*Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, Ohio\n*J. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan\nAaron Gove, Denver, Colo\n*J. W. Carr, Dayton, Ohio.\n\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass\n\nA 190\nA 190\nA 190\nA 190\nA 190\nC 190\n\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J\nAugustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y\nA. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111\nChas. D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C\n\nE. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass\n\nWm. K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr\n\nC 190\nC 190\nC 190'\nC 190'\n\nCharles F. Thwing, Cleveland, Ohio\n\nA 1908\n\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111\nJohn R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo\n\nA 1908\nA 1908\nA 1908\nA 1908\n\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, Ohio\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\n\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y\n\nWilliam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind\nJ. F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal\n\nW. M. Davidson, Omaha, Nebr\n\nC 1908\n\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, Philadelphia, Pa. .C 1908\nL. E. Wolfe, San Antonia, Tex\nC 1908\nJames E. Russell, New York, N. Y\nC 1908\n.\n\nC 1908\n\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111\n\nTerm expires\n\nW. T. Harris, Washington, D. C...\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y\nE. G. Cooley, Chicago, 111\n\nHoward J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y\nN. Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind\n\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich\n\nC 1909\nC 1909\nNicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y C 5909\nA 1910\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111\nEhner E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\n\nW. H. Black, Marshall, Mo\n\n.\n\nF. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo\n\nR. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis\nCarroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis\nAnna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C\nJosephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo\nJames H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo\n\nAnna C. Brackett, New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\n\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.\nD, Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\n\nA 191\nA 191\nA 191\nA 191\nA 191\n\nI. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis\nE. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\nJ. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa\nNathan C Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\n\nRichard G. Boone, Yonkers, N. Y.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, Ohio.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Maine.\n\nEarl Barnes, Montclair, N. J.\n\nC .1910\nC 1910\nC 1910\nC 1910\nC 1910\n\nNewton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111\nW. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\n\nI.«wis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo\n\nPresent at the Council sessions at Asbury Park and Ocean Grove, N. J., 1905. forty-one.\n\n.\n\nA 1910\nA 1910\nA 1910\nA 1910\n\nLorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis\n\nHONORARY MEMBERS\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va.\n\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nC 1909\nC 1909\n\nWilliam R. Harper, Chicago, lU\n\nC 191\nC 191\nC 1911\n•.\n\n.C 191\n\nC 191\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY AND DECEASED MEMBERS\n\n275\n\nHONORARY MEMBERS— continued\nJohn Dewey, New York, N. Y.\nJohn Eaton. Washington, D. C.\n\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\nW. H. Payne, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nWilliam F. Phelps, St. Paul, Minn.\n\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\n\nJosiah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Maine.\n\nCharles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nRobert E. l5enfield, Duluth, Minn.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\n\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Gal.\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.\n\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\n\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Lexington, Ky.\nFrank Rigler, Portland, Oregon.\nWilliam H. Ruffner, Lexington, Va.\n\nR. B. Fulton, University, Miss.\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York, N. Y.\nDaniel C. Gilman, Baltimore, Md.\n\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield, Mass.\nW. N. Hailmann, Chicago, 111.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass,\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWalter L. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge H. Howison, Berkeley, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Champaign, 111.\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C.\n\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapolis, Minn.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, Iowa.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlbert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\n\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nHenry Sabin, Des Moines, Iowa.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\n\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, Iowa.\nH. E Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nCharles R. Skinner, Watertown, N. Y.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nJ. L. Spalding, Peoria, 111.\n\nHomer B. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nW. Steams, San Diego, Cal.\nThomas B. Stockwell, Providence, R. I.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Nebr.\nJ.\n\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\n\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\n\nDelia L. Williams, Delaware, Ohio.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\n\nLillie J. Martin, Stanford Univ., Cal.\n\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nCharles A. McMurry, De Kalb, III\n\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Nebr.\nC. M. Woodward, St. Louis, Mo.\nElla F. Young, Chicago, 111.\n\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\nDECEASED MEMBERS\nEdwin C. Hcwett\n\n1905'\n\nS. S. Parr\n\n1900\n\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nEhiathan E. Higbec\n\n1889\n\nSelim H. Peabody\n\n1902\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\n\n1899\n1900\n\n1903\n1900'\n\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nMatilda S. Cooper Poucher. 1900\n\nNewton Bateman\nReuben S. Bingham\n\n1897\n\n1905\n\nWilliam B. Powell\n\n1892\n\nNorman A. Calkins\n\n1895\n\nAaron L. Chapin\n\n1892\n\nZalmon Richards\nAndrew J. Rickofl\nCharles C. Rounds\n\n1904\n1899\n1899\n1901\n\nClara Conway\n\n1904\n1902\n\nFrank A Hill\nBurke A. Hinsdale\nIra G. Hoitt\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N.James\nH. S. Jones\n\n1900\n\nEdward R. Shaw\n\n1903\n\nThomas Kirkland\n\n1898^\n\nJames A. Smart\n\n1900\n\n1888\n\nR. W. Stevenson\n\n1893\n1888\n\nRobert Allyn\n\nJ. L. M. Curry\n\n1902\n\n•\n\n1901\n1901\n\n.\n\nN. R. H. Dawson\nJohn W. Dickinson\nLarkin Dunton\n\n1895\n\nMerrick Lyon\n\n1901\n\nJames McCosh\n\n1894'\n\n1899\n\n1902;\n\nW. R. Garrett\n\n1903\n\n1905,\n\nSamuel S. Greene\nJohn M, Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\nJohn Hancock\nWilliamjD. Henkle\n\n1883\n\nThomas J. Morgan\nLemuel Moss\nM. A. Newell\n\n1893'\n\nEli T. Tappan\nHorace S. Tarbell\nCl^arles O. Thompson\nH. S. Thompson\n\n1898\n\nBirdsey G. Northrop\n\n1898]\n\nArnold Tompkins\n\n1901\n\nEdward Olney\n\n1886\n\n1896\n\nGustavus J. Orr\nFrands W. Parker\n\ni888[\n\n1891\n1882\n\nJames P. Wickersham\nS. G. Williams\n1902T ,, Emerson E. White\n:\n\n1904\n1885\n\n1904\n1905\n1891\n\n1900\n1902\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": ",\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n276\n\n[National\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Monday Forenoon, July 3, 1905\nThe Council met in the First Methodist Episcopal Church of Asbury Park, N. J.,\nand was called to order by Nathan C. Schaeffer, vice-president, who opened the session\nwith prayer.\nVice-President Schaeffer announced that President Elmer E. Brown of the Council\nwas detained at his home in Berkeley, CaL, on account of severe illness.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kan., was, on motion, appointed to assist the secretary\nin reporting the discussions of the session.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities was submitted by Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis., chairman of the committee.\n\nCopies of the report had been sent to the members of the Council in advance\n\nof the meeting, and all members had been invited to be prepared to join in the discussion\n\nof the report.\n\nAdditional printed copies of the report had been distributed.\n\nThe report was discussed by Charles D. Mclver, Greensboro, N. C;\n\nA. C. True,\n\ndirector of Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C;\n\nWillet M. Hays, assistant secretary of agriculture, Washington, D. C;\n\nG. Stanley Hall,\nLewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.; John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.;\nJames M. Green, Trenton, N. J.; A. S. Downing, Albany, N. Y.\nOn motion of J. M. Greenwood, the report of the committee was accepted and recommended to the Board of Directors for publication.\nAt a later meeting of the Council a motion was passed requesting the Board of DirecWorcester, Mass.;\n\ntors to print 10,000 copies of the report for free distribution\n\namong the active members\n\nof the Association on request, and to be sold to others at cost of printing and postage.\n\nThe president appointed a Committee on Nomination of officers as follows: E. Oram\nJ. M. Green, of New Jersey; Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado.\n\nLyte, of Pennsylvania;\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Monday Afternoon, July 3\nThe Council was called to order by Vice-President Schaeffer at 2 30 p. m.\n:\n\n\"Report on the Educational Progress of the Year\" was presented by Howard J.\nRogers, first assistant commissioner of education for the state of New York, Albany, N. Y.\n\nAt the close of the reading of the report, the Council adjourned to meet at 9 30 a. m.,\n:\n\nJuly 4.\n\nTHIRD SESSION.—Wednesday Forenoon, July 4\nThe Council was called to order by Vice-President Schaeffer at 9 30 A. M.\nThe first topic of the morning was a symposium on \"What Are at Present the Most\n:\n\nPromising Subjects for Such Investigations as the National Council of Education Should\n\nUndertake?\"\n\nThe first paper was presented by George H. Martin, of Massachusetts;\n\nthe second\n\npaper, by James M. Greenwood, of Missouri; and the third paper, by Dr. W. T. Harris,\n\nUnited States Commissioner of education, Washington, D. C.\nDiscussions followed by Lewis H. Jones, of Michigan; L. E. Wolfe, of Texas; James\nH. Russell, of New York.\nThe second topic was a \"Report on Taxation as Related to PubHc Education.\"\nThis report was submitted by the chairman of the committee, James M. Greenwood,\nKansas City. Mo. The report was in printed form and was distributed among members\nIt had also been sent in advance of the meeting to members of the Council,\nof the Council.\nthat they might be prepared to join in discussing the recommendations of the report.\nDiscussion of the report was led by J. N. Wilkinson, of Kansas; Frank A. Fitzpatrick,\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\n277\n\nand Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania.\n\nOn motion of I. C. McNeill,\n\nCouncil]\n\nof Massachusetts;\n\nof Wisconsin, the report was accepted and recommended for publication by the Board of\nDirectors.\n\nAt a later meeting of the Council it was recommended that 2,000 copies of the report\nbe printed for free distribution to members of the Association on application, and sold to\nothers at the cost of printing and postage.\n\nBy unanimous vote, the Council instructed the secretary to send a telegram to the\npresident of the Council, Dr. Elmer E. Brown, who was detained at his home in Berkeley,\nCal., on account of illness.\n\nThe following telegram was sent:\n\nDr. Elmer E. Brown, President of the National Council of Education, Berkeley, Cal.\nThe National Council expresses its profound regret at your inability to be present\nat its sessions and to preside over its deliberations.\n\n(Signed)\n\nJohn W. Carr,\nSecretary of Council.\n\nFOURTH SESSION.—Thursday Forenoon, July 6\nThe Council met and was called to order at 9 30 A. m. by Vice-President Schaeffer.\nThe report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was submitted\n:\n\nby Frank A. Fitzpatrick, of Massachusetts, secretary of the committee, as follows:\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to submit the following report on such matters as have been regularly brought before it for consideration:\nI.\nThe Committee on Industrial Education presented the following request:\nAPPLICATION FOR THE APPOINTMENT OF A COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATION, AND FOR\nRECOMMENDATION OF AN APPROPRIATION FOR THE EXPENSES OF THE SAME\n\n\"On behalf of the Committee of Five on Industrial Education, appointed by the\nCouncil July 7, 1903, whose report is submitted at this meeting, I respectfully ask the\nCouncil to appoint a committee to cont'nue the work already begun by the Committee\nof Five, and to recommend to the Board of Directors that such an appropriation be made\nas may be necessary to carry on the work of the committee and print its records.\n\"It is the judgment of the Committee of Five that if the Council should, deem it wise\nto appoint the committee asked for, it should be authorized to continue its work for at\nleast three years, and to make at least one report a year.\n\"The following are some of the reasons for the appointment of such a committee:\n\"The report of the Committee of Five made at this meeting does not attempt to deal\nwith details, but in a general way sets forth the reasons for industrial education in rural\nschools, the necessity for the organization of a new type of secondary schools in which\nthe industrial phase of educational effort is made prominent; and indicates in brief outline\nwhat may be attempted in the way of industrial education at the present time, in existing\ntypes of schools.\n\n\"Further work is necessary to put into available and authoritative form the results\nof experiments in this field in this and other countries; to give such detail of successful\nexperiments as may be useful in other localities than where the experiment is in operation;\nand to present plans of organization for the development of industrial education in rural\ncommunities.\n\"The United States Department of Agriculture is deeply interested in this subject,\nand it is believed that the proposed committee, representing the National Educational\nAssociation, could in a variety of ways co-operate with this department, thus combining\nfor a single purpose technical knowledge and training, and practical acquaintance with\neducational conditions and possibilities in rural communities\n\"The Patrons of Husbandry, the Farmers' Institute, and other organizations and\nagencies are also interested in industrial education, and it is believed they would welcome\nthe co-operation of a committee of the National Educational Association representing\nthat body and its interest in industrial education.\n\"Such a committee and the Bureau of Education could co-operate in a variety of\nways, which would prove valuable to those interested in the organization and administration of this phase of educational work.\n(Signed)\n\"L. D. Harvey.\"\n\n\"Menomonie, Wis.,\n\n\"May 3, 1905.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n278\n\n[National\n\nOn motion, an appropriation of three hundred dollars ($300) was recommended\nfor the working expenses of this committee during the next year.\n2.\nOn motion, the committee recommends that two thousand copies of the Report\nof the Committee on Taxation as Related to Public Education be printed and distributed\nby the General Secretary of the Association to active members, one copy each, on application only, and sold to others at cost and carriage price; that ten thousand copies of\nthe \"Report of the Committee on Industrial Education in Rural Schools\" be printed\nand distributed by the secretary on the same conditions; and that three thousand copies\nof the \" Report of the Committee' on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Public-School\nTeachers\" be printed and distributed by the Secretary under the conditions outlined\n\nabove.\n\nNo other requests having been presented,\n3.\nof any other matter, the committee adjourned.\n\nand no one appearing in the interest\n\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ.\n\nM Greenwood, Chairman.\n\nF. A. FiTZPATRiCK, Secretary.\n\nOn motion, the report with its recommendations and appropriations was adopted\nby the Council.\nMr. Fitzpatrick also submitted the following communication from James H. Canfield,\nchairman of the Committee on Pubhc Libraries and Public Schools:\n\nTo the President and Members of the National Council of Education:\nFor two years a movement has been under way, based upon careful and continued\ninvestigation, in the hands of a special committee of the Library Department of the National\nEducational Association, to bring the pubUc schools and public libraries together in more\nhelpful relations.\nThis movement looks to a co-ordination of the work of these two\nintegral parts of our system of free public education, and to securing greater efficiency\nin the administration of such school libraries as are in the hands of the teachers as librarians\nto this latter end seeking the aid of some definite instruction in normal schools.\nThis committee has for its chairman the librarian of Columbia University, and for\nits members Mr. Melvil Dewey, of the State Library School, Albany, N. Y.; Miss Mary E.\nAhem, secretary of the Library Department of the National Educational Association,\nand editor of Public Libraries, Chicago, 111.; Mr. Martin Hensel, librarian of the Public\nSchool Libraries of Columbus, O.; and Miss Electra Doren, head instructor in the\nLibrary School of Cleveland, O. The members of this committee are also members of\nthe American Librar}' Association, and have been appointed by that association as a\ncommittee of co-6peration with the Library Department of the National Educational\nAssociation.\nMuch work has been accomplished already, which has been presented in the form\nof special reports and papers before the Library Department of the National Educational\nAssociation, and before the American Library Association.\nDuring this present meeting\na special report will be presented to the Library Department on \"Instruction in Library\nEconomy in Normal Schools\" the result of much correspondence and many conferences,\nand a careful investigation of this entire field.\nThe committee will be continued, with instructions to bring all this matter together\nin a single report, covering the entire question of possible and helpful relations between\nthe public schools and the public libraries, to be published during the current year.\nAn appropriation of $300 maximum, or so much thereof as may be found necessar}',\nis requested for the preparation and publication of this report.\nThe entire work will be\nin the hands of the chairman of the committee, and all expenditures will be made upon\nhis approval only.\nRespectfully,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJames H. Canfield.\n\nThe foregoing report was recommended to the Directors for approval.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman.\nL. D.\n\nHarvey.\n\nMr. Fitzpatrick stated that the Committee on Investigations and .Appropriations\nreported progress on this matter, and recommended to the Board of Directors that an\n\nappropriation of $300 or as much thereof as should be found necessary, be made for the\nuse of this committee for the purposes stated in the communication.\n\nThis recommenda-\n\ntion was, on motion, referred back to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations,\n\nwith authority to communicate direct with the Board of Directors, and to request that\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "© CouncU]\n\nSECRE2\\ARY'S MINUTES\n\n279\n\nbody to make the desired appropriation, to be available when the proposed report of the\ncommittee should be ready for publication.\nSecretary Fitzpatrick also submitted a report from the Committee on Proposed\nInvestigations on the Culture Element\n\nand Economy of Time in Education, as follows:\n\nCambridge, Mass., July i, 1905\nTo the National Council 0} Education:\nThe committee appointed in 1903 to report to the Council on an investigation, proposed by President Baker of the University of Colorado, concerning the culture element\nand the economy of time in education, did not succeed in presenting any report at St. Louis\nThere were differences of opinion in the committee which had been developed\nin 1904.\nin correspondence; and only two members of the committee attended the St. Louis meeting.\nThe Council continued the same Committee of Five, and requested a report from them\nat the meeting in July, 1905.\nThe committee has been obliged to do its work chiefly by correspondence; altho\nthree members of the committee, Messrs. Baker, Goodwin, and Eliot, met in New York\nearly in December last to discuss the results of the correspondence.\nAmong the topics which President Baker had suggested for investigation, there were\nthree which seemed to the committee to afford opportunity for promising inquiries.\nThe\nfirst of these topics was, \"The value of a college training for young men who are going\ninto business.\"\nYour committee are unanimously of the opinion that the Council might\nwisely pass a resolution requesting the Commissioner of Education at Washington to\ninvestigate that subject by ascertaining at several of the business centers of the country\nthe number of college-bred men who hold high places in industries, commerce, and finance.\nYour committee also advise the Council to appoint a committee of five persons,\npartly college men and partly school men, to prepare a report on the following topics:\nfour years from fourteen to eighteen, or six years\n(1) the best period for the high school\nfrom t\\yelve to eighteen; (2) the devices already in use for shortening the college course,\nor the combined courses of college and professional school.\nThese two topics relate to\neconomy of time in education an economy highly valuable to college graduates who are\ngoing into business, as well as to graduates who are going to study a profession. In case\nthe committee just mentioned be appointed, your committee recommends that the Council\nask for an appropriation not exceeding $500, to be placed at the disposal of the new committee to meet the cost of postage, stationery, and clerk hire.\nThis report is unanimous so far as its first recommendation is concerned, and is\nsupported by a majority of the committee as regards the second recommendation.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nCharles W. Eliot,\nJames H. Baker,\nJ.\n\nM. Greenwood,\n\nE. J. Goodwin,\nE. A. Alderman,\nCommittee.\nBy Charles W. Eliot, Chairman.\n\nOn motion, that part of the report relating to the appointment of a committee and\nan appropriation for its expenses was referred ^back to the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations.\nThe report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Public-School\nTeachers was submitted to the Council in printed form, copies having been distributed\nby the secretarj' of the Association in advance of the meeting.\nThe leader of the discussion on behalf of the committee was Charles H. Verrill,\nofficial statistician of the committee, Washington, D. C.\nThe discussion of the report was continued by Andrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y.;\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.; Miss Grace Reed, Chicago, III.; William H. Maxwell,\nNew York city; Miss Anna Tolman Smith, Washington, D. C; and John W. Cook,\n\nDe Kalb, 111.\n\nOn motion, the report was accepted.\nThe Council recommended that three thousand copies of the report be printed for\nfree distribution among the members of the Association, and for sale to others at actual\ncost of printing and postage.\n\nThe report of the Advisory Committee on the Simplification of EngHsh Spelling was\nsubmitted by WilUam H. Maxwell, of New York, chairman of the committee, who submitted both a majority and a minority report.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n28o\n\n[National\n\nOwing to the fact that the hour for adjournment had arrived, action on the report\nwas delayed until the next session of the Council.\n\nFIFTH SESSION.—Thursday Ajternoon, July 6\nMEMORIAL SESSION\nThe Council was called to order at 3 p. m. by Vice-President Schaeffer.\nMemorial addresses on former members of the Council were presented and ordered\nprinted, as follows:\n\nNewton C. Bateman, by N. C. Dougherty, of Illinois.\nClara Conway, by WiUiam T. Harris, of Washington, D. C.\nEdwin C. Hewett, by John W. Cook, of Illinois.\nIra G. Hoitt, by Charles C. Van Liew, of California.\nHorace S. Tarbell, by Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island.\nJohn W. Carr, of Ohio, was appointed to prepare a memorial address for Lemuel\nMoss; and George H. Martin, of Massachusetts, to prepare a memorial address of John\n\nW. Dickinson.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, vice-president of the Council, having been elected President\nof the Association, tendered his resignation as vice-president of the Council.\n\nOn motion,\n\nthe resignation was accepted.\n\nWilliam II. Maxwell, chairman of the Advisory Committee on the Simplification of\nthe English Spelling, completed his report, which was presented in part at the morning\nsession,\n\nand moved that it be referred to the Committee on Investigations and Appro-\n\npriations.\n\nCarried.\n\nThe Council adjourned.\n\nSIXTH SESSION.— Friday Forenoon, July 7\nBUSINESS MEETING\n\nThe Council met in business session in the lecture-room of the First Methodist Episcopal Church at 9 30 a. m.\n:\n\nThe secretary announced that there had been forty-one active and nineteen honorary\nmembers present at the current meetings of the Council.\nThe Committee on Nominations submitted the following report:\nAsBURY Park, N. J., July 7, 1905.\nTo the President and Members of the Council of Education:\nThe undersigned, committee appointed to make nominations of officers to serve the\nCouncil for the ensuing three years, beg leave to make the following report:\nFor secretary, to serve this body for the ensuing three years, J. W. Carr, Dayton,\nOhio, is nominated.\nAs a member of the Executive Committee, James M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo.,\nwhose term of office expires this year, is nominated to succeed himself.\nThe term of two members of the Committee on Membership, James M. Greenwood,\nand James H. Van Sickle, expires this year. Mr. Greenwood is nominated to succeed\nliimself, and Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa., is nominated to succeed Mr. Van Sickle.\nThe term of office of three members of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111., and\nWilliam R. Harper, Chicago, 111. expires this year. Each of these members is nominated\nto succeed himself.\nFor vice-president of the Council, to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of\nN. C. Schaeffer, Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y., is nominated, to serve for the\nunexpired term.\nRespectfully submitted,\nE. O. Lyte, Chairman.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJ.\n\nM. Green.\n\nZ.\n\nX. Snyder.\n\nAt the request of Nathan C. Schaeffer, the name of E. O. Lyte, of Pennsylvania,\nwas on motion substituted in the report for his name as a member of the standing Com-\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nREPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE\n\nmittee on Membership.\n\n281\n\nWith this mod'fication, the report of the committee was on motion\n\nadopted and the nominees declared elected as officers of the Council for the ensu\"ng year.\nSuperintendent James M, Greenwood, on behalf of the Committee on Membership,\nsubmitted the following report:\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\nYour Committee on Nominations of new members submits a report as follows:\n\nThat\n\nthe following-named members, whose terms of office expire with the present meeting, are\nhereby recommended for reappointment for six years:\nFrank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\nJoseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa.\nLewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo.\nZ. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo.\nThe following persons are recommended for appointment to fill vacancies for the\nunexp'red terms of office of the following-named members who have been, by the provisions of the constitution, transferred to the list of honorary members by reason of their\nabsence for two consecut've annual meetings of the Council.\nMartin G. Brumbaugh, of Pennsylvania, to fill the place of E. W. Coy, Cincinnati,\n1.\nOhio, whose term expires in igo8.\n2.\nM.ss N. Cropsey, of Indiana, to fill the place of H. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va.,\nwhose term exp'res in 1909.\nE. G. Cooley, of Illinois, to fill the place of Ella F. Young, whose term expires\n3.\nin 1909.\nC. C. Van Liew, of California, to fill the place of R. E. Denfeld, whose term\n4.\nexpires in 1906.\nJohn R. Kirk, of Missouri, to fill the place of E. A. Alderman, of Virginia, whose\n5.\nterm expires in 1908.\nWilliam L. Bryan, of Indiana, to fill the place of Charles M. Jordan, of Minnesota,\n6.\nwhose term expires in 1908.\nW. H. Maxwell, of New York, to fill the place of C. R. Skinner, of New York,\n7.\nwhose term expires in 1909.\n.\\11 of which is respectfully submitted,\n\nM. Greenwood,\nW. T. Harris,\nJ.\n\nL. C. Lord,\nA. G. Lane,\n\nCommittee.\n\nOn motion, the persons named in the report were duly elected to membership in the\nCouncil, and the secretary of the Council was instructed to inform each member of such\nelection.\n\nThe communication from Charles W. EHot, of Massachusetts, referred to in the\nminutes of the fourth session, was not received in time for proper consideration by the\n\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n\nIt\n\nwas therefore moved that action\n\nbe deferred on this matter, and that the secretary be instructed to notify the committee\n\nwhy action was delayed.\nThere being no other business, the Council adjourned.\nJ.\n\nW. Carr, Secretary\n\nREPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON SIMPLIFICATION\nOF SPELLING\nPRESENTED BY WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, OF NEW YORK, CHAIRMAN\nTO THE COMMITTEE ON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS OF THE\nNATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nGentlemen:\n\nThe committee to whom at your last meeting you referred resolutions adopted by the\nDepartment of Superintendence, February 24, 1904, and Plan A and Plan B submitted\nto the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, June 27, 1904, for\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n282\n\n[National\n\nproviding organized effort and leadership in promoting simplification of our English\nspelling, report as follows:\n\nI\n\nThe committee are unanimous in the belief that the simplification of our English\n•spelling is a matter of the utmost importance and an object worthy of careful considera-\n\ntion and hearty support by the National Educational Association.\n\nThe reasons for this\n\nposition are succinctly stated in the following excerpt from a letter addressed by Professor\n\nCalvin Thomas to the chairman of your committee:\n\nSo far as I am personally concerned, I do not hesitate for a moment to declare myself\nThat\nin sympathy with the object which Mr. Vaile and his co-workers have in view.\nobject, as I understand it, is not to try to bring about, all at once or in a short time, the\nSuch a\ngeneral adoption of new spellings for any very large number of English words.\nIt is of no use to shut our eyes to the enormous force of the\nproject would be chimerical.\nEnglish\nwriters\nand\nreaders\nof\nto the\nprejudice which attaches the great majority of the\nconventional spelling. Adults who have learned to spell in a certain way generally prefer\nto go on in that way, no matter how bad it may be from a scientific point of view,\nThey may admit that much\nrather than to take the trouble of changing fixed habits.\nThe\nof our spelling is irregular and capricious, but its very irregularity is dear to them.\nconventional word-pictures have become as familiar friends, whose faces they like just\nThe usual spelling is associated in their minds so at least they say with\nas they are.\nAny departure from it, even in the\nthe beauty and dignity of the English language.\ndirection of plain common sense, offends them, and they set it down to cranky eccentricity.\nThis prejudice, due solely to the power of visual associations, is unintelligent and\nalways makes sorry work when it seeks to defend itself on rational grounds. The eminent\nscholars who have given most attention to the subject are all but unanimous in the con-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nviction that it would have been far better from every point of view if, from Anglo-Saxon\ndays down, the changes in English spelling had kept pace closely with the changes in\npronunciation. The arguments advanced in support of the conventional spelling where\nit happens to be bad\nwe should never forget that a large part of our spelling is perfectly\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe\nsatisfactory\ninvariably turn out, when closely examined, to have little or no weight.\nspoke for ages before they\ngreat purpose of a system of spelling is to record speech.\nThe best\nwrote, and they invented alphabets to make a record of their spoken language.\nsystem of spelling is that which keeps closest to this principle. Indeed, the only principle\n\nMen\n\nin which the thinking mind can finally rest in stable equilibrium is to spell as we pronounce.\nBut while phonetic spelling is the ideal, and in the long run the only sound ideal, our\n\nEnglish inheritance is such that any attempt to reach the goal quickly would be futile.\nAll that can be hoped for is the gradual adoption of sensible changes in the spelling of\nparticular words and groups of words.\nTo this end, however, it is necessary that the\nsubject be kept before the public, and it seems to me that to aid in keeping it before the\npublic, in a cautious and conservative spirit, is an entirely proper business for a great\nnational educational association.\nThe improvement of our spelling is a matter of perennial\ninterest, and rests upon the same intellectual basis as the improvement of our laws, our\nIt is a matter which has received and is receiving\nfrom educators in other parts of the world a large amount of attention. To push it aside\nas unworthy of serious thought, or as a matter about which nothing can be done thru\norganized effort, is to take a position which, as it seems to me, the National Educational\nart, or any other part of our social life.\n\nAssociation should never assume.\nBut the great, the overwhelmingly cogent, reason why the Association should take\n\nan active interest in this subject, should show its good will, and at least endeavor to do\nsomething, is connected- with the teaching of school children. If only the convenience\nand the prejudices of adults were concerned, we might perhaps think it just as well to let\nmatters drift. But the policy of drift becomes repugnant to the thinking mind when we\nsee millions and millions of children compelled to devote so much of their school time to\na largely futile attempt at the mastery of English spelling; to a mechanical dogmatic drill\nwhich has very little food for thought and no important nourishment for the growing mind,\nbut simply trains the visual memory to the retention of disordered, illogical and anomalous\nfacts.\nAnd the worst of it is that the effort is so largely futile and tends to become more\nThe children do not learn to spell, parents complain of the schools, the higher grades\nso.\ncomplain of the lower, and the public associates the idea of illiteracy, or defective education, with \"bad\" spelling of any kind.\nThe real fault, however, lies not so much with the\nteachers as with our miserable spelling.\nIf we spelled as we ought, children would learn\nto spell correctly in one-quarter of the time they now devote to the subject, and the teaching\nof the art would be a pleasure, instead of a trial, for the intelligent teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE\n\nCouncil]\n\n283\n\nNow\n\nthis state of affairs will not grow better but worse under a policy of drift.\nJust\nin proportion as we cling tenaciously to the dear old absurdities of our spelling, will our\nchildren and our children's children have a harder and harder time in learning to spell.\nor three generations ago the country schoolmaster could perhaps afford to devote\na considerable part of his energy to drilling his pupils upon spelling. There was upon\nthe whole nothing better for them to learn or for him to teach.\nToday the outlook is\ndifferent.\nnumber of fascinating studies which are within the reach of childhood and are\nhave learned some things about psychology.\ngood for childhood clamor for attention.\n\nTwo\n\nA\n\nWe\nWe have at least learned that the youngster is primarily a doing and a growing animal,\n\nand that he needs to be given things to learn which shall feed his mind with real food; feed\nthat is, with ideas and impressions upon which he can reason after his fashion, and\nwhich he can relate to the rest of his knowledge. And when there are so many interesting\nand mind-nourishing things to be learned, the intelligent teacher will chafe more and more\nunder the necessity of devoting so many months and years to a tedious deadening drill,\n\nit,\n\nthe ultimate object of which, after all, is not to teach the pupil how to write his own language, but to teach him how, several centuries ago, the London printers and in the\nbeginning these printers were Dutchmen who did not know English chose to write their\nlanguage. People often talk about the time wasted upon dead languages. It is as a drop\nin the bucket in comparison with the time wasted upon dead spelling.\nLooked at from this point of view the problem of improving our spelling does not\nappear a trifling matter, but one of very great importance; one to which busy men and\nwomen, and especially educators, may very well give earnest attention not for the purpose of fortifying themselves in their own prejudices, which are of little moment, be they\nradical or conservative, but for the purpose of determining soberly and circumspectly\nwhich way the finger of wisdom points, and what can be done to facilitate progress in that\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\ndirection.\n\nII\n\nAssuming that the ideas set forth by Professor Thomas are sound and believing that\nthe majority of the active members of the National Educational Association are in favor\n\nmaking some persistent effort to secure the simplification of English spelling, your\nCommittee sought to determine whether either Plan A or Plan B would be likely to produce valuable results commensurate with the amount of money it is proposed to expend.\nPlan B was not favorably considered by any member of the committee. The following\nobjections were urged against Plan A:\nof\n\n—\n\n1. It would probably not effect the purpose for, which it is designed\nto secure popuThe weight of authority attaching to the names of the\nlarization of reformed spelling.\nmembers of the commission, however great, would not of itself produce the desired result.\n2. The proposed commission is too large for effective work.\nInevitably the majority\nof the members, even if competent men could be induced to serve, would soon become\nmere figure-heads. The work would inevitably fall into the hands of a salaried secretary.\n3. Any committee which is to spend the money of the National Educational AssoNot only should it be called\nciation should be entirely under the control of that body.\nThis commission\ninto existence but it shoxild be extinguishable by the Association.\n\nwould be independent, and while depending on the National Educational Association\nfor financial support, might pursue lines of action at variance with the policy or the best\ninterests of the Association.\n4.\n\nBefore obligating itself to any future payments, the Association should know very\n\ndefinitely what it is proposed to accomplish and how the money is to be expended.\n\nNo\n\nplans of this kind have been formulated. When the advocates of the resolution were\ninvited to state to your committee their conceptions of the purposes for which the money,\nif appropriated, might be expended, the suggestions offered were the following:\na) Paid advertiserhents of the advantages of phonetic spelling to be published in\nleading magazines.\nh) Appeals to large advertisers to write their advertisements in phonetic spelling.\nc)\nPrizes for essays to be written by high school pupils on subjects connected with\n\nreformed spelling.\nd) The furnishing of letter-heads printed in reformed spelling to any business houses\nthat would use them.\ne) The issuing of reformed spelHng calendars.\nAnd the publication of hterature and furnishing of lecturers on the subject.\n/)\n\nThese suggestions do not commend themselves to your committee. They would be\nmuch more apt to lead to ridicule than to approval.\nIn view of these very serious objections, your committee cannot approve Plan A.\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n284\n\n[Nationa\n\nIII\n\nSuperintendent Jordan presented to your committee the following modification of\n\nPlan A, intended to overcome some of the objections stated above:\n\nTo your questions whether we would advise the National Educational Association\nand financial support to either one of the plans suggested,\nYes, to Plan A, modified and outlined as follows:\n\nto lend its moral\n\nwe answer\n\nTHE COMMISSION FOR PROMOTING THE SIMPLIFICATION OF OUR ENGLISH SPELLING\n1. The Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, to appoint, upon\nnomination by the Committee which the Department of Superintendence appointed to\npresent its resolutions, seven prominent, scholarly and discreet friends of the cause to\nconstitute the Executive Board of the Simplified Spelling Commission.\n2. The Executive Board to be empowered, in addition to the regular functions of\nsuch a board, to elect and enroll as members of the commission all friends of the cause,\nespecially men and women of prominence, who are willing to give their names and whatever\nhelp they can in promoting the efforts of the Executive Board,\n3. The members of the commission in each locality to be organized as a local\n\nco-operating center.\n4. The Executive Board to organize itself by choosing from its membership the president and the secretary of the commission, and to appoint the most suitable person it can\nfind for the treasurer.\n5. The members of the commission, including Executive Board, to serve without\ncompensation, excepting the secretary who shall receive an appropriation for salary to be\nfixed by the Board.\n6. The Executive Board to make its own rules for the conduct of its business; to\ndetermine its policy, plans and methods; to fill the vacancies that may arise in its membership; to become a corporate body and to hold and administer bequests or other funds for\nthe best interests of the cause which the commission is created to serve, and to do all other\nacts which its judgment may approve as tending to that end.\n7. The records of the Executive Board to be open for inspection by any contributor\nto its funds, including officers of the National Educational Association.\n8. The Executive Board to make an annual report to the secretary of the National\nEducational Association covering its work for the year ending June 30th, this report to\nbe published in the volume of Proceedings of the National Educational Association at\nthe discretion of its executive committee.\n9. The National Educational Association to apporpriate from its current revenues\nthe sum of $10,000, or so much as may be available after the expenses of this meeting are\ndefrayed, for the use of the Executive Board, to be paid to it in ten semi-annual installments, each equal to but never exceeding the amount given to the board from other sources\nduring the same period.\n\nIn support of this plan, Superintendent Jordan submitted the following argument:\n\nThe foregoing scheme obviates the objection to a large commission by concentrating\nwork, and funds in the hands of a small board which\nat the same time can bring into sympathetic and supporting relation with itself all friends\nof the cause.\nActive workers in molding public sentiment find great help in being allowed\nto quote and publish the names of prominent persons who approve their cause.\nThis\nprovision for enlisting a large circle, even of figure-heads, can do no harm and will add\nno expense, while its possibilities of usefulness are great.\nnot sanction it ?\nThe advantages in giving the commission an absolutely independent and selfperpetuating existence:\n1.\nIt would remove all danger of any of its debatable questions coming up in the\nNational Educational Association to cause friction, while it wotild relieve the National\nEducational Association as far as possible for a period of five years, and therefore wholly,\nfrom all responsibility and criticism for the actions of the commission.\n\ninitiative and the control of policy,\n\nWhy\n\n2. It would insure a consistent and stable policy, which is absolutely necessary to\nwin public respect and support.\n3. If the commission were merely a committee of the National Educational Association it would be subject, by means of an election in a popular assembly, to periodic\nchanges in personnel and sentiment, which would lessen its dignity and influence, and\nprevent men of wealth, some of whom are becoming interested in this reform, from helping\nto provide an endowment for the cause,\n4. Those wealthy men would not think of providing any considerable sum for this\nwork unless it were in the hands of an incorporated body, which a committee never\ncan become.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nCouncU]\n\nREPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTER\n\n2S5\n\n'\n\nA minority of your committee opposed this plan on the ground that a committee or\ncommission expending the money of the National Educational Association should at all\ntimes and under all circumstances be under the control of the National Educational\nAssociation,\n\nand that the purposes for which the Association's money is to be expended\n\nare not clearly stated.\n\nIV\n\nThe following plan was laid before your committee by Professor Thomas:\n\n—\n\nLet the National Educational Association invite a small committee of experts three\nor five to prepare a Primer of Simplified English Spelling, said primer to contain a brief\nintroduction written in a simple, universally intelligible style, and then a list of 1,000 or\n2,000 or 3,500 words, tJie spelling of which could be most easily and advantageously\nsimplified.\nThe primer would give both the conventional and the simplified form, but\notherwise would be modeled in a general way upon the admirable spelling primer used\nin the Prussian schools.\nI think there would be no difficulty in getting a competent committee to do this work\nfor nothing, since the simplified spellings would for the most part be found in the Standard\nDictionary and in the American Philological Association's list of 3,500 words. The\nNational Educational Association would of course assume the expense of printing and\nstereotpying, which would not be great, and could then take steps to bring the Primer\nto the attention of teachers in\" the common schools and could, if it chose, formally\n\"sanction\" the use of the simplified spellings and the teaching of them in school, along\nwith th& usual spellings.\nIt is and has long been my judgment that such an enterprise as this would do more\nthan anything else conceivable to accelerate the improvement of our spelling.\n\n—\n\nThis suggestion also failed to receive the support of a majority of your Committee.\n\nMINORITY REPORT\n\nThe undersigned members, constituting a minority of your committee are of opinion\nthat whatever work is attempted by the National Educational Association in the matter\nof the simplification of our English spelling should begin in a quiet and dignified way, and\n\nshould take the form, not of reformatory agitation or propaganda, but of the dissemination of accurate knowledge with regard to an important subject, which, at present, is not\n\nproperly or generally understood.\n\nIt seems a matter of the first importance that the work\n\nshould grow in a natural way from modest beginnings, and that it should become an object\nof large and regular expenditure only as its utility is clearly demonstrated by experience.\n\nWe, the undersigned, members of your committee, therefore, respectfully submit the\nfollowing recommendation\n\nThat the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association appoint a\ncommittee of seven cor^etent persons to report to the National Council a definite plan,\nor several alternate plans, for accelerating the improvement of English spelling, and that\nthe necessary expenses of said committee be paid by the National Educational Association.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell, Chairman,\nCalvin Thomas,\nFor a minority 0} the committee.\nmajority report\n\nThe committee met at Milwaukee, Wis., February 27 and 28, 1905, Messrs. Maxwell,\nJordan, Hempl, and Seerley being present and participating in the discussions, Professor\n\nThomas submitting his views in detail in written form.\n\nIt developed that the committee\n\nwas divided into two sections, Chairman Maxwell and Mr. Thomas agreeing upon one\npolicy, and Messrs. Jordan, Hempl, and Seerley adhering to an entirely diflf rent policy.\nFor this reason there was no possibility of agreeing upon a report that should make\nrecommendations to this body; hence a different procedure became necessary, and this\nreport is filed with a statement of plans and differences as they exist.\nIt is believed by a majority of the committee that the National Educational Associa-\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n286\n\n[National\n\ntion is the best agency in the United States to undertake the organization of the work of\n\nsimplifying English spelling; that it should lend its unqualified support to the encourage-\n\nment of reform in these particulars; and that it should not hesitate to furnish money from\nits treasury to assist in the proper maintenance of such work for a reasonable number of\nyears.\n\nin\n\nWhile the majority of your committee recognizes that it may have little influence\n\ndetermining\n\naction of\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nNational\n\nEducational\n\nAssociation,\n\nrt^vertheless,\n\ninasmuch as the work of education, as conducted in the public schools, is made needlessly\ndifficult by the unnecessary peculiarities and incongruities of English spelling, it is thought\nthat there is reason to assume that much simplification is possible, and that it is, therefore,\nproper to recommend that plans be formulated and a suitable commission of experts and\njudicious scholars be invited to take charge of the work to be accomplished.\n\nWe, the undersigned members, constituting a majority of the committee, submit the\nfollowing conclusions:\n\nInstead of the conclusions of Chairman Maxwell and Professor Thomas, following\nthe argument submitted for the plan proposed in Section III in which the minority of the\n\ncommittee expressed objections to the proposed plan on the ground that a committee\nexpending the money of the National Educational Association should be under the control\nof said Association and that the purposes for which the money is to be expended are not\nclearly stated, the majority of the committee submit that we do not believe that the objec-\n\ntion is well taken, for the general purpose of the appropriation is well understood and it\n\nwould be an unreasonable self-imposition if the Association were to hold itself responsible\nfor the\n\ndetailed\n\nexpenditure of the appropriation.\n\nWe, therefore, endorse\n\nthe plan\n\nproposed by Superintendent Jordan as a modification of Plan A, and as set forth in Section III.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nGeorge Hempl,\n\nHomer H. Seeley,\nCharles M. Jordan,\nFor a majority of the committee.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nREPORT ON THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\nHOWARD J. ROGERS, FIRST ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR THE\nSTATE OF NEW YORK, ALBANY, N. Y.\nIt is a difficult task to cut out a cross-section of a year in one of the great\n\nfields of\n\nhuman endeavor, and, even where aided by the most powerful micro-\n\nscopes of inference and imagination, label this part progress and that failure.\n\nSo difficult is it that, altho an added year of grace is permitted me by the\nnon-presentation of a similar paper at last year's meeting, had I fully reaUzed\nit,\n\nsomeone else would have addressed you today.\n\ncess;\n\nlapped,\nit\n\nEvolution is a slow pro-\n\nevolution in education one of its slowest forms.\nits\n\nThe field is so over-\n\nprocesses so involved and dependent, that all hope of traversing\n\ncrying eureka at many objective points is futile.\n\nThe germ of the greatest\n\neducational movement of the century might lie within our vision undetected.\nI want, therefore, to preface this paper clearly with the statement that it is\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nCouncU]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\n287\n\nmade up of facts and happenings of the last two years, chosen for their apparent importance, but presented in a fragmentary manner.\n\nMany of the ques-\n\ntions treated demand for proper analysis a discussion which would transcend\n\nmust obviously be presented in\n\nthe limits of the entire paper, but which\n\nMany\n\nothers\n\nsuggestive\n\noutline.\n\naltogether.\n\nTo the many friends,\n\nare\n\nbarely\n\nboth at\n\nmentioned,\n\nor\n\nomitted\n\nhome and abroad, who have\n\nassisted in the presentation of the report by their valuable suggestions, I wish\nto express\n\nmy obligations; and particularly to Professor Sadler of England,\n\nProfessor Lagerstedt of Sweden, Inspector- General Gilles of France,\n\nand\n\nDirector- General van Overbergh of Belgium, thru whose valuable and expert\n\nadvice it has been possible to pick only those facts and tendencies in their\nrespective countries\n\nwhich are of the greatest importance and\n\nlie\n\nclearly\n\nwithin the scope of this report.\n\nTHE MOSELEY COMMISSION\n\nOne of the most important events which have taken place in recent educational history\n\ncountry in\n\nis\n\nthe visit of the Moseley\n\nCommission of England to this\n\nOctober, November, and December,\n\n1903.\n\nThe two\n\nreports\n\nwhich were the result of this visit, one made by the Education Commission\n\nand the other by the Industrial Commission, have created intense interest\nboth in England and in this country, and are regarded here as an eminently\nfair and just criticism of the state of public education in the United States.\nMr. Alfred Moseley, a member of Parliament, and a man prominent in the\ncommercial and financial world of England, brought to this country twentyseven educational experts to inspect and report upon various features of the\neducational and social life of the United States.\nMr. Moseley frankly\nstates that his inspiration for this unwonted enterprise was his admiration\nfor the brilliant exploits of American engineers in the development of the\ndiamond mines of South Africa some fifteen or twenty years ago. He says\nThe success of these engineers turned my attention to the United States, and some\nyears ago I paid my first visit there for the purpose of seeing what sort of country it was\nthat was responsible for sending so many level-headed men to the Cape\n\nSo far as\n\nI was able to ascertain, the form of education given in the United States was responsible for\n\nmuch of its success, and I returned home determined, if possible, to get together a party\nof experts to visit the country and test the soundness of my conclusions.\n•\n\nThe immediate opportunity which was an additional incentive for Mr.\n\nMoseley to carry out his project was the passage of the Education Act in\n\nEngland in 1902, and the possibilities which arose under it for the development of education along practical lines. He traced a similarity between\neducation as controlled by the various states of our Union and the control\nvested in the counties of England under the new statute.\nThere was thus\nadded as a further motive the possibility of finding many things in our\neducational system which would prove of value to England.\nThe subjects of investigation placed before the Moseley Commission were\n(i) the development of individuality in the primary school; (2) the social and\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATION AL ASSOCIATION\n\n288\n\n[National\n\nwide distribution of secondary education;\n\nintellectual effects of a\n\n(3)\n\nthe\n\neffect of specific instruction given in {a) business methods, (h) applied sciences;\n\nopinion as to the value of professional and technical\n\n(4) the present state of\n\ninstruction of university\n\nrank designed with special reference\n\nto the tasks\n\nof business Ufe.\n\nThe commission visited New York, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia,\nNew Haven, Boston, and Chicago, and at the latter place broke up as a body,\nand the individual members proceeded to every part of the country in search\nof information applying to their special fields.\n\nThe report of the Education Commission was pubHshed in\ncovers 400 closely printed octavo pages.\n\nIt is\n\nand\n\n1904,\n\nprefaced by a statement by\n\nMr. Moseley, and contains a joint report signed by all the members of the\ncommission, and a special report by each\nthis report is\n\nmember of the commission.\n\nIn\n\nexpressed the belief that general education is of value both to\n\ncommunity at large and to the commercial, industrial, and agricultural\nthat in competing with American commerce Europeans\nwill be called upon to face trained men gifted with both enterprise and knowledge; that the British public must be impressed with the absolute need of\nthe\n\nservice of the state;\n\nimmediate preparation\n\nto\n\nmeet such competition;\n\nthat\n\nwonderful\n\nspirit\n\nanimates both teachers and pupils in our schools, and that the absence of\nclass prejudice\n\nschools;\n\nand of religious difficulty serves to facilitate the work of the\n\nthat there\n\nis\n\nvery close connection between theory and practice,\n\nespecially in the scientific field; that the important part which manual train-\n\ning is assuming in our public schools is of high value as an educational discipline\n\n;\n\nthat in no country has there been such marvelous liberality displayed\n\ntoward education both from public and private sources; and that the entire\n\nwork of education in elementary, secondary, and higher fields is organized\nand co-ordinated in such a way as to secure most harmonious working and\nto avoid duphcation.\n\nMuch frank criticism, in most cases well deserved, is mingled with the\nfreely expressed admiration.\n\nOur teaching of foreign languages seemed to\n\nthe commission particularly slipshod and to partake of antiquated methods.\n\nSome disappointment was expressed that manual and industrial training does\nnot seem to have played any great part in our commercial or industrial\n\ndevelopment. The answer to this criticism is under two heads: first, very\nfew of our industrial schools and our manual- training departments are over\nten years old, which\n\nis\n\naltogether too short a period to exert\n\ninfluence on industrial methods;\n\nany marked\n\nsecond, the theory of public education in\n\nthe United States is based 'upon the belief that our prominence in industrial\n\nand commercial work is due not so much to any form of special training in\nthe arts and crafts as to the liberal training which is given to every child in\nour public schools.\n\nIt is a safe rule of conduct that if a child is fitted during\n\nhis eight elementary years for anything, he will be bound as a wage-earner to\n\nbe fitted for something.\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCQuncU]\n\nIt is impossible in this address\n\n289\n\nmore than to hint at some few of the points\n\nbrought out in the papers of the report, or to state any of the conclusions.\n\nEvery one of the twenty-seven papers is worth careful attention and study on\nthe part of our educational public, and, without in any sense seeming to dis-\n\ncriminate at\n\nall,\n\nthe reports submitted by\n\nMr. Henry E. Armstrong, Mr.\n\nArthur W. Black, Professor T. L. Papillon, and John Rhys are specially\nvaluable in their keen observation, just criticism, and valuable inference.\n\nMr. Arthur W. Black sums up in three concise sentences as follows\nThe great facts remaining with me as a result of my educational investigations in\nAmerica are, first, that the public opinion is much more strongly in favor of education\nthan in this country; second, that the scholars in America take a keener interest in their\nstudies than is generally apparent here;\n\nthird, that the teaching given in the elementary\n\nschools produces a mental alertness and readiness of mind to a greater extent than is\n\nsecured in this country.\n\nThe reports are a pleasure to Americans, because the tone is complimentary, and because they concede in the premise the commercial and industrial\n\nsupremacy of this country, and seek to find in our educational system the\nreasons therefor.\n\nThe\n\nreports\n\nare of value\n\nto\n\nAmericans, because they\n\nfrankly present and criticise our shortcomings, and, while the balance on the\nledger is largely in our favor, a careful study of the debit side is of the utmost\nbenefit to our educational public.\n\nIt\n\nwould be extremely fortunate,\n\nif,\n\nin\n\nother fields than education,\n\nThere wad some Moseley the power gi'e us\n\nTo see oursel's as others see us.\nSCHOOL LEGISLATION\nDuring the legislative period of 1904 there were over 125 enactments in\nthe various states affecting education, but nearly all of\n\nthem were of such\nThree impor-\n\nlocal or incidental character as not to call for special mention.\n\ntant acts, however, in the winter of 1904, affected particularly state educational\n\nsystems, and two in the winter of 1905 brought about most important reforms\nin city administration.\n\nof\n\nThe three relating to states were the new school codes\n\nNew Jersey and Ohio, and the so-called unification act of the state of New\n\nYork.\n\nIn the two former the changes made by the revised codes were so\n\nvoluminous as to forbid anything like extended discussion here, tho in Ohio\nthere\n\nwere\n\nmany\n\nradical\n\nchanges,\n\nmostly in the direction of principles\n\nadvocated by this Association.\n\nThe dual system of school administration which had been the development of a century's growth in the state of New York was abolished by the\nlegislature of 1904.\n\nThe University of the State of New York, established in\n\n1783 and governed by a board of regents, had supervisory powers over the\ncolleges, universities, professional and technical schools of the state,\n\ntain legally defined powers over the high schools and academies.\n\nand cer-\n\nThe Depart-\n\nrnent of Public Instruction, organized in 181 2, placed under the jurisdiction\nof the secretary of state in 182 1\n\nand reorganized in 1854, had control of al\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Nadonal\n\nschools supported by public tax, including both elementary\n\nand secondary\n\n290\n\nBy the law of 1904 the powers of both these great departments\nwere merged in the educational department; a new office, with the title of\nschools.\n\ncommissioner of education created, and the board of regents reorganized.\n\nThis law is purely a change in administrative details, and does not affect in\nany degree the procedure governing either of the old departments. The law\nhas been in operation now one year, and its benefits thru increased efficiency\nin service, economy in expenditures, and uniformity of poUcy are universally\n\nconceded.\n\nIn April, 1905, as a result of long-continued agitation on the part of the\nTeachers' Association, PubUc Education Association, and other organizations\nof the city of Philadelphia, the legislature of the state of Pennsylvania enacted\n\na law in reference to cities of the first class.\n\nThe bill is drawn on lines which\n\nare now believed to be sound in the administration of educational policies of\ncities,\n\nand contains many of the principles or provisions which were incor-\n\nporated in the school laws of New York city, Cleveland, and St. Louis.\n\nThe\n\nmain provisions of the law are as follows:\n1.\nA five-mill tax for both the immediate and prospective needs of the schools,\nwhich will insure a sum under which the development of the cit^ system will be rapid\nand efiFective.\nThe minimizing of the powers of the sectional boards, and the consequent lessen2.\ning of the influence of the local ward-heeler and the politician. The retention of these\nward divisions was a concession to obtain the passage of the bill, and they will undoubtedly\n\nbe abolished in the near future.\n3.\n\nThe appointment of the members of the board of education at large.by the judges\n\nof the court of common pleas.\n\nWhile this is logically unsound in that it combines judicial\nand administrative functions, it is probably a better plan at the present time in Philadelphia\nthan the plan of election by popular vote.\nReduction of the size of the board from forty-two to twenty-one; a step in the\n4.\nright direction, but a still smaller board would do better service.\n\nMany minor provisions, such as the definite fixing of responsibility, the\ncentrahzing of powers and duties, the appointment of responsible heads of\nexecutive departments,\n\netc.,\n\nare incorporated.\n\nThe most serious omissions\n\nare the failure to provide a strict merit system for the appointment and pro-\n\nmotion of teachers, and some indefiniteness in regard to the powers and duties\n\nwhich surround the office of superintendent.\n\nMost of these errors or omis-\n\nsions can be remedied by the first board of education, provided a progressive\n\n—\n\nand broad-minded board is appointed. The general effect of the bill while\nit may not meet the enthusiastic praise bestowed by one critic that it places\nthe school system of Philadelphia fifty years in advance\n\n—\n\nis to\n\ngive the city\n\nof Philadelphia a rational and defensible school system in line with modern\n\neducational policies, and a basis for a thoro and effective reorganization.\n\nIn April, 1905, the legislature of Massachusetts passed an act reorganizing the school committee of Boston, which will undoubtedly have a radical\neffect\n\non the administration of school affairs in that city.\n\nThe act is very\n\nshort, and substitutes for the present school committee of twenty-five a com-\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\n291\n\nmittee of five, and bestows upon the latter all the powers, privileges, duties,\nand obligations devolving upon the present committee. The success of this\nlaw will depend entirely upon the personnel of the board. If five strong\nrepresentative citizens are appointed to its membership, the school affairs of\nthe city, under the by-laws which they will adopt, will be immensely improved.\nIf a\n\nweak board, subject to outside influences, is appointed, their latter con-\n\ndition will be worse than their\n\nfirst.\n\nThe powers of inspectors, superinten-\n\ndents, and supervisors are not mentioned in the act, but are left to the by-laws\nto\n\nbe fixed by the new board of education.\n\nThere is undoubtedly a great\n\nopportunity awaiting the new board, and probably in no city in the country\nis\n\nthere greater likelihood of a board being appointed which will be able to\n\nmeet it.\n\nThe laws of both Philadelphia and Boston have certain resemblances.\nBoth are very brief; both reduce materially the number of the board; both\nleave to the board the making of rules and by-laws to govern its own pro-\n\ncedure; and both leave the board free to define the powers and duties of\nappointees.\n\nall its\n\nMORAL Airo RELIGIOUS TRAINING\nIt is impossible to present by ordinary standards and statistics any measure\n\nof ethical or moral growth.\n\nIt\n\nhas no distinct schedule in any curriculum,\n\nbut it should form the basis of every curriculum.\n\nCharacter-building is the\n\nreal aim of the schools and the ultimate defense for the expenditure of millions upon then: maintenance.\nin\n\nThe moral sense of this country is felt to be\n\nan unsatisfactory condition.\n\nness\n\nIt\n\nunwilling attitudes of mind, and\nto our social fabric.\n\nforms.\n\nhas been borne in upon our conscious-\n\nforce, made headway against\nnow acknowledged as a serious menace\nIt manifests itself almost daily in new and surprising\n\nwith slowly increasing and\n\ninsistent\n\nis\n\nThe code of honor in business, were it not so full of menace to the\n\npeace of the pubhc, would be a diverting study in tangential ethics.\n\nPrac-\n\nmany years ago\nwould have set their users outside the pale of business approval. The conscience of men seems divided into two parts, a positive and a negative; the\ntices are\n\nencouraged and methods tolerated which not so\n\nformer controlling their social relations after office hours, and the latter in\nconvenient use during business hours.\n\nThe methods of high finance differ\n\nnot one whit from the buccaneers of the Spanish main, except as the swing\nof the broadsword differs from the push of the electric button.\n\nThe misuse\n\nand transit, and clever\nevasions of the spirit of the laws form the bulk of the news in our daily papers.\nBut why multiply examples when the tendency is marked in every walk\nof life, and nowhere more distinctly than in the youth and children of the\npresent age?\nThere is in their minds a flippant disregard for constituted\nauthority; a lack of respect for age and superior wisdom; a weak appreciation of the demands of duty; a tendency to follow pleasure and interest rather\n\nof fiduciary funds, illegal combinations for trade\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLATION\n\n292\n\n[National\n\nSuch is the recognized condition which demands\n\nthan obligation and order.\n\nthe earnest thought and action of our leaders of opinion.\n\nThe greatest sign\n\nof relief for the general situation is that the people are awake to the conditions\n\nand are agitating its remedy. Out of this is bound to come a healthier life\nand an intoleration of false standards. The question for school men is how\nAnd\nto assist by the proper training of the next generation of men of affairs.\nI am going to say, at the risk perhaps of being misunderstood, that in\n\nmy\n\nopinion much of the responsibility for the present attitude of mind of children,\nas indicated above, is due to the theory that a child must be 'interested\" in\n\nevery phase of his school work, or it is not good for him.\n\nBeginning with\n\nthe kindergarten and continuing into the elementary grades,\n\nwe have run a\n\nlittle wild in the last decade or more in making things easy for the child.\n\nhave coaxed and coddled and bribed with sweetmeats\ntotally wrong impression of his relativity to his\n\ntill\n\nWe\n\nthe child has a\n\nenvironment.\n\nI yield to no\n\none in acknowledging the great work done by the kindergarten, particularly\nin the crowded portions of our great cities, and in approving its purpose; but\nthis does not mean approval of all its methods.\n\nThey should not be extended\n\ntoo far into the child's life, and the elementary schools should begin to differ-\n\nbetween work and play.\n\nA child has a weak, imperfect,\n\nillogical mind, or he would not be a child.\n\nTo appeal to his reason and his\n\nentiate at once\n\ninterest is to premise your work on negative quantities.\n\nPrescribe what your\n\nreason and the experience of the race have proved good for him, and see that\n\nhe does his task thru love if possible, thru compulsion if necessary.\nject\n\nIf a sub-\n\nbe thoroly disciplinary and wholly distasteful, and a child does it, it is\n\nAnd above all, let us see to it that we instill into the child,\nby leading him to conquer difficulties, and to subordinate his desires to his\nobhgations and his duty, a moral fiber which will carry him straight thru fire\ngood for the child.\n\nand water to his goal in life\n\n;\n\nand let us not be responsible for turning into the\n\nworld creatures of flexible backbone, who will pursue their sinuous way along\nthe lines of pleasure, interest, and least resistance.\n\nThis is too large a subject\n\nto be pursued farther in this paper, but its proper solution will contribute much\nto the strength of our training in morals.\n\nIt is only one of the factors in the.\n\nproblem, but one which can be ehminated by the action of school authorities.\nAgainst the material tendencies of the times, and the non-observance of\n\nmoral obhgation, many agencies are at work.\nis\n\nAs said before, the chief hope\n\nthe fact that the people are awake to the conditions.\n\nA recognized evil is\n\nmore easily fought than one which works unseen and unappreciated. The\nwork of the Religious Education Association has been rational and progressive, and its chief value is that it has been proved to be an agency thru which\nthe exemplary but scattered efforts of a score of societies and bodies are given\na unity and an organization which are accomplishing great results. The\nwork of the society should have the earnest support of every school man, for\nit means concerted effort and strategic disposition of force.\nThe introduction of educational methods in the Sundav schools has been remarkable in its\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\neffects.\n\n293\n\nAs one writer states: \"More has been done since February, 1903, to\n\nput the Sunday school on an educational basis than during the score of years\n\nThe promotion of intelhgent Bible study has been\nand the fact is being recognized among our\ncolleges that a man to be educated must have as thoro knowledge of the Hebrew\nIt is not so much\nlaws, literature, and customs, as of the Greek and Roman.\nimmediately preceding.\"\n\nthe sole object of one society;\n\nof a disgrace for a college student to be caught reading the Bible as it was in\n\nmy day. The output of literature on this subject during the year is noteworthy, and an examination of its titles, found in the bibliography of education published in the Educational\n\nReview of June, demonstrates the hold\n\nwhich the subject has upon the pubHc and the methods which will be used\nto remedy the situation.\n\nSCHOOL AND COLLEGE ATHLETICS\nClosely aUied to this subject is the whole vexed question of school and college athletics, and the influence of the age is seen in the taint of professional-\n\nism which creeps into our student sports in spite of severe rules governing\n\nThe taint will continue until it is thoroly ground into our students\nand even into the faculty and alumni advisory councils that intercollegiate games should be played for sportsmanship and not for victory; and\nthat it is just as much a credit to lose as to win, provided you play a square\ngame. Heroic efforts have been made in the last few years to draw up ironclad rules carrying severe penalties, but the spirit of the old cry, which used\neligibility.\n\n—\n\nyes,\n\nto govern the ethics of sport in at least a half-dozen institutions of the Atlantic\n\nseaboard, of \"anything to beat Yale\" can be eliminated only when college\npride and spirit prefer an honest defeat to a questionable victory.\n\n^\n\nDEPARTMENTAL TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nThe departmental plan of teaching, introduced into over 130 of the elementary schools of the city of New York during the last year, has attracted\nwide attention as the most comprehensive attempt to apply this principle to\nthe pubUc schools.\n\nIt\n\nhas been permitted at the option of the teachers in\n\nBoston and Chicago, and individual trials have been made in other places.\nIt has been tried for two years in the city of Albany, and the weight of opinion\nis\n\nfavorable toward it, altho two years more of trial are deemed necessary to\n\ngive a sufficient basis' for comparison.\n\nAn inquiry among the departmental\n\nteachers and the departmental pupils in the city of New York resulted in an\n\nalmost unanimous opinion in favor of the plan.\n\nIts success is dependent, of\n\ncourse, on a large and thoroly organized corps of teachers, and it must therefore be confined to the larger cities.\n\nBut where it can be introduced and be\n\nadministered effectively, there would seem to be no reason why it should not\n\nbe done.\n\nThere is no more logic in a teacher's teaching all kinds of subjects,\n\nthan in a lawyer's practicing all kinds of law, or a doctor's attempting to treat\nall classes of diseases.\n\nThe age of the Jack-of -all- trades has passed in our\n\nprofessions and vocations.\n\nthe foundation of all others ?\n\nWhy continue it in the one profession which is\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n294\n\n[National\n\nA careful inquiry into the results of this method of teaching was recently\ninstituted by Mr. Kilpatrick, and some of the most noted advantages claimed\n\nfrom an educational standpoint are as follows:\n1.\n\nExpert teaching;\n\nthe child\n\nis\n\nalways under the control of the teacher who is\n\nbest qualified to teach any given subject.\n\nThe teacher herself becomes highly proficient\n\nin the science of the branch as well as in the best methods of teaching it.\n2.\n\n3.\n\nImproved discipHne.\nPossibilities of more complete equipment in the way of special apparatus for\n\nthe most effective teaching.\n4.\n\nBetter distribution of time and continuity of work.\n\n5.\n\nPlacing the responsibility directly upon the teacher for the advancement of the\n\nclass in each subject of the grade.\n6.\n7.\n\nEconomy of supervision, economy of time and equipment.\nThe promotion of individuality thru placing greater responsibility upon each\n\nchild and increasing his opportunities.\n8.\n\nMuch greater interest in the subject on the part of the scholar when presented\n\nby an expert teacher.\nIt is a step toward the individual development of the pupil, which in the present\n9.\nday of routine class machinery is much to be desired.\n\nEDUCATION fOR THE INDUSTRIES\nI choose this term because the term \"industrial training\"\n\nis\n\ninvariably\n\nassociated in the public mind with manual training, which is not all of what\nis\n\nmeant.\n\nEducation which trains for the work of the world, whether it be\n\nis the subject which\nmore of public attention than any other in the educational field.\nThe business and commercial world is asking in all seriousness if we cannot\nsend out young men and women somewhat better fitted for business conditions.\nThere is no question about the training of those who are to enter the\nprofessional and technical fields, but for the workers in the varied industries\nthere is doubt.\nSocial Hfe in this country has grown from simple needs to the\n\nthe arts, the trades, agriculture, mining, or commerce,\nis engrossing\n\ncomplexity of the highest modem civilization, with all the entailed obligations.\n\nOur education has grown and expanded with it.\n\nWhen the appli-\n\ncations of steam and electricity (from 1830 to i860) revolutionized the entire\nsocial structure, our education changed its form to meet the demands upon it.\n\nA revolution in industrial methods is going on today almost as marked, and our\neducational machinery must be remodeled sufficiently to meet it.\n\nStripped\n\nof all verbiage, our country is getting too large, and our needs too complex,\nto train all children just alike.\n\nBut the traditions and spirit of our country\n\nwill not for a moment sanction the establishment, as in Europe, of two systems\n\nof instruction\n\n—one industrial and one\n\none for governing classes.\n\ncultural,\n\none for working classes and\n\nOur solution of the problem is forced to be a com-\n\n—\n\nbination course the same for all children in earHer years, with all that that\nimpUes of hope and opportunity, containing enough manual training to benefit\n\nand an option in the higher years to afford the special training desired for\nHow to adjust our machinery to the demands and the conditions, the kind and the extent of schools to be instituted to meet the require-\n\nall,\n\nthe work of Hfe.\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nments, are our greatest problems today.\n\n295\n\nThe progress of the country under\n\nthis headmg is more in the general acceptance of the idea and the means taken\n\nto meet it than otherwise.\n\nA catalog extensive and striking could be made of\n\nthe commercial and manual-training high schools estabHshed, the shopwork\n\nand practice courses introduced in the grades, the technical and trades schools\nand the departments of commerce organized in the universities;\nbut it would be only cumulative evidence of the feeling abroad in the land. At\nthe convocation of the University of the State of New York last week the\nentire program of two days was given to an intensive consideration of this\nOut of\ntopic, and the ablest experts in the country addressed the meetings.\nthis agitation will come an adjustment satisfactory to our commercial and\nindustrial development, and in harmony with our laws and traditions.\ninstituted,\n\nHIGH SCHOOLS\n\nThe growth of high schools has been greater in the last two years than during\nany similar period since 1895. Four hundred and thirty schools have been established, and the increase of students in attendance aggregates 43,595. Secondary\neducation has seemed to recede from its two extreme positions and approach\na more common ground.\n\nThe former general and scholastic courses have\n\nbeen made more practical; and the practical courses that have heretofore been\n\nsomewhat narrow are being broadened by the introduction of cultural subManual- training high schools are being looked upon less as trade\nschools and more as a Uberal education process.\nAn exception to this, and\nan experiment which involves to the extreme the parental control of the state,\njects.\n\nis\n\nthe recent establishment of the Girls' Technical Training School on the\n\nEast Side in New York.\n\nIt is destined to\n\nsupplement the grammar-school\n\ngrades by three years of instruction in dressmaking, millinery, stenography,\n\nbookkeeping, domestic science, etc., so that its graduates\nprofitable employment in our shops.\n\nmay at once find\n\nEnglish, mathematics, geography and\n\nUnited States history, some science, and a modern language, or science option,\nare the other studies.\n\nIt is the first approach in this country at public expense\n\nto the ecoles primaires superieures of France, and while there is\nits\n\nno doubt of\n\ngreat practical value to a municipaHty Uke New York, its efifect upon the\n\neducational policy of the United States will make it an object of close observation and interest.\n\nThe two- and three-year courses in commercial study are being rapidly\ndiscontinued,\n\nand\n\nthe four-year commercial course\n\nrecommended by\n\nthe\n\ncommittee of the Department of Business Education of this Association in\n1903 has met with general favor, and many commercial high schools have\n\nbeen estabHshed with this course as a basis.\n\nThe Minnesota Agricultural High School has for its purpose to train\nstudents to become useful citizens as well as good farmers and housewives.\n\nThe account of its development contained in Appendices B and C of the\nReport of the Committee on Industrial Education in Rural Schools is worth.\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n296\n\n[National\n\ncareful study, as the co-ordination of the rural school, agricultural high school,\n\nand agricultural college undertaken by the state of Minnesota is pioneer work\nand attracting wide attention.\n\nRURAL SCHOOLS\n\nThe consolidation of country schools is growing in popular favor, and\nperhaps has no place in this paper other than to report progress, inasmuch\nas it has been previously discussed.\n\nBut the recent movement for instruction\n\nin the elements of agriculture in rural schools is a strong additional argument\nin its favor.\n\nThe larger the school, the better the equipment for teaching\n\nagriculture; and, what is more important, the greater the chance of securing\n\na teacher who is fitted to give instruction.\n\nThe Report of the Committee on\n\nIndustrial Education in Rural Schools and Communities has just been placed\n\nmembers of this Association, and is an interesting and\nThe general conclusions of the committee are summed\nup in twelve findings unanswerable in argument and conclusive in their\nreasons.\nI shall not give even a summary of these findings, as the entire\n\nin the hands of the\n\nvaluable document.\n\nreport is on for discussion at this meeting.\n\nThe report should be studied\n\nthoroly, however, as the first comprehensive document on a phase of educa-\n\ntion\n\nwhich promises great results, not only in the development of agricul-\n\ntural wealth, but also in holding young men to the occupancy of farms.\n\nEDUCATION IN THE SOUTH\n\nThe last two years have seen a remarkable growth in the educational\nactivities of the\n\nsouthern states.\n\nA continuous educational campaign has\n\nbeen prosecuted vigorously in nearly every southern state.\n\nThis campaign\n\nhas been participated in, not only by leading educators, but also by prominent\npolitical leaders, and the appeal to the people for an increase in school taxes,\n\nthe consolidation of school districts, and for general educational improvement\n\nhas borne fruit rapidly.\n\nThe Southern Education Board and the General\n\nEducation Board have co-operated cordially and effectively with the educational authorities of the various states,\n\nand their stimulating assistance has\n\nbeen appreciated by teachers and school officials.\n\nThe organization of these\n\nboards has been fully treated in the report preceding this, and it is not my\npurpose to repeat it.\nripe for such a\n\nThe boards came at a time when public sentiment was\nCollege and university men\n\ncampaign as has been waged.\n\nhave been foremost in their participation, and the public press has lent most\nvaluable aid.\n\nSchool improvement clubs and associations have been formed\n\nthruout the South, and education has become a rallying-cry in poUtical campaigns.\n\nThe determination of the South to educate all of its people, and its\n\ndecision,\n\nm spite of poverty and other handicapping conditions, to do this as\n\na business proposition and to do it at once, is one of the most satisfactory\noccurrences of recent years.\n\nWhile for a long time the urban population of\n\nthe South has had good public-school facilities, it must be remembered that\n\nnearly 80 per cent, of the population of the southern states is rural.\n\nIt is\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCoundl]\n\n297\n\nimprovement of rural school facilities that this educational\ncampaign has been waged, and the unparalleled growth in pubhc sentiment,\nchiefly for the\n\nshowing that the movement has the thoro support of the people, is one of the\nmost interesting and gratifying educational facts of our time.\n\nThe time-honored Peabody Fund, estabhshed in 1867, is about to disappear\nas a distinct factor in southern education, the trustees having determined to\n\nrehnquish the trust, only the interest of which has been used heretofore, and\ndispose directly of the funds, amounting to about two\ndollars.\n\nand a half milHon\n\nOne million dollars is to be given to the Peabody Normal College\n\nThe disposition of the remainder is as yet undetermined.\nThe gift of ten million dollars to the General Education Board made last\n\nat Nashville, Tenn.\n\nweek by John D. Rockefeller puts the work of that board upon a solid basis\nfor a century to come and estabUshes a reserve force in the field of education,\nwhich may be thrown at will to strengthen any weak point in the line, North,\nSouth, East, or West.\n\nteachers' pensions and Carnegie's gift\n\nThe question of pensioning teachers, on the theory that they are members\nand should\nupon retirement, has been greatly strengthened\nin principle by the almost universal satisfaction over the recent gift of Mr.\nAndrew Carnegie of ten million dollars for the pensioning of college professors\nwho have retired from work on account of old age or disabiHty. It is too\nin long and honorable standing of the civil service of the state\n\nreceive grateful recognition\n\nearly yet to know the plans for distributing the benefits of this fund or to ascer-\n\ninasmuch as the board of control has but recently been\nBut if this principle is sound in its application to colleges, it is\nequally sound as applied to elementary and secondary schools, and it may\npave the way to a general agitation of the subject and acceptance of the idea.\nThe report of the Committee of the National Educational Association on\nSalaries, Tenure, and Pensions, submitted for the consideration of this body\ntain\n\nits\n\nlimitations,\n\nappointed.\n\nat this meeting, states that hardly a beginning has as yet been made in the\n\nIn making\n\nUnited States toward creating a system of pensions for teachers.\nthis statement the\n\ncommittee emphasizes the distinction between a pension\n\nsystem properly so called and the various schemes of mutual aid, retirement\nfunds, or old-age stipends that have been organized\n\nand are maintained\n\nprimarily by the teachers themselves and at their own expense.\n\nThe United\n\nStates seems to have fallen behind other nations in this respect,\nBritain,\n\nand Great\n\nFrance, and Belgium have more satisfactory laws providing for\n\npensions to retired teachers.\n\nThe report states that there is no common-\n\nwealth in the United States in which pubHc-school teachers in all cities and\ncoimties are\nfunds.\n\nby provision of law pensioned upon retirement out of public\n\nLocal authorities have taken some notice of the subject within the last\n\nfew years, but, with the exception of New York, Detroit, and San Francisco,\n\nno municipality can be said to have a public pension system.\n\nThe pro-\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n298\n\n[National\n\nvisions in all other cities are based upon the insurance plan of deductions from\n\nteachers' salaries.\n\nThe law creating a retirement fund in Greater New York,\n\nthe sources of which fund are the moneys forfeited or withheld for absence\n\nfrom duty, the moneys received from donations, legacies, and gifts, and 5 per\ncent, annually of all excise moneys, was amended by the legislature of 1905 so\n\nas to exempt from levy and sale by virtue of an execution\n\nall\n\npensions or\n\nannuities payable out of the public-school teachers' retirement fund.\n\nThe new school codes of New Jersey and Ohio both recognize the insurance principle in the creation of retirement funds.\n\nThis question is one\nwhich will be much before the public during the next decade, and the report\n\nof the committee- of this Association is particularly valuable in the facts and\n\ndeductions which it presents.\nCorrelative with this topic is the tenure of office of teachers.\n\nThe prin-\n\nciple should be recognized that security of position is of fundamental impor-\n\ntance in order to secure faithful and efficient service from public-school\nteachers.\n\nA school force which is constantly shifting or liable to sudden\n\nchange cannot produce the\n\nresults obtained under a permanent tenure.\nThere is not the incentive for bright young men and women to enter the teach-\n\ning profession that would prevail were the principle of permanency established.\n\nThe reluctance of men to enter the teaching profession, and the\n\ngeneral uneasiness of those who are engaged in it, are largely due to this fact.\n\nThe advocacy of tenure of office for all teachers during competency and good\nbehavior, after they have first served a satisfactory probationary period, was\nthe basis of a bill introduced into the New York legislature last winter, but\nfor the passage of which public opinion did not seem ripe.\nstate of afifairs\n\nwhich exists in all parts of the country.\n\nThis is about the\n\nThe report of the\n\nUnited States Commissioner of Education made public in 1904 contains an\ninvestigation of the length of service of teachers in cities of 8,000 population\n\nor over, which shows that in 379 cities or towns, out of the total of 545 exceeding this hmit of population, 50 per cent, of the male teachers have been engaged\nless than thirteen years,\n\nand 53 per cent, of the female teachers less than ten\n\nyears.\n\n»\n\nteachers' salaries\nConsiderable progress has been made in the last few years in the matter\nof teachers' salaries, and the report of the\n\nCommittee on Teachers' Salaries,\n\nTenure, and Pensions just submitted to this Association gives an abundance\nof figures and the necessary available data for the consideration of this subject.\n\nThe principle at issue needs no discussion here, but the statement can\n\nbe safely made that there is a general disposition to advance the salaries of\nteachers in the public schools of the United States, tho it is not in proportion\nto the increased cost of living or to the\n\nadvanced requirements for the cer-\n\nMost of the larger cities have adopted a fixed salary\nschedule providing for minimum and maximum salaries for each position and\ntification of teachers.\n\na regular yearly increase.\n\nThese schedules are as diverse as can be imagined,\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCoundl]\n\n299\n\nand seem to be based rather upon the opinion of the local authorities than upon\neither the size of the city or the purchasing power of a dollar in that community. The variation in the salaries of similar positions in cities of the same\nIn some cases the differrelative size is sometimes startHng in the extreme.\nence is due to the personahty of the occupant of the position, but in most cases\nto the\n\nMinimum-\n\nmore variable quantity Icnown as boards of education.\n\nsalary laws, correct in principle and indicative of a desire to deal justly with\n\nthe situation, have recently been passed in Indiana, Maryland, West Virginia,\n\nand Pennsylvania.\n\nThe deductions and inferences from this interesting report would fill a\nThe\n\nvolume, but can have no further place in the resume I have attempted.\n\nchief sign of progress is the general favor with which the attempt to improve\n\nthe salaries of teachers has been received by the people in general.\n\nThe\n\nrecognition of the principle that it saves money to the public to pay for expert\nservice will do more to further the progress of popular education in this country\n\nOne of the keen observers accompanying the\n\nthan any other one item.\n\nMoseley Commission stated that the people of the United States spend a\nmarvelous amount of money on their public schools, but that the salaries of\nteachers are not sufficient for the service the country desires or should have;\nthat the money lavished on the schools goes to buildings or equipment, which\n\nare on a much more generous scale than in England, but that the teachers\nthe living force of the schools\n\n—are kept\n\nshort.\n\nThe raising of the Harvard endowment fund to yield an annual income\nof one hundred thousand dollars to be appHed to the increase of the salaries\nof the professors is a notable event of the year, and indicates the general feeling\n\non the question.\n\nSimilar funds are now being raised by the alumni of other\n\ncolleges.\n\nTHE BACCALAUREATE AND PROFESSIONAL COURSES\n\nThe\n\nlast\n\ntwo years have seen the adoption of many experiments\n\n—\n\n—I use\n\nword rather advisedly in the direction of a shorter combined baccalaureate and professional course. In the face of the increasing demands of the\nprofessional schools, and with opportunity for almost unlimited laboratory\nthe\n\nresearch, this shortening has been done at the expense of the college course.\n\nThe poHcy of Harvard, Columbia, Cornell, and Chicago has been in this\ndirection.\nThe last revision of the curriculum of Columbia, voted in January, 1905, to take effect next September,\n\nis\n\nthe most radical step thus far\n\nadopted, and at the same time the most defensible.\n\nIt has the merit of entire\n\nfrankness and of logical reasoning, even if we do not agree with all the premises.\n\nThe requirements for graduation are 124 points, each point meaning satisfactory completion of work requiring attendance one hour a week for a halfyear.\n\nAfter a student has obtained 72 points, he is at liberty to take up work\n\nfor the remaining points in any of the professional schools of the university\n\nexcept law, which requires 94 points.\nin\n\ntwo years.\n\nA briUiant student can make 72 points\n\nThe average student will make 60 points.\n\nIt\n\nbecomes pes-\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n300\n\n[National\n\nby hard, persistent and thoro work, to win the two degrees\nquite possible to do it in six and one-half years; and not\ndifficult to do it in seven years.\nThe student may make up his mind at the\nend of two, or two and a half, years, whether he will pursue the college course\nsible, therefore,\n\nin six years;\n\nit is\n\nfor the full four years, or whether he will take advantage of the shortened\n\ntime to gain his professional degree.\n\nThe other changes which accompany this scheme are the adoption of semiannual admissions and graduations which come from making the half-year\nthe unit of credit, and the estabhshment of a program of studies for the degree\nof B.S. which does not require Latin; a regulation preventing those whose\n\nwork is consistently poor in all courses from receiving a degree; and a further\nregulation to prevent browsing about the course, which prescribes that at\nleast 9 points must be under some one department.\nof the new program by Professor Thomas:\n\nQuoting from a r^sum^\n\nThe expectation is that the new program of studies will prove especially attractive\nto students who may wish to obtain a college education before entering one of the schools\n\nof technology or applied science\n\nTo avoid duplication, the college should gradually\n\ngather into its jurisdiction all those fundamental disciplines which are at once important\nin general education and necessary for particular Hues of professional study.\n\nThe pro-\n\nfessional schools will then be able to confine themselves more closely than now to strictly\n\nprofessional instruction.\n\nThis program will imdoubtedly be watched with great interest, and will\nbe the basis of many discussions and conclusions.\n\nUnder the auspices of the Education Department of the State of New\nYork, efforts have been made the past year to establish a medical elective\ncourse in the last two years of the arts colleges of the state which will be\n\naccepted by medical schools as an equivalent of one year of medicine.\n\nIt has\n\nprogressed to the point of outHning the course, an expressed wilhngness on the\npart of several colleges to adopt it, and of two medical schools to accept it.\n\nThis arrangement will earn the baccalaureate and medical degree in seven\nyears.\n\nThere has, however, been noticeable during the last two years a strong\nand from the\npapers and discussions which have been contributed during this period it is\n\nreaction against the tendency to shorten the college course,\n\nevident that there has been a return to the distinct work of the American\ncollege as such.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\naccentuated,\n\nand the work of the small college\n\nstrengthened, by Mr. Carnegie's recent statements concerning contemplated\naction, and the gifts of D. K. Pearsons to numerous small colleges in the West.\n\nPresident Hadley, in his article in the Century Magazine for April, 1905, puts\nthe matter in an unanswerable form which should be studied by everyone\ninterested in this phase of our educational Hfe.\n\nThis article, which is based\n\nupon the statement of a French scholar that the bachelor's degree is a social\nrather than a pedagogical institution, and in which he demonstrates that the\ncollege course is valued not solely or primarily for its studies, but rather for\nits associations,\n\nconcludes as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nCoundl]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\n301\n\nTime alone can show whether the idea of allowing a student to develop his professional\nacti\\'ity at as early a period as possible,\n\nbut postponing to as late a period as possible the\n\nnarrowing of his sympathies and the lessening of his points of contact with men outside\nof his profession, is a practical or an impracticable one.\n\nWhile we are waiting for this question to be decided, we shall probably see two sets\nIn those which are connected with our\nlarge cities, where the work of the professional school counts for more and the hfe of the\ncollege for less, we are likely to see a tendency to shorten the college course\na tendency\nto make a sharp line of demarkation between the studies of that course and the professional\nstudies which are to follow it, and to disregard or undervalue the social adjuncts which a\ncollege course carries with it.\nIn smaller places and among institutions which have a\nof experiments going on in different universities.\n\n—\n\nmore distinctly collegiate atmosphere, we may expect to find these tendencies reversed\nto see an effort to maintain the college course in its integrity and include within it as much\nas possible of preparation for the actual work of life in the belief that the gain to American\ninstitutions and American citizenship resulting from the contact of different types of men\nwith one another will be strong enough to resist the tendency of such a college to disintegration, and valuable enough to compensate for any difficulties and losses which the prosecu-\n\n—\n\ntion of such a plan involves.\n\nProphecies are presumably out of order, but there are indications that\n\nundergraduate work will eventually be entirely separated from the distinctive\nuniversity courses, and all work preparatory thereto left to secondary schools\n\nand colleges.\n\nENTRANCE TO THE PROFESSIONS\nMaterial progress has been made in the last two years in establishing legal\nprovisions in the various states guarding the entrance to the professions of law,\n\nmedicine, dentistry, veterinary surgery, nurse-training, and pubUc accounting.\n\nThe necessity of maintaining relatively uniform standards in the various\nstates is now recognized sufficiently to induce legislative action.\nThe state of\nNew York leads in her elaborate code governing all of these professions, and\nthe laws of other states are usually based upon the New York statutes. The\nsouthern and far western states are still slow to act.\n\nIn law, the state of Missouri has established a state board of examiners\n\nand a preliminary education equivalent to a grammar-school course.\nIn medicine, reciprocity provisions for indorsing other state licenses have\n\nbeen passed in Georgia, Iowa, Missouri, and Wyoming.\n\nMedical acts have\n\nbeen revised in South CaroUna, Kentucky, Vermont, and Wyoming.\nIn dentistry, state boards of examiners have been created by Kentucky\nand Wyoming; Mississippi requires high-school education or its equivalent\nas a preliminary to the examination.\n\nIn pharmacy. New York has made eight years in elementary schools and\n\none year in high school a prerequisite to entering a school of pharmacy.\n\nPenn-\n\nsylvania has become the second state requiring a diploma from a reputable\n\npharmacy school for admission to licensing examinations.\nIn veterinary medicine, Maine and Missouri have estabhshed state boards\nof examiners, and New York has raised the entrance requirement of veterinary colleges to a four-year high-school course, or its equivalent, placing this\nprofession on.a par with medicine and dentistry.\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn nurse-training, Maryland has created a state board of examiners; and\nthe equivalent of a high-school course and diploma from a training school is\n\nrequired for registration.\n\nUNIVERSITY SUMMER SCHOOLS\n\nThe last two years seem to have marked perceptibly the passing of the\nsummer school of methods and the growth in public favor of the university\nsummer school. This is a distinct step in advance, inasmuch as it substitutes\nfor the spasmodic efforts of diverse agencies a regular curriculum maintained\n\nby a responsible organization. The growth of the university summer schools\nis phenomenal, and teachers are patronizing them to a remarkable degree.\n\nA number of cities have made it a financial or professional advantage to the\nteachers who attend university summer schools.\n\nSeveral cities give specific\n\nadvances in salary to the teacher who brings a\n\ncertificate of\n\nachievement;\n\nothers allow several points toward professional examinations for the winning\nof similar credentials.\n\nTHE PUBLIC LIBRARY AN INTEGRAL PART OF OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM\n\nThe public Hbrary as an educational force is beginning to be much more\nthoroly understood\n\nand used.\n\nIf civilization is to\n\nadvance and free insti-\n\ntutions to be insured, there must be intelligence on the part of the people and\n\ndue regard paid to the constant improvement of the individual. The school\ndoes not hold the child any great length of time. The average term of instruction per pupil for the whole country is now about 5.17 years, and an additional\n\nmeans of instruction must be provided at public expense. When school days\nare over, there is no agency but the pubUc library efficiently to take the place,\nand for busy men and women it is the only opportunity for larger information\nand for self -education, which is in reahty the broadest and best education.\n\nThe highest civiHzation is that which lives together in mutual helpfulness.\nIt means to each citizen a source of help, comfort, and protection, each giving\n\naccording to his power and each acquiring according to his deserts.\nignorant and unenhghtened people cannot five such a\n\nmen and women cannot enter into it.\n\nlife\n\nas this.\n\nAn\n\nSmall\n\nThere must be breadth of horizon and\n\nlargeness of outlook, grounded in information, intelligence,\n\nand character.\n\nThe common school has thrown wide the door of opportunity, and its work\nmust be carried to completion by the pubHc Hbrary. That this is realized\nby the public is amply demonstrated by the remarkable increase of public\nlibraries, and the growth and extension of its principles.\nFive hundred and\nsix hbrary gifts in the\n\nUnited States for the year ending May 31, 1904, the\n\nlatest figures available, are reported at $6, 103,137, of which nearly one-fourth\n\nwas given by Mr. Carnegie.\n\nHe has given during the last fifteen years nearly\n\nforty millions of dollars to establish 1,350 libraries.\n\nThe appropriation for\n\nthe city of New York for current library expenses for the year 1905\n\nwas\n\nThe free circulation of books in the city of New York for 1904 was\n6,339,190, and for the state of New York a grand total of 1 1,347,802. Accurate\n$634,393.\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nStatistics are not available from other portions of the country,\n\n303\n\nbut in twenty-\n\nthree states there are state library commissions, or departments, to promote\n\nthe estabhshment of pubUc hbraries and to assist them in maintaining high\n\nstandards of usefulness.\n\nThe number of free libraries is rapidly increasing\n\nfrom year to year, and, in the light of its supplementary function to the public\nschool, Hbrary growth is one of the brightest signs of the times.\n\nSPECIAL EDUCATION\nSpecial education\n\n—a term which I have never\n\nliked,\n\nseemingly coined\n\nto avoid the use of the word ''defective,\" and which has always to be defined\n\nas education applying to children defective in\n\nsome measure\n\n—has made a\n\nwonderful advance during the last two years, particularly in two ways:\n\nfirst,\n\na growing appreciation and practical acceptance on the part of the public\nthat it is as much a part of the duty of the state to provide free education for\n\nchildren defective in any respect as for those who are normal; this is evidenced\n\nby increased interest and increased appropriations for the maintenance of\nschools for special instruction;\n\nsecond, the great increase in the number of\n\nmanual-training courses in schools for the deaf and dumb, blind, and feeble-\n\nminded children, whereby they are not only trained to be mentally more alert,\nbut often lay the foundation of a trade which will support them during life.\nIn connection with the Ohio School for Feeble-Minded Youth, there has\nrecently been established a custodial farm of sufficient acreage to give employment to the adult feeble-minded of the state in such a way that the sexes are\nentirely separated, not only from each other, but from society at large.\nIn\nthe courses of study for the bhnd there has been introduced a great amount\nof nature study by which the sense-perception is being greatly increased and\na knowledge of the outer world more closely brought to the mental sight of\nAt the St. Louis Exposition there was on exhibition a group of\nthe child.\n358 specimens of insects gathered, classified, and mounted by blind pupils,\nthe only aid given being that which was rendered by ordinary children in\ncatching the specimens. If this increased study in nature work will aid to\ncultivate in the bhnd a habit of exact thought, in the place of the irregular\nemotions which have hitherto characterized this class of children, it will be\n\na distinct step in advance.\n\nA resolution passed by the American Medical Association in New Orleans\nin May, 1903, asking that measures be taken by boards of health, boards of\n\neducation,\n\nand school authorities, and,\n\nif\n\npossible, legislation\n\nbe secured\n\nlooking toward an examination of the eyes and ears of all school children,\n\nhas been adopted by the Mississippi Valley Medical Association, the American\nPublic Health Association, and over twenty state medical associations.\n\nIn\n\nabout thirty cities of the country formal tests of the sight and hearing are\nmaintained by ofl&cial medical inspectors, and in a number of municipaUties\nmedical inspectors are appointed by the pubUc-school authorities to test, not\nonly the sight and hearing, but other organs of the body.\n\nThis guardianship\n\nof the health of children is producing remarkably good results.\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n304\n\n[National\n\nIn many of our cities also special classes are formed for the training of\nchildren,\n\nmore or less abnormal, who with proper care can make greater\nThese classes are always small, and in charge of a\n\nintellectual advance.\n\nteacher specially fitted for the delicate work.\n\nCOMPULSORY EDUCATION AND JUVENILE COURTS\n\nThe feehng of responsibility on the part of those carrying on the affairs\nof the state for the education of the young is increasing.\n\nappreciation of the child's rights to an education,\n\nThere is a greater\nand an insistence upon\n\nThe compulsorymany states with this end in view.\nChildren's courts have been established in many cities, and truants and\n\nparents sending children to school up to the full age limit.\n\neducation laws have been amended in\n\nincorrigibles carefully supervised,\n\nelementary education.\n\nand placed where they can secure a good\n\nNotable juvenile courts are those conducted by\n\nJudge Lindsay, of Denver, Judge Tuthill, of Chicago, and Judge Stubbs, of\nIndianapolis.\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY EDUCATION\n\nThe measures for adapting the public-school system to the varied conditions\nof a great urban population are significant features of our social and economic\nprogress.\n\nVarious forms of continuation schools for those who are employed\n\nduring the day are being established in all the large industrial cities.\n\nThe\n\neducational centers for working-people in Boston, the evening school of trades\nin Springfield, and the great number of evening schools in\n\nNew York, Phila-\n\nand Chicago are instances in point. These schools teach a range\nof subjects almost as wide as the day schools, tho leaning strongly to the\ndelphia,\n\npractical.\nis\n\nThe attendance of recently arrived immigrants at these schools\nand significant. The use of the public schoolhouses in the\n\nnoticeable\n\nevenings as social centers, for popular lectures, for parents' meetings, and\nfor study clubs, begun in the larger cities, is rapidly being adopted in smaller\ncities\n\nand industrial towns, and brings a double return to the community\n\nfor the investment in educational equipment.\n\nThe humane as well as educational principle involved in maintaining\nvacation schools in crowded cities, where children can find recreation as well\nas instruction in\n\nmanual training, gymnastics, and athletics,\n\nis\n\nreclaiming\n\nthousands of boys and girls from street life, and turning gangs of embryo\ntoughs into normal-trained men and women.\n\nThe public-school gymnasium\nand playground is recognized to be as potent a factor in modem school training\nand upbuilding of character as can be employed. For this reason one of the\nmost notable events of the school year just closing is the appropriation of one\nmillion dollars for the purchase and the equipment of playgrounds in the tenement districts of New York and Brooklyn. Three hundred thousand dollars\nwas also appropriated for purchasing three athletic fields for the use of the pupils\nof the greater city.\n\nIt is money well spent.\n\nNearly every city in the United\n\nStates of 100,000 inhabitants maintains vacation schools.\n\nThe great devel-\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncU]\n\n305\n\nopment in the last five years has been due to New York's action in taking over\nthe schools formally conducted by the Society for Improving the Condition\nof the Poor, and its great need has led to the prosecution of the work with\ncorresponding vigor.\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AT THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION\n\nA paper of this nature would not be complete without reference to the\neducational exhibits of the Universal Exposition held at St. Louis in 1904, in\n\nwhich exhibits thirty-three states and territories and twenty-two foreign countries participated.\n\nAt the same time there may be a doubt as to whether this\n\ndisplay comes under the head of educational progress.\nobjective\n\nIt\n\nwas rather an\n\nsummary of the world's educational status at that date brought\n\ntogether for the purpose of comparison\n\nand study.\n\nIt\n\nhas already been\n\nthoroly discussed in the educational press and on educational platforms, and\nthe lessons taught by the orderly and systematic arrangement of the prominent\nfeatures of the educational systems of nearly every civilized country have\n\nbeen thoroly emphasized.\n\nIt is too. early to assert that it has influenced any\n\nimportant movement, and almost too late to repeat again that its suggestive\ninfluences have penetrated thru the thousands of teachers\n\nwho visited the\n\nUnique in the position\nof being the concrete form of the science, the theory of which the entire exposition was designed to emphasize, the exhibit stands as a monument to mark\nthe recognition of the fact by a new nation, that education is the practical\nbasis of the social and industrial Ufe of a country.\nEducation Building to every quarter of the globe.\n\nTHE CONGRESS OF ARTS AND SCIENCE\n\nThe most notable gathering of men of letters, arts, and science which has\never taken place in the history of the world was the Congress of Arts and\n\nScience held under the auspices of the St. Louis Exposition in September,\n1904.\n\nIt\n\nwas a gathering remarkable for its cosmopolitan membership, its\n\nemphasis of the fraternity of scholarship, for the personnel of its participation,\n\nand for its magnificent contribution to the scientific thought of the world.\nThe congress was conceived in the desire to depart from the routine of international gatherings common to universal expositions, and was the result of\nmuch thought and wide conference on the part of the authorities of the exposition.\nThe plan grew out of the idea that the subdivisions and multiplication\nof specialties in science had reached a stage at which investigators and scholars\nmight derive both inspiration and profit thru a general survey of the various\nfields of learning,\n\nplanned with a view of bringing the scattered sciences into\n\nThe central purpose was the unification of knowlwhich seemed doubly appropriate on an occasion when the\nnations were bringing together a comprehensive exhibit of their arts and\n\ncloser mutual relations.\n\nedge\n\n—\n\n^an effort\n\nIn these days, when mind is concentrated on atoms, when the\nnarrow field of the speciaHst is all too wide for the life-work of our keenest\n\nindustries.\n\nintellects, a discussion of\n\nthe broader relations of the sciences, their inter-\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3o6\n\n[National\n\ndependence on each other, and their influence on the destinies of the race,\nIt might lead to generalizations in which this\n\nwas felt to be worth the trial.\nage is remarkably deficient.\n\nThe opening of the congress on September 19 was followed, on Tuesday\nforenoon, by addresses on the main di\\dsions of science and its applications,\nthe general theme being the unification of each of the fields treated.\n\nThese\n\nwere followed by two addresses on each of the twenty-four great departments\n\nThe theme of one address in each case\n\ninto which knowledge was divided.\n\nwas the fundamental conceptions and methods, while the other set forth\nThese addresses were delivered by\nthe progress during the last century.\nAmericans, making the work of the first two days the contribution of American\nscholarship.\n\nOn the third day, with the opening of the sections, the international work\nbegan.\n\nOne hundred and twenty-eight sections were held in the four remain-\n\ning days of the congress, at each of which two papers were read, one by a\nforeigner, the other by an American, the theme of one being suggested by the\n\nrelations of the special\n\nbranch treated to other branches; the other, by its\n\npresent problems.\n\nA glance at the personnel of the speakers proves conclusively that never\nbefore have so many leading exponents of various learning or so many leading\nscientists been brought together for a common purpose.\n\nThe papers, which\n\nin nearly every instance by their very high plane of scholarship showed a full\n\nappreciation of the importance of the occasion, are now being published in\neight volumes\n\nby Houghton, Mifflin\n\n& Co., of Boston, and will embody a\n\ncontribution to scientific hterature which will mark the St. Louis Exposition\n\nlong after the record of its material achievements has faded from the minds\nof men.\n\nEDUCATIONAL LITERATURE\nWithin the last two years the literature of the profession has broadened\n\nand deepened, and some really noteworthy books have been published which\nindicate that within a reasonable time'we need not be ashamed of comparison\nwith other professions. The bibliographies published by the Educational\nReview in June, 1904, and June, 1905, give forty-three titles of books that\nshould be in every large library and be accurately known to all students of\neducation. With no intention of discriminating, a half-dozen of these should\nbe specially mentioned as widely read and favorably received works; such\nare\n\nHome's Philosophy of Education, Thorndike's Educational Psychology,\n\nBrown's Making oj Our Middle Schools, Coe's Education in Religion and\nMorals,\n\nCarpenter's\n\nTeaching\n\noj\n\nEnglish,\n\nand\n\nHall's\n\nAdolescence,\n\neasily\n\nthe greatest book on the subject ever presented.\n\nMISCELLANEOUS\nSpace forbids extended treatment of many features worth presenting, but\ntheir\n\nmention will carry full appreciation to this audience; noteworthy are:\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\na)\n\n307\n\nA growing tendency in the eastern states to support from public funds the higher\n\nforms of education.\nh)\n\nExtension of trade schools under private auspices and in institutions maintained\n\nby private bequests where plumbing, metal -working, carpentry, painting, etc., are taught.\nc)\n\nA, growing belief in loose grading plans such as obtain in Chicago, St. Louis,\n\nElizabeth, Batavia, Cambridge, in contradistinction to the old mechanical grading.\nd)\n\nReaction from the belief that spelling can be learned incidentally as one learns\n\nand a liberal reaction from older methods of teaching history and geography,\nwhere lessons were memorized, to the newer forms of teaching, which require the pupil\nto understand what they are studying.\ne)\nThe leading place given to English in the elementary schools, and efforts toward\na more rational plan of teaching English in the high schools. Arithmetic is no longer\ngiven twice the amount of time allowed to any other subject, altho its importance is still\nto walk,\n\nrecognized.\n/)\n\nThe constant raising of the standard of entrance to the teaching ranks, and the\n\nrapid development of departments of education in colleges and universities.\nto this is the\n\nCorrelative\n\ngrowing demand for none but college- and university-trained teachers in\n\nhigh schools, while normal-trained teachers are in demand for the grades and the rural\nschools.\n\ng)\n\nA gradual but inevitable transference of purely educational functions from boards\n\nof education to professional administrators;\n\nappointment of teachers on the merit plan,\n\ntransfer of teachers and pupils, graduation of pupils,\n\nand other details of management\n\ngenerally have been given over to the superintendent.\nh)\n\nClose attention to schoolhouse architecture and the immense improvement in\n\nthe equipment of school buildings, particularly in reference to gymnasiums, baths, roof\n\nplaygrounds, elevators, workshops, and kitchens.\ni)\n\nThe work of the Agricultural Department of the government, supplemented by\n\nthe work of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, in applying the results of\nscientific investigation to agriculture, horticulture, stock-breeding, floriculture,\n\nand the\n\nlike.\n\nThe investigations and discoveries of Luther Burbank in the improvement and\n;)\ndevelopment of fruits, flowers, and vegetable food-products, especially the development\nof a spineless cactus which can be produced in almost limitless quantities in arid climates,\n\nand which will add materially to the food production of the world.\n\nINSULAR EDUCATION\nPorto Rico.\n\n—No changes have been made in the school system as a whole\n\nor in the policy of the department to lay emphasis upon the work of the com-\n\nmon schools of primary grade.\n\nAs a rule, children enter these schools at\nand remain about three years, the vast piajority, by\nreason of their poverty, not being able to remain longer. The town schools\nthe age of five or six,\n\nhave a carefully graded eight-year course.\n\nThe principal hindrance to the\n\nmore rapid development of educational matters on the island of Porto Rico\nseems to be the lack of funds, and unless Congress takes special action on\nthe matter, little relief is Ukely to come.\n\nThe burdens of taxation are now\nand much as the\n\nas severe as the limited resources of the island can meet,\n\nimprovement of the schools is desired by the people, it is considered unwise\nto tax them further for this purpose.\n\nof reUef for the situation\n\nis\n\nWhether Congress can find any means\n\ndoubtful, but a policy should be inaugurated\n\nwhich will give to every child in Porto Rico an opportimity to attend school,\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3o8\n\n[National\n\ninstead of the accommodations being limited, as at present, to about 70,000\nchildren, or one-fifth of the population of school age.\n\nThere are at present employed in the common schools 1,265 teachers, of\n\nwhom 139 are Americans who devote most of their time to the teaching of the\nEnglish language.\n\nThe average enrollment per school has\n\nincreased over\n\n25 per cent, within the last two years. The eight-weeks trip of 540 Porto\nRican teachers to the United States and to the summer schools of Harvard\n\nand Cornell during the summer of 1904 is considered successful from every\nThe object of the trip was to give the teachers a strong stimulus\nin the study of the English language, and a clearer idea of American life and\nCongress refused to\ninstitutions, and of American history and geography.\ndo more to aid the scheme than to provide transportation, and the remaining\namount required, which was practically $100 per person, was contributed\nnearly half by the teachers, and the remainder by private subscriptions in\nNew York, Boston, and Philadelphia\nThe University of Porto Rico was estabHshed in March, 1903, and with\nThis\nit was incorporated the insular normal school, located at Rio Piedras.\nnormal department of the university was the only department in operation\nThe main object is the\nat the time of the organization of the university.\nestablishment of professional schools, particularly in law, medicine, and\nstandpoint.\n\nengineering.\n\nTeachers' institutes have been inaugurated during the past\n\nand the programs of the meetings and the appointment of inspectors\nare carried on from the department.\nThe Philippines. The reaction and indifference to the educational policy\nof the United States government which existed in the Philippines two years\nago have now almost entirely disappeared thru the strenuous measures adopted\nby the Bureau of Education. Provinces such as Misamis, from which the\ndivision superintendent and all insular teachers and all supplies were withdrawn, have come fully to realize the value of the education proffered, and\n\nyear,\n\n—\n\nthe fact that its being a free gift should not cause it to be lightly considered.\n\nThe realization that education was not to be forced upon the people, but\nrather was an opportunity which they should not fail to grasp, has seemed to\n\nbe the controlling element in the change of attitude.\n\nThe chief points of progress in the Philippine schools, which have been\ncarried on under the policy\n\nfirst\n\nestabUshed by the government, have been\n\nalmost entirely in the matter of administration and of increased revenue.\n\nThe status of the division superintendents under the civil service has been\nand the minimum salary placed at $1,600. These salaries are also no\n\nfixed,\n\nlonger fixed with reference to the respective political divisions, but the superintendents\n\nmay be assigned to duty in any part of the archipelago.\n\nPro-\n\nmotions have also been arranged for on the merit basis, and the teachers\nincluded in the classified civil service.\nfirst,\n\nThis gave rise to some confusion at\n\nbut satisfactory and equitable adjustments have been made, and the\n\nlaw at the present time is popular.\n\nProvision has also been made for meeting\n\nthe expenses of American teachers assigned to visit the harrio schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\n309\n\nThe chief features of the policy of the bureau have been summarized by\nthe superintendent of education, as organizing and placing, under competent\nsupervision, primary instruction within reach of every child in the Christian\n\nprovinces;\n\nthe training of a sufficient\n\nwomen as teachers;\n\nnumber of FiUpino young men and\n\norganizing in every large municipality an intermediate\n\nschool for continuing the work of the grades,\n\nand giving efficient practical\n\ninstruction in industrial training; the establishment of provincial high schools;\n\nthe developing of the three technical schools already established.\n\nThe passage of the internal-revenue act of a year ago, which devotes\n5\n\nper cent, of the entire revenues to the municipal school funds, has been of\n\nimmense advantage to the educational situation, and has permitted the\nemployment of many hundred additional teachers at fair salaries. The actual\nattendance in September, 1903, upon the common schools was 182,282 pupils.\nIn October, 1904, the grand total was approximately 364,000. This tremendous increase in one year is due, not to the enforcement of any compulsory\neducation act, but to the more complete reaUzation on the part of the FiUpino\npeople of what the education introduced by the American government stands\nfor and the opportunities it affords their children.\n\nThe experiment of planting\n\nthe ideals of American democracy among an Asiatic people seems to be meeting\n\nwith more abundant success than was anticipated two years ago, and in the\n\nminds of the officials of the government the successful termination of the\nreactive period,\n\nand the evidence of increased interest and attendance, are\n\npositive proof of the ultimate justification of the American policy.\n\nFOREIGN EDUCATION\nIt is impossible in a review of this nature to go into minor details in foreign\n\neducation, or do more than select here and there some features which seem\nto us\nis\n\nworthy of note.\n\nthere a discussion\n\nThis is all that has been attempted, and in no case\nof foreign systems.\n\nMany important countries are\n\nuntouched, because their work seems to be the normal progress of poHcies\n\nadopted prior to the period covered in this address.\n\nI should Uke this borne\n\ncarefully in mind in criticising the faults of omission and commission existing\nin the report.\n\nFrance.\n\n—In the\n\nfield\n\nof higher education, a decree\n\nwhich took\n\neffect\n\nNovember i, 1904, united the Superior Normal School to the University of\nParis.\nThe normal school preserved its administrative and civil personahty, the director and assistant becoming members of the council of the\nuniversity.\nThe teachers of the normal school became members of the\nfaculty of science and letters.\nThe scientific instruction is given by the\nuniversity and the professional instruction by the normal school, with a\ncourse in the lyceums.\n\nTwo courses, one of letters and one of science, are\n\nmaintained, each three years in length.\n\nThe students are matriculated in\n\nthe university; and, in short, the relation is almost exactly the same as that\nof the Teachers College to Columbia University in this country.\n\nThe policy\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3IC\n\n[National\n\nof placing the training of teachers for the higher schools under university\n\ndirection\n\nis\n\nparallel with recent\n\ndevelopments in our own country, and the\n\ndirect influence of the American system is acknowledged in the reorganization\nin France.\n\nThe changes are made in the expectation of securing a more\n\nequitable distribution of the scholarships, the number of which will depend\n\nupon the funds available in the budget, and of obtaining a higher grade of\nteachers in the secondary schools of France.\n\nIn the discussion of these\n\nchanges, M. Croisset, dean of the faculty of letters of the University of Paris,\nasserts, in\n\ncommenting on the importance of Latin composition as compared\n\nwith the Latin theme, that Latin has ceased to be what is was formerly, a\nscientific international language.\n\nIn secondary education the chief modifications have been in the plan\nof studies, programs, and examinations for the baccalaureate.\n\nIn the lyceums\n\nthe total duration of hours of class-work and of study has been reduced to\n\nnine hours for students under sixteen years of age, and to seven hours for those\n\nunder twelve.\ncourses.\n\nThe\n\nNo class period must exceed one hour, except in the higher\nFrench secondary school system are\n\nmodifications of the\n\nsuggestive of the American plan as exhibited in Paris during the Exposition\nof 1900.\n\nThe former modem and classical courses, differing by one year\n\nhave been revised, and, instead of two distinct Unes of study, two cycles have\nbeen adopted, the first of four years, from the sixth to the third inclusive, in\n\ntwo divisions, differing by having Latin as the basis for one, and French and\nother modem languages for the other.\nyears, is divided into four sections:\n\nThe second cycle, comprising three\n\n(a) the\n\nGreek-Latin,\n\n{b)\n\nthe Latin and\n\nmodem languages, (c) the Latin-science, {d) the science and modem language,\nall\n\nquite analogous to the four courses of the American series leading to the\n\ndegree of arts (B.A.), the degree of philosophy (B.Ph.), the degree of science\n(B.S.), and the degree of Uterature (B.L.).\n\nIn elementary education the chief problem has been the amelioration and\n\nimprovement of the teaching force.\n\nNo one may become a teacher in the\n\npublic elementary schools without holding a normal-school certificate testifying to pedagogic ability, and granted after having passed three years at least\n\nThe chief anxiety is concerning\nThe recent financial law passed April 22, 1905,\nhas increased the salary of teachers in the elementary schools, and the new\nmilitary law of 1905 contributes to the increase of men teachers by permitting\n\nin a\n\nnormal training school for teachers.\n\nthe question of men teachers.\n\nan exchange of military service for a five-year contract in teaching.\n\nThe suppression of the congregations still continues a matter of strife\nThe law of July 6, 1904, presents six\n\nbetween the lay spirit and the clerical.\narticles, all of\n\nwhich are interesting, but which cannot be presented here in\n\nThe first forbids instruction of all kinds and any nature to the congregations of France within a maximum limit of ten years. The second decrees\nthat congregations that are exclusively teaching bodies shall not enroll new\nmembers, and only those that are foreign may continue their course. The\nextenso.\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\n311\n\nthird determines on the closing of the institutions within at least the ten years.\n\nThe fourth provides for public announcement of the closed congregations\nThe fifth provides for the closing of the effects of\nthe institutions.\nThe sixth repeals all laws to the contrary. Under this act\n\nin the official journal.\n\nprivate elementary\n\nand secondary instruction is restrained.\n\nIt is\n\na matter\n\nof interest meanwhile to remark that most of the schools closed by this act\nwill open,\n\neven if they have not already opened, under a lay teaching body\n\nwhich is nothing more or less than the former personnel in secidar garb.\n\nThe\n\nclosing of the congregations, however, resulted in bringing private education,\n\nelementary and secondray, under the jurisdiction of the state.\n\nAn interesting study is being carried on by a commission, of which M. L^on\nBourgeois, former minister of education,\n\nis\n\npresident, to inquire into the\n\nand educational obligations for abnormal children. The\ncommission is making an exhaustive investigation under the decree of October\n4, 1904, and is establishing fundamental propositions.\n\nrequirements\n\nIt is difficult to characterize the various lines of evolution of instruction\n\nin France during recent years.\n\nScience profoundly impresses the department\n\nof teaching, and demands services most important and profitable to the masses.\n\nThis does not mean that the classical tradition has been abandoned, or is to\nbe retired in France in favor of research.\n\nFrench spirit still aims at the ideal\n\nand the development of the beautiful, and the pursuit of pure science has not\n\nThe new plans for secondary instruction\nM. Liard, vice\"They will be the instruments of\nrector of the University of Paris, writes:\nceased to be held in highest honor.\n\nhave invested the sciences, however, with new functions.\nculture.\"\n\nLetters will continue, as in the past, the tried instructors impossible\n\nto be supplanted, but in the domain of the positive sciences there will be more\neffective work than in the past.\n\namong the humanities.\n\nThe sciences will be ranked by the French\n\nAgain in the words of M. Liard:\n\nOur countrymen, who are beyond all an idealistic race, and deductive, have need of\na great bath of realism\n\nOn the whole, the education of the French youth seems\n\nhave been too much directed to the abstract mathematics, and not enough toward\nexperimental science. Often the spirit of our race has led our students by bounds to the\nhighest generalities at once to treat deductively all items of knowledge. It is necessary,\nto\n\nthen, that education thru the experimental sciences become experimental and inductive.\n\nAttention should be called to an item of interest to aJl, which has frequently\n\nbeen overlooked.\n\nThere have been established for some time frequent and\n\nprofitable relations between the schools of France which are under the juris-\n\ndiction of the minister of public instruction and those of neighboring states.\n\nForeigners are received as auxiharies in the primary normal schools and in\nother establishments of secondary instruction.\nare sent to foreign schools;\n\nReciprocally, French teachers\n\nand this exchange, so advantageous from all points\n\nof view, is multiplying each year.\n\nEngland.\n\n—This survey confines\n\nitself to what has taken place in\n\nEngland,\n\nbut it should not be forgotten that an important development of opinion on\neducational matters has been going forward during the same term of years\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n312\n\nin Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.\n\n[National\n\nAt no time in England's history has there\n\nbeen so widespread an interest in the problem of national education as during\nthe last three or four years.\n\nThe movement is still in flood.\n\nevery type of school and all grades of education.\n\nferment of thought and of the upthrust of\n\nIt is the\n\nIt has touched\n\noutcome of the\n\nnew social ideals.\n\nWhile the\n\nstudy of American and foreign systems of education has done\nstimulate the criticism of methods of teaching, the English\n\nmuch to\n\nmovement is\n\nIt proceeds from a strong sense of national need,\nand is slowly feeling its way thru discussion and practical experiment to the\nreadjustment of typical English methods to the new social and intellectual\n\nanything but imitative.\n\nconditions.\nFirst in\n\nimportance\n\ntherefore,\n\namong the educational developments in\n\nEngland during the last three years, must be placed, not the mere administrative change, but the growth of public interest in educational matters.\n\nStress should be laid upon certain changes in the point of view of those\n\nwho are desirous of educational reform.\n\nThere is a growing sense of the\n\nunity of national education, in the interdependence of one grade of educational\ninstitution upon the other.\n\nThese parts of the educational policy which have\n\nrested consciously or unconsciously\n\nslowly losing their power.\n\neducation\n\nis\n\nupon\n\ntraditional social distinction are\n\nAt the same time, the influence of environment in\n\nseen to be of signal importance.\n\nThe educational problem,\n\nmore and more as an aspect of the social problem.\nThe discussion has begun to center on the aims of education, and is bringing\ninto clearer relief the value which the English mind attaches to virility of\ncharacter, and therefore to the character-forming factors in education.\nThere\ntherefore, is discussed\n\nis less disposition than heretofore to regard changes in educational machinery\n\nas sufficient in themselves to secure educational reform.\n\nThis change may\n\nfor a time seem to retard administrative organization, because it reveals the\n\ndeep-set varieties of social and economic ideals within each area which the\nschools must serve; but, in point of fact, nothing is of more helpful augury\nfor the future than this disposition to think the matter out, to get at the bottom\n\nof the problem, and to abstain from any superficial treatment of the difficulties\n\ninvolved.\n\nThe law of 1902 relates almost exclusively to the regular administration\nof schools, and the county councils, which became the local unit of supervision\n\nand administration, have assumed the power of the former boards, with little\nfriction and with apparent success.\nThe chief opposition to the law, as might\nhave been anticipated from the great struggle which arose at the time of its\npassage, is in the application of local taxes to the support of church schools\n\nwhich remain substantially under private control.\n\nThe necessity of accepting\n\nthe conditions passively, as was predicted at the time of the passage of the\nact,\n\nhas not been recognized, and the various religious sects outside of the\n\nestablished chvrch have\n\nmade a steady and firm resistance to the payment\n\nof taxes to be used for this purpose.\n\nThousands of summonses have been\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\n313\n\nissued by the courts to those refusinsj to pay the taxes, and unless the law is\n\namended in this particular, much confusion is likely to arise.\n\nThe admin-\n\nistration of the new law is immensely superior to the procedure under the art\n\nof 1870, and, if satisfactory adjustment can be made of the religious question,\n\nboth the elementary and secondary schools will soon be on a highly satisfactory\nbasis.\n\nIn 1903 a new education law was passed for the city of London which\npractically extended to the city the principal features of the general\n\n1902.\n\nlaw of\n\nThe historic London School Board, which has made ?uch a magnificent\n\nrecord in the thirty-five years of its existence, and whose influence has been\nfelt thru the\n\nlength and breadth of England, has practically brought its work\n\nThe opposition to the application of the law to the city of Loudon\narose quite as much from the sentiment over the thoro work and magnificent\nto a close.\n\nrecord of the old board as for any other reason\n\n;\n\nbut it is almost the unanimous\n\nopinion that the present policy is much better adapted to the present needs\nof London's development.\n\nIn the sphere of secondary education an advance has been made all along\nthe h'ne.\n\nOld schools are being strengthened, new schools have been estab-\n\nlished, curriculums are being modified, and equipments have been improved.\n\nNo such period of revival in secondary education has been known in England\nsince the Revival of Learning.\n\nThe beginning of this period of reform has\n\nonly just been entered upon, but the outlook is very highly encouraging.\n\nIn the sphere of technical education there has been a great strengthening\nIn London and in the other great cities research\nand higher teaching in technological subjects are being pushed forward.\nTechnical evening classes for workmen and other students, both men and\nwomen, have been organized in large numbers.\nThe Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are particularly sensitive to\nthe new conditions and to the demands of the present trend of thought. The\nUniversity of London is rapidly gaining strength and cohesion. A new\nuniversity has been established at Sheffield, and the government grants to all\nthe new universities and university colleges have been more than doubled.\nSweden, In May, 1904, the Swedish Riksdag decided upon a reform in\nregard to the secondary schools of Sweden the most radical and important\nin their entire history.\nThese schools are the direct continuation of the\nmonastery, cathedral, and town schools, some of which have existed since\nthe Middle Ages.\nAs heretofore organized, they have consisted of a conof the more advanced work.\n\n—\n\n—\n\ntinuous course of nine years, following a course of three years in the common\nschools.\n\nThe change authorized divides the secondary schools into a lower modem\nThe gymnasium,\n\nschool of six years and a higher gymnasium of four years.\n\nhowever,\n\nis\n\nnot a direct continuation of the modern school, but continues\n\nfrom its fifth class.\n\nThe courses are based, as before, upon the three-year\nThe result of this change is that pupils have the\n\ncommon-school course.\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n314\n\n[National\n\noption of taking the full six-year course of the modern school, and, if they are\nsuccessful in the final examinations, they are entitled to certain privileges,\n\nsuch as being received as apprentices in the government telegraph or postalservice department.\n\nand is\n\nCoeducation\n\nimportant as being the\n\nalso allowed in these\n\nis\n\nmodern schools,\n\ninstance in which the government has\n\nfirst\n\nauthorized coeducational schools in\n\nsecondary education.\n\nThis decision\n\nwas preceded by a very careful investigation of the results of coeducation,\nparticularly as conducted in the United States.\n\nThe other option is to leave the modern school at the end of the fifth\nyear and take the four-year gymnasium course, making the complete course\nfor the student nine years.\n\nThe four-year gymnasiums are also of two kinds,\n\nmodem gymnasium, and both are concluded\nby an entrance examination which admits to the university. The main\ndifference in the gymnasiums is that in the former an opportunity is given\nthe Latin gymnasium and the\n\nAn innovation is also allowed in introducing elective courses\nThe most important change\nin the curriculum of the secondary schools is the abridgment of Latm and of\nto study Greek\n\nin the last two years of the gymnasium course.\n\nHeretofore six years of Latin and four years of Greek have been\nUnder the present arrangement four years of Latin and two years\nof Greek are prescribed.\nThe tendency to force the classical languages into\nthe background has been quite marked, and the present program reduces the\ntime for the study of Latin one-half from that in vogue thirty years ago. At\nthat time, also, 75 per cent, of the pupils in the last four years of the gym-\n\nGreek.\n\ngiven.\n\nnasiums took I^tin, while at the present time 47 per cent, take this subject.\n\nThe most important\n\nadministrative\n\nmeasure\n\nin\n\nconnection with this\n\nreform of the secondary-school system is the establishment of a superior board\nof five members who will manage its affairs, in place of the ministry of education\n\nand the chapters of the dioceses which have hitherto controlled them.\n\nAmong the members of this board of five are Hon. Carl von Friesen, head of\nthe present Education Department, Professor Ernst Carlson, principal of\nthe higher secondary school of Gothenburg,\n\nand Dr. N. G. W. Lagerstedt,\n\nrecently the royal Swedish commissioner to the St. Louis Exposition.\n\nGermany.\n\n—The imperial rescript of the emperor, acting, however, as\n\nthe king of Prussia, which took effect in 1902,\n\neducational world of\n\nis\n\nthe principal event in the\n\nGermany during the last four years.\n\nthe leaving certificates from the\n\nBy this decree\n\nGymnasium^ the Realgymnasium, and the\n\nOber-Realschule were accepted for entrance to the university\n\n—a privilege\n\nby the graduates of the Gymnasium alone. The Realgymnasium has one classical language, Latin, and two modern languages,\nFrench and English; the Ober-Realschule has only the modern languages.\nheretofore enjoyed\n\nThe similarity of this action to certain tendencies in this country can readily\nThus far only a few of the other German states have shown\nany incHnation to follow the example of Prussia, and east German states have\nbe perceived.\n\nquite positively refused to order an equalization of the three kinds of insti-\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncU]\n\n315\n\nThe overwhelming influence of Prussia in matters educational will\n\ntutions.\n\nin time undoubtedly lead most of the states to similar action.\n\nThe academic degree has, during the various evolutions of the German\nbecome of little practical importance, except to those who intend\n\nuniversity,\n\nIt is possible to become a clergyman, a lawyer, a physician, or a teacher in high schools without possessing\nthe baccalaureate degree.\nThe large number of graduations which still\n\nto devote themselves to an academic career.\n\ntake place every year under these conditions, is accounted for by the consideration which the title enjoys in the public estimation, and by the widespread\n\nGermany for titles in general.\nThe time-honored compulsory-education laws of Prussia are now being\n\npartiality in\n\nmore strictly enforced than ever, and in 1901, out of a grand total of 5,754,000\nchildren, only 518 evaded attendance.\n\nKeen\n\nto\n\nobserve the necessity of training young\n\nmen for commercial\n\nservice in the German colonies and consular service in all parts of the world,\n\na series of commercial high schools has been established in the last few years\n\nwhich treat economic science from the practical and strictly scientific point\n\nThe Commercial High School in Leipzig, founded in 1898, was the\n\nof view.\nfirst\n\ninstitution of this kind, followed\n\nby the Municipal Commercial High\n\nSchool in Cologne, founded in 1900, and the Academy of Social and Commercial Science founded in Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1901.\n\nThe magnificent\n\nexhibit of these schools at the St. Louis Exposition is too recently in the minds\nof this audience to need extended comment.\n\nand\ngrown with the utmost rapidity over the\n\nAgricultural schools of various grades, iQcluding farming schools\nagricultural winter schools, have\n\nAt the end of 1903 the schools of this class aggregated 256.\nNearly all are subsidized by the state, or receive incomes from the provisional\n\nentire empire.\n\ndistrict and\n\nBelgium.\n\ncommune funds.\n\n—There have been no new laws of importance\n\nin\n\nBelgium con-\n\ncerning primary instruction, with the exception of a general increase in the\nsalaries of teachers.\n\nadministration have\n\nThe measures which have been undertaken by the\nall\n\ntended toward the practical realization of what is\n\nconsidered in Belgium the imperative law of modem pedagogy, Vicole pour la\n\nmay be hberally translated as school training for the necessary work\nTo insure the introduction of this essential reform, the central govern-\n\nvie, which\n\nof life.\n\nment has made four matters, or objective points, the subject of legislative\nmeasures and decrees:\n1.\n\nThe thoro inspection of the curriculum on the part of the government.\n\n2.\n\nCreation of technical courses designed to meet local needs.\n\n3.\n\nInstruction and preparation of teachers in educational methods adapted to the\n\nfuture condition of pupils in professional life.\n4.\n\nIncrease of work in social education.\n\nOne of the strongest means of securing the great results achieved in this\nmethod of education has been to enUst the aid of teachers in preparing dissertations for the general pedagogic conferences.\nThe problems, which every\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3i6\n\n[National\n\nteacher is compelled to solve, consist of the obligatory assembling of documents\n\nand materials necessary in laying out their lessons and in applying them to the\ncourse of instruction established by the government. The value of this collection, as exhibited by Belgium last year at St. Louis, is without parallel as a\ncollection of historical educational\n\ndocuments.\n\nLast year the government\n\ndirected that each school send in treatises, statements, and collections upon a\nseries of questions, all of which are\n\nnow being exploited at the exposition at\n\nThis work is considered of the highest importance from the point of\n\nLi^ge.\n\nview of the ultimate preparation of the teaching staff, inasmuch as the collections in their educative power are so much greater, as they have\n\nbeen made\n\nby the teacher aided by his pupils, and are composed of elements selected by\nthem and by him from the territory of their own community and in the different workshops of their own locality.\n\nThe secondary education of Belgium has recently been carefully devoted\nto introducing into the instruction a spirit more practical and more businesslike,\n\nand to systematic efforts to attract the children of the middle classes\n\ntoward commercial careers in arts, industries and trades.\n\nThis tendency is\n\nmanifested principally by the creation of new commercial sections in a certain\n\nnumber\n\nof secondary schools, as well as under the ministerial decree of\n\nJuly 30, 1904, remodeling the program for instruction in drawing in the royal\n\nathenaeums and the secondary schools of the kingdom.\n\nLi the higher secon-\n\ndary schools, with the same idea in view, and under the decree of September of\nthe same year, modifications in the course in mathematics and commercial\nsciences have been authorized.\n\nThe teaching of commercial accounting and\n\nof commercial arithmetic has received a new practical\n\nform more complete\nand more in accordance with actual necessities. The Belgian government\nis neglecting none of the factors which can contribute, either in primary\n\nOn the other\n\nor secondary education, to a training for Vecole pour la vie.\n\nhand,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nimportant not to lose sight of the fact that public instruction\n\nought not only to be directed in a national sense toward the needs of its own\ncountry, but at the same time toward matters concerning foreign nations in a\n\nway to sustain business relations with other countries, and to develop their\neconomic condition.\n\nWith this particularly in view, a course in economic\n\ngeography and the more thoro study of the English and German languages\nhave been introduced into the curriculum.\nLi higher education there has been estabUshed in the University of Libge\nthe degree of \"geological engineer\" by decree of August 24, 1900, with the\n\ndesign of procuring engineers with a geological knowledge\n\nmore complete\n\nthan has resulted from study in the technical schools, and to furnish the\n\nequipment demanded by the development of scientific mining.\n\nThe degree\n\nof \"doctor of arts and archaeology\" has also been established at Li^ge at the\n\nend of a course more complete than any that now exists either in Europe or\nAmerica.\n\nThis was estabHshed in 1903.\n\nThe University of Gand established\n\nlast November the degree of \"engineer of naval construction,\" the first course\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\nin\n\n317\n\nwhich will not be completed till the end of the academic year 1905-6.\n\nThere have also been established in the two Universities of Gand and Libge\nthe degrees of licencU in commercial science and licencU in commercial and\n\nconsular science.\n\nThese have for their object the giving of a technical prepa-\n\nration to young men who are fitting themselves for commercial and industrial\n\nThe University of Louvain\nCommerce and Consular Science, and includes in its\n\nvocations, and particularly for consular careers.\n\nhas set up a School of\n\ncourse of study a curriculum preparatory to a doctorate in \"geographical\nscience.\"\n\nThe University of Brussels has opened a School of Commerce\n\nwhich confersthe degree of \"engineer of commerce.\" Both the Universities of\nLouvain and Gand have estabhshed technical schools since 1900, and during\n\nby\nnumerous chairs, among which are to be specially noted those of oriental\nthe last few years the curriculums of both universities have been enriched\n\nliterature, Egyptology, Assyriology, and many\ntal.\n\nmodem languages, chiefly orien-\n\nIt has been a period of the utmost activity in university circles, and the\n\nefforts of the government in establishing faculties which shall meet literary and\nscientific\n\ndemands of modem years have been effectively supplemented by\n\nprivate benefactions and foundations.\n\n—\n\nJapan. The educational system of Japan has moved along steadily\nunder the imperial ordinance, published in 1886, relating to universities,\n\nnormal schools, elementary schools, and middle schools.\n\nThe changes made\n\nsince that time have been in the line of amendments, but the general features\n\nremain the same as then prescribed.\n\nAmong the chief points of this revision\n\nwere the establishment of the University Hall exclusively for research in\nconnection with the Imperial University; in the normal schools the expenses\nof the pupils were to be paid by the schools, and the subjects of study and the\n\nstandard to be attained were prescribed by the minister of state for education;\n\nthe expenses for elementary schools were chiefly to be paid out of the\n\ntuition fees;\n\nthe higher middle schools were estabhshed to prepare pupils\nthe number\nand ken (civil divisions\n\nfor the university, and also to give them professional education ;\n\nof ordinary middle schools to be established in ju\n\ncorresponding to French prefectures) was limited to one for each.\n\nIn 1890\n\nthe imperial ordinance revised the provision relating to elementary schools.\n\nBy this revision the people were placed under obhgation to send their children\ntill\n\nthey completed the ordinary elementary-school course of three\n\nor four years.\n\nIn the famous speech made in 1890 the emperor decreed that\n\nto school\n\nall instruction should be in Une of fostering moral sensibihty and the practical\n\nperformance of human duties and should be considered the chief object of\nelementary education and that the spirit of loyalty and patriotism should espe;\n\ncially be\n\nawakened.\n\nIn i89.< regulations relating to supplementary schools\n\nfor technical instruction were issued.\n\nIn 1899 the imperial ordinance for the\nmiddle schools was revised, and, among other things, the hmit of the number\n\nof these schools to be established in a civil district was removed.\n\nIn the same\n\nyear an imperial decree urged upon the local authorities the establishment\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3i8\n\n[National\n\nof higher schools for girls, and the local corporations, or town or village school\n\nunions, were authorized to provide for such schools.\n\nIn the year 1900 an\n\nimperial ordinance again revised the elementary-school code, and abolished\nentirely the\n\nminimum three-year course.\n\ntuition fees\n\nwere abolished, and many changes v/ere made in the time and\n\nextent of the subjects pursued.\n\nIn view of obHgatory attendance,\n\nIn ihe same year also the medical depart-\n\nments of higher schools were reorganized under the name of \"special schools\nfor medicine.\"\n\nIn 1903 an imperial ordinance prescribed regulations for\n\nspecial schools in\n\nwhich instruction\n\nis\n\ngiven in higher courses of arts\n\nand\n\nFor the purpose of alleviating the burdens of higher education,\n\nsciences.\n\na special reserve for educational purposes amounting to 10,000,000 yen was\nset aside from the\n\nChinese indemnity fund, the annual interest of which vv^as\n\nto be distributed according to the proportion of children of school age attending\n\nduring ttie previous year.\n\nIn 1903 the total amount available for this distri-\n\nbution was 1,371,000 yen.\n\nBetween 1900 and 1905 there has been marked\n\nincrease in salaries paid teachers,\n\nand provisions have been made by the\n\nstate for providing pensions to retired teachers.\n\nThis pension is paid out\n\nof a special reserve fund established by each ken,\n\nand is formed by holding\n\nout I per cent, of the salaries of regular teachers.\n\nThe national treasury in\n\naddition grants a sum equal to one-half of the moneys paid by cities, to\\vns, or\nvillages.\n\nIn April, 1903, a system of state textbooks was introduced, copyrights\nbeing reserved by the Department of Education.\n\nAll textbooks,\n\nexcept\n\nthose for morals, Japanese history, and gec^graphy, and Japanese readers, may\n\nbe selected by the local governor from among those which are copyrighted\nby the Department of Education, or adopted by the minister of state for\neducation.\n\nThe books excepted are prescribed by the government.\n\nA great advance has been made in the last few years in the matter of school\nequipment, and strict laws have been established as to the relative proportion\nof school grounds,\n\nschool\n\nbuildings,\n\nopen-air gymnasiums, furnishing of\n\ndormitories, distance of school buildings from factories or unhealthy ground,\nsize of classrooms, etc.\n\nThe great demand for trained teachers led to the establishment in 1902\nof professional teachers' training institutes under the control of the Imperial\n\nUniversity, by which teachers for middle and normal schools should be trained\nin the shortest possible time.\n\nThe course of study extends over two years,\n\nand is divided into five distinct classes. Five of these institutes are in operation, and the first class was graduated in 1904.\n\nA great advance has been made since 1900 in the establishment of higher\nscliools,\n\nincluding both those fitting for collegiate courses and universities,\n\nbut more particularly the technical schools leading to technical and commercial industries and agriculture.\n\nThe traditional sentiment of the Japanese\n\npeople formerly led young men to proceed to the university after fmishing\ntheir course at the middle school.\n\nThe tremendous impulse given to indus-\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF THE YEAR\n\nCouncil]\n\ntrial education after the Japan-China\n\n319\n\nwar has led the government to promote\n\nthe establishment of industrial schools of various groups, and a strong tendencyis\n\nnow discernible among the young men to attend these schools.\nIn the\n\nfield\n\nof\n\nhigher education the estabhshment and growth of the\n\nImperial University of Kyoto is most conspicuous, and at present it consists\nof a University Hall for original research,\n\nand\n\ncolleges of law, medicine,\n\nscience, and engineering.\n\nThe establishment of the Kyoto Higher Technical School in 1902, as a\nschool of industrial fine arts, was designed to introduce improvements into\nart industries,\n\nand to place Japan in the forefront of artistic nations.\n\nAn\n\nimportant commission was appointed in 1902, under the title of the National\n\nLanguage In\\'estigation Committee.\n\nOne of the important functions of this\n\ncommittee is to examine the relative advantages of the Kana and the Roman\ncharacters, if phonograms are to be substituted for ideographs.\n\nIn addition,\n\nthe committee is delegated to recommend a simplification of the present style\nof writing and of the Kana orthography.\n\nAnother important committee on the history of Japan, working under\nthe auspices of the University of Tokyo, has nearly completed its work,\n\nand\n\nthe materials gathered are now being published under the name of \"Japanese\nHistorical Materials\"\n\nand ''Old Japanese Documents.\"\n\nThe total number\n\nof ancient documents compiled by the committee is more than 100,000.\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nEven so cursory a presentation of foreign educational features as is con\ntained in this paper must impress the reader with the thought that education\non the continent is becoming intensely practical.\n\nAlmost every innovation\n\nor change of policy, in wliatever country, has for its object the more thoro\ntraining of the youth for his future trade or occupation.\n\nThe line of cleavage\n\nbetween the training of the many and the training of the few, or between\nindustrial training and cultural training, is becoming more and more distinct,\n\nand what Belgium has long taken as the dictum of its own educational policymay with equal correctness be ap])lied to Europe in general -I'ecole pour\nIn vie.\n\nThe histcTy of education in the United States for the last century has\nsbowTi it to be eminently practical, and peculiarly responsive tc public demand.\nIts close relation and responsibility to the people preclude its taking any other\n\nform.\n\nIt is not a thing apart from the public and for the benefit cf a few, as\n\nin the days of Egyptian priesthood, but rather is the instrument of the people\nin\n\nshaping the destiny of the country.\n\nGiven, then, the trend of the develop-\n\nment of this country, and there follows as its cc^rollary the tendency of its\neducation. The twentieth century will be the scene of a stniggle for commercial and industrial supremacy. The United States has entered this\nworld-conflict with all its energy, and the successes it has already gained\nhave startled\nto these\n\nits\n\ncompetitors.\n\nThe kind of education, therefore, of value\n\nchanged conditions, and best likely to train our citizens for their\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n320\n\n[National\n\nfuture work, will be the kind of education to which our schools will perforce\n\nadapt themselves.\n\nThese modifications\n\nfall\n\nnaturally into three divisions:\n\neducation for commerce, education for trades and other industries, and\n\nOur educational leaders must solve the problem\n\neducation for agriculture.\n\nof how to adapt sufficient training in these lines to meet the demands of the\nage, and not destroy at the same time the balance which has been maintained\nin our curriculums with the\n\nmore clearly cultural subjects, the broad and\n\nliberal training in which has been the source of our past strength and present\n\npower.\n\nThis must not be sacrificed in the adjustment which must inevitably\n\ncome, for to do so would be to remo\\e the corner-stc ne of the edifice.\n\nSYMPOSIUM: WHAT ARE AT PRESENT THE MOST PROMISING SUBJECTS FOR SUCH INVESTIGATIONS AS\nTHE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION SHOULD\n\nUNDERTAKE?\nI.\n\nCOMPARISON OF MODERN BUSINESS METHODS WITH EDUCATIONAL METHODS\n\nGEORGE H. MARTIN, SECRETARY, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nMy attention has recently been attracted by some lines of work carried\non in connection with certain industries, and I have been impressed by the\ncontrast between these material industries and that which this Council represents.\n\nThe children of this world are wiser in their generation than the children\nof light.\n\nThis statement occurs to me at this moment of writing, but I hesitate to\n\nmake an application.\nLast year I saw in the laboratory of Professor Cooper, who is at the head\nof the department of agriculture in the\n\nTuskegee Normal and Industrial\n\nInstitute, some experiments in progress in local soil analysis and in the hybrid-\n\nizing of certain varieties of cotton, the object being to determine\n\nhow the\n\ndifferent kinds of soil could be most successfully used or treated or combined\n\nfor use in cotton-raising,\n\nand how new and improved varieties of cotton\n\ncould be produced which might successfully be grown in such soils.\n\nVery recently I saw in the Textile School at Lowell, Mass., some experiments, conducted with great care, upon the adaptabiHty of certain varieties\nof cotton for manufacturing purposes.\n\nThese experiments consisted in part\n\nof delicate tests of the tensile strength of the fibers, tests of their capacity for\n\nabsorbing dyes of different kinds, and tests of their power to retain their color\n\nunder various conditions natural and artificial.\n\nThese are types of the new scientific basis upon which every modem\nindustry\n\nis\n\nplanting\n\nitself.\n\nMen have found that the difference between\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n1\n\nCouncU]\n\nMOST PROMISING SUBJECTS FOR INVESTIGATIONS\n\nsuccess\n\nand\n\nfailure\n\nin\n\n32\n\nmanufacturing enterprises turns upon the minute\n\nknowledge which can be obtained only by trained scientific experts.\n\nThe two cases which I have cited illustrate the study of the material to be\nWhat is it ? And, being what it is, what can be done with it ?\n\nwrought upon.\n\nAlong a different line, similar investigation has been going on.\nin what is commonly known as shop management and practice.\n\nThis is\n\nThe object\n\nof the investigation here is to determine the working capacity of the employees.\nIt involves the ascertaining of the actual time required by an able-bodied\nand skilled worker to do each part of a piece of work, and from that a deduction\nof the exact cost of the whole work, if done by men all of whom were doing\ntheir best.\nIt includes a comparison of this time with the time occupied by\nthe average worker in doing the same piece of work, and from this a deduction\nas to the increase in price which the employer could afford to pay a man for\n\ndoing his best.\n\nBeyond this, the investigation includes a study of the means in the form\nof a detailed plan of the successive processes, their order of succession, and\n\nthe conditions for most rapid procedure;\n\nand it critically examines into the\n\nfunctions of the various grades of directing officers, in order to secure the\nhighest efficiency, the object of the whole series of investigations being to\nascertain\n\nhow to attain that seemingly most contradictory combination\n\nhigh wages and low labor cost.\n\nThis strange combination of phrases brings to mind that saying of Comenius\n\nwhich has remained from his day until* now so enigmatical.\n\nHis guiding\n\nstar he declared to be \"to discover a rule in accordance with which the teachers\n\nmay teach less and the learners learn more.\"\nThe contrast between modern business methods and the most modem\nmethods in education is so great as to suggest some searching questions.\n\nIn\n\nthe comparison, educational processes seem unscientific, crude, and wasteful.\n\nAre they really so ?\n\nIf\n\nthey are, are they necessarily so ?\n\nIf\n\nit\n\nshould be\n\ncharged that educational work rests on assumptions which not only are\nunproved, but which are\n\nfalse,\n\ncan we deny it?\n\nDo the elements in the\n\neducational processes defy analysis, or has there been no serious attempt\nto analyze them ?\n\nLet us say at once that the business processes of which I have spoken\ndo not furnish examples, but only principles. There is an analogy, not a\nparallel.\nIt is possible for\n\nan engineer to measure by means of a stop-watch, as\n\nhas been done, the time required for a laborer to lift his shovel, to insert it\nin the earth, to fill it, to lift it, to throw the contents into a barrow, to lift the\n\nbarrow- when full, to wheel it and to dump it; and out of all this mass of data\nto construct a formula for determining the cost per cubic yard of excavating\n\nfor a sewer or a cellar or a subway.\n\nBut the man who expects or demands\n\nthat such units of results shall be determined and used in measuring work in\n\neducation is a fool.\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n322\n\n[National\n\nNo stop-watch can measure the time required for a child to learn four\nHe may know when it can\n\ntimes five, for no one knows when it is learned.\n\nbe said, but it may be said today and not be learned; and it may be learned\n\ntomorrow and not be said.\n\nIt\n\nmay be discovered later that it has been learned,\n\nbut when it was learned no one knows or can know.\nis\n\nthe result of education does not lend\n\nitself to\n\nthe\n\nMental growth which\n\nmethod of ordinates.\n\nNeither its curve nor that of the acquisition of knowledge which accompanies\nit\n\ncan be plotted.\nDismissing, then, the methods of the chemist and the engineer,\n\nstill a field\n\nis\n\nthere\n\nfor accurate investigation which may be called scientific ?\n\nThe experiments of wTiich I spoke at first, both in Tuskegee and in Lowell,\nThe grower who should\nsay, ''Cotton is cotton, and I will raise it;\" the manufacturer who should say,\n\"Cotton is cotton, and I will make it into cloth,\" would go into bankruptcy.\nwere based on the fact that cotton is not all aUke.\n\nDoes not the existing pubHc-school system rest on the assumption that\nand proceed to treat them accordingly that is, sub-\n\n—\n\nchildren are children,\nstantially all alike ?\n\nNot quite.\nidiotic are\n\nChildren who are totally blind and totally deaf and totally\n\nclassed\n\nby themselves as exceptional, and treated accordingly.\n\nAll the others are simply children, so old.\n\nAnother difference\n\nis\n\ncoming to be noted;\n\nnicety of observation to detect.\nheight,\n\nIt\n\none which needs no great\n\nhas been observed that children vary in\n\nand some attempt has been*made to meet their individual needs by\nBut is there anywhere any recognition of the fact that\n\nadjustable furniture.\n\nin a group of five-year-old children there are as great differences as between\n\nsea-island, upland, and Egyptian cotton ?\n\nHas any attempt been made anywhere to discover those differences, and\nOr is it true\nthat we take into the school system at its lowest level all the children who\napply, and, without examination, start them all on the same road, giving them\nall the same work to do under the same conditions as to teacher, apparatus,\nto take them into account in shaping the educational process ?\n\nand time ?\n\nIs it also true that, owing to differences which no one has sought\n\nto discover,\n\na considerable number of these children fail to keep up with the\n\nprocession, and go stumbling and limping along during the first year ?\n\nIs it\n\ntrue that at the end of the first year or half-year a sorting occurs, not based on\n\nany differences in the children, but only on differences in the attainments\nwhich they have made in learning a few rudimentary facts of knowledge ?\nAre those who have failed turned back to mingle with the new lot of unassorted\nones, to traverse the same road again, without any searching investigation to\nascertain the cause of the trouble ?\n\nDoes the presence\n\nof these children\n\ninterfere with the rate of progress of others, reduce the efficiency of the teachers\n\nand still more, tho indirectly, thru excessive\ndemands upon their patience and nervous energy ? Do the weaker children\nsuffer by being subjected to a regime for which they are not suited, and under\n\ndirectly thru the loss of time,\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nMOST PROMISING SUBJECTS FOR INVESTIGATIONS\n\nCouncO]\n\nconditions which are not favorable ?\n\n323\n\nDo we still go blindly on into the suc-\n\ncessive grades, gathering statistics of so-called results, looking everywhere\n\nbut to the children themselves for the causes of failure\n\n— teachers,\nto\n\nto courses\n\nDo we know what becomes of the children\nthat is, of all of them ? Do we know how many\n\nof study, to social conditions ?\n\nwho enter the first grade\n\n—\n\ngo thru all the grades, how far the others go, what becomes of those who drop\n\nby the way, and why they drop ?\nSummarily, is the business of schooling the children of any town or city\ncarried\n\non with the same intelligence\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\nwith the same scrutiny of\n\nmaterial, the same adaptation of means to ends, the same readiness to modify\n\nmeans, the same forecast of contingencies, the same balancing of accounts\nas characterizes the successful business enterprises in that same town or city ?\n\nAs a schoolman I find myself compelled to answer \"No.\" In answering\n\"No,\" I am not pleading guilty to any charge. Nor am I making any charge.\nI am only trying to look at the situation as it is\n\n—or rather as\n\nit\n\nappears to me,\n\nwhich may be a very different thing.\nI notice that\n\nsomeone in New York has been rather savagely attacking\n\nSuperintendent Maxwell because so Httle is really known about the condition\nof education in that city.\n\nThe attack seems grossly unfair to Dr. Maxwell,\nThe trouble\n\nand will probably prove to have been unsafe for the other man.\nis too\n\nnearly universal for anybody to try to blame anybody.\n\nto the\n\nNew England Primer, and say\n\nBetter go back\n\nIn Adam's fall\n\nWe sinned all.\nNor am I unmindful of the fact that some attempts have been made in a\nfew places to draw out of the classes the most hopeless cases and to give them\nspecial instruction under special conditions.\n\nBut no attempt has been made,\n\nso far as I know, even in the cities where this work has been begun, to discover\n\nhow general is the need of such specializing, and no reliable figures are available which may be used as a basis for action elsewhere.\nWTiere this work\nhas been undertaken it has only been after the situation has become intolerable,\nafter so\n\nmany feeble-minded children have been dragged on so long as to\nby their numbers. If someone had known about them\n\nattract attention\n\nearlier, some time and effort might have been saved.\n\nWe are like Kiplmg's soldier:\nIf only myself could talk to myself\n\nAs I knew him a year ago,\nI could tell him a lot\nThat would save him a lot\nOf things he ought to know.\n\nNor am I unmindful of the medical inspection which is carried on systemsome cities. But this is primarily in the interests\n\natically in the schools of\n\nof public health,\n\neducation.\n\nand only incidentally, if at all, in the interests of public\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nWhat are the things we ought to know ?\n\n[National\n\nOr, what knowledge, if it could\n\nbe obtained, would be oi service in helping to organize the business of public\nschoob'ng in any community ?\nFirst, on the physical side :\n\nIf the condition of all the children\n\nwho apply\n\nfor admission to the schools of any city or town at the opening of the school\n\nyear could be known as to such obvious matters as seeing and hearing, as\nto the presence and extent of adenoid growths, a« to spinal weaknesses, as to\n\nnutritive conditions,\n\nit\n\nwould be possible to adjust the conditions and work\n\nof the school in such a way that the defective ones would not be in the way\n\nof the others, and,\n\nwhat is more important, that they might themselves be\n\ntreated \\n\\h consideratic n and care.\n\nThis is the need of every local school system.\n\nBut beiore any such investi-\n\ngation can become general, there is needed a body of evidence as to the facts\nof these defects in young children, as to their prevalence, and as to the effects\n\nupon the school welfare of the child.\n\nAny attempt to make an examination of this kind would in many comThere is needed an investigaby a competent body, which would determine the nature and method\nof examination, which would secure such examinations in sympathetic localities, which would gather up the results of these examinations and of similar\nones which have already been made, and from all the facts deduce conclusions\nwhich in published form would be available thruout the country, and which\nmunities encounter inertia or active opposition.\n\ntion\n\nmight form the basis of local effort Xo improve local conditions.\n\nThat children are not all alike, that they are really sufficiently unlike\nto warrant special educational treatment, is a fact believed by many, but not\n\nyet demonstrated.\n\nShould investigation prove the belief not well founded,\n\nand demonstrate that the number of physically defective children is so small\nas not to be worth considering, that conclusion would be worth having.\n\nOn the mental side, there appears to be a considerable number of children\nentering school each year whose development has been retarded, and who are\nunfit for the school work planned and\n\nconducted for normal children of the\nsame age. These children are started with the others along the same path,\nand subjected to the same regime of school hours, conduct, and teaching\nmethods. Under those conditions they drag, and not infrequently grow\nrelatively, if not absolutely, more stupid.\nDr. Johnson said of Sheridan:\n\"Sherry is dull, naturally dull, but it must have taken him o great deal of\npains to become what we now see him. Such an access of stupidity. Sir,\nis not in nature.\"\nIf in any community the number of such children were\nknown, the aimual ratio determined which might be expected, provision for\n\nmade in the general school scheme, and\nWere there any accurate knowledge in existence\n\nappropriate treatment could be\npossibly in the school budget.\n\nas to the number of such children in general, this too would be of service in\n\narousing local attention.\n\nAt another point knowledge is needed.\n\nAt the end of the first school\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "MOST PROMISING SUBJECTS FOR INVESTIGATIONS\n\nCouncU]\n\nStage\n\nit\n\nshould be known for the whole school system how^\n\n325\n\nmany children\n\ndevelop rapidly enough to warrant their entering upon the\n\nhave failed\n\nto\n\nnext stage.\n\nThese children should be carefully examined to determine the\n\ncauses of the failure, whether some of the physical defects which have been\n\nnamed, or slow development of mental power, or poor teaching.\nabsence of such accurate knowledge\n\nmuch injustice now prevails.\n\nIn the\n\nPoor\n\nteachers excuse their failures by afcming defects in the children which do not\nexist.\n\nGood teachers are blamed for the failures of children in whom these\n\ndefects\n\ndo exist.\n\nJudgments are based on guesses, and until some plan is\n\ndevised by wdse\n\nmen by which knowledge should replace guessing, school\n\nwork will continue to be crude, unscientific, and unbusinesslike.\nIn another field light is needed. What becomes of the children who\nenter school at the beginning of any one school year?\nIs this known for any\ncommunity ? How many of them complete the elementary-school course ? If\n\nhow far do they go ? How many disappear from school thru removal\nHow many enter the high school ? How far do they go in it ?\nFrom what point in the school course do children leave to go to work ?\nThe air is full of statements on many of these points. Where could one\ngo who wanted facts for the results of carefully conducted investigations, with\nnot,\n\nor death ?\n\nsuch statements of method as would justify confidence in the results ?\nI have suggested only two or three of the simplest elements of the problem\nof\n\npubHc\n\nschooling.\n\nBeyond this are wide fields of experimentation and\n\nresearch into those more subtle physical and mental differences by which the\nentire educational process is conditioned.\n\nThe time may come when we can\n\nprofitably enter into these tempting but dangerous fields.\n\nJust now we need to be told authoritatively that elementary tests have\n\nbeen made in such and such places, upon so many children, with such and\nsuch results.\n\nWe need to be advised as to the best way to make these\n\ntests, what part in them specialists should have, whether teachers can conduct\n\nthem wholly or in part, and what training teachers should receive to enable\nthem to be of service.\n\nWe need to know what treatment is recommended for defectives, and how\nthe school conditions should be modified for each class.\n\nWith a body of facts and conclusions of this character, local school officials\nmight go before the local pubHc and ask that a beginning be made in local\nexaminations as a businesslike basis for the increasingly expensive business\nof pubUc schooling.\n\n//.\n\nTHE PROFESSIONAL CULTURE OF TEACHERS AFTER THEY HA VE\nBEEN REGULARLY EMPLOYED IN SCHOOL WORK\n\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KANSAS CITY, MO.\nThis paper is tentative, and it is designed to call attention to the mental\nattitude of a large class of teachers after they have been regularly employed in\n\nschool work,\n\nand have\n\npractically ceased to\n\nstudy educational problems\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n326\n\n[National\n\nwiden their spheres of knowledge by systematic methods of\nassumed that teachers who cease to strive after higher ideals\nin self-improvement are moving with an accelerated velocity down an intelseriously, or to\n\nculture.\n\nIt is\n\nThis furnishes the background for submitting some reflections\non the composition of the teaching force of the United States.\n\nlectual incline.\n\nIn his last report the Commissioner of Education gives the whole number\n\nOf this number, 117,035 are\nThe same table shows that during the last\n\nof public-school teachers employed at 449,287.\n\nmen and 332,252 are women.\n\ntwenty- two years the percentage of male teachers had steadily decreased\nthruout the country from 42.8 to 26, and that the annual decrement of male\nteachers in the five great divisions into which our country is geographically\n\nsubdivided is about 5,000, and the annual increment of female teachers is\nIn 467 cities included in the report of the Committee on Salaries,\n15,000.\nTenure, and Pensions of Public-School Teachers in the United States (p. 53),\nit is\n\nshown that the number of teachers employed was 84,042, exclusive of\n\nsupervisors, and that only 8 6 per cent, of the entire number employed in high\n.\n\nand elementary schools were men; but deducting 2,921, who are principals,\nfrom the total, leaves 5 6 per cent, of male teachers in these high and elemen.\n\ntary schools.\n\nThese partial statistics are introduced for the purpose of calling\n\nattention to the character of the teaching force to be influenced by any system\nthat may be devised for their professional improvement.\n\nIt is\n\nmy conviction\n\nthat there is no marked difference between the sexes in regard to any innate\n\nor acquired disposition to study thoroly educational problems, or to strike\n\nout on new lines of investigation.\nto the belief that not\n\nIn a rough sort of a way, I am inclined\n\nmore than 20 per cent, of either sex now engaged in\n\neducational work is willing to do much in the direction of either persistent\n\nstudy or along special lines of professional reading.\n\nBy this I do not affirm\n\nthat 80 per cent, of the teachers do not read, but that their reading is of that\n\npatchy,\n\nscrappy,\n\nmiscellaneous species that contains neither information\n\nmuch literary culture. The disinclination of a majority of teachers\nto engage seriously in new channels of thought, unless under pressure of a\n\nnor\n\npresent,\n\npowerful stimulus,\n\nis\n\nwell\n\nknown.\n\nConsequently,\n\nthis\n\nnegative\n\nfactor has to be reckoned with in all calculations connected with an investigation of this kind.\n\nWhen \"teachers' reading circles\" were first outlined in several of the states,\nand courses of study rather formidable were recommended, covering three or\nfour different lines of work, it was very generally beheved that a plan had been\nhit upon that would materially raise the general level of the professional\nefficiency of the teaching force of the country, and thus widen their spheres\nof knowledge in many directions.\n\nIn the practical application of this elaborate\n\nscheme, it soon became apparent that those who should have accepted it most\nenthusiastically rejected\n\nit\n\nor were indifferent, while the younger and more\n\nenthusiastic teachers were incalculably benefited.\n\nThere is another class, not so numerous as the first, that had their minds\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Councfl]\n\nMOST PROMISING SUBJECTS FOR INVESTIGATIONS\n\n327\n\nThey are the \"degree-hunters \" who are speciaHzing.\nThey are high-school and elementary teachers who are looking forward to\nsomething better than they now have, and are striving each summer at normal\nset in another direction.\n\nschools, colleges,\n\nand universities to improve themselves in certain branches\n\nof study in order to receive higher salaries.\n\nWork of this kind has great\n\nvalue academically, but, in general, it does not lead very, far in the direction\nof professional study, and consequently contributes little to expert teaching.\n\nThe knowledge acquired is chiefly technical and narrow, and it leads into\nclosed alleys rather than out into the open.\n\nYet there are some exceptions.\n\nMy observation, in watching high-school teachers who have taken work along\nspecial lines, is that it narrows rather than broadens their vision of educational\n\nquestions generally.\nscientific\n\nAs a class, these teachers give much less thought to\n\nmethods of study pertaining to the acquisition of knowledge than\n\nany other class of teachers.\n\nThey are drill-masters who continue to fit subTheir methods\n\njects to boys and girls, rather than fit boys and girls to subjects.\n\nare in an advanced microscopic stage.\n\nIn hardly any sense can they be classi-\n\nfied as students of education, but they are excellent drill sergeants.\nIf 80 per cent, of teachers cease to read systematically after they have been\n\nonce thoroly installed as teachers, the question is:\n\nHow can they be induced\n\nto fall into studious habits of reading and investigating educational problems ?\n\nA temporary stimulus may be imparted by having a graduated course of study,\nthe pressure of which is in some manner connected with an advance in salary.\n\nA purely financial stimulus is a low motive for real teaching.\n\nBut there is a\n\ntendency inherent in some minds, while working at a project that is irksome\nat first, to become interested in the kind of work which was so distasteful at\n\nthe beginning.\n\nThis change is produced by a different view-point.\n\nHowever,\n\nthere should be nothing compulsory connected with any scheme for the professional advancement of teachers, but it should be of such a nature as would\n\nenable one to pull himself upward by self -exertion.\n\nA danger to be guarded against, in the use of all factitious stimuH, is the\nshortness of the time occupied in preparation for advancement.\n\nMany never\n\nThe near and the present they see. In general, the minimum salary should be large enough to allow those who reach it, and feel\nlook ahead very far.\n\ninadequate to further exertion, to rest there and vegetate, having their thoughts\nundisturbed by visions of future examinations;\n\nbut for those progressive\n\nspirits actuated by a great desire to do much better work, and to cultivate their\n\nminds to the greatest possible extent, a way should be left wide open thru which\nto advance in proficiency each year.\n\nBy a well-known law in operation among skilled laborers, it is a recognized\nfact that the best workers always lift up to a certain level those who have not\n\nwill-power enough to lift themselves.\nto better salaries.\n\nThe strong workers help the weak ones\n\nA method of dividing teachers into groups for the study of\n\nspecial subjects has been quite successful in\n\nsome cities.\n\nFrequently one\n\nenthusiastic teacher in a school of twenty or thirty teachers will inspire from\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n328\n\none-half to three-fourths of the entire body.\nshort-lived.\n\n[National\n\nSporadic efforts are generally\n\nEnthusiasm is contagious, but it is not equal to well-directed,\n\npersistent discipline.\n\nA disciplined mind counts everywhere.\n\nIf the superintendent of a system of schools, or the principal of a school, is\n\nstudiously inchned, the teachers, as a body, can be put in the right attitude\n\nThe superintendent or principal must be\nto enlist under his banner.\nThe\norganization of the workers first into a compact body, those who really mean\ntoward professional advancement.\n\na leader\n\n—one who can persuade others\n\nto improve, will produce a marked effect on the laggards.\n\nI\n\nhave made it a point, whenever I have read a new book, or an old one,\n\nthat I found to be helpful, to call the attention of principals and teachers to\nit\n\npublicly,\n\nall that is\n\nsulted.\n\nand to speak briefly of the leading thoughts it presented.\n\nIn\n\ndone, the taste of each individual must, to some extent, be con-\n\nHe should be urged to go out and browse in such pastures as seem\n\nmost inviting\n\nto\n\nhim.\n\nNext\n\nto\n\none's\n\nprofessional reading, after thoroly\n\ninforming himself in regard to the subject-matter which must be taught and\nits\n\nconnection with other related subjects, he should study most thoroly the\n\nprinciples of education and the history of the processes by which each mind\n\nmade its discoveries.\n\nTo secure the best results, each one should pursue\n\nsome subjects that are quite remote from his daily routine of work. The\nmind that is not continually making some new acquisitions is decreasing in\npower as well as in mental alertness.\n\nTo keep all the teachers of a corps growing in knowledge as well as in efficiency is one of the most urgent unsolved educational problems in our country\nat this time, and I trust some practical scheme will be presented at an early date\nin which this subject will receive the treatment its importance demands.\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "flDemorial Hbbreeeee\n\nIRewton JBateman\nBY NEWTON C. DOUGHERTY\n\nNewton Bateman, LL.D., was born in Fairfield, N. J.. July 27, 1822. He was of\nmixed English and Scotch descent. His parents removed to Illinois in 1833. His school\nopportunities in early Hfe were limited, and the thoro college training which he finallyacquired was secured by an energy and perseverance not often witnessed. In the year\n1843 he was graduated from Illinois College, having supported himself by his own labor.\nBy reason of failing health, he withdrew from Lane Theological Seminary, which he had\nentered to prepare for the ministry. He traveled for a year, and then entered upon the\nwork of teaching in St. Louis. In 1851 he became the principal of the first public\nhigh school in the Northwest at Jacksonville, 111. In 1858 he was elected state superintendent of public instruction for Ilhnois. This office he filled for fourteen years with\ndistinguished success, beginning in 1859 and ending in 1875. This service was continu-\n\n—\n\nous, with the exception of 1863-64.\n\nHe accepted the presidency of Knox College in\n\n187s, which position he held until 1893, when, on account of failing health, he tendered\nDr. Bateman never enjoyed sturdy health. Delicate from birth, he\nhis resignation.\n\nwas enfeebled by the severe experience thru which he passed during his college course,\nand by the hard mental labor he performed in succeeding years. He died of heart disease\nat Galesburg, October 21, 1897, loved by the great state of Illinois, which had learned to\nadmire the man and appreciate his work. Such, in brief, is the biography of the man\n\nwho in a wonderful way influenced the educational history of the past century.\nThe contribution that men make to the progress of humanity depends not only upon\nthe ability and devotion of the man himself, but also upon the circumstances in which he\nis placed.\n\nThe history of the world is marked by significant epochs, decisive crises.\n\nIf the\n\nright work is done at such times, then follows great prosperity or happiness to the indiif the right work is not done? the progress of the individual or the state\nNewton Bateman lived at such a time in the educational history of the\nNorthwest. It was a time demanding energetic service of a special kind. Dr. Bateman\nperformed precisely the work which the emergency demanded, and the splendid school\n\nvidual or the state;\nis\n\nhindered.\n\nsystems of the Northwest, with their high schools and state universities, are in large part\nthe result of that work.\n\nThe people who settled the central states were a people who\nThey were broad-minded,\n\nplaced culture and enlightenment above material prosperity.\n\nThey were well informed of the world's best thought and achieveThey wished to secure for their children the highest results of scholarship. They\n\nfar-seeing people.\n\nment.\n\nbelieved that an enlightened public sentiment gave a security beyond the law and above\n\nThese people came from New England, from the middle states, and from the\nThey were united upon the needs of education, but they\ndiffered as to how it should be secured.\nThe men from New England and the middle\nstates at once, if not by state law, then by special charter, established colleges, academies,\nand free elementary schools; the men from the South established colleges, academies, and\nelementary schools, but these schools not at public expense. These men from Virginia,\nTennessee, and Kentucky believed a free school to weaken the responsibility of the parent,\nand they opposed all state laws looking to the establishment of free public schools. They\nwere willing to charter colleges and academies in as great numbers as asked for, and in\n\nthe law.\n\nborder states of the south.\n\n329\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "33©\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n1858 Illinois had chartered more than two hundred degree-conferring institutions.\n\n[National\n\nIn the\n\nyear 1825, seven years after the organization of the state, a law was passed in Illinois which\n\nprovided for both state and local taxation for the maintenance of public free schools.\nBut the people who came from south of the Ohio were in the majority, and in 1827\nthe law was virtually repealed. The public disapproval of the proposition for a free school\nlaw was so strong that it required thirty years to overcome it. The state was opposed to\nNot until after Dr. Bateman began\nall paternalism and believed in individual effort only.\nhis work at Jacksonville was a free school law enacted in Illinois which became really\neffective.\n\nBut a point had been reached at which the advocates of popular education were not\nOther objects were pushed. Other\ndemands were made upon the state. Massachusetts had estabhshed a school for the training of teachers, in 1839 the first public normal school in the United States. Other\nstates had fallen into line.\nThe Massachusetts idea began to gain a foothold in Illinois.\nHorace Mann visited the state and gave strong lectures upon normal schools. Energetic\nmen were pleading for a normal school in Illinois. If normal schools were good for the\nAtlantic seacoast, they would be good for the western prairie; and educational men were\ndetermined that Illinois should head the western procession.\nBut the progressive men of the state were not content with a school for the training\nof teachers only. Dr. Bateman and others felt the influence of the University of Michigan,\nand they insisted that Illinois should have a university which should impart all forms of\nhigher instruction at the expense of the state. But it must be remembered that all this\nwhile the great mass of voters of Illinois were by no means included among the advocates\nMany looked upon them with indifference, and a\nof these new educational measures.\nSuch was the condition of\nlarge majority of the citizens of Illinois were opposed to them.\nthings in Illinois when Dr. Bateman was called to the superintendency of public instruction.\nCrude ideas prevailed among the friends of education. Indistinct notions were\nentertained by those who were most ardent in support of the new ideas. The whole .condition of the educational movement was chaotic.\nIt is not strange that men differed in\ntheir opinions.\nThey were anxious for the advance into unknown territory. Only a few\nnormal schools were in existence, and only one state university had attracted public attention.\nThe educational leaders of Illinois, therefore, had little to pattern after in their\nsatisfied with the mere enactment of a free school law.\n\n—\n\nideals of such institutions.\n\nThe condition of Illinois education, when Dr. Bateman assumed the duties of his\nmay be compared to the condition of the American republic while the struggle for\nindependence was going on. At that time we know there was much patriotism; there\noffice,\n\nwas willingness to sacrifice for the good of the country. But just what kind of a country\nwhat forms its institutions were to take; whether there was to be a strong\ncentral government or only a weak combination of independent powers; whether the chief\nmagistrate was to be a president or a king; whether he was to hold office for life or a\nlimited number of years, were questions that no one could confidently answer.\nIt was the\nmission of George Washington, by b's wisdom, his unselfish devotion, and his energetic\naction, to solve the problems and to give the new nation a dignified position among the\nnations of the world. In times of doubt and uncertainty and great difficulties, what is\nmost needed is an honest, pure, and powerful personality a man who has the wisdom\nto see that which shall be for the greatest good and the persistent determination to secure\nit.\nPrinciples are mighty; political and civil institutions of the right sort are good in their\ninfluence; but a mighty personality, a man endowed with honesty and wisdom, is ever\nmightier than principle is, in fact, the pivot on which God revolves humanity. Such a\npersonality was Dr. Bateman. His keen intellectual powers, his ability to grasp the\nproblem which confronted him, his tenacity of purpose, his power as a public speaker, his\nmastery of the English language, made him the leader of the hour. Difficulties had for him\nno terrors. The purposes which dominated his soul were of the highest ideals. It was\n\nit was to be;\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n1\n\nCounca]\n\nIN MEMORIAM IRA G. HOITT\n\n33\n\nnot for the sake of wealth, not for the sake of public position, that he toiled.\nstirred by lofty ideals which would help to uplift his fellow-men.\n\nHis soul was\n\nHe entered upon his\n\nduties determined to enlarge the promises of the law for free elementary schools, to\n\nstrengthen the normal school, to put secondary education upon a more stable basis, and\nto secure a state university;\n\nand all of these objects he accompHshed in his fourteen years\n\nHe announced his platform to be: the right of the child to an education, and\nthe duty of the state to secure him that right. He knew that the children of the state needed\nthe right kind of schooHng. He knew that under the law of 1855 this could not be secured.\nHe saw that change must be made in that law in order that schoohng should be universally\nenjoyed. He knew that among the lowliest in the social scale were men and women who,\nof service.\n\nif the\n\nopportunity were offered to them, would make themselves fit for the noblest service to\n\nthe state and to their fellows.\n\nAnd he resolved that the law should be amended so that\n\nthe opportunity should be so offered, and it was.\n\nDr. Bateman became principal of the first high school in the West in 1851.\nlocated at Jacksonville, then a village of less than ten thousand people.\n\nIt was\n\nHe saw the need\n\nof the high school, not only to connect the elementary schools with the college, but also\nto strengthen the elementary schools.\n\nThru his influence the Peoria High School was\nFrom these three centers the\n\norganized in 1855, and the Chicago High School in 1856.\n\nfree public high school began to spread and take root, not only in IlHnois, but also in the\n\nadjacent states of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin.\n\nWhen Dr. Bateman became state superintendent, one of his great objects was to convert the so-called colleges and academies which had been chartered by the state, into high\n\nBy public address, by correspondence, by all the influence he could bring to bear\nupon the legislature, he kept the subject of high schools before the people constantly. The\nresult was that, before he retired from the office of state superintendent, the public high\nschool had become, not only a part of the system of public schools in Illinois, but also\nin almost every state in the Union. To Newton Bateman more than to all others we\nowe the present Americon system of high-school secondary education. His genial temperament, his kindly good will, his warm sympathy, opened to him the hearts of the\nteachers of Illinois, and all recognized him by divine right the leader of the educational\nschools.\n\narmy.\n\nWe shall never forget his last address to the State Association, in which he portrayed\nthe noble quaUties of body, intellect, and heart which the coming teacher should possess.\n\nWe quote:\nThrough costly experiments, splendid failures, and baffled hopes, we make our way\nAs the Israelite awaits the readvent of the lost glory of his\nrace, the Christian the dawn of the millennial day, and the millions the coming of that\ngood time when the earth shall be greener and the skies brighter; so we believe in the\nsure coming of the golden age of schools and teachers.\nBut for this inspiring hope, this\nvague but inextinguishable faith and longing for something worthier and better, who of\nus would not at times be ready to drop the oar and in hopelessness to drift any whither\nany whither ? In the rapt visions that come to me, as they come to all, I sometimes seem\nto see the apocalyptic gate swing open, and far down the aisles of the future, brightly\ntoward the Augustan age.\n\nrevealed in the soft clear light, there stands the incarnate idea of the coming teacher.\n\nIfra\n\n(5,\n\nIboltt\n\nBY CHAIII-ES C. VAN LIEW\n\nThe passing of Dr. Ira G. Hoitt means the loss to California of one of her most earnest\nworkeis in the cause of education. Dr. Hoitt was thoroly imbued with a sense of the\nimportance of sound and high training for the youth of our land, and he gave himself\nmasterfully to this cause from the time when, as a\n\nyoung man, he deliberately and\n\nthoughtfully made teaching his life-work, almost to the day of his death.\n\nDr. Ira G. Hoitt was a native of New Hampshire, born in Lee, July 23, 1833.\n\nHe\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n332\n\n[National\n\nfitted for college at Phillips\n\nExeter Academy, completing in three years the work laid\n\nout for a five-year course.\n\nHe then entered the sophomore class at Dartmouth College\n\nin 1857, and graduated in i860.\n\nDuring the next four years he was principal of various\n\nhigh schools in Massachusetts, finally leaving the Bo.ston English High School in i864,to\n\ngo to California.\n\nOn arrival in San Francisco he became at once identified with the school work there,\nofficiating for a short time as vice-principal,\n\nand within a year receiving the appointment\n\nto the principalship of the New Lincoln Grammar School, at that time the largest school\n\nHis unflagging energy and his introduction of fresh spirit\nand progressive ideas of method brought this school up to a very high standard. Among\n\nfor boys on the Pacific coast.\n\nother achievements, he raised the money for a well-equipped library, the first established\nin San Francisco, and instituted the Lincoln School Medal Fund, which is still in operation.\n\nIn 1880 he was elected from San Francisco to the general assembly for two years, and as\n\nchairman of the committee on education did much to improve the school laws. In 1884\nhe was elected to the San Francisco Board of Education, and served two terms as president\nof that body; in this capacity he was ever the steadfast friend of teachers, instrumental\nin improving their condition both as regards salary and tenure of oflBce.\n\nIn 1886 he became superintendent of public instruction of California, and for four\nyears he put into the duties of that office a spirit and zeal that gave a strong impulse to\nall state educational\n\nefforts.\n\nwork.\n\nThe amount of school tax was materially increased thru his\n\nHis own intense patriotism was one of the ideals which became manifest in all\n\nof his institute work and school inspection.\n\nIn 1887 the legislature appointed him a delegate to the National Educational Association at Chicago, where he presented a joint resolution of the state legislature of CaU\nfornia, inviting the Association to hold its session of 1888 in San Francisco.\n\nThat invita-\n\ntion was accepted, and Dr. Hoitt was made president of the local committee to arrange\nfor their coming and entertainment.\n\nThose who were present at that meeting will recall\nDuring the sessions,\n\nthe large-hearted hospitahty which characterized its management.\n\nDr. Hoitt was elected a\n\nmember of this National\n\nCouncil of Education.\n\nIn 1892\n\nDartmouth College bestowed upon him the honorary degree of Ph.D.\nDr. Hoitt's genial ways, his engaging personaHty, and his ever-ready words of encouragement endeared him strongly to teachers thruout the state. His high ideals of professional honor and professional courtesy were always an inspiration to younger teachers.\n\nOn retiring from the office of state superintendent, he estabhshed at Burlingame, near\nSan Francisco, a preparatory school for boys, which, up to within a year of his death,\nreceived his utmost devotion and professional skill. In 1899 a fire which destroyed his\nschool buildings left him the victim of a shock from which he never quite recovered. He\ncontinued his work, however, until 1904, when failing health obUged him to give up all\nactive duties.\n\nOn February 19, 1905, he passed on.\n\nFew men have done their life-work more thoroly, more persistently, than Dr. Hoitt.\n\nHe never contemplated failure, but brought the full strength of great energy to bear upon\nevery undertaking in which he was engaged.\nrespect and affection, offered by former pupils,\n\nSince his death hundreds of tributes of\n\nsome of whom are now old and gray-\n\nhaired, stand as the best testimony of the character of the man and of the man's work.\n\nHis last words, when the touch of death was upon him, were: \"I must go to school.\"\n\nIboracc\n\nSumner (Tarbell\n\nBY WALTER BALLOU JACOBS\nHorace Sumner Tarbell, was born August 19, 1838. The place of his birth and the\nhome of his youth was among the picturesque scenes of the Green Mountains of Vermont.\n\nHe was a Green Mountain boy, and the son of a Methodist preacher.\n\nThese two facts\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nIN MEMORIAM HORACE SUMNER TARBELL\n\n333\n\nsuggest his early history. Studious and devoted to books, at nine years of age he was\nreading Livy, and he was soon a member of the neighboring Newbury Academy. In 1859\n\nhe graduated from Wesleyan University, the Methodist college of Connecticut, where he\nwon marked distinction as a mathematician.\n\nHe at once chose teaching as his profession, and was made professor of mathematics\nand physics in the Belleville Academy in Canada. But Dr. Tarbell was not to be\nexpatriated or to find his life-work in academies and colleges.\nHe became grammar\nmaster in Detroit, and was soon given charge of two of the largest grammar schools in\nthe city.\n\nIn 1870 he became superintendent of schools in East Saginaw, Mich. In 1876 he\nwas made state superintendent of schools in Michigan. In 1878 he resigned this position\nAfter six years of eminently sucto become superintendent of schools in Indianapolis,\ncessful work, in 1884 he became superintendent of schools in Providence, R. I., a position\nwhich he held for eighteen years.\nIn 1902 he was traveling in California to regain his health, but this was not to be, for\nhe died in San Francisco, September 16, 1904.\nAs a writer of text-books his success was unusually marked. His geographies and\nlanguage books have made his name a family word in many homes in our country, and\nhave inspired and helped an army of teachers.\n\nThe world of learning honored Dr. Tarbell. He received the master's degree from\nQueen's College, Canada, and the degree of doctor of laws was conferred upon him by\nBrown University. He was at one time president of this Council, and a member of the\nCommittee of Fifteen.\n\nHe was president of the State Teachers' Associations in Michigan,\n\nIndiana, and Rhode Island, and of the Barnard Club of Rhode Island.\n\nIn the councils\n\nof the Methodist church he held many positions of honor and responsibility.\n\nHe was a\n\nrare man, who had rare opportunities to do good in the world, and who never fell below\nhis opportunities.\n\nDr. Tarbell possessed a strong power of initiative and marked ability in organization.\n\nThese traits are shown in all of his work. In Detroit he estabhshed an evening school for\nprisoners in the house of correction the first school in the world for adult prisoners.\nThe dealing which he had with these abnormal minds furnished him with many suggesWhile state superintendent in Michigan he\ntions in his problems with normal minds.\n\n—\n\nestablished Conductors' Institutes, the first institution of the kind in the United States.\n\nIn Indianapohs he inaugurated the system of supervision still in force, and established\ntraining schools from his own plans which have since been adopted in many cities.\n\nHis\n\nwork in Indianapohs was eminently successful, and laid the foundation for the merited\nfame of the Indianapohs schools. In Providence he thoroly reorganized the schools,\nintroducing the new features which he had found successful in Indianapolis. He als6\nopened schools for backward children, the first schools of the kind to be a part of any\npubHc-school system in the United States.\n\nHe also estabhshed special schools for unruly\n\nboys and truants.\n\nAs a member of the Committee of Fifteen, Dr. Tarbell wrote the report on the trainIn this report he advocated a method of training teachers for secondary\nschools somewhat similar to the method successfully used by him in training teachers for\nelementary schools. By agreement with Brown University, this system was at once put\nin operation in the city schools. Thus Brown University, which was the first college in\nthe country to estabhsh a chair of didactics, was the first to offer a course in training for\n\ning of teachers.\n\nsecondary-school teachers involving an elaborate system of practice-teaching.\n\nwork also Dr. Tarbell was a pioneer.\n\nIn this\n\nIt is not so remarkable that he initiated so many\n\nnew projects as that his plans were so uniformly wise and successful. He was at once a\nwise man and an able man qualities by no means always united in the same person.\nDr. Tarbell's mind was distinctly synthetic. He rejoiced in facts, but his satisfaction was never complete until facts were subordinated to principles.\nThe addresses\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n334\n\n[National\n\nwhich he made before his teachers were always of rare merit, and characterized by this\nHe wove together the everyday facts of teaching so as to make plain\nsynthetic principle.\nthe movement of things in the large. He stood, as it were, upon a watch-tower, summing\nup the past and predicting the future. His was the vision of men who see things in the\nlarge, and whose purposes overreach and disregard minor annoyances.\nDr. Tarbell was a keen observer of men. Instinctively he understood their purposes\nand the measure of their usefulness. He educated the citizens who controlled the schools\nHe set for them higher ideals by broadening\nas well as the pupils within the schools.\nThose whose purposes were low, and\ntheir vision and deepening their understanding.\nwho still failed to respond to patient kindness, found in Dr. Tarbell an iron will concealed\nbehind a dignified but courteous reserve.\nWith his teachers he was always kind and helpful.\n\nNo man appreciated more praise\nand devotion from those working under his direction; but this he never sought, nor did\nhe ever make its attainment in any way paramount to his one purpose, the improvement\nof the schools under his charge.\n\nBut it was as a husband to his wife, as a father to his daughters, and as a friend to\nHere self\nvanished, reserve melted away, and the true simplicity of the man, the purity of his thought\nand purposes, was transparent. Those intimate friends who mourned his loss have\nindeed mourned deeply. His place may be filled by another who will wisely direct the\nhis chosen friends that Dr. Tarbell showed the richness of his emotional life.\n\nschool policy of a great city, but to those who knew him intimately his place can never be\nfilled.\n\nHe was always the strong friend whose arm warded off evil, whose counsel gave\n\ndear light in the valley of decision. When courage was lacking, his courage was the\ncourage for many; when others were weak, his strength was the strength for all.\nHe was a man of fine fiber of character, and this fiber was remarkably tenacious and\nHis thought was always consistent with itself, his action was always\nclosely knit together.\nconsistent with his thought.\n\nClara Conwais\n\nBY W. T. HARRIS\nMiss Clara Conway, of Memphis, Tenn., for more than twenty years enrolled as a\n\nmember of this National Council of Education, died the past year, November i6, 1904,\nShe became a member of the National Educational Assoat her home in Memphis.\nciation in 1883, at the Saratoga meeting.\n\nAt the famous Madison meeting in 1884 she\n\nread a paper on \"The Needs of Southern Women,\" and in the following year, at the second\nmeeting in Saratoga, read a paper on \"The Child's Environment\" before this Council.\nI had seen her admirable work before a teachers' institute in western Tennessee, in the\n\nearly seventies.\n\nShe was brilliant and popular in the work of such institutes in the South.\n\nIn later years she went frequently to Europe, taking with her some of her school pupils,\nfor the study of art and for visits to scenes famous in history.\nI quote from a Memphis paper, the Scimitar, the following biographical notes, which\n\ncuriously reflect public opinion in Memphis, the city of her adoption:\n\nMiss Conway was born in New Orleans about 1850, and came to Memphis while a\nyoung girl. Her early school training was at St. Agnes Academy; but later she continued\nher studies abroad. She was, up to the time of her death, a great reader and deep student\nand thinker, and, aside from her educational work, was known as a gifted writer and a\nShe was connected with the public schools of\nspeaker of the highest attainments\nMemphis in earUer life, and seemed possessed of natural gifts particularly qualifjring her\nHer peculiar abilities for imparting knowledge and inspiring\nfor the work of teaching.\nto effort all With whom she came in contact were of such rare value as to be quickly recogIn 1877 Miss Conway founded the school that has since become known as the\nnized.\nClara Conway Institute, and that now stands as a monument to her wonderful genius.\nHere for the first time kindergarten work was introduced, new methods were adopted,\nand important imprpyeroepts in every branch of the educational system were inaugurated'\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "——\nIN MEMORIAM EDWIN C. HEWETT\n\nCouncil]\n\n335\n\nIn the Bureau of Education Circular of Information, No, 51893, Higher Education\nin Tennessee (p. 257), are given particulars of interest regarding the beginning of Miss\n\nConway's School for Girls:\nShe began in 1877, with fifty pupils, one assistant, and $300 of borrowed money.\nIn 1884-85 a number of public-spirited citizens of Memphis came to her aid; a stock\ncompany was organized, the school incorporated, and a building erected. Miss Conway\nproposed to call it the \"Margaret Fuller School,\" but the trustees named it the \"Clara\nConway Institute.\" From the small beginning of fourteen years ago the institute has\ngrown until its roll of pupils reaches 400, and its property is valued at $75,000\nIt\nprepares for the women's colleges Vassar, Wellesley, and others but it does not boast\nof being a college itself.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThru these ghmpses of her work and its outcome, we can form for ourselves some\n\n—the aspiration of the highest order\n\nidea of the great power of Clara Conway's aspiration\n\nin the teacher's profession, to connect themselves and their pupils with that part of educa-\n\ntion which deals with ideals.\n\nEducation seeks to reinforce the present by the past to\nadd to the mere particular individual the might of his race. It must first create in the\npupil the consciousness of the social whole.\nAs the social whole fills the individual with\nits power, it produces exceptional persons, and these become the heroes and heroines\nthe ideils for youth.\nThat one circumstance of her chosen name for the institute in\nMemphis \"The Margaret Fuller School\" reveals the ideal of the woman of the\nfuture the union of manly strength of intellect with womanly tenderness of sentiment.\nPerhaps it may be called the ideal most commonly cherished by American women.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nBDwfn G, Ibcwett\nBY JOHN W. COOK\n\nEdwin C. Hewett was the son of Timothy and Levina Leonard Hewett, of East\nDouglas, Worcester county, Mass.\n\nHis parents were working-people of small means,\n\nbut had slight need of worldly goods to commend them to the esteem of their neighbors.\n\nDescended from the Puritan settlers who gave to the sturdy Massachusetts yeomanry its\nstufif that founded that\nrare old commonwealth, and gave to it an influence in American life quite out of\nproportion to its area and population.\nIn his early life Timothy Hewett was a wheelwright and plowmaker. Later he became\na farmer in a small way, and died in his ninety-fifth year three miles from the place of his\nbirth.\nHis wife had passed away ten years before, at a ripe old age.\ncharacteristic qualities, they illustrated in generous measure the\n\nInto the simple Ufe of a frugal, industrious, resolute, Hberty-loving, God-fearing\n\npeople the subject of this sketch was born November i, 1828.\nfor the conditions that surrounded his childhood.\n\nacter all who knew him intimately clearly understood.\n\npret him without a knowledge of his forbears.\n\nHe was always grateful\n\nHow profoundly they colored his charIndeed, it was impossible to inter-\n\nHis Puritan inheritance was the dominating\n\nenergy of his interesting life.\n\nAt thirteen he was learning a trade on the bench of the journe3anan shoemaker.\nexperience was a significant factor in his education.\n\nThis\n\nHe often referred to it, and drew\n\nupon its disciplines for apt illustration in his classes in psychology and pedagogy. But\nthe school was dear to the Puritan heart, and labor was always made to yield a place for\nlearning.\nSo to the common school he went, and later to the local academy one of the\nmany outposts of higher education which Massachusetts so characteristically maintained\nin the midst of her rural populations.\nThe part which they have played in New England\nlife would fill volumes.\nThey go far to explain the unconscious confidence, gravity, and\nintelligence with which the average man dealt with the social questions of his time.\nAt twenty-one, Mr. Hewett became a teacher, receiving for his services thirteen\ndollars a month\nnot an unusual compensation for that early day. He won an immediate\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n336\nand notable\n\nsuccess.\n\nSoon\n\ndissatisfied\n\n[Naaonal\n\nwith his meager attainments, he entered the\n\nBridgewater State Normal School on March 26, 1851.\n\nAltho the course was brief, he was\n\nmature enough to make the most of it. The school was in charge of Nicholas Tillinghast, a\nWest Point graduate, and a man whose rigid methods and sterling character exactly fitted\nHere he also found Richard Edwards, that ardent\ninto his half-conscious scheme of life.\nenthusiast with a prophet's zeal for popular education, who was an assistant to the prinThey were to meet again in the new West eleven years later. These influences\ncipal.\n\nwrought mightily upon this earnest poet-Puritan, with his surface play of wit and anecdote,\nand a background colored with a disposition toward a tender melancholy. They revealed\nto him the intrinsic dignity of the worthy teacher, and fixed his determination to give his\nlife to the work of education.\nIt followed naturally enough that he was soon a marked man in the student body.\nAfter completing the course, which was about one year, he was engaged at Pittsfield as\nhigh-school assistant; but was recalled to Bridgewater the succeeding year, where he\nremained four years, intensifying in its congenial atmosphere the well-defined features of\nA more liberal salary then took him to a Worcester grammar\nCharles\nschool; but he was soon to have a wider field for the exercise of his rare talents.\nhis marked individuality.\n\nE. Hovey, principal of the new Illinois State Normal School, tendered him a place in the\nfaculty of that institution, and in October, 1858, he was installed as teacher of geography\n\n—a position which he continued\n\nand history\n\nschool in January, 1876.\n\nto hold until his elevation to the head of the\n\n'\n\nSuperintendent P. R. Walker, of Rockford, 111., was a student in the institution when\nMr. Hewett assumed his new duties. At the memorial exercises held at the school he gave\nan interesting description of the impression made upon the class by the first geography\nassignment by the teacher, who had come to succeed an unsatisfactory instructor. The\nIt was recognized as the beginning of a new epoch in the schools of\neffect was electric.\nlUinois.\n\nFour years later, on a Monday afternoon in early September, I saw him for the first\nAs I write these hnes, the forty-three years that he between drop into quick obHvion.\nIt was the first day of the new school year, in the delightful autumn weather of central\nDHnois. The session had closed, but the room was full of the hum of happy conversation,\nas the students greeted their old friends or welcomed the new. The teachers were at their\ntime.\n\ndesks in the assembly hall, completing the details of organization.\n\nA late arrival, I gazed\n\nupon the scene with an interest that gave it a permanent place in my memory. My guide,\nan old student, pointed out the objects of special significance with amiable condescension,\nand with a running accompaniment of critical comment, especially upon the teachers.\nHis enthusiasm reached the high-water mark as he directed my attention to a shght figure,\nscarce five feet two, topped with a bushy head of hair, and bending over an absorbing task\nThis was my distant introduction to a man who was destined to exercise a\nat his desk.\nmost significant influence over my life and character, and wherever I can discover its presence I am thankful.\n\nFor the succeeding three years, with the exception of a single half-term, I recited to\nI left the normal school in 1865 for a single year.\nFor the twenty-four years\nnext following I was intimately associated with him as a member of the faculty of the\nWe were further drawn into special intimacy by certain joint business ventures.\nschool.\nWhen he retired from the presidency of the school, in 1890, there was no severance of the\nlong and affectionate relations, altho of necessity our meetings were less frequent. Nine\nyears later I removed to a new community, but saw him with comparative frequency.\nThe day before his death I found him in his chair engaged in reading. A few hours later\ncame the brief message announcing his departure. Forty-three years of friendship without,\nso far as I know, an hour of aUenation.\nMr Hewett did not possess a commanding personal appearance. As I have\nindicated, he was of slight figure, weighing rarely more than one hundred and twenty\n\nhim daily.\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "IN MEMORIAM EDWIN C. HEWETT\n\nCouncil]\n\npounds.\n\n337\n\nOne of his common jests, as our social gatherings dissolved, was to caution us\n\nagainst getting his great coat and rubbers.\n\nAltho his figure was slight, it was extremely\n\nsymmetrical, and always suggestive of great intellectual alertness and vigor.\n\nAs might\n\nHe coupled with these\nqualities great industry and an ox-like patience in working out details.\nHe well under-\n\nbe surmised, his temperament was nervous and highly energetic.\n\nstood his physical limitations, however, and would balk with a most interesting obstinacy\n\nwhen he felt that he was approaching them.\n\nBut his energy so happily combined with\n\nhis industry that he quite invariably carried his plans to a triumphant success, whatever\n\nmay have been the opposition which he encountered.\nAs a teacher he is thoroly individualized and most clearly defined in the memory of\nHe had no neutral tints. There\nwas nothing vague or uncertain about him or his methods. First of all, there was the\nmost transparent and unmistakable intellectual honesty. He was on the hunt for truth.\nI never knew another who drew the hne more sharply between what he held tentatively\nand what he regarded as settled. I have no better description of his intellectual quaUty\nthan to characterize him as \"the man who defines.\" He loved a fine sincerity of speech,\nand sought the rugged Saxon with its hmited synonyms rather than the more equivocal\nvocabulary of classic tongues. He would pare his sentences until they were like a row\nof bayonets, and would manifest especial satisfaction with every possible ehmination.\nHe loved the words that bear their meaning on their faces, and would disdainfully discard\nan ostentatious polysyllable for the terseness of monosyllabic speech, wherever it was\nthe thousands of pupils who came under his instruction.\n\npossible.\n\nAs a consequence of his own essential honesty, he was extremely intolerant of anything approaching pretense on the part of the pupil.\n\nNothing else so excited his hot\nFor the dull but faithful he had boundless patience. For the sharper and\nthe pretender his keen arrows were dipped in gall.\nIt was this quaUty that explained\nthe rigor of his. recitations.\nHis thoroness was a household word. His pupils always\n\nindignation.\n\nheld themselves higher in their\n\nown genuine regard after completing his work.\n\nThe\n\nwas so long connected has always enjoyed the highest repute\nfor the severity of its training, and a large part of that reputation is due to this man.\nMr. Hewett never made the slightest effort to win popularity. That he was not\nindifferent to praise I well know.\nBut he absolutely lost sight of such considerations\nwhen on the trail of truth. He had no favorites, and held all equally responsible for\nintellectual and moral results.\nAnd he was never effusive in his praise. He was rarely\nfortunate who won more than quiet approval.\n\"He knows what he is about,\" was an\n\ninstitution with which he\n\nexpression of quite extreme commendation.\n\nHe understood the peculiar force of under-\n\nstatement.\n\nIn consequence, his influence as a class-room teacher was most healthfully\n\ninspiring.\n\nHe won my ardent admiration when I sat in his classes, and the tempering\n\nexperiences of twoscore years approve the instinctive wisdom of my youth.\n\nI dwell with\n\nfondness upon this feature of his career, because it was rather as a teacher than as a\npresident that his greatest work was done\".\n\nHe came to the presidency of the normal school in January, 1876, upon the resignation of Richard Edwards.\n\nIn this capacity his crowning merit was the freedom which\n\nIt devolved upon me to succeed to a part of his work,\nand to introduce methods quite radically opposed to those which he had employed; but\nnot a straw was laid in my way. He was not then in especial sympathy with much of the\nobjective method of modern physical science, declaring that the imagination could furnish its own experiments; but he was an easy convert later, and gave most cordial support to the innovations. \"While he was a very positive and uncompromising man where\nhis mind had settled upon certain convictions, his conclusions were for himself; he imposed\nthem upon no one. He was naturally indisposed to change, for there was a strong element\nof conservatism in his nature; but, as I have indicated, the door of opportunity was open\nto his subordinates, and he was not slow to recognize whatever there was of good that\n\nhe permitted to his subordinates.\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n338\n\ncame out of our excursions into the region of experiment.\n\n[National\n\nColonel Parker was fond of\n\nsaying that one should never do a thing twice in the same way, while Dr. Hewett was\nrather disposed to seek for finahties in method, something upon which one could really\nrest and thus quench his wander thirst.\n\nBut they were antipodal in many ways; perhaps\n\nI should rather characterize them as complementary.\n\nI have said that he was^not averse to praise, but that he never sought it.\n\nMore\n\nshould be said of this aspect of his character. He was always ready to part company with\nthe world and walk uncomplainingly alone, rather than to swerv'e in the slightest degree from\n\nwhat he regarded as the clear leadings of truth and duty. The iron of the Puritan was in\nHe would not go with the crowd unless convinced that the crowd was right.\nHe was never swept away by any sudden enthusiasms. He held his balance with a cerhis blood.\n\nHe invariably considered before he assented.\nHe belonged to the group that never can be accounted \"with us\" until we have stated\ntain reserve even against his closest friends.\n\nour case and it has commended itself to their sober judgment.\nHe never wore his heart upon his sleeve, yet he was thoroly sympathetic and\napproachable.\n\nThere was no student so humble but found ready access to his heart.\n\nHe was thoroly democratic, and so simple and unpretentious that he never chilled the\nadvances of the most modest and retiring. He never forgot the days at the bench, nor\ndid he desire to do so. His test of merit was substantial worth, and all other distinctions\nwere to him matters of supreme indifference. His mind centered upon considerations of\nultimate value, of fundamental and abiding consequence, and for them he looked when\n\nHe was a trifle slow in making friends, but\nme a matter of surprise that he was so tenderly\n\nestimating the real value of men and women.\n\nhe rarely lost one.\n\nIt sometimes seems to\n\nloved by so many, and he so undemonstrative and so little given to expressions of affection.\nIt appeared natural enough in\n\nmy own case, for I thought myself in a peculiar way within\n\nthe inner circle of his hfe; but I found that others thought their relations to him equally\n\nAaron Grove wrote of him: \"He was at first one of the idols of my young\nmanhood; as years passed and we were heart to heart, I loved him. Integrity, watchfulness, devotion to friends, independence in analysis; a sweet confidant and an absolutely\nupright man, I count his going as a personal loss; the vacancy can never be filled, neither\nThe gifted ex-President\nfor me nor for what is greater, the world in which we live.\"\nSewall, of Denver, for vears associated with him in the normal school, concludes a beautiful tribute to his memory as follows: \"He was, taking him all in all, what the world most\nneeds today, and what the world mourns when such a one is gone a man^ a nobleman.\nThis too brief statement I do not count as a crown to wreathe his brow. His life-work\nwrought and placed the crown. I humbly, reverently, lay this tribute at his feet.\" Dr.\nBoyden, who was a teacher at Bridgewater when Mr. Hewett entered the school, writes\nof him: \"In these early years he gave full assurance of the richness and fullness of his\nsubsequent Hfe. He has been a great blessing to many lives; he has wrought a great\nexceptional.\n\n—\n\nwork; his life is a great legacy; he leaves a fragrant memory that shall not perish.\" In\na similarly affectionate vein write Dr. Richard Edwards, Hon. Hiram Hadley, Dr. Canfield,\n\nGeorge P. Brown, and others.\nSocially he was a rare companion.\n\nHe loved a good story, was a consummate wit,\n\nexcelled at repartee, and was able to hold his own with the best in heightening the merri-\n\nment of an occasion.\n\nWho can ever forget his quaint grotesqueness as he occasionally\n\nsang with appropriate action some of the old songs that were current in his boyhood?\n\nBut for society in the strictest sense he had no fondness. Its formal conventionaUties\nwere offensive to him, and its \"fuss and feather\" were often the object of his unsparing\nsatire.\nHe was a lover of solitude. The httle study at the head of the stairs, barely\nlarge enough for his books, his table, and his chair, was his favorite resort.\nThere I\noften found him as I entered an unannounced visitor.\nThere he read and rested, and it\nwas also his \"growlery\" when the wind was in the east. Withal he had a poetic temperament, and there, like a bird in its leafy covert, that sings for the dear dehght of sing^\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "IN MEMORIAM EDWIN C. HEWETT\n\nCoundl]\n\n339\n\ning and with no care for the listening ear, he uttered the burden of his deeper thought in\nan occasional poem which invariably had for its theme the profounder problems of life\n\nand destiny.\n\nI\n\nhave spoken of his disposition to dwell upon the shadowy side of life.\n\nThis became apparent while he was still a young man, and was deepened by the later\nIt is especially\n\nexperiences of life.\n\nhe was yet at Bridgewater.\nlife,\n\nevidenced in poems written as early as 1854, while\n\nThe sense of individualism and of loneliness in the midst of\n\nwhich expressed itself in hours of especial intimacy, appears in the following stanza:\n\nBorne onward by the swelling flood,\nEach steers his little bark alone;\n\nThough numberless the passing crowd,\nEach tiny vessel holds but one.\n\nWas it his Puritan inheritance that led him to brood so persistently over these somber\nthemes ?\n\nIn 1870 he experienced a peciiliar sorrow in the death of little Paul, his infant\n\nson, who passed away while Mr. Hewett was absent from home.\n\nHe rarely spoke of the\n\nchild, but his faithful diary, in which he made a daily record for many years, discloses the\n\nsecret sorrow that shadowed his life.\n\nIn 1871 he wrote:\n\nThere's a httle mound where the maple waves,\n\nWhere the grass and the flowers are fair;\n'Tis a quiet spot in a \"garden of graves,\"\n\nAnd our thoughts turn sadly there.\nThe httle lad's birthdays are noted as the years slip by, and much of the pensive tenderness of later years finds its explanation in the pages of the little book to whose sacred\n\nconfidence he intrusted the secret story of his heart.\n\nWith such characteristics the deep rehgious vein which gave a marked coloring to\nhis nature was naturally associated.\n\nThe harmonies of the world, as manifested in the\n\ninvariable laws of nature, appealed mightily to the characteristic quality of his intellect.\n\nHis mind could not rest short of a self-conscious First Cause who holds the universe in the\nhollow of his hand, and who directs its manifestations with the sublime authority of an\ninerrant reason.\n\nIn consequence, rehgion was a necessity to his\n\nintellect.\n\nemotional nature no less craved self-conscious love as the motive of the universe.\n\nBut his\nWhile\n\nin no sense ilUberal with regard to the opinions of others, he strongly inclined to the stricter\ntheological views of his Puritan ancestors.\n\nhe was otherwise inclined.\n\nThere was a period of storm and stress, when\n\nI speak confidently with regard to this matter, for it revealed\n\nitself in private conversations.\n\nBut the influence of his early life reasserted itself, and he\n\nreturned to his eariier faith with a new ardency; and his fealty never again faltered.\n\nBoth his rigorous sense of duty and his natural inclination led him to give much of\nand his means to religious work. He was a remarkable teacher of the Bible,\nand was always engaged in the work of the Sunday school. Indeed, religious contemplation and religious service were especially congenial employments.\nHis poetic gift was\nexercised in the composition of several hymns, two of which were sung at his funeral.\nAs an educational writer Mr. Hewett is known thru two books on education, a treatise\non elementary pedagogy, and another on the simpler phases of psychology. He is also\nthe author of a series of arithmetics pubHshed by Rand & McNally.\nHe was associated\nwith Mr. Gove, and later with the author of this paper, in the editorship of the Illinois\nSchoolmaster, and recently with Mr. George P. Brown in the editorship of the well-known\nmagazine, School and Home Education. He was for many years prominent in Illinois\nas a lecturer and educational writer.\nWith the exception of one year spent in travel, he\nwas connected with the Ilhnois State Normal University for thirty-two years. For sixteen and a half years he was professor of geography and history, and for fourteen and a\nhalf years president.\nOnly two persons ever connected with that institution have a longer\nhis time\n\nrecord in its service.\n\nIn 1863 he received the degree of A.M. from the old University of Chicago.\nShurtleff College conferred upon him the degree of LL.D.\n\nIn 1878\n\nHe was once president of the\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n340\nIllinois\n\nState\n\nTeachers'\n\nAssociation,\n\nwas\n\nfor\n\nfive\n\nyears\n\ntreasurer\n\n[National\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nNational\n\nEducational Association, and was also a member of this body.\n\nIn August, 1857, Mr. Hewett was married to Angelina N. Benton, of Sublette, 111.\nMrs.\nReeder resides in New York, where her husband is at the head of a prominent orphan\nasylum. As was previously stated, Paul died in 187 1. Mrs. Hewett, a most estimable\nwoman, passed away, after some years of delicate health, on November 21, 1895. On\nAugust 31, 1898, Mr. Hewett was united in marriage to Mrs. Helen E. Paisley, long a\nresident of Normal and formerly a student in the normal school.\nSome ten years ago Mr. Hewett developed a heart weakness that caused grave solicitude on the part of his friends. He had never been obliged to submit himself to the care\nHis\nof a physician, and it was with extreme reluctance that he finally consented to do so.\nrecovery was slow, but he was restored to something quite like his customary health.\nLast winter, near the hohdays, he had a grave attack of pneumonia. For some days\nHe finally rallied, however, and was again about\nhis recovery was regarded as hopeless.\nthe house and occasionally ventured upon the street. The former heart weakness reappeared in a more aggravated form, but he could not be made to understand that his conThe afternoon before his death I called upon him and entreated him\ndition was critical.\nHe did not think it necessary, believing that his indisto submit to medical treatment.\nHis faithful wife attended\nposition was temporary, and that he would soon recover.\nhim with the most tender and affectionate care, yet full of apprehensions of a fatal result.\nHer soUcitude was well founded, for, as I have said, the news of his death reached me on\n\nThey had two children, Mrs. R. R. Reeder, bom in i860, and Paul, born in 1870.\n\nthe afternoon of March 31, 1905, within twenty-four hours of my final visit.\nIt is a source of gratification to me that before his last illness I tried to convey to him\nby letter my sense of the obhgation that I owed him. He came into my life at a time when\nHis precious name is on a sacred altar in my heart. His reply,\nI gravely needed him.\nso tender and modest, I cherish for those who come after me. In speaking thus for myself,\nI am at the same time uttering what is in the thought of thousands. Wherever that clean\nand resolute soul may fare, he is followed by the loving gratitude of a multitude who are\nproud to be numbered among the pupils of Edwin C. Hewett.\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Tuesday Morning, Jm.Y 4, 1905\nThe Department of Kindergarten Education met in the First Congregational Church,\nAsbury Park, at 9:30 A. m.\nBefore the formal opening of the session, Miss Maud Lindsay, Tuscurabia, Ala., told\ntwo of her charming stories, \"Grandmother's Birthday Present\" and \"The Turkey's\nNest.\"\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:45 A. m. by the president, Miss Mary Jean\nMiller, Rochester, N. Y.\n\nIn the absence of the secretary, Miss Anna E. Harbaugh, St. Louis, Mo., Miss May\nMurray, of Springfield, Mass., was appointed secretary pro tempore, and Miss Carrie\nTwitchell was selected as assistant to the secretary.\n\nMiss Miller delivered the opening address, and then introduced Dr. Nathan Oppenheim, New York city, as the first speaker.\n\nHe presented a paper on the subject, \"The\n\nRecognition of the Physical Development of the Child in the Training of Kindergartners.\"\n\nMrs. Ada Marean Hughes, Toronto, Can., president of the International Kindergarten Union, gave an address on \"How Does the Routine of the Eandergarten Develop\nthe Child Physically?\"\n\nThese papers were discussed by E. Hermann Arnold, director of the Normal School\nNew Haven, Conn., and C. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools,\nRochester, N. Y.\nLike a benediction came the kindly words of Mr. William N. Barringer, Newark,\nN, J., a teacher of sixty-one years' experience, and one of the earliest and oldest members\nof the National Educational Association.\nHe spoke words of commendation to the\nkindergartners for work done in the past, and of encouragement for future endeavor.\nA rising vote of thanks was extended Mr. Barringer in appreciation of his remarks.\n\nof Gymnastics,\n\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nMrs. Ada Marean Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nDr. Jenny B. Merrill, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Harriette M. Mills, New York, N. Y.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nMiss Fanniebelle Curtis, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nMiss Lena R. Bowen, East Orange, N. J.\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, Rochester, N. Y.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nThe second session of the department was held Thursday afternoon at 2:30, Miss\nMiller presiding.\n\nMiss Harriette M. Mills, instructor in kindergarten education, Teachers College,\n341\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n342\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nColumbia University, New York city, gave an address on \"Methods of Supervision of\nPublic School Kindergartens.\"\n\nThe following took part in the general discussion:\n\nJ.\n\nF. Reigart,\n\nNew York city;\n\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York city; Ossian H. Lang, editor of School Journal, New York\n\nDr. Jenny B. Merrill, New York city; Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, Rochester,\nN. Y.; and Miss Fanniebelle Curtis, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nA paper on \"The Validity of Recent Criticisms of the Kindergarten,\" by M. V.\n\ncity;\n\nO'Shea, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., was read by E. G. Lancaster, president\nof OUvet College, Olivet, Mich.\n\nThis paper was discussed by Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; Miss Margaret\nand E. G. Lancaster, Olivet, Mich.\n\nGiddings, Denver, Colo.\n\n;\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported resolutions of thanks to the many who had\ncontributed to the success of the meeting, and especially to the officers of the department\nfor their efficient services.\n\nOn motion, the resolutions were unanimously adopted.\n\nDr. Jenny B. Merrill, New York city, paid loving tribute to the memory of active\n\nmembers of the department who have died during the year: Mrs. Eudora Hailmann,\nMiss Florence Lawson, and Miss Emma A. Newman.\nThe nominating committee presented the following names:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Miss Mary C. May, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nFor Vice-President Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal.\nFor Secretary Miss May Murray, Springfield, Mass.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees were declared elected\nas officers of the department for the ensuing year.\n\nUpon motion, the meeting adjourned.\n\nMay Murray, Secretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\nMARY JEAN MILLER, NORMAL TRAINING SCHOOL, ROCHESTER, N. Y.\n[an abstract]\n\nThe kindergarten was a natural product of its time, and Froebel a necessary\nThe kindergarten could not be kept away from America, any more than could Christopher\n\nperson to discover the method of nature regarding humanity.\n\nColumbus; and it is as integral a part of our great pubHc-school system as\nthe public school is, in turn, an essential part of our repubhc.\n\nRightly to understand the place of the kindergarten in our national system\nof education, it is necessary to look backward.\n\nIt is less than a hundred years\n\nsince the kindergarten had a discoverer in Germany;\n\nit is\n\nless than fifty years\n\nsince the kindergarten had an existence in the United States;\n\nand it is only\n\nthirty-five years since it was first a part of any public school in our country.\n\nToday we have more than 300,000 children in kindergartens, and more than\n4,000 kindergartners.\n\nAnd why this phenomenal growth ?\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n343\n\nWe are sometimes alarmed wjien we consider the great material prosperity\nBut need we fear, when our great benefactor, the public school,\n\nof our nation.\n\nis incorporating into its very being such a system of education as that for which\n\nthe kindergarten stands\n\nsl\n\nsystem which holds (and practices, as far as the\n\npublic demands and conditions will permit) that the physical as well as the\n\nmental, that the moral as well as the rehgious, that the social and aesthetic as\nwell as the emotional natures must each and all be equally and harmoniously\n\ndeveloped ?\n\n\"We need have no fear, if we educate our children properly,\" says Froebel.\nIn the slavery of ignorance only is there danger.\n\nIn the freedom of all-round\n\ndevelopment there is salvation for everyone.\n\nWe as a nation have many problems.\n\nLabor and capital do not co-operate.\n\nCompetition is still the soul of business; greed and gain at times seem to get\nthe mastery of goodness and godliness.\n\nBut never in the history of a republic\n\nhas there been such a recognition of the need for the elimination of vice by\nthe establishment of virtue, or for making an equality for mankind by giving\n\neach an opportunity to evolve his best self.\n\nOn this greatest of our national holidays, I should be of narrow vision\nindeed if I could not behold tho in a \"glass darkly\" the fact that our publicschool system is our greatest institution.\n\nThe common man, because he has neither extreme of poverty or riches to\nmar his chance for calm deliberation, is much in the majority, and is our safe\nbackground and wall of defense.\n\nAs yet our pubHc-school system does not satisfy the needs of all.\n\nThe\n\nelementary school prepares for the secondary school, and that in turn for the\ncollege ; but only the few can go to college.\n\nThe leaven of the kindergarten will require only time to vitalize these\nvarious departments which now lack a practical humanitarian touch; for the\n\nkindergarten holds to the principle that each is an essential part of the social\nwhole, be he rich or poor, black or white, imprisoned or free; that he therefore\nis\n\nworthy of the development which results from knowing and doing things\n\nin the company of others who have equal opportunity with himself.\n\nThe Department of Kindergarten Education in its present programs aims\nto extend the usefulness of the kindergarten\n\nby restating some of its funda-\n\nmental principles, and in noting some of the difficulties which it encounters\nin their application.\n\nThere are stirrings within as well as without the kindergarten fold.\n\nThe\n\nkindergarten is not more perfect in its details than are other institutions of\n\nhuman origin\n\n;\n\nbeen annexed;\n\nbut it is more complete than the public school to which it has\n\nhence the apparent antagonism which\n\nresults.\n\nBut\n\nthis\n\nopposition is the essential stimulus to better conditions in all portions of our\ngreat educational field.\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDVCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n344\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nTHE RECOGNITION OF THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF\nTHE CHILD IN THE TRAINING OF KINDERGARTNERS\nNATHAN OPPENHEIM, M.D., NEW YORK CITY\n[an abstract]\n\nWe all know of the time when a man who would take up teaching was\nnecessarily a\n\nman who could not do anything else;\n\nbut gradually, teaching\n\nhas come to justify itself; has come to show itself in its true worth, so that\n\nnow there is no occupation more honored.\n\nThis vocation must be founded\n\non truth, which involves a definite preparation, and a realization of what we\nare trying to do.\nIt is true that in most other occupations the idea of preparation has been\n\ncarried out\n\nmuch more thoroly.\n\nWe would never for a moment think of\n\nallowing a carpenter to put up a house for us, unless we felt sure that he knew\n\nwhat he was going to do, and how he was going to do it.\n\nWe would never\n\nallow a lawyer to try a case for us, unless we felt positive that he understood\n\nwhat he was to do, and that his knowledge was based upon fact. Certainly\nwe would never put into a physician's hands the welfare of our bodies, unless\nwe felt certain he knew what these bodies were, what they were going to do,\nand how they were going to do it. But when it comes to a question of teaching\n\n—the question of taking care of developing minds, of taking a small, imma-\n\nture organism, cramping it in certain ways, giving it full development in others,\n\nshowing it the way it must go\n\n—we have\n\nin the past required very Httle indeed,\n\nexcepting a certain theory based upon philosophy or metaphysics.\nIt is evident that the vocation of a teacher and that of a physician are so\n\nclosely alUed that it is extremely difficult to draw the line between them.\n\nThe\n\nphysician in the past has been thought to have the care of the body and mind\n\nBut that is not the modem view at all. Nowadays we feel\nthat it is the physician's vocation to take care of the mind and body when in\n\nwhen in disease.\n\nhealth, so that they\n\nmay not stray off into disease.\n\nThe vocation of the\n\nteacher is the development of the mind, and when we say that, we must include\nthe body, so that they will both grow in normal ways.\nIt is a helpful thought that the physician and the teacher must necessarily\n\nstand together, must work with each other, must learn from each other.\n\nAnd\n\nthe message that I want to bring to you today is the message of the medical\n\nman who wishes to stand in close touch with you; who wants you to come\nand take part in his work, and in his view-point, and in his experience.\nIt is the first part of life that counts.\n\nIt is the first part that is the basis\n\nupon which all the superstructure must rest. And if you are able to aid a\nchild's mind to develop in normal ways, with the least amount of obstruction,\nyou certainly will be doing work that no other person can possibly surpass.\nBut you cannot do that work unless you know the material you are working\nwith.\nDo not think for a single moment that the child is simply an adult in\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE CHILD IN TRAINING KtNDERGARTNERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n345\n\nthe small. There is nothing more harmful in results, nothing which is farther\nfrom the truth, than that. Every moment after the beginning of life brings a\n\ngreater and greater development.\n\nThis organism goes thru definite changes\n\nwhich are tremendously rapid, and which stop at no time until adult life is\nattained.\n\nThe rate of change varies, but change goes on. At first it is so great\n\nthat differences can be noted from day to day.\n\nGradually this rate of change\n\ngets slower and slower, but the organism is always in process of development.\n\nThere is no time when you can say that every portion of it is developing aUke.\n\nThe forces which you bring to bear upon it are the forces which are going to\nmake or mar it. It is very much like the seeds which are thrown into the\nThose which have good environmental conditions will develop;\nThose portions of the body which have good\n\nground.\n\nthose which have not will die.\n\nenvironmental conditions will develop\n!\n\n;\n\nothers will not.\n\nThe question of original and individual action is entirely, as you know, a\n\nquestion of nerve\n\ndevelopment.\n\ncells.\n\nThese nerve cells have no fixed and foreordained\n\nThe development they acquire is the development which is per-\n\nmitted to them by their environmental condition.\n\nThere is nothing fixed. This\n\nwill come to you with a sense of reaHty, if you will but stop to think that there\nis\n\nno portion in the human body which is fixed. There is no portion at all\nsame as the analogous portion in the adult. The\n\nin the child which is the\n\nbones are not the same; the nerve tissue is not the same; the blood, the\nmuscles, the glands, the viscera,\n\nall\n\nare not the same.\n\nThere is absolutely\n\nnothing in the child which is the exact counterpart of the analogous thing in\nthe adult.\n\nThere are certain things in the adult which do not exist in the\n\nchild at all;\nadult.\n\nthere are certain things in the child which do not exist in the\n\nWe know that certain diseases which come in childhood exist on\n\naccount of this difference between the child and the adult.\n\nNow, I beUeve\n\nmost decidedly that the person who is to take care of children should have\n\nsome knowledge of this. He should know something of the peculiarities of\nAnd the more precious this subjectthe subject-matter with which he works.\nmatter is, the greater is the need for exact knowledge.\n\nTo me there is something in a child that is sacred.\n\nI feel that the more\n\nintimately I come to know these children, the way they change from day to\n\nday and from week to week, the better I am able to understand what their\nindividual needs are.\n\nWhen I see a child restless and nervous, it does not mean to me that the\nchild is a bad child or a naughty child.\n\nIt means that the center of inhibition\n\nin the child's brain, is poorly developed.\n\nSuch a child cannot sit still, or\n\nstand still, unless you tie him down, or cow him.\n\nWith time and training\n\nthat center will develop, and the child will become capable of control.\nis\n\nan example of how the various parts of the brain develop.\n\nThis\n\nThe various\n\nfunctions and faculties have origins in their several locaHties in the central\n\nAnd normal growth must be taken into account in a scheme\nYou all know that a mole sees poorly; and if you would look\n\nnervous system.\nof education.\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n346\n\nat the mole's brain,\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nyou would find his visual center almost rudimentary.\n\nCompare it with the corresponding center in an eagle's brain; and even to\nthe eye of the uninitiated the difference will be most striking.\nif\n\nfollowed logically in\n\nits\n\nappHcation to\n\nThis truth,\n\nhuman development, will carry\n\nilluminating lessons.\nI have had kindergarten teachers tell me most remarkable things about\nwhat they beUeved was the function of the kindergartner. I have had them\ntell me that certain games should be dispensed with because they interfere\nwith the joints, not knowing what a joint is. They tell me about the action\nof the child's brain, without knowing at all what the brain really is, or what\nI have had them speak to me about using\nthe development of the brain is.\ncolors, not knowing that at different times only of a child's life is he able to\nFor instance, a very young child can distinguish\ndistinguish certain colors.\nred, but it takes a child of older development to distinguish gray or blue.\n\nfunction,\n\nHke\n\nall\n\nothers,\n\nrequires sufficient growth for full action.\n\nganglion cells in time push out fine processes, neurons and dendrons\n\n;\n\nThis\n\nThe\n\ngradually\n\nand store up their chromatin granules.\nAnd until this growth is completed, you may not make unlimited demands\nupon its unformed organism. The infant exists potentially, mostly in promise.\nHe has not the brain filaments as you may expect them in later times.\nAll this is not a question of theory; it is the most practical thing in childhood that you can possibly know about and before a teacher dare talk about\nwhat a child may need, or may not need, he must know these plain facts in\nI am unfortunately limited in my time, and\nthe physical being of the child.\nso I cannot go on to more details in this regard, but an inkUng of the subject\nyou can get.\nThere have been a few ideas only in this world that have lived. Far, far\nback in the old world there was an idea of the spiritual Ufe that came out of\nPalestine; and ever since the world has had a definite reUgious tendency. In\na land farther west the idea of beauty came up, and Greek art has ever since\ncontrolled the world.\nOn the seven-hilled banks of the Tiber the idea of\nlaw developed, and ever since we have been trying to get the full conception\nof justice.\nAnd farther west and a longer time afterward the idea of the rights\nthe child as an individual, the child of definite being and\nof a child came up\npossibihties and potentiaUties.\nThis idea I believe is governing the world\nnow, and the world looks forward to its best development. If we get the sort\nthese processes acquire medulation\n\n;\n\n—\n\nof teacher who will gather the very best knowledge in regard to the facts, we\nwill have a force that has never been\n\nequaled before.\n\nSuch a teacher must\n\nnecessarily be a controlling fact in this world, for the simple reason that upon\n\nher future development depends.\n\nLike a glowing flower in a field of grain,\n\nlike a single star in a dull dark night, like a steadfast heart in a time of doubt\n\nso will this teacher stand for all the world, as guide, philosopher, and friend.\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW DOES KINDERGARTEN DEVELOP THE CHILD\n\n347\n\nHOW DOES THE ROUTINE OF THE KINDERGARTEN\nDEVELOP THE CHILD PHYSICALLY?\nMRS.\n\nADA MAREAN HUGHES, PRESIDENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL KINDERGARTEN UNION, TORONTO, CAN.\n\nFormal physical exercises have no legitimate place in the kindergarten.\nand understood, should form a\n\nIntelligent physical culture, vitally taught\n\nmuch more prominent part of the training of kindergarten students than has\nbeen the case.\n\nIt is of incalculable importance that the kindergartner should\n\nhave all the power of a personaUty developed thru a body which lends itself\nintelligently to\n\nfreedom of expression.\n\nkindergarten age\n\nemotional center.\n\nis\n\nThe budding life of the child of\n\nas yet undifferentiated in action of body, mind,\nIt\n\nWe need not look for expressive faces or free, broad\n\nexpressed in the leader.\ngestures in the children,\nof all she advocates.\n\nand\n\nresponds in unconscious imitation to the freedom\n\nwhen the kindergartner is in direct contradiction\n\nNaturalness means the harmonious responsiveness\n\nof every part of the body to the impulses of the spirit.\n\nIn the child it is sponta-\n\nneous, but it is Hmited to the degree of control the mind has acquired over\nthe various parts pf the body.\n\nThat this spontaneity is lost is owing to disuse\n\nor wrong use of the muscles, thru lack of playful exercise, or thru constraint\nof muscular activity according to conventional ideas of adult direction.\n\nFroebel consciously planned his games and exercises to keep the freedom\nof action aUve in the child thru bringing the emotion and will into activity\n\nwith physical responsiveness.\nExhibition and expression are very different things, tho the former is so\ncommonly mistaken for the latter in adult training.\nThe kindergartner creates an atmosphere which stimulates or deadens\naccording to her personahty. A well-poised body and rhythmic step are\nhardly possible in the child when the leader has a slovenly carriage and unresponsive face and manner, or when her movements are mechanical and in\naccordance with some long-established habit of body, instead of the response\nof a body gloriously alive thru immediate response to the spirit within.\n\nThe kindergartner 's influence partakes largely of the character of motherIt matters much how she stands, sits, moves,\nhow she greets the children, etc. She needs, and the children need, that she\nliness in its subtile action.\n\nshall\n\nbe perfectly poised, maintaining a firm center of body, with perfect\n\nfreedom of all parts of the body around this center.\nin\n\nChildren are so mobile\n\ncharacter at this stage that they respond imitatively.. without resistance, to\n\nthe freedom of movement in their leader.\n\nThe routine work of the kinder-\n\ngarten will be intelligently helpful according to the insight of the kindergartner\ninto the nature of the child and the varying periods of its unfoldment.\n\nThe exercises of the kindergarten should not be applied to the child,\nbut should work up thru his consciousness into individual expression, creating\n\nhim anew into larger life thru exercise of that which already exists.\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n34S\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe sympathetic greeting, the handshake, and the look into the friendly\neye of the kindergartner all act on the whole being of the child to bring him\ninto physical as well as spiritual harmony with his surroundings.\n\nThe call\nThen\n\nfor orderly assembling brings a control of body thru social response.\n\nshould follow a moment of relaxation, and then the definite gesture of folded\nhands, making the contrast clear from play to relaxation, and then to definite\n\nThe way it is done gives it its value, and tho to the child it should\nseem purely incidental, it is a vital part of a conscious order to the kindergartner.\nShe gains her point, not thru command, but by comradeship.\nSongs and games. If there is not a clear conception of the difference\nbetween the songs and the games in the mind of the kindergartner, much of\nposture.\n\n—\n\nthe value of each is lost to the child.\ntive,\n\nwhile in the game it is dramatic.\n\nThe gesture of the song is largely descripThe song is a lyric, the game a drama.\n\nIn the song the music and the words are the chief elements; the gestures are\n\nThe games are more definitely\nThe child is no longer the narrator of a story;\n\nsimple movements descriptive of the narrative.\n\ndramatic in their character.\n\nHe goes out of himself, and becomes the\n\nhe is himself the hero of the play.\n\nother character with more or less abandonment of his real identity.\n\nThe introduction of voice-training as a conscious exercise in the kindergarten is not consistent with our knowledge of the child's stage of development.\n\nThe transition from the period of symbolic thinking into that of formal study\nis quite definite,\n\nand any anticipation of that change results disadvantageously.\n\nAnything so spontaneous as the voice cannot be prematurely harnessed\ninto drill without great loss of freedom in power and expression.\n\nthat children are interested (as they may possibly be\n\nThe fact\n\nsometimes) does not\n\nchange the fact that premature exercise weakens the final result instead of\ndeveloping into larger power.\nis,\n\nThe gesture of the song has been, and still\n\na much-abused exercise, and\n\ncriticism, tho\n\ncritics\n\nhave been justly severe in their\n\nseemingly themselves no wiser than the erring ones as to the\n\nreal wrong done.\n\nFroebel seems to have known the fimdamentals of all physical develop-\n\nment,\n\nif\n\nwe may judge from the plays of which he really was the author.\n\nThere has been so much attributed to him by enthusiastic young women, who\nassume that everything which they have received from their especial training\nclass must have come from the great author, but which we older disciples\nhave seen generated on this prolific western soil.\n\nIf\n\nwe study the physical\n\nside of his typical plays, we shall find a recognition of the fundamental exercises\n\nwhich form the basis of all established schools of physical culture;\n\nviz.:\n\ndefinite center poise; flexions of arms, legs, body, and head, with their infinite\n\nvariations;\n\nbreathing exercises infinite in variety, but all growing out of a\n\ncenter and balanced in their variety.\n\nThe kind of gesture used in the song or game should be consciously true\nto right physical exercise, so far as the leader is concerned, but should be the\n\nchoice of the children from their natural impulse of life-expression, not a\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBOW DOES KINDERGARTEN DEVELOP THE CHILD\n\n349\n\nconscious physical exercise to develop this or that organ or set of muscles.\n\nThere should be such a succession of the games that the vital organs should\nall\n\nhave their due stimulant, and in definite order and succession known to\n\nthe kindergartner, but not to the children.\n\nThe tendency to make the games serve the purpose of stimulant to spiritual\ninsight has led in many cases to neglect of the physical process in playing,\n\nthru supreme emphasis of the thought-processes.\n\nTo me it seems that the\n\nfact of the larger processes illustrated in games of sequence might with great\n\nadvantage be left to the discovery by the child in the imiting of his varied\nexperiences in rehearsal with his mother or companions, or by himself.\n\nThis\n\nseems more rational than the common habit of pubhshing to him such connection thru rehearsing them in\n\na forced manner.\n\nWe overlook the value to the\n\nindividual of personal discovery, which at this age is such a vital experience.\nIt is important that the gesture be definite.\nThere are many kindergartens\nwhere the lack of definiteness leads to vagueness in the feeling of the actors,\n\nand fails of its physical purpose thru lack of tone to particular organs and\nmuscles. An exercise should always be definite enough to produce a reaction\nin the body, tho not severe.\n\nRhythmic marching.\n\n—The wave of enthusiasm over rhythmic movements\n\nwill subside, as other waves have subsided in the past.\n\nThat it has a certain\n\nvalue is beyond question, but the degree of enthusiasm it has called forth is\n\nout of all proportion to that value.\n\nIt has done good work in modifying and\n\ncorrecting the practice of formal military marching which has prevailed so\n\nand which almost without exception tended to abuse of the body\nwrong attitude taken in response to the oft-repeated suggestion or\nformal command, ''Stand up straight.\" Children and adults ahke stiffen\nup into rigidity of body and, throwing the chest-center back instead of up,\nmake the strain on the vital organs most unnatural. At its best, the rhythmic\nmovement claims to be response to a musical narrative which the child is\nsupposed to interpret for himself thru his body in conformity with the entire\ngroup of children \\Vith which he is classed.\ngenerally,\n\nin the\n\nIt\n\nseems hardly possible that the majority of children can understand\n\nthe spiritual counterpart of the music to be interpreted, when so few adults\n\neven can enter into the spiritual thought of the composer.\n\nIn most instances,\n\nat any rate, the rhythmic play really is just keeping step to music, and is to\n\nthe child what dancing is to the adult.\n\nmovement, not interpreting an ideal.\nis holding Billy,\" but the erratic\n\nIt is\n\nkeeping time to the rhythmic\n\nThe kindergartner thinks ''the music\n\nmovements of Master Billy leads the observer\n\nto question the hold it has.\n\nThe Froebelian songs and games make provision for physical expression,\nThe highest is to gain control over the\n\nbut that is not the highest purpose.\n\nbody in making it serve the spiritual impulse.\n\nBody, mind, and sympathetic\n\nfeeling act in unison, and mutually strengthen each other at this stage.\n\nTable games and occupations.\n\n—In the table games and occupations the\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n350\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nphysical well-being of the child should always be considered and intelligently\n\nprovided\n\nfor.\n\nI,\n\nhowever, want to voice a protest against a stupidity of\n\ncriticism which seems to have much of the flavor of self-conceit and ignorance.\n\nThe kindergarten is often held responsible for many of the physical weaknesses of childhood which\n\nabound today.\n\nPhysicians say that this or that\n\noccupation is detrimental to the eyesight or produces too great nerve strain,\n\nand it becomes a popular cry. It would modify such opinions materially if\nthese critics would remember that these physical disorders prevail in vicinities where the kindergarten has never been introduced, and they are quite\n\ncommon among children who have never attended the kindergarten as\namong those who have. It is true, however, that children in the kindergarten,\nas\n\nhaving definite occupation, reveal these physical weaknesses and defects to\nobservant eyes sooner than if left to undirected occupation.\nIt is also true that\n\nmany kindergartens plan work that is too fine for the\n\nchildish fingers and eyes.\n\nThis points to a defect in the ideals which they hold\n\nand failure to grasp the basic principles of Froebel's work. The occupations\nas he developed them are primitive industries, and natural for the imitative\nstage of child-hfe.\nThey are, according to Froebel's word and practice,\norganized so as to keep mind and body interactive and lead up to a clear\nseeing by a simple process thru clear understanding of initial steps.\nThese activities are no more compHcated or unnatural than the child\nwould seek out for himself; the advantage to the child being thru organized\nmaterial to make the strain of effort less exhausting and unsatisfactory than\nwhen the child is left without adult assistance. The co-ordination of hand\nand eye goes on more simply and easily when things fit naturally. The nerve\nstrain is less, and the child's activity less wearing, when natural play runs\neasily in ordered channels.\n\nIn the handling of the gifts the hand is steadily acquiring strength, and\nthe governing power of the mind is easily and unconsciously gaining control.\n\nThere should be a clear consciousness of the two phases of the term\n\"physical culture\": on the one side the strenuousness of exercise, building\n\nup of muscle, development of strength; on the other, exercise in the infi.nite\nvariety of ways possible for use of this fundamental strength in the various\n\n— exercise for\n\nelasticity in extension\n\nand firmness of reaction with control of relaxed states.\n\nRelaxation is not, as\n\nflexions of the limbs, body, hands, fingers\n\nso often apprehended, \"letting go,\" so much as subsidence of effort along any\nespecial lines.\n\nThe physical purpose of exercise is to gain in strength, elas-\n\npower to conserve, and definiteness to set free again. Grace is not\nsoftness or flabbiness; it is based on underlying strength, and is in proportion\n\nticity,\n\nto the individual's familiarity with the varied\n\nown body.\n\nforms of use possible in his\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW DOES KINDERGARTEN DEVELOP THE CHILD\n\n351\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. Hermann Arnold, director of New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, New\n\nHaven, Conn.\n\n—\n\nof activities.\n\nThe kindergarten does not offer the chance for vigorous activity, for digging\n\nIt has always seemed to me that what a child needs is to be turned loose\nupon the world, upon nature, upon humanity; sometimes, too, upon papa and mamma;\nand then, if he is given a chance, he will work out his own salvation. The first thing is\nto give the child a chance.\nAs long as we have kindergartens of thirty and forty there is\nalways this danger, which the speaker before me has brought out, of overworking some\nOccasionally I have wandered\nof the children and underworking a great many others.\ninto a kindergarten,\nI have seen some vigorously inclined children go into the kindergarten and come out weakened. A child lives a strenuous life. He engages in a number\n\nand jumping and kicking and running. The kindergarten is too nice a place to be very\nstrenuous. There is usually a circle\na nice large circle of chairs, and a nice little table,\nAnother kind of\netc., which is excellent, but only good for a certain amount of work.\nwork the children never can get there. I never have seen it there. That is, to my mind,\nwhere your kindergarten falls short. I do not know what you are going to do to change\nan open air playground.\nthis, unless you make use of the play-ground\nChildren are fatigued by continuous play, and it is the good teacher, as the phrase\ngoes, that knows how to interest them, who always carries them along.\nTo my mind\nthat is a dangerous point.\nThe stimulus of the teacher makes them do the work. She\ndoes not notice oftentimes that the children are tiring from too much suggestion. Their\nnot being thrown on their own physical and mental resources is a danger. Let the children break up into groups for play, and give them suggestions with the most careful hand,\nbecause they, as you know, resent suggestions. Children play nicely for one minute,\ntwo minutes, ten minutes; then they fight. I do not know that you let them fight in the\nkindergarten. There is nothing so refreshing as fighting. The irritability of these children, when they break up their groups, is not always that of bad temper, but oftentimes\nthe end of interest or the end of attention.\nIt is a sign of fatigue, and therefore the fight\ncomes up as an immediate necessity and breaks up the game. They simply fight for a few\nminutes. After a while a new grouping of powers is made up, and these two and those two\ncome together, and they make up a new game. This is a good thing. I would never\ninterfere with these things.\nThere is danger of too much interference. It strikes me that\nyou-are too nice. I do not Hke it. I am absolutely sure that if they had kept me nice for\nthe length of time you keep these children in the kindergarten nice, I should have died\ngood, and young.\nWhere to begin and where to end your interference is difficult to know. It is important that the teachers should be only people of experience and great skill; but people of\nexperience cannot always understand children. That question can be solved only by\nselecting carefully the teachers, giving them a good preparatory training, that they may\nknow clearly what the kindergarten may do and what it may not do.\nAs far as I am concerned, I do not think that a child, that has a playground, a garden\naround the house in a nice neighborhood, children as playmates, and parents who have\nsome understanding of childhood and who have sympathy for their children, has any\nneed of a kindergarten at all. I always looked upon the kindergarten as a sort of refuge.\nI may be wrong. In large cities and crowded neighborhoods, where the conditions or the\nhome surroundings are not favorable, the kindergarten is needed; and you should make\nthe conditions as natural and vigorous and individual as you possibly can.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nC. F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y.\n\nbeginning of the century that is past, I\nstrenuousness in life.\n\nhome.\n\n— we look back\nIf\n\nto the\n\nam sure we will all agree that there has been a\n\nThe Puritan Ufe has left its mark upon the state and upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n352\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nI do not agree with the previous speaker that kindergartens are for unfortunate\nchildren.\n\nDoes he mean to say that no children need the kindergarten except children who\n\nare taken no care of at all, or whose mothers do not play with them, or who do not have a\n\nplayground? Every child is blessed by a good kindergarten, one as much as another,\nwhether it be a child of the slums or a child of the rich home; both need the kindergarten.\n\nOne needs the civilizing influence, and the other needs its influence to take away selfishness.\nFroebel one hundred years ago discovered the principle of play, and he brought it\n\nout into child-life as it had not been before.\n\nleavened the public-school system.\n\nThat was but a beginning of play which has\nThat has been the mission of the kindergarten. I\n\nam proud to say to you that in the schools of Rochester every child has his free game;\nthat is, ten or fifteen minutes when the game of childhood is played again in every school\nin the hall or in the kindergarten room.\n\nThe teachers learn to play.\n\nIt\n\nhas been a\n\ngreat struggle, but now they all play with the children and take their part.\n\nThere is a new spirit which has taken possession of the world because of the play of\nthe kindergarten.\n\nCity conditions prevent, in large measure, the free outdoor life of the\n\nAs a result of these changed conditions, the physical life of both the individual and\nthe nation is threatened with weakness and degeneracy. The existence of the school has\nimplied restraint and inaction of body. Nervousness is often induced early. The school\nof the old days was inevitably a nursery of unwholesome tendencies.\nSeverity of discipline and rigidity of life were everywhere in evidence.\nThe school literature of the past\nhas been largely a caricature upon these unfavorable conditions. Consciously or unconpast.\n\nsciously, Froebel discovered the saving principle\n\nwhich has steadily made its way during\n\nthe last hundred years in our educational system.\n\nIt is difficult at this distance for us to\n\ndiscover what impulse affected him in his studies of childhood.\n\nAs in the case of some\n\ngreat Invention, we can only marvel that it had not before occurred to someone that play\nis\n\nnot only an instinct, but an educator.\n\nIn any case, Froebel seized upon the principle\n\nthat this impulse not only was inborn and universal, but that it called for exercise and\n\nencouragement.\n\nBefore Froebel it would appear that children played only in spite of the\n\nattempt of their seniors to prevent them from doing so, and that their games were regarded\nas the outbreak of an evil spirit which called for repression, so far as possible, on every\noccasion.\nIf some of us recall the games of childhood of our own days, we shall remember that\nwas only after dark, when our seniors were safely engaged in conversation within doors,\nthat our spirits could really break loose in the abandon and joy of games invented apparently for the night and to suit the necessity of the case; or we reveled far out upon the\nhills or upon the skating-grounds, away from interference, or upon the playground at\nschool and in spite of the admonition of the teacher.\nUnder these conditions we cultivated and exercised this irresistible inclination. The sweetest memories of childhood are\nit\n\na part of these stolen joys.\nIt is only within the last few years that the doctrine of Froebel\n\nhas fully taken hold\n\nupon the convictions of men and women. The courageous and self-sacrificing efforts\nof a few leaders made respectable, and finally popularized, this new thing.\nIt is not too\nmuch to say that, with the rigid discipline of the school and with the sternness of the\nPuritan home, as characteristics of our American life, we might well imagine that joy\nwould finally have gone out of the world almost altogether, had it not been for the saving\npower of Froebel's work.\nIt is of interest to note that for nearly a century the kindergarten was unrelated to\nany system of education. It was carried on in private schools and by charitable people,\nin churches and hired rooms, and was thought of as a nursery and a means of entertainment for children. Its introduction into the public schools was stoutly resisted, especially\nby teachers themselves, and sometimes by private kindergartens. Even at present, a\n\nteacher occasionally affirms that the kindergarten spoils the discipline of a first-grade\n\nroom; but, as a rule, teachers have discovered the universal benefit that comes to children\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nHOW DOES KINDERGARTEN DEVELOP THE CHILD\n\n353\n\nwho have enjoyed the physical uplift and intellectual awakening which comes from a good\nWherever the kindergarten has been judiciously directed it has acted as\nTeachers themselves have been the first to discover\ntheir own need of rejuvenation.\nIt is a rare sight to see teachers who have been cramped\nand rendered excessively proper by the stilted and severe methods of the old time, yielding\nthemselves to the reviving influences of the games of the kindergarten. This they have\noften cheerfully done, until in many school systems the old-fashioned games are a part of\nthe education of every day and of every grade.\nVerily the world is coming back to its\ninheritance, and children are coming into their rightful possession.\nWTiat is a game ? It is an expression of emotion. It is an outburst of feeling, the\nexercise of a sentiment and a passion.\nIt is an unconventional expression of an impulse\nborn with us, and a natural outgoing of the physical energy of life. There is no sadder\npicture than the child who has never learned to play.\nThere is no more weary and abnormal face than that of the prematurely old child, whose existence has been only serious,\nnever joyful. The same face grown to manhood makes almost a monster, and is almost\nas fatal to normal life and character.\nOrdinarily the home leads in any educational\nreform. What is good in the home becomes public sentiment, and is incorporated into\nschool statutes and school-board requirements.\nBut in this case the demonstration of\nthe value of play, as an educator and as a development of physical life, was first illustrated\nin the kindergarten.\nThe home has quickly followed and has indefinitely extended the\ninfluences of the principle involved.\nThe father and the mother of the average home\nhave become companions and playmates of their children, and have themselves entered\ninto sports and recreation as never before.\nWithin the last twenty-five years the whole\nworld has seemed to go to play again. The tennis court, the golf field, the athletic sports\nof schools and colleges, have all come into existence and have seemed to take possession\nof the world.\nThere is a new glow of life in old and young a joyful and saving enthusiasm that is far-reaching and full of hope and promise. As never before we seek recreation,\npure and joyful amusement, and vacation. All this but feebly expresses our debt to\nthe kindergartner and its influence in recon-structing and maintaining our physical hfe.\nHow far do kindergartners recognize these great principles ? Do they play because\nof kindergarten requirements ? Is the joy of life back of their leadership; or is it forced,\nmechanical, and therefore unavailing ? How far do they understand the bearing of the\nperiod of early childhood upon the years to follow ? How far have they connected the\nmerely physical and merely formal with the individual ? How far have they failed to get\noutside the narrow grooves of the early kindergartners?\nWhat is the kindergarten?\nIs it merely a place in which to play games, to handle sticks and rings and blocks and\nballs, and follow the mother play ?\nIs it to dance and sing in the merry-go-round ?\nToo\noften this has been its definition.\nThis has expressed its extent and much of its content.\nThe philosopher and the kindergarten educator have sought to define and to systematize\nevery part of the kindergarten day and week. No other part of our educational system is\nso walled in by custom, so held down by traditions of a system a hundred years old.\nI profess no knowledge of the merit of the discussion so warmly waged; but, upon\ngeneral principles and from the observation of the larger problem of education, I must\nkindergarten.\n\na leaven upon the grades above.\n\n—\n\nclaim the privilege of applying a general principle to a particular case.\n\n\"Freedom\" is\n\nthe dearest word in our educational vocabulary, and this applies to the teachers, to the\nprincipal, and the supervisor,\n\nand the superintendent.\n\nCareful instruction in principles,\n\nskill of technique, and a knowledge of the body and the mind and the child in the concrete\nall these are a necessary\n\npart of our training.\n\nBut no teacher in a great school, no prin-\n\ncipal in a school building, no successful worker in any part of the great kingdom of child-\n\nhood, can do his best unles the sense of initiative and the free exercise of his own resources\nare successfully called into action.\n\nThis principal is more vital in the kindergarten even\n\nthan in any other part of the school system; for the little child is absolutely plastic and\nhelpless in the hands of the kindergartner.\n\nIf she is following a set program, with orders\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n354\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nassigned to the hour or the day or the week, the mainspring of action and the most powerful element in her being are restricted, and formality and mechanism are bound to follow-\n\nAll these prescriptions tend to prevent the application of the scientific principle of human\n\ndevelopment. The good teacher or the good kindergartner, when free and when wise\nand well trained, seeks for some free expression every hour of the day, at every turn of the\nroad.\nThe story and the song and the game suggest some related activity. This activity\ncalls for the exercise of the hand, for the use of the brush, the crayon, the tools which have\nbeen the schoolmasters of the race, and for the free activity which every child exercises in\nthe model home. There is no more beautiful and more interesting sight than is seen\nwhen two children, under proper conditions, carry on their games in the chimney corner,\nor play with their dolls or hobby-horses. Their imaginations teem with original conditions and conceptions.\nThey summon into their presence people and situations far\nremote. They aict the part of men and women, of mothers and fathers, school-teachers\nand workmen at their daily tasks.\nThe mechanical and philosophical prescriptions of the daily and weekly program,\nwhich have come in to blight this free Hfe of childhood, are no less than a delusion, and\ncertainly act the part of an invention of the evil one.\nThere is no compromising with\nthis situation, if the influence of the kindergarten is to continue to be wholesome, and if\nit is\n\nremain a part of the public-school system.\n\nto\n\nAny other theory is not only not\n\npedagogical or broadly philosophical, but is isolated and destructive of the unity and the\n\naims which we have long sought, and which we have to a good degree attained because of\nthe existence of freedom\n\nand initiative as an individual possession and outfit of the\n\nteacher.\n\nDo you ask what all this has to do with the recognition of the physical development\nVery much. If the kindergarten represents any new principle, it is sponand freedom in education, where they were not found before. The restraint\nproposed is rigid and recognizes no difference of advancement, of preparedness, of environment, of mood or taste, or resources; limits activity, invention; in short, reduces by onehalf the possible intellectual output of the kindergarten.\nIntellect and emotion both\ndepend upon the physical for development, and whatever reduces freedom, in the best\nsense of the word, reacts severely upon both.\nof the child ?\n\ntaneity\n\nWe are not creating or developing educational systems for poor kindergartners or\nfor poor teachers.\n\nFreedom, hfe, action, are inseparable.\n\nThese have been bought for\n\nthe teacher and kindergartner at a great price, and can never be taken away from her.\n\nMETHODS OF SUPERVISION OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\nKINDERGARTENS\nHARRIETTE MELISSA MILLS, INSTRUCTOR IN KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION,\nTEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\n\nThe most difficult of all problems presented to the kindergarten supervisor\nfor solution is that of the kindergarten program.\n\nIn kindergarten circles the\n\ninterest in this subject is a growing one, since the problem has recently taken\ndefinite form in the question:\n\neach kindergartner\n\nShall a uniform program be adopted, or shall\n\nmake her own program?\n\nI have been requested to\n\nconsider the subject of the kindergarten program from the standpoint of the\nliberal worker, and at the same time to present the claims of the conservative\n\nkindergartners.\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "MEl^HODS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS\n\nDepartment]\n\n355\n\nThe issue today between conservative and liberal kindergartners is primarily\nthat of freedom, or, in the words of Froebel:\n\nreveal his essence in his\n\n\"the right of the individual to\n\nown life with self-determination and freedom.\"\n\nKindergarten supervisors and teachers are alive to the necessity of choosing\n\nwhether they will follow the leadership of Friedrich Froebel as the founder of\n\nan imperfectly conceived, and imperfectly organized, institution, or whether\nthey will follow\nspirit;\"\n\nhim as one who \"advocated a principle and embodied a\n\nfor Froebel did not succeed in establishing a logical system of theory\n\nand practice, but he did succeed in presenting a \"unity of tendency and\nendeavor.\"\nFroebel's intellectual grasp was far exceeded by his intuitive insight into\nthe problems of education.\nof the FroebeHan philosophy;\n\nThese intuitions constitute the dynamic power\nand the fact that many of them have been, and\n\nare being, verified by evolutionary science, genetic psychology,\n\nand\n\nchild\n\nstudy, constitutes an allurement to study that is as fruitful as it is inspiring.\n\nThere is today on the part of the kindergarten workers practical unanimity\nof conviction in favor of planned work.\n\ngenerally in favor of a uniform program.\n\nThe conservative kindergartners are\nThe liberal kindergartners advocate\n\nindividual programs.\n\nThe most notable effort in program-making, and the one that -has gained\nwidest acceptance, is the outhne known as \"The Uniform Program\" by Miss\n\nSusan Blow.\n\nThe fact that this outline has not been published makes the\n\ntask of presentation exceedingly deUcate.\n\nIn order to forestall the implication of partial knowledge of the uniform\n\nprogram, I wish to state that I possess a copy of this outline; that I have\nattended over forty lectures on this subject given by Miss Laura Fisher: and\nthat I have used the program with a group of children from four to six years\nof age in New York city.\n\nThe liberal supervisors and kindergartners recognize that there is no place\nin the\n\nmodem school system for an education according to Froebel, any more\n\nthan there is for an education according to Comenius or Rousseau.\n\nThey\n\nbase their contention for freedom and a natural kindergarten upon educational\nprinciples that are recognized as valid\n\nby all educators.\n\nThese universal\n\ntruths are the very spirit of the Froebelian philosophy.\n\nIn presenting the point of view of the hberal kindergartner, I shall make\nrepeated reference to Friedrich Froebel.\n\nFor this I make no apology, since\n\nthrough these references I hope, in some measure, to defend the liberal kindergartner from the charge of being anti-Froebelian.\n\nFor the sake of clearness, we will consider the kindergarten program under\nthree divisions:\n\nThe reasons for a uniform program, advocated by conservative leaders.\nThe characteristics of the program suggested.\nIII.\nThe kindergarten program from the liberal point of view.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n356\nI.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe principal reasons for advocating a uniform program, as I have\n\nbeen able to gather them from published articles and public lectures, may be\n\nsummed up as follows:\n1.\nThe general inability of kindergartners to make programs adequately\nembodying Froebel's principles.\n2.\n\nThe danger of\n\nselecting subject-matter far removed\n\nfrom the sym-\n\npathies and interests of little children.\n\nThe HabiUty of the kindergartner to become mechanical, repeating\n3.\nfrom year to year the models acquired during her period of training.\nConservative kindergartners claim that the strength of the uniform program is due to the fact that it embodies the results of long years of experience\nand observation that it concentrates the minds of many kindergartners upon\n;\n\nthe common features of their work;\nfessional training;\n\nthat it supplements the course of pro-\n\nthat it rescues the kindergartner from isolation, in which\n\nthere is danger of self-Umitation and self -imitation.\nII.\n\nThe characteristics of the unijorm program.\n\n—The development of\n\nthis\n\nprogram is known to be based upon fundamental ideas concerning Froebel's\nMother Play, and the gifts and occupations. The Mother Play is accepted\nas the text-book of the kindergarten.\n\nMiss Blow writes in Symbolic Education:\n\n*'It should be the beacon Ught by which each kindergartner directs her course.\n\nIt should be the beating heart of every kindergarten.\nIt should be the center\naround which revolve all the concentric circles of kindergarten activity.\"\nTrue to these convictions, the uniform program finds in the Mother Play\n\nsuggestions for the point of departure, the principles involved, the ideal goal,\n\nand the typical songs, games, and stories.\nIn this program, the gifts and occupations are conceived as materials of\nintrinsic worth,\n\nand are administered largely on the basis of form.\n\nThey\n\nrepresent the subject-matter of exercises that in tlieir initial steps concentrate\n\nupon some abstract notion inherent in the material, such as form, size, number,\nposition, and direction.\nThese ideas are illustrated thru series of exercises\nthat move in logical sequence, by means of which the \"mechanical key which\nunlocks the gate of inorganic nature\" is put into the hands of httle children.\nWhere the uniform program is used, the kindergarten supervisor generally\ndictates it to the teachers from week to week, with such explanations of the\nideas and principles involved in the exercises as she thinks necessary.\nThis\nplan has been advocated as a kind of postgraduate work for young kindergartners.\n\nIn justice to the advocates of the uniform program, it should be stated\nthat general suggestions and criticisms of the program have led to ehminations\n\nand modifications, until they beheve that it represents \"the highest effort\nto concentrate the collective mind of at least one school of kindergartners upon\nthe practical embodiment of Froebel's ideal.\"\nI am aware that these necessarily meager outUnes can convey no adequate\nidea of the skill and force that have been wrought into this program. It is\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nMETHODS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS\n\na great work.\nevery detail.\n\nFidelity to a principle led to\n\nits\n\n357\n\nformulation and illumines\n\nMy deepest regret today is that this outHne has not been pub-\n\nlished and allowed to speak its message to all kindergartners.\nIII.\n\nThe kindergarten program from\n\nthe\n\nliberal\n\nstandpoint.\n\n—Liberal\n\nkindergartners believe in formulating their own programs, and in this they\n\nhave the co-operation of liberal supervisors.\n\nThey maintain:\n\nThat the needs of particular groups of children demand individual\n\n1.\n\nplans of work, with subject-matter that touches the immediate life-interests\nof the group.\n\nThat program-making is a certain and unfaihng means of growth in\n\n2.\n\nindividual skill and insight.\n\nThat this course has the sanction of the spirit of freedom, which is\n\n3.\n\nthe fundamental note of the FroebeHan philosophy.\n\nFrom this point of view, maintained by the Uberal kindergartners, we will\nconsider the conservative positions regarding the program.\nI.\n\n.\n\nThe general inabiUty of kindergartners to make programs adequately\n\nembodying Froebel's\n\nprinciples.\n\nshould be a lessening one.\n\nIn general, the charge of incompetency\n\nThe standards of admission to all reHable training\n\nschools are steadily advancing.\n\nFurthermore, before a kindergartner can\n\nsecure a position in any large pubHc-school system, she must pass examinations\nthat attest her knowledge of, and adaptation for, the work.\n\nNo one claims\n\nfor the young kindergartner the insight of mature years, and program-making,\n\nunder the guidance of a supervisor, may well partake of the nature of postgraduate work.\n\nHowever, the distinguishing characteristic of postgraduate\n\nwork is that the one pursuing this course is free to find the constitutent elements\nof the subject, and organize them into a systematic whole, bearing the stamp\nof individual power and self-expression.\nIt is the privilege of the supervisor to encourage the life-work of the yoimg\nkindergartner by suggestion, by constructive criticism, and, more, by an\nunfailing faith in her abihty to transcend the limitations she discovers within\nherself.\n\nThis course \"educates to freedom,\" and conforms to the thought of John\n\nwho wrote: ''The only unfailing and permanent source of\nimprovement is Hberty, since by it there are as many possible centers of\nimprovement as there are individuals.\"\nStuart Mill,\n\nThe recognition of this truth leads the liberal supervisor to indirect methods\nof supervision that inspire both young kindergartners and experienced workers\nto pursue general and special studies, in view of general and particular needs.\n\nShe will confer with her kindergartners on the large and small interests of\nthe work, but never dictate from week to week the elements that make up\n\nSuch a course\nwould deprive the teacher of her richest and most assured means of growth.\nthe daily routine of the kindergartens under her supervision.\n\nPrescription for the young kindergartner in the subject-matter of the program\n\nthreatens to consign her \"intellect to the abyss of habit.\"\n\nIf she is indeed a\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n358\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild in her appreciation of the Froebelian philosophy, there is grave danger\n\nthat a program that calls for a given sequence of Mother Play, and gift and\n\noccupation exercises, will perpetuate the very conditions for which the program\n\nwas formulated.\n\nThe kindergartner who habitually acts under the dictation of others hazards\nthe possibiUty of ever rising to the recognition of herself as a causal energy.\n\nEven tho all possible adaptive liberty be granted in the execution of readymade programs, the exercise of adaptive power cannot impart the enthusiasm\nand spirit that come from the consciousness that one's daily plan of work is\nthe result of one's deepest reflective thought, the embodiment of one's highest\ncreative power.\n2.\nThe danger of selecting subject-matter far removed from the interests\nand sympathies of little children. The liberal kindergartner need not fear\nthis danger, for in making her own program she is free to choose the subject-\n\nmatter most closely related to the Hves of the children in her charge.\ncourse is well within the spirit of the Froebehan philosophy.\n\nThis\n\nFroebel wrote;\n\n\"The knowledge of everything, its purposes, and properties, is found most\nclearly and distinctly in its local conditions and in its relation to surrounding\n\nAgain: ''What is to have a true and formative effect on the child\nmust not only be founded on Hfe as it actually appears, must not only be\n\nobjects.\"\n\nconnected with life, but must also form itself in harmony with the requirements\nof life, of the surroundings, and of the time, and with what they offer.\"\n\nThere-\n\nrecommends as points of departure \"the things of the sittingroom, the house, the garden, the farm, the village (or city), the meadow, the\nfore Froebel\n\nfield,\n\nthe forest, the plain.\"\n\nThe liberal kindergartner secures continuity and progression in her work\nthru the observation of nature and the response of all living things to the come\n\nand go of the seasons.\n\nShe is true to the pattern set when by simple stories,\n\nsongs, pictures, plays, and games she Hfts the common experiences of everyday\nlife to\n\nthe level of consciousness, and helps the children to find in them an\n\nideal meaning.\n\nTo the observer these selections may seem trivial; but Froebel tells us\n\"God neither engrafts nor inoculates. He develops the most trivial\n\nthat\n\nand imperfect things in continuously ascending series, and in accordance\nwith the eternal self -grounded and self -developing laws.\"\nFrom the liberal standpoint, the use of the Mother Play as subject-matter\nThe\nfor the kindergarten is open to serious and well-founded objections.\neffort bodily to transplant Froebel's\n\nschemes of education into this country\n\nignores the fact that the child of our American cities is a different member\nof humanity from the child of the\n\nGerman country side with whom Froebel\n\nplayed sixty years ago; the American mother is a very different embodiment\nof the maternal spirit from the German peasant mothers from whom Froebel\n\ngathered materials for his Mother Play.\n\nThe tentative spirit of Froebel, which is far removed from dogmatic\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS\n\n359\n\ninterpretation and use of the book, is shown in the following quotation from\nits\n\n\"Introduction,\" written to the mothers of Germany:\n\nAccept the book in a kindly, thoughtful spirit; study the plays; study especially the\nBe not too critical of the form of one or the artistic merit of the other. Remember that the aim and spirit of the book are novel, and that I am breaking a path through\n\npictures.\n\nMy success must necessarily be partial and imperfect.\n\nunexplored regions of experience.\n\nFor a moment let us follow these directions.\nno one questions them.\n\nAs to the imperfections,\nThey have been held up for comment and ridicule\nBut what shall be said of the\n\nwith which kindergartners have no sympathy.\nspirit and aim of the book ?\n\nfor\n\nIn these it is a world-book.\n\nIts spirit, a yearning\n\nhumanity and a desire to make its uplift sure thru the quickened con-\n\nsciousness of motherhood;\n\nits\n\naim, to show mothers how to respond to the\n\nmanifestations of childhood with conscious insight into the significance and\n\nvalue of ''experience\nindicates to the\n\n—knowledge\" that comes\n\nto the child thru play.\n\nIt\n\nmother that within play-experiences lie the capacities and\n\npotencies of ever-widening relationships.\n\nIt indicates that the mother make\n\nmeans and illustrations, that the child may gain\ncontrol over present experiences, and begin an interpretation of them in\nharmony with the wider life-relationships of which they are a part.\nintelligent use of varied\n\nThere is nothing to indicate that these plays were the only ones to be\nemphasized, or that they be developed in the order presented.\ntypical of a wide range of experience;\n\nEach play is\n\nbut the liberal kindergartner believes\n\nthat the child is more deeply interested in the real experiences of everyday\nlife\n\nthan in the typical experience portrayed in the Froebel book.\n\nThe use of the work as a picture-book for children may have been justified\nin Froebel's time, when reproductions of works of art were unknown, and\nthe possibilities of photography had not made every conceivable subject\navailable in pictured form.\n\nThe liberal kindergartner makes use of the gifts and occupations in more\nShe looks upon\nthem as mediating between the constructive and graphic impulses of children,\nand the experiences they hunger to control and interpret.\nIn the natural constructive and graphic plays of children, life-forms\nor less modified form, but not as materials of inherent worth.\n\npredominate over those of knowledge\n\n—form,\n\nsize, etc. ;\n\nor of beauty\n\n—forms\n\nWherever forms of knowledge or beauty appear, they are\nincidental to the life-interests, which, from the child's standpoint, constitute\nof symmetry.\n\nthe centralizing element thruout.\n3.\n\nThe danger of mechanical method.\n\nIt is a matter of\n\ncommon observa-\n\ntion that the charge of mechanical method does not apply alone to the young\n\nkindergartner, but to the experienced teacher as well.\n\nThere is always a\n\ntendency to repeat exercises and methods that have met with success, and\n\nhence in time arises mechanical method.\nIt is\n\nhard to conceive a more productive source of mechanical method\n\nthan a uniform program, and the danger increases in direct ratio to the abiUty\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n360\n\nand authority of those who formulate and promote it.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nMy observation has\n\nbeen that, in following a given order of exercises, the tendency is to concentrate\n\non the principles or ideas involved in the exercises, and to ignore the capacities\n\nand needs of the children. The kindergartner who studies each new group\nof children, and weighs the subject-matter of her program in the scales of\nadded experience, has caught the secret of self-activity that results in the\nprogressive development of both teacher and pupil.\nHerein lies the antidote\nfor mechanical method.\n\nThe kindergarten worker has need for many programs for all classes of\nchildren, under all conditions of environment and nationality, made by kinder-\n\ngartners who have the courage to express in their work the thoughts that are\n\npecuHarly and predominately their own.\n\nLet these be published, and thus\n\nbe made available for comparative study.\n\n\"The progress in kinder-\n\nDr. Russell, dean of Teachers College, writes:\n\ngarten education waits upon the spirit of critical research which is engendered\n\nby a genuine interest in kindergarten philosophy.\"\n\nThe kindergarten program\n\noffers a field of research and critical study that promises rich reward of insight\n\nfor the one who will enter and take possession.\n\nFurthermore, we all need a deeper insight into the totality of Froebel's\nwork.\n\nWhen we have this insight, we can say with Whitman: \"Then the\nmy eyes unclosed as to long panoramas of vision;\"\n\nsight that was bound in\n\nand we shall see far down the centuries the perfecting of the kindergarten of\nwhich Froebel dreamed.\nShall we not, as supervisors and training teachers, encourage our kihdergartners to make their own plans of work ? In doing this we have the sanction\n\n\"And\nwhy should not every thoughtful teacher find the right way in himself, if only\n\nof Froebel's faith in the integrity of the individual, in these words:\n\nhe give himself up in faithful obedience, without conceit and\nthe spirit of his\n\ndistrust, to\n\nwork?\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ.\n\nF.\n\nReigart,\n\nNew York city. —We have had an exceedingly clear and fair\n\nstatement of two opposite points of view.\n\nIt remains for us to take our choice.\n\nI believe\n\nthat that choice is determined not entirely by argument, but very largely by temperament.\n\nWe can apply to each point of view the words of Abraham Lincoln: \"For those who like\nthat sort of thing, that is just the sort of thing they like.\"\n\nThere are some people who\nThere\n\nare much happier, and can do more effective work, with a feeling of conformity.\nare others who can be happier,\n\nand do much better work, with a feeling of freedom, at\nand I believe that this temperamental difference is a very much\nmore fundamental difference than the one that is often made between these two points\nof view, namely, that one represents the constructive side, and the other the destructive\n\nleast freedom of choice;\n\nside.\n\nIf I object to a certain course of study in the public schools thruout the state or the\n\nnation, it does not follow that my objection is destructive as regards the entire question of\n\na course of study.\n\nIt seems to\n\nme that the question of constructiveness is a matter rather\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS\n\nof degree.\n\nOne side would limit the construction to a few;\n\n361\n\nthe other would enlarge the\n\nrange of construction, and utilize the creative ability of all the teachers.\n\nThis seems to\n\nme to be very much more in accordance with the fundamental principle of the kindergarten\n\n—the development of the creative power on the part of the\n\nchild.\n\nBut the objecon the part of the kindergarten\n\nSpontaneity in the teacher is the condition of spontaneity in the child.\ntions are made that such work, such constructive work,\n\nIf we dismiss experimental work, how shall we dispose of the\nwork of Pestalozzi, of Froebel himself, of Colonel Parker, of Professor Dewey, and many\n\nteacher is experimental.\n\nothers who have suggested much that has been, in its early stages, entirely experimental ?\nI believe that the\n\nexperimental stage\n\nis\n\nthe vital stage in educational work, and the\n\ncrystallized point is the point of danget.\n\nThe same objection is made against creative power, against spontaneity on the part\nof the child.\n\nFroebel and the kindergarten have had that opposition to contend with in\n\nThe kindergarten stands for faith in the child, and the correlative\nThe training of the teacher, too, in these days results in a\nmuch more efl&cient type of kindergartner than was the case years ago. I have had many\nyoung girls come to me to study kindergarten work whose only reason was that they knew\ntheir whole history.\n\nof that is faith in the teacher.\n\nnothing else to do, or had no capacity for anything else.\n\nI think\n\nsuch candidates are\n\nvery much fewer today.\n\nThe Pestalozzi-Froebel house in Berlin makes a very pleasant\nand effective disposition of that class of candidates. They are trained, not for the\nkindergarten, but for household and nursery duties. When we talk about the kindergartner, we should assume, of course, the efficient, well-trained kindergartner.\nBut the question of the type of program is not simply a matter of temperament, but\nlargely a question of interpretation the interpretation of Froebel, and the interpretation of the child.\nAs regards the intrepretation of Froebel, the fundamental differences between these two points of view seems to me to He in the method of interpretation.\nOne method is expressed by Sir Joshua Reynolds, in talking to his art students: \"It is\n\n—\n\nit is\n\nyour place to follow in the path of the great masters, but not in their footsteps.\"\n\nIn the\n\ninterpretation of the kindergarten, it seems to me much more suggestive to follow the path\n\nwhich Froebel laid out, rather than to attempt to walk in his footsteps.\n\nIt is the spirit, the\n\nattitude, which Froebel manifested, rather than the crystallization of his work into certain\n\nformulas, methods, and programs.\n\nThe student of folk-songs, the investigator in minerals, would find, in these days, a\nand I do not believe that we need\n\nricher field of music, would find larger realms of science;\n\nlimit the suggestiveness of Froebel to the enthusiastic lover of children to the exact material\n\nand exact methods which he was able to suggest. Recall Froebel's \"Soliloquy Over the\nLily,\" and you can imagine how he would respond to the influences of today in the direction of art, nature, and music.\nI believe that we should interpret Froebel not only in the\nHght of his philosophy, but in the light of his pohtical and sociological attitude; and we\nare liable to overlook the fact that the spirit of hberty or emancipation which resulted in\nthe Declaration of Independence, the French Revolution, and the wars of German\nliberation was manifested in the field of education thru Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and\nFroebel; and it was fitting that the young man who fought as a soldier for the liberation\nof his native land should be the\n\none to proclaim the emancipation of the child; to\n\ndeclare its inalienable right to Hfe, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.\n\nThe question today in the public schools and in the kindergarten is no longer primarily\nthe emancipation of the child, but it is the emancipation of the teacher.\n\nEducation,\n\nFroebel tells us, should be, not categorical and imperative,. but following; or rather, supervision must be, not categorical and imperative, but following; for by command a school\n\nor kindergarten may seem good outwardly and yet not be good inwardly, lacking the\nspirit.\n\nAgain, there is a difference in the interpretation of the child.\n\nFroebel pointed out\n\nthe great principle of our modern education and the great principle of the kindergarten^\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n3^2\n\nthat of development.\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nBut in the method of development and in the means of development,\n\nthe scientific and industrial progress have added very much to Froebel's point of view.\n\nTake the question of the method of development.\nplace thru successive adaptation to environment;\n\nDevelopment, we are told, takes\n\nnot because of the faculty or power of\n\nself-activity alone, but at any stage one's progress is\n\ndetermined by previous adaptation.\n\nSuppose, that we could so regulate the activity and the environment of children that we\n\ncould secure absolutely uniform conditions; suppose that we could have absolutely uniform\n\nenvironments in the various kindergartens\nexperiences.\n\n—we could not by such means secure the same\n\nYou and I are not gaining the same experience today.\n\nNo two people\n\nin this room can gain the same experience.\n\nThat is determined by the experience of\nthe past. If, then, we want to secure uniform experience on the part of the child, it cannot be accomplished by uniform programs or uniform environment in the present kindergarten, but only thru uniform homes and nurseries.\nA um'form program for mothers\nmust precede the uniform program for the kindergarten.\nAs for the means of development: The advance in the curriculum of the school\n\nOur ideas of the principles of education\nModern life has become much more complex. You were\nreferred in the paper to the very great difference between the Ufe of the German peasant,\nsince the time of Froebel has been enormous.\n\nhave very much enlarged.\n\nin Froebel's world, and the life of today.\n\nThe standard of the liberal movement, as I understand it, is that a very complete use\nshall be made of all the varied occupations, plays, games, materials, that can be brought\n\nto bear.\n\nIt has been\n\nmy good fortune to visit the kindergartens in very many cities in\n\nthis country, and to see the different types in all classes of people and all sorts of schools.\n\nI have been able to compare these with kindergartens in London, in Berlin, and in Italy.\nI could not enumerate in a few minutes the great variety of games, occupations, songs,\nand all the paraphernaha of the kindergarten; but the impression made upon me, as I\nhave had an opportunity to visit the kindergarten, has not been that of confusion, variety,\nmultiplicity, anarchy, but rather that of unity.\nAll of these kindergartens, by varied\nmeans, in many ways, are attempting to work out the same fundamental principles. In\nall cases the value of the material consists in what the material signifies.\nIt consists\nin the ideals to which the child can be led, and in all classes of kindergartens the dominant\nfact is that all are working with a firm faith in childhood, with the efifort to help the children\nto the highest ideals, and to train them for domestic and social service.\nThere are many\ngifts,\n\nbut one spirit.\n\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York city.\n\n—This\n\nis\n\nno new question.\n\nIt is merely a\n\ntechnical phase of a question as old as civilization, and people are always siding with one\n\nview or the other.\n\nIt is simply the old question of democracy against autocracy, in what-\n\never form, whether in the state or in the school.\n\nThe question is not merely whether kindergartens will be more or less efficiently\nmanaged under one plan or the other, any more than the question whether we are better\nserved under a democracy or a benevolent autocracy.\n\nThe question is whether the\n\nutlimate good of all concerned is better served by utilizing all the forces of all the people,\n\nor by having the abler few and those with greater executive power direct the many.\n\nThe\n\npermanent future good of the whole requires the development of all the powers of all\nthe people.\nI have no doubt that there are some kindergartners who make bad programs.\n\nThat\n\nseems to be one of the arguments in favor of the autocratic program. But are there more\npoor kindergartens because there are a few who make poor programs, than there would\nbe if all the kindergartners were machines with their work laid out for them ?\nThere is the doctrine of the so-called formal discipHne of the faculties, which means\nthat the philosopher sitting in his seat determines a priori what the child is,\n\nthe child must have in order to be developed into the man.\n\nand what\n\nIn the first place, there is\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS\n\n363\n\nno such thing as the child. That is a fiction of the philosopher. There are children,\nWe must\nmillions of them; but the child is a generalization which never existed.\nagree that what Froebel was after was not the generalized child. The free teacher in the\nfree school, studying the free souls of these children, must be able to adapt her work to\nthem; and they are not generalized. Suppose she is called to the East Side of New York.\nSuppose it is in some colored district on the West Side. Must they have the same discipline, altho they have been born differently, and brought up differently, and can understand different things ? Shall we give them all the same discipline ?\nWe have always the worshipers of tools and machines. They are the great conservative force,\n\nwho are always fighting for the old, but always giving away before the\n\nnewer and more radical forces of truth and freedom. The worshiper of the tools of the\nkindergarten is an idolator; and if Froebel were living today, he would be the very first\nof all to devise new engines for training the new child of the new century; and you people\nwho worship Froebel, as well you may, as a great free soul, should remember that the\ntools he gave were merely tools for his own day, his own immediate needs, and should no\nmore necessarily be used in the next century than the stage-coach in the days of the steam\nengine.\n\nThey may be the very best tools, but that does not necessarily follow.\n\nIf they\n\nare, they are to be used, but they are not to be worshiped.\n\nIf you are to have good kindergartens in the future, and even in the present, you\nmust have free kindergartners developing themselves by the exercise of free powers. If\nyou are to have free children trained in such institutions, you must. have the work of the\ninstitution adapted to the particular children that you have.\nEducation is Ufe. The life of the school must be a part of the whole life. You\nmust always keep, under all circumstances, free teachers for free children; and that\nmeans that they must lay out and do their own work.\n\nOssiAN H. Lang, editor of School Journal, New York city.\n\n—I am\n\nat the fortunate\n\nadvantage of not having heard the paper; but I was somewhat stirred by the last remarks\nof Mr. Gilbert, and they reminded me of the time when I was as radical as he expresses\n\nhimself to be;\n\nbut I must confess to you an attachment for the older things.\n\nThere is\n\na liberty that approaches slavery.\n\nThere are certain limitations to the kindergarten work, and Froebel himself laid\n\ndown certain laws, that I believe every kindergartner should adhere to.\n\nHe did not send\n\nout his gifts or his principles of education as mere experiments or guesses at truth.\n\nThey\n\nwere the result of long thinking upon the needs of children and smpathetic dealing with\nthem.\n\nThese results are worth at least a very careful study, and a teacher should not\n\nbrush them away without having fully considered them, and then deciding for herself\n\nwhether that which she would put in that place is better than that which he suggested.\nCarrying the logic of this thought a little farther, there are supervisors of kindergartens\n\nwho may have given more thought to all the questions involved than the individual kindergartner could possibly have given those questions, and any directions or suggestions coming\n\nfrom them should be just as carefully considered as are the principles laid down by Froebel\non the same basis of reasoning. If there is something better, of course we expect the\nsympathetic supervisor to be only too glad to receive all suggestions or questions that may\narise in the mind of the individual kindergartner, as to the wisdom of this program.\n\nWhile I may be wrong as regards programs, I want to leave with you simply the\nfeeling that it may be wise not to judge too quickly in matters of program or no program,\n\nin matters of supervision or no supervision.\n\nIt is\n\nnot only the individual kindergartner\n\nand the individual child that are to be talked about. There are years ahead to be planned\nfor.\nThat is where the kindergartners usually fail to do their duty, I believe. They fail\nto look toward the primary school, and toward the grammar school, and toward the high\nschool.\nThey forget that stimulating the child too much, overstimulating the child at\nthe very start of his work, may result in arrested development by the time he reaches the\nhigh school.\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n364\n\nIt is well to have someone outside of oxir four walls to\n\nregulate these matters\n\n—someone who knows what\n\nis\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ncome in now and then, and\n\ngoing on in the whole school, some-\n\none who is interested and who brings, not the very best program that might be, but the\n\nThat speaks for a fixed program of\nLet it be Hmited, but have a basis to work upon, and the freedom of the\n\nbest that can be with all other things considered.\n\nsome kind.\n\nNot one of us is free to do as he or she may choose\n\nteacher is not going to be curtailed.\nto do.\nare.\n\nWe are all under the law, and the less we want to be under law, the less free we\nWe must bind ourselves to certain considerations. The child is the very first limi-\n\ntation of our freedom.\n\nShall the teacher be free ?\n\nHow, then, can the child be free ?\n\nWe have heard that free souls can be taught only by free souls.\n\nIf the child wants to\n\nhave what he would hke to have, and the teacher at that moment does not want to give it\nto him, then who is going to be free at that moment ? There is more heresy about the\nfreedom of the child than about any other question just now. We are free when we\naccompUsh the results that we are supposed to produce, but we must produce these results,\nand there we are limited right away. Do you not beUeve it would be better to have an\nagreement among the workers upon certain fundamental laws? Those of Froebel are\ngood enough to accept where they are fundamental. Let us accept those laws, give up\nour liberty to that extent, and work by them.\n\nMiss Jenny B. Merrill, New York city.\n\n— am heartily in accord with Miss\nI\n\nMills'\n\nmade between training-school work and postIt is the work of a training school to teach its pupils how\n\nstatement that a distinction should be\n\ngraduate or conference work.\nto plan daily programs.\n\nIf a supervisor gives\n\na program week by week to the kinder-\n\ngartners under her direction, however good it may be, I believe she behttles their professional status.\n\nI beheve that in so doing she violates the rights of the individual teacher,\n\nthat she fails to grasp the far-reaching meaning of the principle of creative self-activity\n\nand individual initiative so clearly announced by Froebel.\nSeveral years ago, Mr. James L. Hughes, in discussing the value of the program,\n\n\"What kindergartners need is not a uniform program, but specific outlines of the\n\nsaid:\n\nwork that should be accomplished in the kindergarten, and directive laws for making programs.\"\n\nProfessor Thorndike suggests also the necessity for general outKnes in the\n\nTeachers College Record, November, 1904, in his article upon the \"Psychology of the\nKindergarten.\"\nSimilar suggestions have been made by many superintendents and principals who,\n\nnot being famihar with the details of kindergarten procedure, still desire to test its general\nresults.\n\nAssociate Superintendent Davis, of New\n\nYork city, suggested to me, in pre-\n\nparing outHnes of the kindergarten for exhibit at the Paris Exposition, that an attempt\n\nbe made to correlate the statement of work to be accomplished in the kindergarten with\nthe statement of the first-year primary by using as far as possible similar headings for\n\nAccordingly, the usual kindergarten nomenclature was abandoned and the fol-\n\nboth.\n\nlowing classification adopted:\n\nnature study;\n\nphysical training\n\nnumber and form; music; hand-work; moral training.^\n\nand games;\n\nlanguage;\n\nI believe that such outlines,\n\nworked out in the fuller details of a syllabus, would be a safer guide for the kindergartner\nSome such outlines are a necessary method of super-\n\nthan a specific daily program.\nvision in cities\n\nwhen the kindergarten is recognized as definitely related to the school.\n\nSuch outHnes suggest to the kindergartner the scope of her work without unnecessarily\nlimiting her method.\nI believe that weekly conferences should not be necessary with trained kindergartners;\n\nthat in monthly conferences it is preferable to discuss one subject at a time, as, for example,\nstories,\n\ngames, some one form of handwork, or some phase of child study.\n\nSpecimens\n\nof one kind of handwork should be presented at a time for comparison, that each may\n\nlearn from all and all from each.\n«\n\nI\n\nbeheve that three or four kindergartners may well\n\nSee Kindergarten Review, September, 1905, for such a syllabus.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCURRENT CRITICISM OF THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nstudy together the special needs of a particular neighborhood.\n\nSpecial conferences\n\nshould be held to help those who are deficient in a particular line of work.\nferences\n\n365\n\nSuch con-\n\nmay be led by those exceptionally successful, thus giving an opportunity for\n\nthe development of leaders.\nIs it not possible that the need of a detailed program was suggested years ago because\n\nso many kindergartners were not then high-school graduates ?\n\nSuch kindergartners may\n\nhave failed to grasp and apply general principles.\nI believe with Miss Mills that the Mother Play book is a book of illustrative pictures\nand talks for mothers from which general principles may be drawn; but it should not be\n\nconsidered as a text-book.\n\nIt is rich, indeed, in suggestion.\n\nFroebel\n\nknew children;\n\nbut is it not necessary to study our own children and their present conditions of life ?\n\nWe may go too far in discarding books, but it appears to me a reactionary movement\nto teach kindergartners to use the pictures of any one book as a constant base of subject-\n\nmatter.\n\nThe uniform program does this by selecting thirty-eight pictures from one book,\n\narranging them in a fixed order, and fitting them to the weeks of the school year.\n\nIt\n\nappears to me more in accord with the spirit of Froebel to base our kindergarten program\ndirectly upon nature and environment.\n\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, supervisor of kindergartens, public schools, Rochester,\nI wish first to recommend one point which has just been made, and that is the\nlooking beyond the kindergarten into the elementary school. One of the chief functions\nof the supervisor is to gather about her her kindergartners, and outhne a general scheme\nIf we would look at the\nof work which may be a course of study for the kindergarten.\nprogram as a course of study, there would be no less need of discussion, because what is\nmade for the kindergarten would then relate to the outhne which is made for the course\nbeyond, and it seems to me most essential that the plans for work should be so made,\nplanned, and outlined. It is not necessary to do it all in the kindergarten. I make this\nN. Y.\n\n—\n\nplea for kindergartners, whether supervisors or not:\n\nStudy the course of study of the\n\nelementary school, and shape your -plans accordingly.\n\nMy experience has been that it\n\nis\n\nimpossible to follow a uniform program, where the outhne\n\nmust be adapted to the\n\ncourse of study that is to follow.\n\nCURRENT CRITICISM OF THE KINDERGARTEN\nIt may be well to\n\nacknowledge at the outset that there is no department\n\nof educational activity, from the kindergarten to the university, which is not\n\nunder fire today.\n\nThere has been no vital proposition made the past ten\nmethods or management, which has\n\nyears, and affecting either curricula or\n\nThe radicals\nnumber is constantly increasing, are dissatisfied\n\nnot had illustrious names aUke for advocates and for opponents.\nin education, of which the\n\nwith the mediaeval character, as they maintain, of much of our current theory\n\nand practice; while the conservative people among us lament that we have\nalready strayed so far from the traditions of the fathers. The times are ill\nThose who view education from the standat ease in all things educational.\npoint of contemporary scientific thought feel that\n\nmuch of the philosophy\n\nthat has come down to us from other times is imsound, because it is founded\n\nupon a very incomplete and largely erroneous knowledge of the mind of man.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n366\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThe new conceptions of human nature growing out of evolutionary doctrine\nare producing active fermentation in\n\nall\n\ndepartments of teaching, and it is\n\ninevitable that they should create disaffection with the present order.\n\nWhether\n\nwe like it or not, there is no escape from this situation. The innovators,\nhaving faith in the new light being shed by modem science, will be urging us\nforward; they will be pointing out the crudity of things as they are; while\nthe conservative will be sounding the praises of the ancient regime and bemoan-\n\ning the decadence of modem institutions.\n\nNow, so far as I can tell, the kindergarten is not subject to more extensive\nor harsher criticism today than other departments of our educational system,\n\ntho the critics have attacked it so recently that the shortcomings ascribed to\nit\n\nare fresh in the public mind.\n\nIt is charged, in the first place,\n\nservatives and disciplinarians, such as\n\nmentalism;\n\nit\n\nby the con-\n\nMunsterberg and Briggs, with senti-\n\nhumors its children, and does not develop in them respect\n\nfor authority, or habits of industry and self-control.\n\nIts pupils acquire the\n\nnotion that the school is a place for fairy-tales and play; and they must suffer\n\nmany hard knocks in the elementary school before they leam that they should\nrestrain their spontaneous activities\n\nand apply themselves\n\nto\n\nhard\n\ntasks.\n\nTeachers of the old school have testified that children entering the primary\ngrade from the kindergarten are considerably worse off than their fellows who\n\nhave been left to mn at large, for they have gained wrong notions respecting\n\nand privileges in the schoolroom. They expect the teacher to\nand as for learning the lessons assigned them, they strenuously\nIt should be added that these charges have all been denied by teachers\n\ntheir duties\n\nentertain them;\nrebel.\n\nof high standmg, with the result that the evidence is contradictory at every\npoint.\n\nLike all other educational questions,\n\nthis\n\none is so complex that it is\n\nimpossible to do more than offer opinions upon it.\n\nWe are certainly without\n\nany reliable data whatever showing that the kindergarten is spoiHng its pupils\nThe few complainants, so far as I have read them,\nin the manner indicated.\npresent no evidence that would receive the slightest attention in any scientific\ncamp. They rely upon the method of ridicule; and they imagine that, when\nthey have tumed a laugh upon some practice of the kindergarten, they have\nproved a point against it.\n\nAnd it is easy for many people to make merry over\n\nany of the innovations in teaching, which is equally true of every thing novel.\n\nWhen old fogies cannot adjust themselves to changing conditions, they console\nand strengthen themselves in their helplessness by poking fun at all things new.\nThis is not to say that the criticisms of the kindergarten are without\nfoundation, but only that the critics have not complied with the simplest\nprinciples of scientific procedure in pointing out defects.\n\nthe whole matter\n\nis\n\npurely relative anyway.\n\nIt is possible that\n\nIt is easily\n\nconceivable that\n\nwhen children have had much freedom and life in a kindergarten, and are\nthen transplanted to a dry, desert-like primary grade, it will take them some\ntime to become accUmated.\n\nI have observed very closely a situation of just\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "CURRENT CRITICISM OF THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nDepartment]\n\nthis sort,\n\n367\n\nand I have wondered often whether the habits and expectations\n\nacquired in the kindergarten were not a disadvantage under the changed\n\nThe children were subject to constant nagging in the new situa-\n\nconditions.\n\nand it took some time for them to learn to sit still, keep their mouths\nshut, learn their lessons, and always do as they were bid.\nBut in the primary\nschool, where rigidity and militarism give place to vital, interesting activity,\nI have observed that the kindergarten child is more completely en rapport\nwith his environment than his less fortunate comrade. He has more selfconfidence is more executive, dynamic, expressive and from the very beginning he reacts more effectively to the educative stimulations of the class-room.\ntion,\n\n;\n\n;\n\nIn the University of Wisconsin during the past year special studies have been\n\nmade upon the abiUties of children trained in different ways; and we are\nconfident that the kindergarten child has himself better in hand, in all this\n\nmeans, than the child of the street or the home or the formal primary grade.\nIt is suggestive to note in this connection that, according to\n\nmy observations,\n\nchildren who have thoroly enjoyed the kindergarten sometimes thoroly disUke\n\nthe restrictions and formalism of the primary grade.\n\nI realize that the dis-\n\nciplinarians regard this as a point against the kindergarten\nfor their soul's health to do tasks which they dislike.\n\n;\n\nfor children need\n\nNow, it is needless to\n\nno one's views can be changed by argument\nyou are a formalist and believe in the prophylactic value of\ndrudgery, you will find fault with the kindergarten, and you can find plenty\nwrangle over this question;\n\nabout it.\n\nIf\n\nof reasons to fortify your position.\n\nIf,\n\nhowever, you are a naturalist and\n\nhave faith in the moral worth of following lines of interest in educational work,\nthen you will indorse the fundamental principles of the kindergarten ; but you\n\ncannot demonstrate the soundness of your doctrines to those whose conception\nof\n\nhuman nature and whose temperament are the antithesis of yours.\n\nWe\n\ncannot at present prove anything regarding this complex question; we have\ndevised no system of experiments that will show precisely what is the motor,\nintellectual, emotional,\n\nand moral status of the kindergarten as compared\n\nwith the non-kindergarten child at different stages in his development.\n\nView-\n\ning the situation with my conceptions of human nature and education, I feel\nthat the year or two spent under a wise kindergartner are of positive value.\n\nBut, having said this, I must hasten to add that I beHeve there is room\nfor improvement in the kindergarten in respect of\n\nhave been discussing.\n\nsome of the matters we\n\nI fear that sentiment plays too large a part in the\n\ntreatment of many children; and by sentiment is meant the desire and the\neffort to shield the child from all pains and penalties as a natural consequence\n\nof his experiments with people and things.\n\nThe kindergartner is sometimes\n\ntaught that a child comes among us fresh from the hand of the Creator, and\n\nhe is pure and spiritual in his tendencies and impulses.\n\nIf\n\nhe never have\n\nexperience with anything but gentleness and tenderness in the people about\n\nhim, the divinity within him will enfold most readily.\n\nThe kindergartner\n\nwould save the child his trials and tribulations by taking them upon herself,\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n368\nlittle\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthinking that to spare the child the results of his acts now is to heap up\n\ndifficulties for\n\nhim in the future.\n\nscience treating of\n\nSo far as I can discern, all contemporary\n\nhuman nature suggests the conception that the child is\n\nequipped at birth mainly with impulses which are bequeathed to him from\nhis primitive ancestors, but which are not adapted to\n\nthe way in which they are inherited.\nconsists in\n\nmodem society in just\n\nSo that the education of the individual\n\nno small measure in learning to inhibit his original tendencies.\n\nHe can undoubtedly acquire these inhibitions best by forming strong attachments for modes of conduct in harmony with existing social institutions and\nwe must aim primarily\nBut,\nto win the novice in behavior to social and moral interests and actions.\npractices, so that in the kindergarten, as elsewhere,\n\nso far as I can discover, there has never been worked out any plan by which\n\nthe child can be brought into line with his social environment without having\n\nsome experience with\n\npenalties for unsocial conduct.\n\nare not learned without a struggle;\n\nthey become.\n\nThe social lessons\n\nand the longer they are deferred, the harder\n\nIf the child never suffers for non-social conduct in the kinder-\n\ngarten, he will be Hkely to make it up with heavy interest farther along.\n\nPain\n\nwhen it results from violation of social and ethical laws, a most valuable\nprophylactic agent, if it come early enough, before attitudes and expectations\n\nis,\n\nbecome established.\n\nSo it has seemed to me it would be well if the kinder-\n\ngarten, while preserving all of\n\nits\n\npositive\n\nmethods in making the child a\n\nsocial being, would at the same time help the child to appreciate, as a result\n\nof vital, significant experience, that it pays in terms of pleasure and pain to\n\nmeet his fellows half-way, and not to trespass on their rights for his own\nThe kindergartner ought to help in making children appreciate\n\nadvantage.\n\nthat a bullying attitude leads to unhappy consequences.\nI come now to say a word respecting the fundamental conceptions of the\n\nkindergarten, which have been vigorously assailed by certain distinguished\n\npresent-day naturalists.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\ncharged that the Froebehan philosophy\n\nis\n\nmystical and fanciful, and that it is not founded, to any extent, upon exact\n\nobservation of the developing human mind.\n\nIt has resulted then that materials\n\nand processes which are artificial and formal have found their way into the\nkindergarten, the doctrine of symbolism being especially faulty. The child\nis\n\nkept at the gifts when he ought to be in contact with nature, and doing\n\nthings of genuine value.\n\nmany kindergartens.\n\nTo my mind, this general criticism is merited in\n\nI think all we know of the functioning of the human\n\nmind, as an instrument for securing adjustment to the world, to which may\n\nbe added the results of experience,\n\ntestify to the fruitlessness of trying to\n\ninstruct babes by means of symbols. The time devoted to this work ought to\nbe spent in dealing at first hand with real objects in the real world environing\nthe child. Even if the gifts be used for constructive activities, the work is\nThe spontaneous activities\nstill apt to be more or less artificial and trivial.\nof the child outside of the kindergarten are apt to be considerably more enerI have seen boys of six held to activities\ngetic and significant and effective.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartmeat]\n\nCURRENT CRITICISM OF THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n369\n\nin the kindergarten which they had outgrown at four; or at least their abiUties\nat the time\n\nperforming.\n\nwere quite beyond the simple and mechanical tasks they were\nI\n\nam confident this objection will not apply to all kindergartens,\n\nbut I fear that the average orthodox one has underestimated the general\n\ndynamic needs and possibilities of most of its children, while at the same time\nit\n\nhas very greatly overestimated the generalizing powers of the young mind.\n\nConsequently, some of its processes are ill-suited to the normal child of five\nor six.\nI think, however, that movements are already in progress which promise\nto bring about needed reforms in the kindergarten.\n\nIn general, these reforms\n\nshould make its work more natural, more closely related to the life the child\nlives outside of school.\n\nThe kindergarten, disclaiming as it does any intention\n\nto give the child a knowledge of linguistic arts,\n\nshould be chiefly serviceable\n\nin furnishing models for his spontaneous activities.\n\nIt\n\nshould give him sug-\n\ngestions to guide him in his construction and play-activities, so that these may\n\nbe made constantly more complex and give him increasing executive skill,\nself-control,\n\nand social insight and\n\nThe kindergarten, as I\n\nco-operation.\n\nhave seen it, is doing considerable in this direction now, but it might do more\nif it\n\nwould base all its activities upon the nature and needs of the actual child\n\nwith his primitive and motor tendencies, rather than upon the idealized and\n\nmetaphysical being which the Froebelian philosophy, as popularly expounded\n\namong us, does seem to construct.\nThere is space left to say but a word respecting the current\nof the training of the kindergartner.\n\nThere\n\nis\n\ncriticisms\n\na deep-seated conviction\n\namong the naturalists that the majority, perhaps, of the kindergarten novitiates\nhave their intellects trained too little and their emotions stimulated too much.\n\nThey are, it is said, quite deficient in the ordinary subjects of mental discipline\nmathematics, history, language, science.\nThey have very slight foundation\nfor undertaking a study of the most intricate object in the world\n\ning human mind.\n\n—the develop-\n\nIt follows inevitably, then, that they get a very superficial\n\nknowledge of the true nature of the child and his educational needs.\n\nThey\n\nlearn the traditional phrases of the cult, but they cannot employ them to guide\n\nthemselves in concrete situations.\nI\n\nIt is universally\n\nacknowledged, so far as\n\nhave been able to ascertain, that the kindergartner usually has the right\n\ngeneral attitude toward her special work, but she lacks the understanding\n\nand to devise the most\nmeans to accompHsh the ends which she would attain. I think it\nvery Ukely that the naturalists have some reason for their complaint, tho there\nare signs of improvement in this respect too. In some training schools, at\nto particularize this attitude in special situations,\neffective\n\nany rate, the kindergarten is well grounded in contemporary psychological\n\nand biological science as a foundation for her special study of kindergarten\ntheory and practice.\nI conclude much as I began:\n\nWe lack today sufficient data of scientific\n\nvalue to discuss the problems of the kindergarten in a definite or final manner.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n370\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nBut experience and contemporary conceptions of human nature and education\nlead us to the view that the kindergarten is thoroly sound in most of its funda-\n\nmental attitudes and processes.\nof the ultra-conservatives,\ndiscipline in education.\n\nIt should not be disturbed by the criticisms\n\nwho place their faith in drudgery and formal\n\nAt the same time, it appears that kindergartners\n\nhave maintained such steadfast devotion to the founder of the kindergarten\nthat they have not in many cases kept abreast of the development of educational\n\nWhat is needed now above everything else is to require\n\ntheory and practice.\n\nof candidates for positions as kindergartners a thoro grounding in contemporary\n\nscience relating to human development and general education, as a perquisite\nfor special kindergarten training.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nthis\n\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. I wish to discuss\nmatter as one who thoroly believes in the kindergarten, and in the value of the\n\nkindergarten teaching and training.\nI\n\nhave had to meet the question of cost.\n\ngarten in a school\n\nremember visiting a model kinderand I\n\nI\n\ndedicated to the educational training of kindergartners,\n\nsaw a little class of kindergarten children, four or five, with a teacher receiving $1,200\nI was told that the normal attendance of this class was seven or\nOn another occasion I was\neight children, but there were only four or five present then.\npresent at a series of lectures given by one of the most eminent theoretical kindergartners\nthat I know. There had been some little conflict in theory between two schools of kindergarten practice in this city in which the lectures were delivered, and the gentleman was\nor $1,500 a year.\n\nasked how many children he thought ought to be apportioned to a kindergarten teacher,\nand he said: \"Never more than ten.\" Now, those who are charged with the manage-\n\nment of public schools are well aware that kindergartens of this sort are impracticable\nfor them.\n\nIt is\n\nonly in private kindergartens sustained as philanthropic enterprises,\n\nor in the paid kindergartens, that we can have anything like such a small nximber of\nchildren.\n\n— we are have kindergartens connected\nThe\n—the nimiber must be run up a good deal larger than\n\nIn the public-school kindergartens\n\nwith the public schools\n\nto\n\nif\n\nthis.\n\nquestion of the nimiber of children that ought to be assigned to the kindergarten becomes\n\na serious matter.\n\nIt is\n\nnot necessarily the willingness of people to have kindergartens,\n\nor of children to receive the benefits of them;\n\nit is\n\nthe ability to pay for them.\n\nIf the\n\nkindergartner can take more than a couple of dozen instead of less than a dozen, and do\n\nsomething like good work, we are able to have kindergartens in many communities as part\nof the public-school system, where we could not\n\nif\n\nthe cost were greater, and the number\n\nof children to the teacher perhaps more near the ideal.\n\nA kindergartner cannot do other than restrict somewhat the activities of little children.\n\nIf children\n\ncan run on the grass, dimb the\n\ntrees,\n\nother things that natural, hearty children do in the fresh\n\nchase butterflies, and do\nair,\n\nand under wholesome\n\nnatural conditions, it is a question in my mind whether they are not better off than in the\nbest kind of a kindergarten.\n\nThe training of their natural activities, together with the\n\nwholesome air, is worth more to them, and the physical power they acquire in this way\nis better, than any kind of training which they could get at the tender age at which they\nare sometimes put in the kindergarten.\nThe preparation of the kindergartner has been rather better than that of the average\ngrade teacher, and higher standards, as a rule, have been reqxiired. Perhaps it is an\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Dcpartaentl\n\nCURRENT CRITICISM OF THE KINDERGARTEN\n\n371\n\nadvantage that a young girl cannot begin the work of a kindergartner in any respectable\n\nway without some special preparation.\nI was much interested in the discussion of the program.\nI take it that your word\n\"program\" means course of study, as we use it in the grades, and I have no doubt that\neventually you will agree upon certain subjects to take up with your kindergarten children,\nand come to a more general agreement upon the proper order, and apportionment of\n\ntime to be devoted to these different topics.\n\nIn addition\n\nis\n\nthis discussion with\n\nreference to the attitude of the child in the\n\nIn a city in which I lived for some ten years I found\n\nkindergarten towards his work.\n\ntwo schools of kindergarten theory and practice. In one of these the little\nby the teacher, could come and work out their little God-given\nnatures.\nOpposed to that was a theory that a child ought to have freedom in the kindergarten, that he ought to have a right to express himself, but he should be led to practice\nthere were\n\nchildren, as expressed\n\na certain amount of self-restraint, and be taught that in the kindergarten it was proper to\ngive obedience to law.\n\nIn the city referred to, when the kindergarten was first started, there was no supervision,\n\nand the results of the\n\nfirst\n\nfew years were exceedingly unsatisfactory to the\n\nThey claimed that the children were much worse off than if they\n\nteachers in the grades.\n\nhad no kindergarten training, since the \"God given nature\" theory was abandoned; but\nmany years the best understanding and the most cordial feeling\nbetween the kindergartners and primary teachers.\n\nthere has been for\n\nMargaret Giddings, supervisor of Kindergartens and First Grades, Public\nThe time has gone by when we must defend the kinder-\n\nSchools, Denver, Colo.\n\n—\n\ngarten as an institution.\n\nSurely it has been with us long enough, and its growth has\n\nbeen sufl&cient, to prove that it has come to stay, even if we did not have the approval of\nthe most important educators in the country.\n\nWe are not perfect, and there are many\n\nphases of our work which must be improved; but the time is ripe for two things in particular, toward whose accomplishment we must bend our efforts, if we wish more fully to\n\nestablish our kindergartens.\n\nFirst,\n\nmore scientific training for our kindergartners, along\nand when I say \"pedagogical,\"\n\npsychological and child-study lines, as well as pedagogical;\n\nI do not mean simply the pedagogy pertaining to kindergarten, but instead a comprehensive\n\nstudy of the whole scheme of education, or at least enough to enable the kindergartner to\n\nknow the general pedagogic principles upon which the child's whole education must be\nbased.\nI wish that child study might always be taught to our normal students by one who,\n\nas G. Stanley Hall says, has not so far outgrown his or her adolescence that his attitude\n\ntoward children is not one of sympathy and understanding; one, in short, who could not\nonly instill into the young teacher a desire for study and research along these lines, but\nwho also, and foremost, might plant an abiding conviction that the child is a growing,\nliving, and lovable himian soul, and that we must always consider and deal with him from\nthis point of view.\n\nWe have been, and still are, called exclusive.\n\nIt has\n\nbeen said that we hold our-\n\nand it is as true as is the fact that our public-school\nkindergartens, while they are supported by the public funds and counted as part of the\ngeneral school system, are in reality, in most cities, isolated departments sufl&cient unto\nthemselves and looked upon as something apart from the rest of the educational scheme.\nI have wished sometimes that we might have a kindergarten class for some of our\nsuperintendents and principals. It is not long ago that a well-known city superintendent\nselves aloft from other teachers;\n\ntold me that he did not often visit his kindergartens, because he felt such a fool when he\n\nwas in one.\n\nHe left all the supervision of that department to his kindergarten supervisor.\n\nIs it much wonder that our kindergartens are still too apt to be annexes or appendages, as\n\nsomeone has called them ?\n\nBut, on the other hand, unless a superintendent possesses a\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n372\n\n[Kiadergarten\n\nknowledge of kindergarten principles, and is progressive enough to know that tbey should,\nand sometimes will, be the governing principles of all education, it is far better that he\nkeep his hands off.\nThe time is approaching when the kindergarten supervisor will be merged into the\nprimary supervisor and the two offices will be filled by one person. It is being done in\nmany places now, and with great success, when, as I said about the superintendent, the\nperson who holds the position is one who thoroly understands and appreciates Froebel's\nphilosophy, and is capable of adapting it to the succeeding stages of the child's develop-\n\nment.\n\nThen we shall have bridged the chasm between the kindergarten and the primary.\n\nI have heard Colonel Parker say that the day is fast coming when there will be no\n\nspecial kindergarten training teachers;\n\nthat in our training schools the principles which\n\nkindergartners used to look upon as belonging especially to them will be used for all\nstages of education;\n\nand that the kindergarten will dififer only in the methods and in the\n\nuse of materials.\n\nE. G. Lancaster, president of Olivet College, Olivet, Mich.\nin the paper which attracted\n\nmy attention.\n\nFirst:\n\n—There were two things\n\nThe author said he was unable to\n\nprove that the kindergarten children were more or less able to carry the grade work.\nThere is such a collection of data. Superintendent Aaron Gove, of Denver, made such\n\na collection, and read the paper two or three years ago at the meeting of the Colorado\nAfter compiling facts by asking the primary teachers\nState Teachers' Association.\n\nwhether or not the children coming out from the kindergarten were more or less able to\ncarry the grade work, and were more or less agreeable in doing it, he was thoroly and\nabsolutely convinced that the kindergarten child not only was better fitted to carry the\nfirst-grade work,\n\nbut was much better disciplined, and in every way more agreeable to\n\nthe first-grade teacher.\n\nThe play idea which was started in the paper, I believe, needs exploiting.\nis\n\nFroebel\n\nthe only man who put proper emphasis on play, but Froebel did not know what play\n\nwas.\n\nOnly in late years has play been defined, and I would suggest that all kinderThe child must be\n\ngartners make a thoro study of the great genetic idea in child study.\n\nlooked at from the standpoint of evolution. The child under five never inherits his\nHe will imitate his\nfather's, his grandfather's, nor his great-grandfather's characteristics.\n\nThe young child inherits the\nFrom that past he inherits energy and motor activity which must be worked\n\nfather in some things, but for his instincts look at his past.\ndistant past.\n\nPlay is always the using up of this inherited motor energy within the child, and\nno kindergartner can prescribe a play without doing a serious injury. Did you ever see\nanybody that invented a play ? You know how the world over the boys play ball. Can\nyou make them play it in the fall ? With the greatest difficulty. In the winter ? No.\n\noff.\n\nWhy do they play marbles at a certain period of the year ?\n\nBall makes use of an inherited\n\nenergy which must be worked off, or the child will explode, and nothing else will use up\n\nThe child must do something with it.\nThe man in primitive times who could throw most accurately, who could run the\nfastest when it was necessary to run, who could strike most accurately, was the man who\nthat energy.\n\ncould defend himself and his family, and whose children would survive; and you have all\nthese in baseball.\n\nprescribe play.\n\nIt is\n\na universal game, and all children will play it, and you cannot\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5, 1905\nThe Department of Elementary Education met in the Asbury Park Auditorium at\n2:30 P. M., with Miss N. Cropsey presiding.\n\nThe following program was presented:\nPresident's Address, by Miss N. Cropsey, assistant superintendent of schools,\nIndianapolis, Ind.\n\"Teaching of Arithmetic in Elementary Schools,\" by M. A. Bailey, department of\nmathematics, Training School for Teachers, New York city.\nDiscussion by James M. Greenwood, superintendent of schools, Kansas City, Mo.,\nand J. W. Cook, president of State Normal School, De Kalb, Illinois.\n\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\nWilbur F. Gordy, Springfield, Mass.\nL. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex.\nJenny B. Merrill, New York.\n\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nL. H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nJ. F. Reigart, New York, N. Y.\nMargaret Giddings, Denver, Colo.\n\nThe general session then resolved itself into the following round table conferences,\nof which Sections\n\nA and B met in Asbury Park Auditorium, and Section C in the\n\nBrunswick Hotel.\n\" On Handwork in the Primary Grades.\"\nA.\nDiscussion was led by Miss Wilhelmina Seegmiller, director of art instruction, Indianapolis, Ind., and was continued by\nMary C. May, State Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah; Ada Van Stone Harris, supervisor of primary grades, Rochester, N. Y.; Mrs. Ida Hood Clark, supervisor of manual\ntraining, Milwaukee public schools.\nB.\nOn \" Right Methods of Studying History and Geography by Children.\" Leader:\nFrank M. McMurry, professor of theory and practice of teaching, Teachers College,\nNew York city.\nOn \"Reading in the First School Year.\" Leader: Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, assisC.\ntant professor of education, University of North Dakota.\nPart in the discussion was\ntaken by J. F. Reigart, New York city; Mary J. Brady, St. Louis, Mo.; W. E. Crosby,\nNew York city; A. Grace Gibson, New York Training School for Teachers; and Fannie\nB. Griffith, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Friday, July 7\nThe department met in the Asbury Park Auditorium at 9:30 a. m.\n\nThe following\n\nprogram was presented:\n1.\n\"The Psychology of Reading and Writing,\" by Robert MacDougall, professor of\ndescriptive psychology, New York University,\nYork city.\nDiscussion was led by Stuart H. Rowe, head of the department of psychology and\nhistory of education, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n2. \"\nthe Study of English Composition as a Means of Acquiring Power,\" by Miss\nGeorgia Alexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nDiscussion by Miss\nL. Johnston, principal of Brooklyn Training School for\nTeachers, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Wilbur F. Gordy, Springfield, Mass.\n\nNew\n\nOn\n\nEmma\n\n373\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\n3. \"Teaching Our Language to Non-English-Speaking Pupils,\" by Gustave Straubenmiiller, district superintendent of schools,\nYork city.\nDiscussion was led by Miss Ida Mighell, principal of Bryant School, Chicago, 111,\n\nNew\n\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\n\n—\n—\n\nFor President Mrs. Alice W. Cooley, Grand Forks, N. D.\nFor Vice-President— C. F. Carroll, Rochester, N. Y.\nFor Secretary Mrs. Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo.\nThis report was accepted and adopted, and the session was declared adjourned.\n\nLiDA B. Earhart, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nA SHORT REVIEW OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF\nTHE YEAR, AND A DISCUSSION OF SOME PHASES OF\n\nTHE CURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\nMISS N. CROPSEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nTo determine the events which mark the progress of a year is difficult.\nNo year stands apart as a section of progress, and it is a wise man who understands his own time.\n\nThe meeting of the National Educational Association at St. Louis, in 1904,\nwas followed by the International Congress of Arts and Sciences. The department of education was represented by some of the ablest men of our time.\nPerhaps no greater contribution has been made to the year's progress than the\npapers and discussions of this meeting, giving a deeper and clearer view of the\n\nmeaning of education.\nThe highway of progress is opened by the scientific and philosophic\nthinkers, and we follow where they lead; or wander in narrow, unfrequented\npaths, which never bring us into the great world-movement by which the\nquahty of our work is tested, whether it be temporary or whether it be enduring.\n\nThe paper contributed by Dr. WilHam T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, upon \"School Culture in the Form of Education and\n\nReHgion,\" should be studied by every leader of educational thought, and by\nall\n\nwho wish to get a clearer view of the relation of church and school.\n\nYears\n\nof waste and fruitless effort in education are saved to the schools of the nation\n\nby the clear vision of its leaders.\n\nOne of the richest contributions to the explanation of our time, m the\nUght of the movement of the century just passed, was made by Bishop Spalding,\nof Peoria, in his discussion of the ** Development of Educational Ideas in the\n\nNineteenth Century.\"\n\nThe controlling idea in philosophy and science is that of organic unity, implying a\nworld-wide process of development\n\nTo understand what anything is, it is neces-\n\nsary to know how it has come to be.\n\nIn learning to know how things have become what\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n375\n\nthey are, we have gained insight into methods by which they may be made better than\n\nthey are.\n\nSuperintendent William H. Maxwell, of New York city, stated the aim\nof education in a democratic government,\n\nand defended a course of study\n\nin accordance with this aim.\n\nIn a democratic society the object is not to develop a particular type of citizen, but\nto develop the fullest efl&ciency, individual and social, of each citizen.\n\nAnd this, it seems to me, gives the general view which must always determine\nthe special Unes of instruction to be given in the elementary schools of a\n\ndemocratic society.\n\nThe past year has been marked by unusual interest in education by the\nOne of the most inspiring movements in the year's progress\n\nwhole people.\n\nhas been the organization, in Virginia, of all forces for the betterment of the\n\ncommon school.\n\nThe Co-operative Education Commission of Virginia was\n\norganized something more than a year ago for the purpose of unifying all the\neducational agencies of the state and directing these combined agencies to\nthe work of improving the common schools.\nIn this movement every political party, all religious denominations, and all the institutions of learning have united in a common effort for the betterment of the elementary\nschools,\n\nand especially for the improvement of the country schools.\n\nThe situation was\n\nbrought before the people in the May campaign, when educational mass-meetings were\n\nplanned for almost every community in the state.\n\nNew York and Virginia stand together for democracy, based upon the\neducation of the whole people.\nVirginia stands for well-trained teachers, efficient supervision, industrial\ntraining, the correlation of public libraries\n\nand public schools, and a high\n\nschool within reasonable distance of every child.\n\nJefferson's idea of a system\n\nof public schools is probably nearer its realization in his native state than at\n\nany time since it originated in the mind of the great philosopher.\nIn New York city the people were asked to consider the value of the studies\nin the\n\ncurriculum of the elementary school.\n\nThe answer of the people was\n\nin favor of education, rather than for early specialization upon reading and\n\nwriting alone.\n\nIn smaller\n\ncities\n\nthe people have been a committee of the\n\nwhole, to ask that the mechanics of reading and writing be taught, but to say\nthat this alone will not prepare for efficiency.\n\nIf this\n\nwere sufficient, the\n\nschool need not spend time and money upon the child's education beyond\nhis tenth year.\n\nWhen the question is asked of the democratic people, \"What shall be\ntaught in the pubhc schools?\" the answer which is returned will agree with\nthe insight of the wisest thinkers of all times.\n\nWe shall not use the terms of\n\nthe philosophers, of Plato and of Froebel, but we shall confirm what they have\nset forth.\n\nWe shall say that the school must undertake whatever will give\n\nthe greatest return to the individual in efficiency and happiness.\n\nWe somehow beheve that the individual is the first consideration, and we\nshall not ask for peasant schools, where early specialization upon the mechanics\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n376\n\nof reading and spelling, or upon sewing and wood-work,\nof training for efficiency, for character,\n\n[Elementary\n\nmay take the place\n\nby means of all the subjects taught\n\nand thru the spirit of the whole.\nWe are not so far away from the Report of the Committee of Fifteen but\nthat we may recall the fundamental principle stated as determining the cur-\n\nriculum of the elementary school:\n\nThe civilization into which a child is born determines not only what the child shall\nstudy, but what habits and customs he shall be taught, in the school and in the family.\n\nif\n\nA democratic government places a high value upon the individual, and\nmanual training and music and drawing and physical training, in addition\n\nto the language arts which are of the first importance, are necessary to assist\nin the process of education, they will be taught in the schools.\n\nThe curriculum, in general and in its essentials, is not so dififerent now\nfrom what it has always been for the fortunate child, trained by wise parents,\nwhen the conditions of living gave opportunity for manual training and nature\nstudy in the home.\n\nBut now the matter is the concern of the whole people.\n\nWe are only becoming more conscious of what has been striving for expression\nalways, and what has had such rapid\ncentury.\n\nand such forceful utterance in our\n\nAs Bishop Spalding has said:\n\nIt was a century in which not single minds alone,\n\na higher and more persistent self -activity.\n\nbut whole peoples, were stirred to\n\nThe whole course of events tended to confirm\n\npopular faith in the might and worth of education, which ceases to be the concern of\nscholars merely.\n\nWe shall all agree that the language arts—reading, writing, spelling, and\n\n—\n\n^are the most important subjects taught in the primary\nand elementary schools, because it is thru these arts so largely that the child\nmust come into the spiritual inheritance of the race, and it is by means of\n\nEnglish composition\n\nthese arts that, in our time, he carries on the business of everyday life.\n\nThe\n\ndegree to which reading can be taught to the individual seems to be a matter\nof confusion in the minds of whole communities.\n\nWe forget that one can read only according to one's capacity and knowledge,\nand that all our experiences and acquirements are the measure of our power\nto read.\n\nIt is\n\nnot possible to teach the language arts, even in their most\n\nelementary form, unrelated to anything else;\n\nand the proper teaching of\n\nthese subjects yields so great a return in discipline and knowledge because\n\nthey require knowledge and experience as their ground for use.\n\nThe school\n\nmust provide the opportunity to gain knowledge and experience in order to\ngive occasion for language..\n\nWhat does the abiUty to read literature, geography, and history imply?\nSome first-hand knowledge, some experience, and the exercise of imagination\nand judgment. The shortest road to the ability to read these subjects is\ntheir careful study under the leadership of a capable teacher.\nAs a rule, we\nfind that people who have had no early training in history read this subject\nas often and with about as much interest as they read algebra.\nThe history\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n377\n\nstories read and told in the primary and elementary schools are a preparation\n\nWe\n\nfor the more extended and more closely organized study of the subject.\n\nappreciate this preparation when we see the result in the quahty of the books\ncalled for at the pubHc library.\n\nThe efifort to teach geography and history\n\nwith some meaning, and to teach children to read the best literature, has led\n\na great many new subjects have been added to the\nTo teach the three R's, there must necessarily be a broad\n\nto the conclusion that\n\ncurriculum.\n\nmany unrelated subjects have\n\ncurriculum, but not broad in the sense that\n\nbeen introduced.\n\nWe may test the law of the mind, that the getting of knowledge is a process\nof recognition,\n\nby asking ourselves\n\nwhat degree we can read Carlyle's\n\nto\n\nFrench Revolution, or a technical treatise on the theory of electricity and its\napplication to the various kinds of motors.\n\nWe must take something to a\n\nsubject in order to get something from it.\nI believe that nearly all children, even those of very slow development,\n\nunder our present improved methods of instruction, and the better methods\n\nwhich are to come, can be taught to read simple elementary reading, and to\nwrite\n\nand spell a simple vocabulary.\n\nI state the gain\n\nmade in reading in\n\nvery moderate terms, when I say that there has been a gain of a year or more\nto the child within the last fifteen or twenty years.\n\nChildren nine years of age\n\nnow read as well as children of ten or eleven, twenty years ago.\nThe demand that all be taught to read to an equal degree of insight and\nknowledge, or even to an equal degree of mechanical accuracy, can never be\nfulfilled by any school under any system of training.\n\nBut the school should\n\nundertake to teach children to read and to write up to their capacity.\n\nMore\n\nthan half the time, perhaps three-fourths of the time, should be given to the\n\nlanguage arts, up to the fourth year in school. Emphasis should be placed\nupon the language arts, and upon manual expression, with a large element\nof imitation and memory, in method. The school day should be of reasonable\nlength, with provision for free outdoor play.\n\nThe number of minutes upon the daily program of recitation is not the\nonly factor, however, to be considered in teaching reading and spelling, and\n\nlanguage expression.\n\nThe individuahty of the child to be instructed and his\n\nphysical health are fundamental conditions to be taken into the problem.\nSetting free the child's power, thru hand-expression, physical training,\n\nand free play, has increased his capacity for learning to read. The demand\non the part of the school for such forms of expression as manual training and\ndrawing' shows an advance in the appreciation of individuality. But, unless\nthese are subordinated to the development of moral and mental power, the\ngrowth of the higher nature may be arrested. Dexterity in the mechanism\nof hand-work may be acquired, while the judgment, the imagination, and\nexpression thru language have\n\nlittle\n\nexercise.\n\nThis\n\nit\n\nis\n\nthe office of the\n\nschool to prevent.\n\nThere is danger in a democracy that the demand be made of the schools\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n378\n\n[Elenentar,\n\nthat the same attainments be secured to all who have an equal opportunity\nfor instruction, and in the same length of time.\n\nWe have emphasized unity\n\nand equality to such a degree that we are in danger of forgetting that there is\nFreedom has not been too greatly emphasized, and it is the\nalso variety.\nglory of our time that we recognize the duty of training the capacity for freedom\nto its highest expression.\n\nThere are children to whom the language arts are so difficult that they\nand work at the hardest and most disagreeable manual\nemployment, rather than try to master the art of reading upon its most elemenwill leave school\n\ntary plane.\n\nThe mind cannot make the adjustment to what requires so\n\ncomplex and intense a mental process.\n\nMost of these pupils can be taught\n\nto read by the insight, skill, and patience of the expert teacher but not in the\n\nsame length of time that is required to teach children who have average\naptitude for learning written and printed forms, and interpreting their mean-\n\nThe teaching of language, both oral and written, should not be postponed\n\ning.\n\nwith these pupils, and they should not be abandoned by the school.\n\nThere\n\nshould be a large element of manual and motor expression, and definite manual\ntraining, which is mental training also, and which may form a gradual approach\n\ntoward what must be the closer mental adjustment required in learning to\n\nThe child who has learned to read and to spell the words of a First\nReader, and to write his name with a fair degree of legibility, has a vast advan-\n\nread.\n\ntage, in his\n\nequipment for hfe, compared with the entire lack of such skill,\n\nelementary as this preparation seems, and inadequate as it really is.\n\nWe\n\nknow that this is not preparation for citizenship in a republic.\nThe demand upon the part of the pubhc that these pupils all be taught\nand sensible letter, perfect in mechanical form, to\nThis means some maturity of\njudgment the abihty to distinguish the important from the unimportant.\nOur use of language reveals our degree of development, and language cannot\nto write a well-balanced\nfit\n\nany occasion, will not be soon fulfilled.\n\n—\n\nbe improved without improving the quality of mind.\n\nMuch of the work of our modem business world requires quick discriminaand rapidity in execution. To make a com-\n\ntion, concentration, accuracy,\n\nbination of endurance and fine discrimination is a problem of growth which\nsuperficial thinkers have yet to consider.\n\nFine and quick execution requires\nand quick and accurate judgment. Compare the work\nof the expert shorthand reporter and typewriter with the ordinary employments\nrequiring the use of the large movements of the body, httle mental discrimination, and slow execution.\nThe machine, and expert training, have raised\nthe standard of accuracy in writing and spelling beyond what can be attained\nby a considerable minority with our present system of penmanship and an\nphysical strength,\n\nunphonetic language.\n\nPerhaps the greatest evidence of progress during the year is in the increased\nrecognition of the value of the teacher, as compared with the value of buildings\n\nand equipment.\n\nMore money for the teachers of the elementary schools is\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nCURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\n379\n\nnow one of the most important measures to be considered in the development\nThe teacher is the school. Money will not make\nof the school in our country.\ngood schools, excepting in so far as it enables the best' people to give their\nBishop Spalding says\nservices to teaching.\n\nA message of the nineteenth to the twentieth century is this: \"So mold public\nopinion that it shall lead the best men and women to choose teaching as a vocation.\"\n\nCan we reduce the amount of money invested in drugs, prisons, and battleships, and make a condition of civiHzation in which these things will not use\n\nso great a part of the energy and creative force of life ?\n\nSome progress has been made in the adjustment of the work of the elemenThis has been made possible by the departmental plan of teaching in the higher classes of the grammar schools, and\n\ntary school to the high school.\n\nalso by a better understanding of the capacity of the pupils, and better teaching\nin grades below the grammar schools.\n\nWliile there is great waste in trying to get Uttle children to think beyond\ntheir capacity, there is equal waste in failing to require abstract thinking up\nto the pupil's maturity of development.\n\nWhile the time given to arithmetic\n\nand grammar should probably not be increased, these subjects should be\nemphasized by the manner in which they are taught, both as to method and\nI beheve that Latin in the seventh or eighth grade would bring a more\nextent.\nexact study of Enghsh, and that the beginnings of algebra would assist in\nunderstanding some of the more complex processes of arithmetic.\n\nA very marked advance has been made in the recognition of the value of\nplay.\n\nSchool grounds in\n\nbeen encouraged by\n\ncities\n\nhave been enlarged, and outdoor play has\n\nintelligent direction\n\nof play is not yet understood.\n\nand organization.\n\nThe meaning\n\nFroebel has done more than anyone else to\n\nexplain its meaning and to show us its value, its necessity, in the life of the\nchild.\n\nIts value to all stages of development needs to be recognized, and the\n\nschool should\n\nshow that play can be recreation.\n\nThere is a tendency to\n\norganize play into a strenuous employment, and to use up all the forces of\nlife\n\nin preparation for battle,\n\nwhich requires savage alertness and ferocity.\n\nPlay should teach temperance in action, and should form a habit of normal\n\nand healthful reaction.\n\nmade in the appreciation of the value of individual\nThe preceptor idea was inaugurated at Princeton University\n\nProgress has been\ninstruction.\n\na year ago.\nThese preceptors are to take students, individually or in small groups, and train them\nThis work is to consist, not primarily in preparing lessons, but rather in reading,\nand preparing written reports upon the matter read.\n\nto work.\n\nThis individual help\n\nis\n\nnecessary for the college student;\n\nthere\n\nmachinery which will take the place of the personality of the teacher.\n\nis\n\nno\n\nIt is\n\nnecessary for the little child in the primary school, and for the maturing youth\nin the elementary school.\n\nThere is an effort, in all progressive school systems, to give closer individual\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n380\n\n[Elementary\n\ninstruction, either by dividing the school into small groups, or by employing\n\nan assistant to teach special classes or individuals. President Eliot's demand\nfor the enrichment of the course of study meant more teachers, smaller classes,\n\nmore individual instruction, and better preparation for teaching. It means\nthat we can no longer teach children mechanically and in the mass.\nBack of the demand for the enrichment of the course of study is the nature,\nthe capacity, of the child, which has never been met by an adequate environment. That atrophy of power may set in very early, for want of the adaptation\nThat the school is striving to meet\nof conditions to growth, we all believe.\nthis demand, this great meeting of earnest teachers is evidence.\nThe teachers of the primary and elementary schools speak to the whole\nThere is no more inspiring sight, nothing which brings such hope,\nnation.\nnothing that gives such evidence, that the man of the present has, to a great\ndegree, power over the future, as this annual meeting of the teachers of the\nnation.\n\nTHE TEACHING OF ARITHMETIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nM. A. BAILEY,\n\nNEW YORK TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS\n\nThe principal factors in the teaching of arithmetic are the course of study,\nThe office of the course of study is to indicate\n\nthe text-book, and the teacher.\n\nthe order in which the topics shall be considered,\n\nand to assign the time\n\nwithin which each shall be completed; the office of the text-book is to indicate\nthe order of the topics, and to present them in such a manner that the learner\n\nmay master them without other assistance; the office of the teacher is to give\nthe same instruction by word of mouth which is given in the text-book by the\n\nThus the course of study and the textbook have the order of topics in common, and the text-book and the teacher\nhave the imparting of instruction in common.\nThe outline in both the course of study and in the text-book should be the\n\nprinted page, and to direct the learner.\n\nsame, that the learner may have before him in consecutive order everything\nthat he has studied, and that he may be able to find readily whatever he may\n\nneed.\n\nOtherwise he is obhged to keep a notebook, to study pages widely\n\nseparated, and, it may be, to use several text-books at the same time.\n\nThe\n\npractice in most of the large cities of outlining a course of study in detail, and\nof authorizing the use of one or more text-books no one of which follows the\n\nprescribed order,\n\nis\n\nindefensible in theory\n\nOne of two things should be done:\n\nand unsatisfactory in practice.\n\neither a series of text-books should\n\nbe\n\nand the course of study should be made to conform to its outhne;\nor a course of study should be approved, and a series of text-books should be\nselected,\n\nwritten to carry out its provisions.\n\nWhat shall be the order of the topics ?\n\nEvery step in mathematics has\n\nbeen taken in response to a need and as a means to an end.\n\nThe satisfaction\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "ARITHMETIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n381\n\nof a need has given rise to other needs, their satisfaction to still other needs,\n\nand so on. The adaptation of means to an end is the law of human development. Hence the order of topics may be found by investigating the workings\nof this law.\nThe first need in connection with number is to find how many\nindividuals there are in a single group.\n\nAfter this need is satisfied, there are\n\nonly five primary problems, and each may be solved by counting:\n1.\n\nTo find how many individuals there are in two or more groups, from the numbers\n\nin the groups.\n2.\n\nTo find how many individuals are left, from the number in the original group and\n\nthe number taken away.\n3.\n\nTo find how many individuals there are in two or more equal groups, from the\n\nnumber in one group and the number of groups.\n4.\n\nTo find how many equal groups there are, from the number of individuals in all\n\nand the number in one group.\n5.\n\nTo find how many individuals there are in one group, from the number in all and\n\nthe number of equal groups.\n\nHence the first stage may consist of notation and numeration thru some\ndefinite limit, as a hundred, and of the solution of the five primary problems\n\nby counting.\nAs soon as the numbers become large, the need is felt for shorter methods.\nThe need of a method shorter than counting for finding the sum of two or\nmore numbers is satisfied by calUng from memory the sum of the first two\nnumbers in each order, the sum of the result and a third, and so on. This\nnecessitates memorizing the sums of the first nine numbers taken two and\ntwo, and of applying these combinations to increasing numbers of two orders\nby a number of one order. The need of a method shorter than counting for\nfinding the difference between two numbers is satisfied by calling from memory\nthe differences between the numbers in each order separately. This necessitates memorizing the differences in the combinations of subtraction which\ngrow out of the combinations in addition. Hence the second stage may\nconsist of the addition\n\nand subtraction tables, and of their applications to\n\nproblems involving these operations thru some difinite limit, as a thousand.\n\nThe need of a method shorter than counting for multiplication is met by\naddition,\n\nand the need of a method shorter than addition, by calling from\n\nmemory the products of the numbers in the several orders of the multiplicand\nby the numbers in the several orders of the multiplier. This necessitates\nmemorizing the products of the first nine numbers taken two and two. The\nneed of a method shorter than counting for the two cases of division is met\nby subtraction, and the need of a method shorter than subtraction, by caUing\nfrom memory the quotients of the numbers in the orders of the dividend by\na number of one order. This necessitates memorizing the quotients in the\ncombinations of division which grow out of the combinations in multiplication.\nHence the third stage may consist of the mutlipHcation and division tables,\nand of their appHcations to problems involving these operations thru some\ndefinite limit, as a million.\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n382\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe fourth stage may consist of the mastery of the fundamental operations\nupon integers thru some definite Hmit, as a quadrilHon. Integers must precede\nfractions, decimals must precede percentage, and percentage must precede\ninterest, because each is the basis of its follower.\nHence the fifth stage may\nconsist of common fractions; the sixth, of decimals and denominate numbers;\nthe seventh, of percentage and interest; and the eighth, of mensuration and\nmiscellaneous topics.\n\nThe tendency during the past fifteen years has been\n\nto carry the spiral method to the extreme.\n\nEight-book series have been used,\n\nand the children have been Vi^hirled about in this merry-go-round so rapidly\nas to make them dizzy.\nThe work has never been well done; the only wonder\nis that it has been done at all.\nIt is encouraging to note that the pendulum\n\nnow swinging toward the topical plan and a two-book series.\nThe plan of instruction to be followed both by the text-book and by the\nteacher should be the same, in order that the learner may acquire the power\nof mastering a subject from the printed page, and in order fhat he may be\n\nis\n\nable to refer to a topic and to find a method of treatment with which he is\nfamiliar.\n\nGreat care should be exercised in the selection of the text-book\n\nin the first place; but after the book has once been selected, the teacher should\n\nbe required to follow its presentation.\n\nWhat is the proper method of instruction ?\n\nThis question will be discussed\n\nunder subject-matter, operations, and problems, because everything in arithmetic falls under one of these heads, and because each demands a method\nof treatment different from each of the others.\n\nThe subject-matter includes integers, fractions, decimals, per cent, expressions,\n\ndenominate numbers, Hues, surfaces, solids, commission, interest, and\n\nother terms found in problems.\n\nSince they are mental products, they should\n\nnot be brought. to the attention of the learner, Hke minerals, plants, and\nanimals, as entities ready formed in nature, but they should first be created\n\nThe steps are:\n\nin the mind.\n\ndeveloping, to create the product in the mind;\n\nnaming, to secure ease in reference; and defining, to give expression to the\nmental product.\n\nWe will present the subject-matter of common fractions:\nDeveloping.\n\n—Fold a piece of paper thru\n\nhas the paper been divided ?\n\nInto how many equal parts\nits middle line.\nOne of the folds is what part of the whole ? We write\n\none-half by placing the figure 2 under a horizontal line to show that the unit has been\n\ndivided into two equal parts, and by placing the figure i above the line to show that one\n\nInto how many equal parts has the paper\nOne of the folds is what part of the whole? Three of the folds\nare together what part of the whole ? How shall we denote the number of equal parts\ninto which the unit has been divided ? How shall we denote the number of equal parts\n\nFold the paper again.\n\npart is considered.\n\nbeen divided now?\n\nthat are considered ?\n\nWrite three-fourths.\n\n—The number written under the\nthe denominator; the number above\nthe\nthe numerator; the whole expression, a\nthe denominator\nthe numerator\nDefining. —^What\na fraction\nNaming.\n\nline is\n\nfraction.\n\nline,\n\nis\n\n?\n\n?\n\n?\n\nAbility to define accurately and concisely should be gained by the study\nof arithmetic.\n\nTo emphasize the way of accomplishing this end, we will\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "ARITHMETIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n383\n\nWhat is the least number of straight\nDraw a plane surface inclosed by three\nstraight lines and name it triangle.\nWhat is a triangle? The learner will\npresent the subject-matter of the triangle.\n\nlines\n\nwhich can inclose a surface ?\n\nsay that a triangle is a plane surface inclosed by three straight hues.\n\nHe\n\nlearns to include the term to be defined under a more general term, and then\nto mention one or more of the qualities which the general term does not possess.\n\nWhat must be true of three\nDraw a triangle having its three sides\n\nLet us carry the development another stage.\nstraight lines with respect to length ?\n\nequal, another having two of its sides equal,\nsides equal.\n\nits\n\nDefine each.\n\nand another having no two of\n\nName them equilateral, isosceles, and scalene respectively.\n\nIn defining the equilateral triangle, the learner will see that\n\nhe may begin with the more general term and say:\nis\n\n*'An equilateral triangle\n\na plane surface inclosed by three straight lines, and having its sides all\n\nequal;'* in which case he adds two quaUties to the genus.\n\nwith the proximate genus and say:\n\nOr he may begin\n\n*'An equilateral triangle is a triangle\n\nhaving its three sides equal; \" in which case he adds only one quality.\n\nNeither\n\nthe book nor the teacher should give the definition directly, but the former\n\nshould correct the learner by definitions arranged alphabetically in a glossary,\n\nand the latter, by word of mouth at the time of the development.\n\nThe\n\noperations include addition,\n\nsubtraction,\n\nmultipHcation,\n\ndivision,\n\ninvolution, and evolution of the topics already named under subject-matter.\n\nThe teaching of these operations involves the discovery of the general principle\nfor each and its application to individual examples.\nThe general principle\nmust be discovered by finding the method of procedure for a single example,\nby showing that every other individual included in the class is exactly similar\n\nand by concluding that\nmethod found is true for all cases. In other words, it consists of an\nargument in rational induction. The application of the general principle to\nto this in all respects essential to the demonstration,\n\nthe\n\nthe individual examples must be made\n\nby stating the general principle, by\n\nshowing that the individual is included within the general, and by treating\nthe individual in the same way as the general.\n\nIn other words, it consists\n\nThus the teaching of an operation makes the\nfull round of reasoning, from the individual to the general, and then back again\nof an argument in deduction.\n\nfrom the general to the individual.\n\nThis process is embraced in the five\n\nformal steps of the Herbartians: preparation, presentation, comparison, generalization, and application.\n\nLet us illustrate by teaching the multiplication of a fraction by an integer.\nPreparation consists of making sure that the learner has in mind the knowledge\nthru which the discovery of the general principle is to be made.\n\nWhat does\n\nf denote ? What does the denominator denote ? What does the numerator\ndenote ? Presentation consists in selecting an example and in finding a\n\nmethod\n\nof performing the operation.\n\nabstractly.\n\nWe will choose the former.\n\nThis\n\nmay be done objectively or\n\nLet us take fX2.\n\nWe will draw\n\na circle, separate it into eight equal parts, and shade three of them to represent\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n384\n\n[Elementary\n\nMultiplying f by 2 we obtain six of these parts, or f\nTo multiply | by 2,\nwe multiply the numerator. Comparison consists in showing that every other\n|.\n\n.\n\nexample in the multiplication of a fraction by an integer is exactly similar\nto f\n\nX2 in all respects essential to the demonstration.\n\nThis is true because\n\nmultiplying the numerator of every fraction by an integer will multiply the\n\nnumber of equal parts that are taken without affecting the size of the parts.\nGeneralization\n\nconsists\n\nin\n\nby an\n\ninteger,\n\nmultiply the numerator.\n\nfraction\n\nstating\n\nTo\n\nthe general principle.\n\nmultiply a\n\nApplication consists in\n\nfollowing this general principle in the solution of individual examples.\n\nply\n\nA\n\nby 9.\n\ntVX9\n\nis an\n\nMulti-\n\nexample in the multipHcation of a fraction by an\n\nby an integer, multiply the numerator; to\nby 9, multiply the numerator.\nIn teaching operations for finding perimeters, areas, and volumes, experimental induction must be substituted for rational induction, because the\nrational proof calls for a knowledge of geometry.\nIn this case presentation\n\ninteger;\n\nto multiply a fraction\n\nmultiply\n\n^\n\nconsists in finding\n\nby trial rules for several examples, comparison consists\nand generahzation consists in stating\n\nin discovering that these rules agree,\n\nthat this rule is probably true in all cases.\n\nference to the diameter of a circle.\n\nLet us find the ratio of the circum-\n\nBy measurement we find that in one case\n\nthe ratio is 3^, that in another case the ratio is 3^, and that in another case\n\nthe ratio is 3^^.\n\nFinding. that the result is the same in each case, we conclude\n\nthat the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of every circle is probably\n$\\.\n\nThis form of induction is often employed both by text-books and. by\n\nteachers in presenting operations other than those in mensuration, but it is\n\nnot of the highest form, because it can never estabUsh the conclusion as more\n\nthan probably true.\n\nProblems include all the examples in arithmetic in which the operations\nare not directly stated.\n\nThey are divided into simple, involving only one\n\nand complex, involving more than one operation. With the\nexception of those found in mensuration, involution, and evolution, all simple\noperation,\n\nproblems may be classed under the five primary forms already mentioned.\nTheir solution consists in discovering and performing the operation.\n\nThe\n\ndiscovery of the operation is always njade thru that form of reasoning which\nis\n\nknown as traduction.\n\nThe major states\n\nThree statements are involved.\n\nthe relation between the required term and the given term\n\nthe minor states\nand the conclusion makes\nthe same statement involving the second term which the major premise makes\ninvolving the first term. The conclusion is vaKd, because, in any proposition,\na term may be replaced by a second term, provided the second term is equivathat the given term is equivalent to a second term;\n\nlent to the first.\n\nWe will illustrate by a problem involving multiplication\nIf I\n\napple costs 3 cents, how much will 5 apples cost ?\n\n\"The cost of 5 apples\" is 5 times \"the cost of i apple.\"\nMin.: \"The cost of i apple\" is \"3 cents.\"\n\nMaj.:\nCon.:\n\nThe cost of 5 apples is 5 times \"3 cents \"\n\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nARITHMETIC IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n385\n\nThe major premise states the relation between *'the cost of 5 apples\"\nand ''the cost of i apple;\" the minor premise states that \"the cost of i apple\"\nis equivalent to \"3 cents;\" and the conclusion makes the same statement\ninvolving ''3 cents\" that the major premise makes involving ''the cost of\nI apple.\"\nIt is customary to abbreviate the argument by the omission of\none of the premises. In some localities the major is omitted, giving the form:\n\"Since the cost of i apple is 3 cents, the cost of 5 apples is 5 times 3 cents;\"\nin others, the minor is omitted, giving the form:\nis 5\n\n\"Since the cost of 5 apples\n\ntimes the cost of i apple, the cost of 5 apples is 5 times 3 cents.\"\n\nThe\n\nmajor premise states the operation, while the minor states the term upon which\nthe operation is to be performed.\nSince the selection of the operation must\nbe determined by reasoning, while the object of the operation is stated in the\nproblem, the major premise is more important, and therefore the one that\n\nought to be retained.\n\nThe evil effects of invariably omitting the major premise will be shown\nby two illustrations.\n\nLet us take a problem involving division in which the\n\nrelation is indirect:\nIf I\n\nman requires 6 days for a piece of work, how many days will 2 men require ?\n\nMaj.: 2 men require ^ as many days as i man.\n\nMin.:\n\ni\n\nCon.:\n\n2\n\nman requires 6 days.\nmen require J of 6 days.\n\nIf the learner\n\ndoes not keep the major premise in mind, misled by the\n\nsimilarity of the problem to one involving multiph cation, he will say:\n\n\"Since\n\nman requires 6 days. 2 men will require 2 times 6 days. \" If he retains\nthe major, he will reason correctly: \"Since 2 men require J as many days\nas I man, 2 men require J of 6 days.\"\nI\n\nLet us take a problem apparently involving multiplication, but really\ninvolving no one of the operations\nIf a dog standing on i leg weighs 15 pounds, how much will he weigh when standing\non 4 legs ?\nMap: The dog standing on 4 legs weighs the same as when standing on i leg.\nMin.: The dog standing on i leg weighs 15 pounds.\nCon.: The dog standing on 4 legs weighs 15 pounds.\n\nIf the learner\n\ndoes not attend to the major premise, he will pronounce\n\nthis a problem involving multiplication, and will say:\n\n\"Since a dog standing\n\non I leg weighs 15 pounds^ when standing on 4 legs he will weigh 4 times\n15 poimds.\"\n\nThe discovery of the major premise will correct this error:\n\n\"Since the dog standing on 4 legs weighs the same as when standing en i leg,\n\nwhen standing on 4 legs he will weigh 15 pounds.\"\nEvery complex problem may\n\nbe\n\nseparated\n\ninto\n\nproblems each of which involves a single operation.\n\ntwo or more simple\n\nThis indicates that its\n\nsolution must be effected by separating it into simple problems and by solving\n\neach.\n\nThe solution of the first problem will give for its answer a term which\n\nforms the basis of a second problem;\nthe basis of a third problem ;\n\nits solution will give a term which forms\n\nand so on.\n\nThe exact bearing of the first simple\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n386\n\n[Elementary\n\nproblem may not be seen at the beginning, but the learner should be encouraged to form any simple problem that he can discover, to find its answer, to\nuse the answer in the formation of a second, and to continue in the same way\nuntil he discovers a simple problem whose answer is the answer to the original\n\ncomplex problem.\n\nThis process may be conducted directly, by representing\n\nand by solving the last simple problem by the\nunknown letters, and\nby solving the last simple problem by traduction. The former is the algebraic\nmethod; it is usually, but improperly, omitted from elementary arithmetic,\nthe required answer by x,\n\ntechnical laws of algebra;\n\nor indirectly, by avoiding\n\nbecause the reduction of easy equations\n\nis\n\nerroneously thought to be too\n\nThe latter is known\n\ndifficult for children at this period of their development.\n\nas analysis;\n\nit is\n\nWe shall illustrate\n\nthe form commonly used in arithmetic.\n\neach of these methods by a single problem:\nIf a certain number is increased by 4, the sum divided by 2, the quotient diminished\nby 3, and the remainder multiplied by 6, the result is 12. Find the number.\n\nDIRECT\nIf\n\nsum?\n\nINDIRECT\n\nX is increased by 4, what is the\nAns.: np+4.\n\nIf the result is 12\n\nmultiplied\n\nby\n\nwhat\n\n6,\n\nwhen a number is\nis the number?\n\nAns.: 2.\nIf\n,.\n\nx+^ is divided by 2, what is the\n, ^\n\n.\n\n»\n\nAns.:\n\n,\n\nIf the result is 5\n\ndivided\n\n^\n1.\n\nIf - -I is multiplied by 6,\n\nproduct?\n\nwhen a number is\nis the number ?\n\nwhat\n\nAns.: 5.\n\n+ 2 is diminished by 3, what is the\n\nremainder?\n\n^,\n\n^'\n\n•'\n\n2\nIf -\n\nIf the result is 2\n\ndiminished by\n\n.\n\nAns.: -+2.\n\nquotient?\n\nby\n\n2,\n\nwhat\n\nwhen a number is\nis\nthe number?\n\nAns.: 10.\n\nwhat is the\n\nif the result is 10\n\nincreased\n\nAns.: sx-6.\n\nby\n\n4,\n\nwhat\n\nwhen a number is\nthe number?\nis\n\nAns.: 6.\nIf 3 i»— 6=12, what is the value oi x?\n\nAns.: 6.\n\nThe complex problems which arise from the combinations of multiphcation\nand division may often be solved more easily by a single argument as in simple\nproblems. Thus:\nAt 3 for 5 cents, how many apples can be bought for 10 cents ?\nMaj.: 10 cents will buy 2 times as many apples as 5 cents.\nMin.: 5 cents will buy 3 apples.\nCon.: 10 cents will buy 2 times 3 apples.\n\nThis may be abbreviated:\nSince 10 cents will buy 2 times as many apples as 5 cents, 10 cents will buy 2 times 3\napples.\n\nIt remains to\n\nconsider the part in instruction which the teacher does not\n\nshare with the text-book.\n\nThis consists chiefly in studying the individiual\n\npupils, in order to discover what points they are faihng to grasp, in order to\ndirect their efforts, and in order to stimulate their interest.\n\nThe teacher should\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nHAND-WORK IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n387\n\nprepare for each class exercise by answering the following questions:\nscope of the exercise ?\n\nis the exact\n\nWhat\n\nFor what purpose is it to be given ? What\n\nknowledge immediately leading up to the topic is now in the mind of the\n\nWhat steps must be taken by the learner to pass from his present\ncondition to the condition of knowledge required ? What means must be\n\nlearner ?\n\nemployed by the teacher to induce these steps ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nJohn W. Cook, president of Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, HI.\nLet me say that I think every teacher should know all that Professor Bailey has said this\nThis patient analysis of subject-matter should be familiar to every teacher.\n\nafternoon.\n\nI note two slips.\n\nI suggest to Mr. Bailey that he include in his next paper the fact that\n\nthe apples are of equal value.\n\none of the f\n\nHow\n\nAgain, in multiplying | by 2, he suggested the shading of\n\nI suggest that two of the f be shaded.\nare we to tell what is in the mind of the child ?\n.\n\nAre we to assume that some\nIf you are\ngoing from here, and are going to use what Mr. Bailey has given patiently and exhaustively, without knowing whether the child needs it or not, you will make a dreadful mistake.\nUse formal analysis when it is needed, but do not use it when it is not needed.\nof these processes are not in his mind and to insist upon formal statements ?\n\nI regard the arrangement of subject-matter as somewhat faulty.\n\nI visited the Kansas\n\nCity schools and testify that Mr. Greenwood has not overestimated the conditions in his\nschools.\nI found the processes illustrated with concrete material.\nThe child needs the\nimage to lean upon. I took the work home with me which the third-grade children were\n\ndoing and tried it on the normal-school students, and they could not do it as rapidly as\n\nWith a clue, they gained in rapidity, however.\nTake this careful analysis of subject-matter and of mental processes, and if the\nchildren want to take a short-cut, let them do it.\n\nthose children could.\n\nWe have had two distinct aspects of this subject presented to our consideration.\n\nIn\n\nthe former instance the procedure was under the form of a series of propositions, logically\n\narranged, and derived from clearly stated premises.\nthe subject-matter.\n\nThis is the logical arrangement of\n\nIn the second case the procedure starts with well-defined mental\n\nimages and deals with them under the conditions of the problem.\npoint of view;\n\nThe latter is the child's\n\nhence it may be termed the psychological movement.\n\nBoth views are\n\nnecessary for a complete grasp of the subject.\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCE A\nTOPIC: HAND-WORK IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS\n[reported by MRS. mA HOOD CLARk]\n\nleader:\n\nWILHELMINA SEEGMILLER, director of art instruction, INDIANAPOLIS\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nINTRODUCTION BY THE LEADER\nSince the congregation oLthe masses of people into great urban centers, children are\n\ndeprived of sharing in the occupations which at one time were necessary to the existence\nof the\n\nhome.\n\nPlanting, tending stock, felling trees, chopping wood, carrying water\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n388\n\n[Klementary\n\nspinning and weaving, were occupations which aided in the development of sterling\nqualities.\n\nAs the \"No Admittance\" signs are prominent above the portals of the great centers\nof industrial activity of today, there\n\nis little\n\nopportunity for children to enter into a\n\nsympathetic understanding of the present industrial forces.\n\nWhen the home no longer provides opportunity for industrial occupation, and the\ncenters of industrial activity are practically closed, it behooves the school, for social, educational,\n\nand industrial reasons, to make provision for bringing children into sympathy\n\nwith the great industrial forces which move the world, and to provide opportunity for a\n\nmeasure of creative work in the fashioning of materials into forms of use and beauty.\nschool recognizes the need, and educators are earnestly endeavoring to provide for it.\n\nThe\nOur\n\npresence here today is indicative of our interest in the endeavor.\n\nGathering together from widely scattered parts of our great continent, working under\n\na variety of conditions, we no doubt have widely varying experiences.\n\nThere are among\n\nus those who have based their creed on race development, and, from a historical study of\nthe part which industry has played in the upbuilding and maintaining of social life, are\n\nfurnishing stimulus for interest and expression, that the child may develop in the manner\nof the race.\n\nFrom those who are presenting manual work thru the grades according to\n\nthe various stages in the progress of civilization, we should very much like to hear.\n\nEast and west, north and south, there are a few special schools with every possible\nequipment.\n\nIn a school where there is an average of one thoroly trained teacher to each\n\nten or a dozen pupils, and unlimited financial support, it is possible to do delightful work\nin the interrelation of various lines of interest.\n\nI have in mind a recent visit to such a school.\n\ning a reading-lesson.\n\nThe pupils of the first year were havThe books had covers decorated by themselves; the sheets slipped\n\ninto place from day to day were printed on a press kept in operation for the sole benefit\n\nof the school.\n\nThe reading-matter of the day gave directions for the making of a doll's\n\nPupils read the text, and then with ruler and pencil\nwent to work with the planning, measuring, and ruling. Inches, half-inches, and quarters were thoroly comprehended by all.\nWhen the planning was complete, the teacher\nand the little family went to the shop to cut out and put together the pieces of the chairs.\nThe chairs when completed were to be a part of the furnishing of a playhouse of two\nstories and an attic, which was being furnished on the community plan, the mattings,\ncurtains, and other things made by the children being already in place.\nOn the window\nledges the plants were growing in little flower-pots shaped by the children and baked in\nchair from a given piece of wood.\n\nthe school kiln.\nOutside the windows stretched the school gardens. A large central\nbed represented the school in general; a somewhat smaller bed, each schoolroom; about\nthese in orderly array came the beds of the individual pupils.\n\nAs it was the time of plant-\n\ning, maps of the gardens made by the older pupils were given the little people.\n\nThe school\n\nbed and class bed were pointed out, and each pupil's individual bed, which he painted\nred with his water-color. Going into the garden, the pupils got the points of the compass\nin mind.\nAfter finding the two beds in which all shared, each pupil found his own little\nparticular plot, in which he was to have a personal and loving interest.\nGiven a desire\nto understand a map, there was no difficulty on the part of the little six-year-old people\nin acquiring the knowledge.\nThe work of the older pupils was planned in the same\ndelightful way, and at noon the luncheon served in the school dining-room seemed the\ncompleting touch in making the school as nearly a home as it can be made. I have been\nreferring to the Francis W. Parker School in Chicago.\n\nTo the schools which have ideal conditions we look for the establishment of ideals.\nFrom those who represent special schools, in the different parts of the country, or those\nwho are familiar with their work, we should very much like to hear.\nThe problem of manual work in the cities is of necessity a very different one from\nthat of the well-equipped special school.\n\nMost cities do not have ideal conditions.\n\nThere\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nHAND-WORK IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n389\n\nare tens of thousands of children to be provided with material, and a very small amount\n\nThere are poorly paid teachers with too many pupils in their care.\nThese same underpaid, overburdened teachers are working with a fine courage and zeal.\nThey are not wasting time thinking of \"what were fair in life providing it might be,\" but\n\"thinking of just what may be making it fair up to their means.\"\nMany cities are represented here today. An exchange of experiences will be helpful\nto all.\nThese are a few of the questions we should like to hear discussed, and there are\nno doubt many others:\nof capital available.\n\n1.\n\nWhat lines of industrial work are being carried on in primary schools, and what\n\nmaterials are being used ?\n2.\n\nShould manual work be given to the grade teacher or placed in the hands of the\n\nspecialist ?\n3.\n\nTo what extent is manual work being related to art study, geography, history,\n\nliterature, music, arithmetic ?\n4.\n\nHow are excursions being conducted to bring children into touch with the indus-\n\ntries of their\n\ncommunities, the\n\ntextile factories, the potteries, the printing-presses,\n\nthe\n\nbuilding construction ?\n5. What experiences are there to relate about gardening, in the schoolroom, the\nschool grounds, the home ?\n6.\n\nIs it best for boys to learn to cook and sew, arid for girls to work at the bench ?\n\n7.\n\nHow far is it possible to provide work which needs only a limited time on the part\n\nof the teacher for instruction,\n\nand can be carried on by the children as seat occupation\n\nwork?\n8.\n\nWith what freedom may children profitably work in construction ?\n\nOf what\n\nbenefit is the purely guided work ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Mary C. May, State Normal School, Salt Lake City, Utah, gave an interesting\naccount of the work done in the normal classes in the training department of that school.\nShe said they had done some good work along the line of correlating the hand-work for\nthe students with the other subjects in the curriculum.\nThey had used as their central\nthought social environment in its relation to the life of the children. Some pedagogical\nproblems had also been worked out, and much of this work consisted of thought and\n\nShe believed that all work must have a motive worthy\nShe compared the life of olden times with that of the present time. Firstgrade work centers around the home, so they had made playhouses and furnished them.\n\naction put into concrete forms.\nof the child.\n\nThe art side of this had been met by modeling clay dishes for the cooking, etc.\n\nThey\n\nhad done something very valuable in the Christmas work, this work having entered largely\ninto the homes of the children.\nThe children had also been encouraged to use materials\naround their own city. She had tried to have the number work closely related to the other\nwork of the school curriculum.\n\nMiss Ada Van Stone Harris, supervisor of primary instruction, Rochester, N. Y.\nIn schools where the children of a grade are divided into three or more groups, they must\nspend more than one-third of the time in their seats.\n\nThe problem of wholesome, educaThe directed\n\ntive seat -work or hand-work is one that confronts every primary teacher.\n\nwork of the art and manual training should aid in the solving of this pi:oblem, in that it\nshould be constantly utilized as a means of expression. It should enable the child to\nexpress his ideas relative to all subjects studied in a free and undirected manner.\nI\nbelieve the occupation or hand-work is as imperative in its claims as the recitation.\nThis work demands most thoughtful planning and preparation. It must be so adapted\nand presented that it will arouse and strengthen ideas in the child's mind, and will also provide conditions for gaining new ideas.\nThese ideas must be so related to the child's experience that they are of real interest\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n390\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe child reveals his interests, his experiences and powers,\n\nand become a part of his life.\n\nthru the various modes or media of expression, such as modeling in sand or clay, papercutting and pasting, painting with water-colors and ink, drawing on blackboard or paper,\nmaking articles of use from various materials to illustrate the subject at hand, and lastly\nin oral and written language.\nThe materials or media of expression depend upon the\nnature of the subject. Such material should be used in every instance as will allow the\nfullest and most satisfactory expression.\nI believe the hand-work of the elementary grades should follow three lines of procedure: (i) That which teaches a lesson in and of itself; under this head would come\nthe more formal or directed work.\n(2) That which supplements a lesson already taught;\n\nhere the child expresses the ideas or images formed in his mind, as the result of the recitation in the various subjects, in a free\n\nand undirected manner.\n\n(3)\n\nThat which is a\n\npreparation for a new lesson where the child works out a definite assigned task.\n\nIn planning the hand-work of the elementary grades, the teacher should constantly\napply certain tests by asking herself certain questions regarding the work. For example:\nIs it physically good work ?\n\nDoes the material provide the best possible\nDoes the result show an actual expression\nof the child's power ?\nCan the criticism of the work come from the child himself ?\nIf the work is educative, the children will feel its necessity and give their best effort;\nIs it educative ?\n\nopportunities for free expression or study?\n\ntheir interests will be directed, not forced.\nIf it is physically good work, it will not require the children to keep a certain position\n\ninjurious to body or mind.\n\nIt will not require them to use the same muscle during two\n\nsuccessive periods, unless an exercise has been given which will relieve congestion and\n\nrender the blood-flow natural.\n\nIn planning hand-work with the children, time should be taken for discussion and\nexplanation, ascertaining that every child knows clearly what he is to make, what material\n\nhe would like to use, how he is going to make it, and to what use it will be put; also that\nhe feels so sure of materials and plans that he can work freely and independently.\nCreative expression or construction work widens the range of expression,\n\nand thus\n\npromotes motor and sensory activities, permits more\nprogressive individual growth, and is an invaluable means in developing the language of\n\nextends and intensifies images;\n\nall\n\nit\n\nchildren, and especially children of foreign parentage.\n\nThe individual should be free in forming his image. He should be free in expressing\nThis expression may not be perfect, but we should remember that the appreciable is\nalways deeper than the describable; also, that no value should be given to any expression\nit.\n\nthat lacks appreciation.\n\nOn the other hand, every encouragement should be given for all\n\nmodes of expression, with pen and pencil, with crayon, color, and brush, with clay and\nsand, with putty and pulp, with scissors and knife, saw and plane, and with any and alltools and possessions he may be able to utilize.\nThe medium used to express the idea or\nthing must always be selected as the best; that is, adapted to a dear and definite\nexpression of the image formed.\nCriticism,\n\ncommendation, and encouragement are tools in the hands of the teacher\n\nto inspire closer study, and awaken enthusiasm and desire for improvement, on the part\n\nof the pupils.\n\nThe pupil should be allowed to be his own critic first. Improvement must\nGrowth will be shown in the pupils' work after a just criticism\n\nbe noticed by the teacher.\n\nhas given rise to more accurate observation.\nIn all work the children should be trained to habits of economy in the use of materials,\nneatness and order in care of materials, and honesty and accuracy in having the work so\nwell done that it fulfills its intended purpose.\n\nMrs. Ida Hood Clark, supervisor of manual training, Milwaukee Pubhc Schools,\nspoke in brief of the introduction of manual training into the Milwaukee schools.\n\nThis\n\nwas done about a year and a half ago. Her talk was illustrated by the exhibition of the\nwork of the first six grades in manual training. One of the important points brought out\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS OF STUDYING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY\n\n391\n\nwas the necessity for the proper attitude of the grade teacher toward the introduction of\na special subject. In many cities this had prevented the growth of the manual-training\nwork. Teachers in the primary grades had beUeved that it was a new subject with which\nthey were very unfamiliar, and had recognized it as an added burden to an already\nover-crowded curriculum.\n\nThe speaker then exhibited specimens of work done by the Milwaukee children,\nshowing considerable co-ordination of subject. These specimens consisted of work in\nappUed design, such as book-covers, portfolios, designs in stencil work as applied to\ndecorating curtains for the schoolroom made by the pupils in the sewing classes.\nThe sense of need and the desires of the children in self-expression had dominated\nthe outhne for this hand-work.\nDesigns tor basket-weaving accompanied the baskets;\nletters for marking table linen and designs for borders of towels were also shown;, weaving\nin the first grade was exhibited, made into a community piece of work in pillows for the\ncouch used in the teacher's room. Furnishing of doll-houses, in which the children of\nthe first and second grades all had a part, was used as a basis for future work.\nDesigns\nin drawing had been appUed to decorate book-bags and portfolios used in the schoolroom.\nAll this work was taught by the regular teachers in their own class-rooms, in the first six\ngrades. The seventh and eighth grades were taught by special teachers, the hand-work\ntaking the form of domestic science for girls, and shop-work for boys. Here much good\nwork was done in illustrating work in history and geography, as well as in sciencie and\nnature study, thru the medium of wood and iron in making scientific apparatus.\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCE B\nTOPIC: RIGHT METHODS OF STUDYING HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY\n\nBY CHILDREN\n[reported by miss anna brockhausenI\n\nleader: frank m. mcmurry, professor of theory and practice of teaching,\nteachers college, columbia university, new york city\n\nTHESES DISCUSSED BY THE LEADER\n1.\n\nKnowledge of right methods of studying history and geography should be one of\n\nhe prominent aims of instruction in these subjects;\nknowledge of their subject-matter.\n\ncomparable in importance\n\nto\n\n.\n\n2.\n\nOne of the things that children should be expected to do is to supplement the text\n\nby utiHzing their past experience.\n3.\n\nA second thing that they should do is to group facts into large topics or points.\n\nA third thing that they should do is to arrive at some conclusions as to the relative\nvalues of different parts of the text.\n4.\n\n5.\n\nConscious effort to memorize the substance of the lesson should follow, not precede,\n\nthe parts of study here mentioned.\n6. The recitation period should be largely occupied in thus studying the lesson,\nthereby throwing primary emphasis on thinking rather than memorizing.\n7. Independence of pupils in these tasks requires that they take the initiative in\nrecitation for more than is customary even in our \"better schools.\"\n\n8. The measure of success in such instruction is found in the extent to which the\nteacher is reduced to silence because the pupils do what is necessary without her.\nI. The present methods of study from the primary thru the college are unintelligent.\nExamples proving this can be collected by anyone. The effect of such poor work on the\n\nthe resulting effect on the attitude toward attendance\nand the final result is to discourage one's self-confidence in the\n\ndigestion of facts is certainly bad;\nat school also is bad;\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n394\nIII.\n\n,\n\n[Elementary\n\nOf these means, the teaching of reading may be made to exert the most potent\n\nBut the word \"reading\" must be given\nand the teaching of reading, even in its first stages, must be\nunderstood to mean much more than teaching to recognize and pronounce words.\nReading always and everywhere has its twofold phase: it is imaging and thinking,\n\ninfluences, the most vital, the most permanent.\nits full,\n\nlegitimate meaning;\n\nwith joy in these activities;\n\nit is\n\nalso mastery of the symbols, with joy in this also.\n\nOral\n\nand feeling incited by written\nwords; (2) giving to another in the same words spoken the pictures found in the words\nThe\nwritten, for the purpose of rousing sympathetic thought and feeUng in the Hstener.\n\nreading\n\nis\n\nalways and everywhere\n\n(i) seeing, thinking,\n\nfirst steps in teaching reading should be\n\nso taken that this should be the abiding impres-\n\nHis attitude toward words, toward reading, is more\nimportant than the number of words learned per month.\n\nsion left in the mind of the learner.\n\nLearning to read in the lower grades differs from learning to read better in later\nyears only in the emphasis of certain elements or steps in the process, not in the elements\nthemselves.\n\nOne can\n\nAnd this varying emphasis follows the development of the pupil.\n\nfind in the words of another only so much as his own experience can interpret.\n\nBut to\n\nteach reading to pupils of any age, in or out of school, is to accomplish many results.\nis to develop literary taste,\n\nwhether that taste be in its germ, bud, or flower;\n\nit is\n\nIt\n\nto culti-\n\nvate and train the imagination; to lead to clearer and more definite thinking; to increase\n\nthe pleasure in reading as the reader finds himself, a larger self, in what he reads\nloves\n\n—his own\n\nand hates, his own vaguely felt aspirations and half-conscious joys and sorrows\n\n.embodied in the pictures of another's experience; to give increased facility in quick (at\nTo teach oral reading is to do all these\nlast, unconscious) recognition of word-forms.\nthings, and, in addition, to train the reader to\n\ncommunicate this thought with distinct,\n\ncorrect pronunciation and in well-modulated tones.\n\nThe first steps in learning to read must then be getting vivid pictures\n\n—\n\n—\n\nlarger, clearer,\n\nand events worth thinking and reading about, with\nhigher ideals of beauty of form and sound. This can be done only by (i) contact with\nreal things worth while to know; (2) enlarged experience; (3) expression in word and\nby hand; (4) ear-familiarity with stories and poems that portray in a simple and beautiful\nway experiences to some degree familiar; (5) increasingly accurate and distinct pronunciation, with ever better voice modulation and control.\n\nmore definite thoughts\n\nof objects\n\nThe next steps unite with these (r) the associating of mental pictures with written\nforms and their sounds;\n\n(2) the\n\nincreasing of ability, to give\n\nits\n\nmeaning to others in\n\nspoken words at sight of the written form.\n\nThe question as to how many of these steps shall be taken in the first year of school\nis\n\npractically the question of completing the process of reading in that year;\n\nquestion is left open for discussion.\n\nand this\n\nThe writer believes that children should be taught to\n\nread in the first year.\nIV. Again, let us not forget, in teaching reading, the great danger of swinging too\nfar away from the fundamental first principles that\n\ndemand simplicity and naturalness.\n\nWe have too often built up an elaborate system that is artificial, belittling, and smotherIn a simple, natural way, children still learn to talk; and, fortunately, we have not\n\ning.\n\nyet interfered.\n\nThe child's mind, primarily engaged with what it wishes to communicate thru soundIn helping him we follow those\n\nsymbols, marks out for itself certain paths of activity.\n\nLet us hope that no overzealous reformer will construct an intricate word-system\n\npaths.\n\nrequiring each baby to practice repeating a series of meaningless monosyllables before he\nshall be allowed to mispronounce or miscall words in making known his ideas and wishes.\n\nYet this is the same child whose next step is from the spoken to the written form; and he\nNot to\nforget this would help many to teach reading.\nV. Among the causes of departure from simple, natural growth to a hothouse growth\n\nremains under the same laws of imitation, association, repetition, and interest.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "READING IN THE FIRST SCHOOL YEAR\n\nDepartment]\n\nthat does not promote health and real vigor are:\n\n(i) half-concealed\n\n395\n\nand half-conscious\n\nadmiration of the uniformity of machine-made or system-made products; (2) tendency to\nlose in a beautiful system the Hfe it was designed to preserve; (3) hurry to get tangible and\npercentable results;\n\n(4) the fact that it requires of the teacher less insight and real skill,\n\nless individuality and power, to perfect form than to develop spirit.\n\nThe following practical questions are offered for discussion. All relate to teaching\nThe theses stated hold in solution the key to the answers.\nI. What are the essential conditions ?\nII. What preparation, general and specific, is required of the teacher ?\nIII. What shall be the character of the lessons: (i) the subject-m itter; (2) the\n\nreading in the first school year.\n\nphraseology ?\nIV.\n\nV.\n\nWhat relation between these reading-lessons and so-called langua-^e lessons ?\nWhat relation between these lessons in reading and expression by hand in writ-\n\ning? drawing? painting? modeling? constructive work?\nVI.\n\nIs systematic\n\nwork in phonics valuable ?\n\nIf so,\n\nwhat ? when ? how taught ?\n\nVII. Granting that actual reading shall be taught the\nvaluable ? If so, word-drills of what nature ? when ? how ?\n\nfirst\n\nyear, are word-drills\n\nWhat independent study shall be required of the child ?\nWhat shall be the general method of conducting a regular reading-exercise, or\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nseries of exercises ?\n\nX.\n\nWhen and how shall criticisms be made ?\n\nXI.\n\nWhat mental discipline in learning to read ?\n\nWhat ethical training ?\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor J. F. Reigart, New York city. —The purpose of reading is the creation\nof thought at the suggestion of the printed page.\nsuggestive are (i) ideas;\n\nThe essentials in making the page\n\n(2) association of word and symbol;\n\n(3) creation, thru descrip-\n\nThe question arises as to how these essentials are provided. The\nideas are furnished in the kindergarten, nature study, constructive work, etc. More is\ntion,\n\nproblems, etc.\n\ngained by spending some time upon these than by spending all of the time upon reading.\n\nThe association of the word and the symbol is usually understood as teaching reading.\nThis is essential, but is not the art of reading. Time may be thus spent for years without\n\nmuch progress.\n\nThe primary object in teaching reading is to arouse creative thought,\n\nbut there must be the association of word and symbol.\n\nWhen the child realizes the\n\nsignificance of this association as a means of creative thought, he is reading.\nis illustrated in the early education of Laura\n\nThis point\n\nBridgman and Helen Keller. The fault with\n\nearly reading is that the child goes thru it bHndly.\n\nIn many cases the impetus to reading\n\ncomes from the home.\n\nThe selection of material is important. The material is of two kinds. The first is\nThe second is the real reading material. It is calculated to arouse\nthe creative thought.\nThe two kinds should not be confused. The characteristics of the\nthe drill material.\n\nbest reading material are (i) that it must arouse interest;\n\nit\n\nmust provide something for\n\nthe child to work for; (2) that it must be connected; the association of rhyme and rhythm\nis a help in\n\narousing interest and forming connections; (3) that it should influence taste.\nUnless it is aroused sooner,\n\nDo not wait for the period of adolescence to arouse taste.\nit is\n\nThe old-fashioned reading of the Bible was not a bad\nThe newer reading-books contain much good literature, but are padded with too\n\nnot likely to be aroused then.\n\nthing.\n\nmuch drill material.\nThe diflSculty of method remains.\n\nWe are afraid to rely upon this literature. The\nWe learn\n\ncharacteristic of method is that it should arouse thought and use the material.\n\nThe synthetic movement is essential. There must also be analysis.\nThere comes a time when the child is ready to point out the words in the sentences. These\n\nto read by reading.\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n396\n\n[Elementary\n\nsentences may be parts of familiar verses.\nnections.\n\nThen the words should be used in other conThey should be associated with activities and used in giving directions. New\n\nwords should be learned in the context.\nPhonic analysis should be used thruout as a key.\n\nIt is the great means to indepen-\n\ndence, but should not be associated at first with the reading, because reading is distinct\n\nfrom phonics.\n\nAs for age, the legal school age is not necessarily the one when the child should begin\nThe children in the kindergarten should learn mottoes and verses, should\ncommit verses, pick out words, and have phonic analysis.\nIn conclusion I would say: Read only good literature, do away with the made-up\nmaterial still found in our readers, and make phonic analysis the key.\nto read.\n\n—\n\nMr. Prentiss, Brooklyn, N. Y. What is the relation of phonics to reading under\nMr. Reigart's system, and does he call learning Mother Goose reading ?\n\nMr. Reigart.\n\n—The principle of\n\nisolation is one that can be used with economy in\nAs to committing to memory, I find in teaching reading that there is\nthe same help in reading what has been committed to memory as in committing poems\nwhen learning a foreign language.\n\nteaching phonics.\n\nMiss M. J. Brady, primary supervisor, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n— One element\n\nJust how much phonics, and when\n\nto be considered in the teaching of reading is phonics.\n\nto begin it, are questions that are worth considering.\nIf we consider that right mental habits in reading are of greatest importance,\n\nthen\n\nLooking at words, or rather thru\nthem, to get the thought they symbolize, is what reading means. We do this in actual\npractice, and we see words and phrases as wholes, and are not at all conscious of their\nparts.\nIt would seem, then, that this habit of recognizing words and phrases as wholes\n\nsounding will not begin with the early reading-lessons.\n\nshould be the first habit to be established in the child's mind, as first habits are generally\nthe ones to prevail.\nIt has been argued that pupils learn more words in a given time by having phonics\nfrom the beginning. This is undoubtedly true; but is glib word-calling reading ? No;\nwe all agree that it is not. So we simply have to choose whether we will do what will\nmean real growth for the child, or do what will make a show for the time being.\nThere comes a time, however, in later reading-lessons, when it would be a serious\nmistake not to give the child the key to the pronunciation of unfamiliar words. And this\nalways a means to an end, and never an end in itself. With\nis the function of phonics\nproper teaching, children feel this word-study to be subordinate to reading, while they\nenjoy it and are happy over the power it gives them to help themselves.\nA short time ago we all taught the sound of every letter in the word, and used diaGroups of letters phonograms, as they are called\ncritical marks from the beginning.\nmay be taught as phonetic units, and sounds of separate letters taught only when it is\nimpossible to find a larger phonetic unit. After a few phonograms are learned, the child\ndelights in building new words out of the old elements by changing the initial consonant,\nor adding another phonogram, or both. When he is once able to do this, the teacher has\nonly to direct the attention of the child to the familiar elements in new words as they\n\n—\n\n—\n\nThe children gradually come to take the initiative in dealing with new words,\nand soon cease to be dependent on the teacher or on diacritical marks. As these marks\n\noccur.\n\noccur only in word-lists in school readers, they are of no assistance to the child when he\n\nmeets unfamiliar words in his reading, and may well be postponed.\n\nW. E. Crosby, New York city.\nsidered by teachers.\n\n—Reading\n\nis\n\nAll learning found in books\n\nthe most important of subjects con-\n\ncomes within its scope.\n\nof the printed page that cannot be intelUgently read can be understood.\n\nthe end of teaching reading.\n\nNo subject\nExpression is\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nREADING IN THE FIRST SCHOOL YEAR\n\nDepartment]\n\nConversation is creative.\n\n397\n\nReading is the expression of the creations of others.\n\nIn\n\npractice the ear must be made acquainted with the voice before proper expression can be\n\nThe ear is most intimately associated with the voice.\nThe speaking and singing voices must be distinguished by the teacher before due expres-\n\ngiven to the ideas found in words.\nsion can be secured.\n\nThis is the doctrine of Dr. Rush, the greatest authority on the\n\nhuman voice.\n\nRELATION OF DRAWING TO FIRST-YEAR READING\nMiss A. Grace Gibson, Model School, New York Training School for Teachers.\n\"Words, like window-panes, are things to look thru, not things to look at.\" Reading in\nHence the necessity of storing\nthe best sense is thought-getting, not word-accumulation.\nthought material in the child's mind and thus laying a foundation for reading. Otherwise reading may become an accurate expressing of words rather than a grasping of the\n\nThe less conscious the child is of words, in an analytic sense\nmind may travel with the person or object of which he reads.\nThoughts thus secured may arouse others, and a whole train springs up and unfolds, if the\ncontent of the lesson.\n\nthe farther his\n\nlittle\n\nsimple lesson be untrammeled by phonic drills, word-construction lessons, word-analysis,\netc.\n\nThese things are altogether necessary, but they belong to the \"shop\" and should be\n\ndealt with at a distinct time, lest the child become conscious of the process and miss the\n\naim of the lesson.\nReading time should be the \"holiday\" when our little fellow goes out with his playmates on a pleasure trip, not in search of a vocabulary, but of ideas which may come to\nhim thru the phrase, word, or sentence. Ability to secure the idea makes a ready reader.\nUnconscious of structure, whether by word or picture or combination of these, he gleans\nthe thoughts, and his mind becomes aUve with them.\nTo this end drawing the illustration of words, phrases, and sentences becomes of\ninestimable help to the beginner, especially in cramped city life, where the child's horizon\nSo simple a thing as a nest on a branch is a\nis so narrowed by the tenements about him.\n\n—\n\nfoundation for a full page.\n\n—\n\nSketch the bird also, the eggs in the nest, or the baby birds.\n\nAllow one child to form a story (sentence). Let another read it. Keep the work free\nand the child's interest will be sustained. It was well said today that the word\n\n\"Washington\" was as easy to read as \"Joe\" if the interest was equal.\nPhrases may be taught as a whole thru picture-making.\n\nLet us follow a few simple\n\nsketches: in the tree, on the branch, over the roof, thru the flowers, by the house, near the\n\nIn this way a child becomes familiar with location, movement, direction, etc.\nand the phrase becomes a unit of thought as fully as an individual word may do so. The\nchild may picture objects and write their names to impress new words.\nThree steps may help the reading for beginners: (i) Conversations, nature and\nobject-lessons, stories, rhymes, etc.\n(2) Convert these into reahty by allowing the child\nto reproduce by word and picture.\n(3) Let the teacher put these into reading form by\nsentence and picture, allowing the child to read and reproduce, not in his own words,\" but\nin the form presented by the picture.\nbrook, etc.\n\nTHE RELATION OF WRITING TO READING\nMiss Fannie B. Griffiths, primary supervisor, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. ^A\nchild entering the primary finds two new and difficult problems awaiting him: that of\nthe printed page, and that\ngetting thought thru a medium which is entirely new to him\n\n—\n\nof expressing thought thru the equally unfamiUar\n\nmedium of writing.\n\nHe no longer\ncomes unwilHngly to school to learn these; for modern methods and attractive and interesting books have robbed these problems of much of their former tediousness.\nHe comes\nwell prepared, too; for during the earlier years of his life he has made considerable progress\nin learning.\n\nGradually, without conscious effort and without conscious tuition, he has\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n396\n\n[Elementary\n\nsentences may be parts of familiar verses.\nnections.\n\nThen the words should be used in other conThey should be associated with activities and used in giving directions. New\n\nwords should be learned in the context.\nPhonic analysis should be used thruout as a key. It is the great means to independence, but should not be associated at first with the reading, because reading is distinct\nfrom phonics.\nAs for age, the legal school age is not necessarily the one when the child should begin\nto read.\nThe children in the kindergarten should learn mottoes and verses, should\ncommit verses, pick out words, and have phonic analysis.\nIn conclusion I would say: Read only good hterature, do away with the made-up\nmaterial still found in our readers, and make phonic analysis the key.\n\n—\n\nMr. Prentiss, Brooklyn, N. Y. What is the relation of phonics to reading under\nMr. Reigart's system, and does he call learning Mother Goose reading ?\nMr. Reigart.\n\n—The principle of\n\nisolation is one that can be used with economy in\nAs to committing to memory, I find in teaching reading that there is\nthe same help in reading what has been committed to memory as in committing poems\nwhen learning a foreign language.\n\nteaching phonics.\n\n—\n\nMiss M. J. Brady, primary supervisor, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. One element\ntobe considered in the teaching of reading is phonics. Just how much phonics, and when\nto begin it, are questions that are worth considering.\nIf we consider that right mental habits in\n\nreading are of greatest importance, then\n\nsounding will not begin with the early reading-lessons.\n\nLooking at words, or rather thru\nWe do this in actual\n\nthem, to get the thought they symbolize, is what reading means.\npractice,\nparts.\n\nand we see words and phrases as wholes, and are not at all conscious of their\nand phrases as wholes\n\nIt would seem, then, that this habit of recognizing words\n\nshould be the first habit to be established in the child's mind, as first habits are generally\nthe ones to prevail.\nIt has been argued that pupils learn more words in a given time by having phonics\nfrom the beginning. This is undoubtedly true; but is gUb word-calling reading ? No;\nwe all agree that it is not. So we simply have to choose whether we will do what will\nmean real growth for the child, or do what will make a show for the time being.\nThere comes a time, however, in later reading-lessons, when it would be a serious\nmistake not to give the child the key to the pronunciation of unfamiliar words. And this\nalways a means to an end, and never an end in itself. With\nis the function of phonics\nproper teaching, children feel this word-study to be subordinate to reading, while they\nenjoy it and are happy over the power it gives them to help themselves.\nA ^hort time ago we all taught the sound of every letter in the word, and used diaGroups of letters phonograms, as they are called\ncritical marks from the beginning.\nmay be taught as phonetic units, and sounds of separate letters taught only when it is\nimpossible to find a larger phonetic unit. After a few phonograms are learned, the child\ndelights in building new words out of the old elements by changing the initial consonant,\nor adding another phonogram, or both. When he is once able to do this, the teacher has\nonly to direct the attention of the child to the familiar elements in new words as they\noccur.\nThe children gradually come to take the initiative in deaUng with new words,\nand soon cease to be dependent on the teacher or on diacritical marks. As these marks\noccur only in word-hsts in school readers, they are of no assistance to the child when he\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmeets unfamiliar words in his reading, and may well be postponed.\n\nW. E. Crosby, New York city.\nsidered by teachers.\n\n—Reading\n\nis\n\nAll learning found in books\n\nthe most important of subjects con-\n\ncomes within its scope.\n\nof the printed page that cannot be intelligently read can be understood.\n\nthe end of teaching reading.\n\nNo subject\nExpression is\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nREADING IN THE FIRST SCHOOL YEAR\n\nDepartment]\n\nConversation is creative.\n\n397\n\nReading is the expression of the creations of others.\n\nIn\n\npractice the ear must be made acquainted with the voice before proper expression can be\n\nThe ear is most intimately associated with the voice.\nThe speaking and singing voices must be distinguished by the teacher before due expresgiven to the ideas found in words.\n\nThis is the doctrine of Dr. Rush, the greatest authority on the\n\nsion can be secured.\n\nhuman voice.\n\nRELATION OF DRAWING TO FIRST-YEAR READING\nMiss A. Grace Gibson, Model School, New York Training School for Teachers.\n\"Words, like window-panes, are things to look thru, not things to look at.\" Reading in\nHence the necessity of storing\nthe best sense is thought-getting, not word-accumulation.\nthought material in the child's mind and thus laying a foundation for reading. Otherwise reading may become an accurate expressing of words rather than a grasping of the\ncontent of the lesson.\n\nThe less conscious the child is of words, in an analytic sense\n\nmind may travel with the person or object of which he reads.\nThoughts thus secured may arouse others, and a whole train springs up and unfolds, if the\n\nthe farther his\n\nlittle\n\nsimple lesson be untrammeled by phonic drills, word-construction lessons, word-analysis,\netc.\n\nThese things are altogether necessary, but they belong to the \"shop\" and should be\n\ndealt with at a distinct time, lest the child become conscious of the process and miss the\n\naim of the lesson.\nReading time should be the \"holiday\" when our little fellow goes out with his playmates on a pleasure trip, not in search of a vocabulary, but of ideas which may come to\nhim thru the phrase, word, or sentence. Ability to secure the idea makes a ready reader.\nUnconscious of structure, whether by word or picture or combination of these, he gleans\nthe thoughts, and his mind becomes alive with them.\nTo this end drawing the illustration of words, phrases, and sentences becomes of\ninestimable help to the beginner, especially in cramped city life, where the child's horizon\nSo simple a thing as a nest on a branch is a\nis so narrowed by the tenements about him.\n\n—\n\nfoundation for a full page.\n\n—\n\nSketch the bird also, the eggs in the nest, or the baby birds.\n\nAllow one child to form a story (sentence). Let another read it. Keep the work free\nand the child's interest will be sustained. It was well said today that the word\n\n\"Washington\" was as easy to read as \"Joe\" if the interest was equal.\nPhrases may be taught as a whole thru picture-making.\n\nLet us follow a few simple\n\nsketches: in the tree, on the branch, over the roof, thru the flowers, by the house, near the\n\nIn this way a child becomes familiar with location, movement, direction, etc.\nand the phrase becomes a unit of thought as fully as an individual word may do so. The\nchild may picture objects and write their names to impress new words.\nThree steps may help the reading for beginners: (i) Conversations, nature and\nobject-lessons, stories, rhymes, etc.\n(2) Convert these into reahty by allowing the child\nto reproduce by word and picture.\n(3) Let the teacher put these into reading form by\nsentence and picture, allowing the child to read and reproduce, not in his own words,\" but\nin the form presented by the picture.\nbrook, etc.\n\nTHE RELATION OF WRITING TO READING\nMiss Fannie B. Griffiths, primary supervisor, public schools, St. Louis, Mo. ^A\nchild entering the primary finds two new and difficult problems awaiting him: that of\nthe printed page, and that\ngetting thought thru a medium which is entirely new to him\n\n—\n\nthought thru the equally unfamiUar meditmi of writing.\n\nHe no longer\ncomes unwiUingly to school to learn these; for modern methods and attractive and interesting books have robbed these problems of much of their former tediousness.\nHe comes\n\nof expressing\n\nwell prepared, too; for during the earlier years of his life he has made considerable progress\nin learning.\n\nGradually, without conscious effort and without conscious tuition, he has\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n398\n\n[Elementary\n\nacquired a store of knowledge, and has learned language well enough to understand others\n\nwhen they talk, and to convey his own thoughts to them thru oral speech.\nThis language power has been acquired by unconscious imitation of the speech of\nthose around him, and is perfect or imperfect according to the way he has heard language\n\nspoken.\n\nIn acquiring this power there has been constant interaction between thought and\n\nexpression.\n\nEvery effort made to clothe his thoughts in fitting words, so that others\n\nmay understand them, reacts on his thinking, making it clearer; and clearer thinking\nmeans increased power to get new thought.\nReading and writing open up new avenues for getting and expressing thought. As both\nare dependent on thought and closely related, they should be taught at the same time.\nExperience has proved that the highest degree of interest and self-activity is enlisted when\nthey are taught as interconnected processes.\n\nThe child enjoys writing the words which he has read.\n\nTo do this correctly he is\n\nobHged to observe closely their form and the order of the letters which compose them.\nThe almost universal practice of having the first reading-lessons written on the board\nAs the children, interested and observant, watch\naffords the opportunity for doing this.\nthe sentences gtow, they not only become familiar with the visual image of the words,\nbut see how they are made by watching the teacher's movements as she writes. This is\napparent by the comparative ease with which they afterward reproduce them on the\nboard. When the visual and auditory memory of the words is reinforced by the motor\nmemory which comes from using them in writing, they become permanently photographed\non the mind. As the child in learning to talk modeled his first sentences upon those he\nheard, he also in learning to write naturally imitates the sentences he sees written on the\nboard. Hence the importance\" of having from the very beginning good models for him to\ncopy.\n\nWhile reading and writing are started at the same time, the child's growth in expression is far slower than his power to appreciate and appropriate what he reads.\n\nAs soon as the habit of associating the printed with the spoken word and its idea\nhas been formed, his progress in learning to read becomes rapid. This is especially true\nwhere books are used in which his interests and needs have been considered and cared for.\n\nHere interest in the story furnishes the motive for mastering the s)Tiibols of thought, and\nhe works with great zest.\n\nHe not only gains new ideas, but the\nHis vocabulary, too, grows rapidly as he masters\n\nIn reading, his mind is in a receptive attitude.\nproper forms of expression for them.\n\nthe new words which he meets in his reading.\n\nIn this way his mind becomes enriched\n^\n\nhis vocabulary enlarged,\n\nand his language power increased.\n\nhis mind is more active than when he hstens or reads;\n\nWhen he talks or writes\n\nfor here he must determine his\n\nown thought, while in listening or reading his thoughts are determined by another.\nAs it is the child's self-activity that educates, he should be given frequent opporand writing. Thruout the first year\n\ntunity to express his thoughts both thru speech\n\nless6ns which provide for free spontaneous oral expression should predominate.\n\nThese\n\nlessons pave the way for written expression where to the difl&culties of composition are\n\nadded those of writing, spelHng, and punctuation.\nAs the aim in writing is to secure free and effective expression, the child should be\nasked to write about only such things as are of vital interest to him and which .he enjoys\ntalking about, such as: himself, his family, his pet, games, sports, toys, school, etc.\n\nThe written expression should be made to follow the oral expression so naturally that\nhe will consider writing as only another way of talking.\nas he has before enjoyed telling them.\n\nHe will enjoy writing his thoughts\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSYCHOLOGY OF READING AND WRITING\n\nDepartment]\n\n399\n\nON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF READING AND WRITING\nROBERT MACDOUGALL, PROFESSOR OF DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY, NEW YORK\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\nIn this paper I have been asked to speak of the mental processes involved\nin reading and writing, and the consequent nature of the problems which their\n\nWith the first of these topics the teacher has primarily\nTo make of the child a good reader and\nwriter is his aim, and the question whether he is conscious or unconscious of\nteaching presents.\n\nnothing to do.\n\nHe seeks results.\n\nthe special methods\n\nby which\n\nthis\n\nend\n\nis\n\nattained\n\nis\n\na matter of\n\nlittle\n\nconsequence.\n\nWith the psychologist it is different.\n\nHis interest lies just in those processes\n\nof mind, in teacher and pupil alike, of which the activities of instruction and\n\nlearning are the expression\n\n;\n\nand the practical result is as secondary a matter\n\nfor him as are the underlying processes for the teacher.\n\nYet, in spite of this apparent incompatibihty of aim, you must daily feel\nthat these two activities are intimately related and their studies complementary\n\nFor its perfect development practice rests upon understanding,\nto each other.\nand in no work is this truer than in the direction which the teacher undertakes\nIntuition must be\nin connection with the unfolding of the soul of a child.\nsupplemented by analytic knowledge, for theoretical science is the ultimate\nbasis of the successful control of material in every field of human activity.\nIt is to these principles of mental development that all practical method finally\n\nowes its vaHdity, for the only right way of teaching any subject is that which\nconsciously or unconsciously adapts itself to the child's mode of assimilation\n\nand growth.\n\nThe discussion of the mental processes involved in reading and\n\nwriting thus forms the rational propaedeutic to the teaching of these branches.\n\nReading and writing are two highly speciaUzed variants of human speech,\nand all inteUigent analysis of their phenomena must start from an understanding of the type in which they have their common root.\nSpeech is a mode of\nadaptive reaction in which the primitive response has been replaced by a\ndescription of the act or its consequences, and which becomes possible only\nthru the development of representative thought and the estabh'shment of\nThought is a fimction of consciousness interpolated between\nsocial habits.\nstimulus and reaction which, from the biological point of view, constitutes a\ndevice whereby economy of action is attained thru the eUmination of imfit\nalternatives at the level of imagination instead of at that of movement.\nThe\nreconstructions of thought thus form a vicarious treatment of the problems of\nfife which has had its rise as part of the immediate process of adaptation for\nwhich it serves as a general preparation thru the habitual representation of\nimaginary problems and their theoretical solutions. Thru the freeing of\nconsciousness from its direct practical relations an independent value comes\nto attach to all its manifestations,\n\nimpersonal and aesthetic media.\n\nand thought and speech are cultivated as\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n400\n\n[Elementary\n\nThis highly refined t)^e of reaction involves a system of ideas representable\n\nby social symbols and a process of expression consisting of a complex set of\nmovements changing character in dependence upon the variations in the\nAs human speech essentially reflects intelligence, its\nideational content.\ndevelopment presupposes the whole process of experience in which the self\ntakes shape, with its gradual definition of responses, and the rise of a system\n\nand judgments; and as it involves a complex\nmust wait for its completion upon the development\n\nof perceptions, memories,\n\nprocess of utterance,\n\nit\n\nThe understanding\n\nof co-ordinated nerve centers and incessant habituation.\n\nof speech is gained thru a process of trial and error, the system of concepts\n\nbeing clarified and corrected thru repeated exemplifications, and its use is\nmastered only thru persistent practice of its elements. To the study of reading\nthe child thus comes with a relatively full equipment of ideas and a fluency\nin their use which is of immediate service in the new field of work.\n\nReading differs from speech thru the addition of a complex set of movements of sensory adaptation and a succession of apperceptive reconstructions\nSensory adaptation, which\nnecessary to the understanding of what is read.\nin the adult takes place with precision and facility, has largely to be estabHshed\nin connection with the reading habit.\nis in\n\nTho the control of eye-movements\n\ngeneral well developed when the child begins to read, they have hitherto\n\nbeen made in a freely extended visual field under the influence of reflex attracNow they\ntion or motives of immediate practical or aesthetic importance.\n\nmust be applied to the disentanglement of .a system of conventional and\nuninteresting symbols distributed in wholly artificial space relations and\nnecessitating a constant strain.\n\nThe adult has little notion of the errors of\n\nadaptation under which the young reader\n\nand of the consequent\n\nsuffers,\n\nimportance of carefully considering the size of type to be used, the color and\nsurface of the paper, the length of line, and the continuity of print from side\nto side of the page in the beginner's reading-matter.\n\nSo long as these diffi-\n\nculties persist, the disturbance which they involve will destroy the integrity\n\nof the ideational and expressive functions and make it impossible for the child\neither to understand clearly or to read expressively.\nis not the chief difficulty\n\nSensory control, however,\n\nwhich confronts the beginner.\n\nSince the' whole\n\nand embarrassing, that anticipation of verbal\nconstruction and swift supplementation of text by context which enables the\nEach\nfluent reader to leap forward from phrase to phrase is here impossible.\nsystem of symbols is novel\n\nword must be studied, even its letters verified; with the result that in this\nanalytic process the sense of all larger relations is lost, and the sentence becomes\nscarcely more than a series of isolated substantives and connectives.\nthis process of apperceptive construction\n\nUntil\n\nbecomes a matter of routine, no\n\nreading, in the proper sense of the term, can be said to exist.\n\nThe problems involved in reading are thus twofold\n\n—the understanding\n\nwhat is written and its interpretative expression. The mastering of the\nsystem of conventional symbols in which written language consists is commonly\nof\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY OF READING AND WRITING\n\n401\n\ncomplicated by the fact that the ideas for which they stand are only in part\n\nknown, so that the young reader is confronted with a world of novel realities\nas well as with an unfamiHar set of signs. While the following of the type\n\nand the translation of its symbols into mental images continue to involve\nfriction, therefore, it becomes important to select reading-matter whose\nelements are already familiar to the child, so that as nearly as possible his\n\nwhole attention may be given to fixing in mind the relation between the symbol\n\nand that for which it stands.\n\nTo provide the child with a stock of visual\n\nverbal equivalents for famiUar objects and relations should be the first aim\nin teaching him to read.\n\nThe means by which* this task must be approached consists specifically\nwhich enables him to translate the\n\nin the child's possession of oral speech\n\nprinted symbols directly into significant terms.\n\nIt is this which differentiates\n\nlearning to read from the acquisition of speech itself, for in the earlier process\nthe child sets out with no such interpretative basis, but\n\nmust discover the\n\nmeaning of each sound and combination of sounds from the practical situation\nin which they are uttered and the actions with which they are associated.\n\nTho the problem of learning to read is thus greatly simpUfied, there still remains\nthe essential difficulty that in becoming conventional and abstract all logical\nrelation between the sign and the thing signified vanishes, and the child must\n\nsimply ask and be told the meaning of each term.\nfication of this rule is\n\nwhich makes\n\nThe only possible modi-\n\nembodied in the phonetic method, the application of\n\nfeasible the translation of\n\nany written combination\n\ninto\n\nits\n\nauditory equivalent and the discovery of its meaning, provided it represents\n\na known object.\n\nIn a logically constructed language such a method is of the\n\nutmost value, but its application is restricted in proportion to the phonetic\n•\n\nirregularity of a speech.\n\nThe general employment of phonetic methods tends to the estabhshment\nof a habit of uttering each word as it is met\n\n—\n\na custom which appears naturally\nand which in most persons is but partially\nsuppressed in later years. This motor accompaniment is a purely secondary\nprocess which theoretically constitutes an incubus upon rapidity and clearness\nalike, for an apprehension of what is read thru visual perception alone is all\nthat reading logically involves.\nLip-movement is a residual function which\nhas been carried over into silent reading from the earlier office of speech\nas a medium of social communication, and statistical investigation has shown\nthat the most rapid and retentive readers are those in whom this habit has\nbeen most fully suppressed. Nevertheless, the employment of these supplementary motor processes is an indispensable accompaniment of the earliest\nstages of reading.\nThe child comes into possession of his vocabulary thru\nthe use of the terms which compose it, and in learning to read the word is\nmastered only thru the repeated utterance of its sound in connection with\n\nin the early stages of reading,\n\nthe perception of its visual form.\n\nIn proportion, however, as attention can\n\nbe withdrawn from the cultivation of utterance, and emphasis laid upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n402\n\n[Elementary\n\nsignificant content, the child should be systematically trained to suppress this\n\nmotor accompaniment and to translate the visual symbols directly into mental\nterms.\n\nThe second general problem in reading is that of interpretation, which\nincludes two elements\n\n—the production\n\nof the voice and dramatic expression.\n\nThe proper production of the voice begins with the correct breathing, the\ncultivation of which is related to conditions of health, exercise, clothing, and\n\nposture.\n\nSpeech itself involves a wholly secondary use of the respiratory\n\napparatus, and that the conditions of reading further complicate this function\nis\n\nshown in the fatigue entailed by a period of reading which would hardly\n\nThe second element in voice-production is\nThe quaUty of the\nvoice as thin, full, high, flexible, and the like, is commonly regarded as contire\n\nthe speaking voice at\n\nall.\n\nphonation, the use of the vocal cords in producing sound.\n\nstitutional and unalterable.\n\nNo greater incubus than this delusion could exist.\n\nAs a matter of fact, most of us have voices poor in tone, range, and pliancy;\nbut just as truly might the majority of us have had good voices. The larynx\nis a most sensitive instrument, responding alike to good and evil influences;\nand while certain bounds to its functions are indeed set, its character, pitch,\nand variability within these limits are largely matters of models and use.\nConstant adaptation molds the voice to the quaUty as well as form of the\n\nsounds in which it is exercised, imtil at\n\ndominant pitch-level and\n\nlast its\n\nmodulations, just as surely as its habits of articulation and accent, become\nfixed\n\nand\n\nunalterable.\n\nCongenital voice quahty does\n\nexist,\n\nbut\n\nits\n\nchief\n\ndeterminant is to be found in the prevailing speech of the neighborhood;\n\nand we must attribute that high, harsh character which has been called the\nAmerican voice to habitual abuse and not to lack of endowment. The third\nelement (5f voice-production is articulation\n\n—the molding\n\nof the tones produced\n\nby the \\axy\\ix into the forms of speech, in which the whole buccal cavity\nparticipates.\n\nThe determinants of word-formation are in part organic, in so\n\nfar as developmental or degenerative changes in the mouth-parts and neuro-\n\nmuscular apparatus condition variations in articulation;\n\nbut, apart\n\nfrom\n\nuniversal or pathological characters, they are wholly fimctional, since the\n\nform of the individual's utterance arises from adaptation to the models presented for imitation during the formative period of speech-development.\nchild unreflectively,\n\nbut with extraordinary\n\npecuHarities of those about him,\n\nfidelity,\n\nThe\n\nreproduces the vocal\n\nand the only final way to insure correct\n\nspeaking is to hear good speech used continuously\n\n;\n\nfor in the face of a home\n\nenvironment in which incorrect pronunciation and faulty grammar prevail,\nthe school can do little to mold the child's habit of speech.\n\nThe training of the voice, however, touches but the elements of method;\nfor reading is the\n\nemployment of all these means, respiratory,\n\nvocal,\n\nand\n\narticulatory, to give expression to one's interpretation of written thought.\n\nThe patient study of expression and discipline of the voice which this involves\nare exemphfied in the Hfelong training of the actor which centers in the manage-\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "PSYCHOLOGY OF READING AND WRITING\n\nDepartment]\n\n403\n\nment of the voice as the final and perfect instrument of his art. Almost the\nfirst and last word in this connection is the cultivation of a Uvely and symTo have vividly conceived the situation to which one\npathetic imagination.\nis to give expression is to go far toward securing the conditions for an adequate\nreproduction of it.\n\nWriting is a late and highly speciahzed form of language which differs\n\nfrom oral speech, in which it had its rise, not only in its medium, but also\nIn reading\nin the degree to which its analysis of verbal forms has been carried.\nas well as speech one needs only to identify the word and to associate there-\n\nwith the proper meaning.\n\nThe word is analyzed into simpler constituents\n\nonly when, for the purpose of writing,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nnecessary to reconstruct\n\nit\n\nby\n\nthe representation of its phonic elements in a series of visual symbols.\n\nThe\n\nproblem of writing, Hke that of reading, has two aspects,\n\nand\n\nmechanical.\n\nThe\n\nfirst\n\nof these\n\nis\n\nspelling\n\n—the mastering\n\nsignificant\n\nof the orderly\n\narrangement of letters in which each word consists, so that in writing they\n\nmay be reproduced readily in their proper sequence.\nspelUng two questions arise\n\n—the need of\n\nits\n\nexistence\n\nIn connection with\n\nand the medium of\n\nThe written word, unlike natural objects, is a serial arrangement\n\npractice.\n\nof elements, and in order to learn its constitution one must finally reconstruct\nthis arrangement thru an actual succession of reactions by naming the letters\n\nin their proper order one after another;\n\nonly by spelHn^.\n\nin other words,\n\none learns to spell\n\nTo look at the word as a whole does not give this power; it\n\ncan be developed only thru systematic drill in spelling as such.\nIn regard to the medium of practice, the interpolation of a speech-motor\nprocess between the perception of the word and its reproduction in writing\n\nseems artificial and superfluous.\n\nIf the eye\n\ncannot be trusted, in connection\n\nwith the act of reading itself, to supply the necessary data for the correct\nreproduction of words the supplementary drill should surely be got in terms\nof that very function in which it is ultimately to be realized.\n\nThe question\n\nof the relative value of eye, ear, and hand in spelHng practice is finally one of\n\nthe relation of the span of consciousness to its contents.\n\nIn reading, since\n\nthe ultimate real unit is the word, that analytic knowledge of its structure upon\n\nwhich writing depends is not to be looked for.\nis\n\nof reading must be sought.\nis\n\nSince the function of spelling\n\nsome other method than that\nBut in the act of writing itself, while the word\n\njust to bring this inner constitution to light,\n\nnecessarily broken up into its successive constituents, the process of recon-\n\nis so comphcated, and the act by which each letter is reproduced\nmakes in the beginning such demand upon the attention, that the word becomes\n\nstruction\n\nfor the child a series of isolated letters instead of\n\nan integrated system of\n\nelements.\n\nIn oral spelling, on account of the facihty with which speech-motor adjustments are made, these two essential factors combine. The word is systematically\n\nanalyzed into its elements as in writing, yet under such conditions\n\nthat the mind is not absorbed in the effort to reproduce each letter separately,\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCLATION\n\n404\n\nbut retains thruout an intuition of the word-form as a whole.\n\n[Elementary\n\nIt is\n\nbecause\n\noral spelling thus preserves the rhythm of the word in the very act of translating\nit into a series of letters, that it\n\nbecomes an indispensable aid to spelling.\n\nMechanically the problem of writing consists in the acquisition of exact\n\nand facile control over a highly specialized system of movements for which\n\nmuch less congenital preparation is made than is the case with the function of\nThe earlier\nspeech, and which is much later than the latter in development.\nof the child presents\n\nlife\n\ntwo classes of activities which afford preparatory\na general preparation in the gradual\n\ntraining for the process of writing:\nacquisition of control over bodily\n\nmovements at large, including those of\n\nhands and fingers, and a special training in the whole series of acts thru\n\nwhich the child attempts an imitative reconstruction of the external world.\n\nOf the latter the constructive play of the nursery is among the first to appear,\nalong with which arises the habit of imitating the social and industrial life\nof the home, and later dramatic plays in which complicated actions and situations are introduced.\n\nWhile the whole body is thus receiving training in a\n\nmultitude of movements, the mind is developing the general idea of imitative\n\nand constructive processes upon which all subsequent conscious adaptation\nis to\n\ndepend.\n\nUpon this preparation follows a variety of special occupations,\n\nat home and in the school, in which the child either playfully practices move-\n\nments later to be turned into account in writing, or seriously sets himself to\nThe molding and weaving,\n\nreproduce the forms of objects about him.\n\ncoloring and drawing work of the kindergarten brings the form of this training\n\nmore and more closely into relation with the specific features of writing, so\nthat, when the study of the new and largely uninteresting models is taken up\n\nin the school, the child has already\n\nhad a large amount of experience and\n\nexercise which can be put to immediate service in the new fimction he is to\n\nperform.\n\nEven with this preparation, method for beginners must be modified by\na regard for the fact that in both co-ordination and resistance the organism\nis still imperfectly developed.\n\nPractice should begin with the simplest forms,\n\nthe movements should be large and free, the most controllable medium should\n\nbe employed; and since the child is engaged in an occupation which induces\na general strain, conditions of fatigue are early set up, making it advisable to\n\nbreak the exercise by frequent intervals of rest.\nthis point is to interfere with, rather to\n\nthe writing habit\n\n;\n\nTo continue work beyond\n\nadvance, the child's acquisition of\n\nfor the object in learning to write is not merely to reproduce\n\nletters and combine them into words with ease and rapidity, but also to secure\n\nlegibility\n\nand beauty in the product.\n\nWriting\n\nis,\n\nindeed, taught in order\n\nthat a special medium for the free expression of thought may be provided, and\n\nfrom this point of view its single desideratum is freedom from friction; but\nsince this function is served only when the record thus made is communicated\nto some other mind, its primary requisite becomes legibility, which must\nchiefly be sought by the teacher, since ease and rapidity follow as the natural\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nresults of\n\nPSYCHOLOGY OF READING AND WRITING\npractice, but correctness\n\n405\n\nand grace can be attained only thru\n\nsystematic and persistent training.\n\nDISCUSSION\nStuart H. Rowe, head\n\nof department of psychology\n\nTeachers' Training School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\n—\n\n^As the\n\nand pedagogy, Brooklyn\n\nstandpoint of the paper has been\n\nrather introspective, this discussion is based rather on the experimental point of view.\n\nWe have considerable data from this point of view on the subject of reading, but not very\nmuch on the subject of writing.\n\nI\n\nhave examined carefully what we have, and will\n\nendeavor to give the chief points in as brief form as possible, and give them clearness.\n\nThe eyes see nothing while in movement.\n\nYou can easily test that by trying to see\n\nyour own eyes move while looking at a mirror; a possible exception being that a very\nsignificant stimulus may induce, or tend to induce, fixation of the eye at the point of stimulation.\n\ntime.\n\n^\n\nThe eyes are in movement, according to Erdmann and Dodge, from\nto ^^ of the\nOne fixation point is focused upon, then the eye is jumped to another, an inch or so\n\naway, and so on, according to certain haHts of casting forward and of inferring from what\nis\n\nseen.\n\nedge.\n\nThe first fixation in reading falls within the line, not at the extreme outside\nThe child's difl&culty in fixation is shown by his instinctive tendency to point to\n\nthe line or words being read.\n\nWhile the fixation point is focused upon, the eye gets an\n\nNo more time is needed\nBeyond or outside of that radius the eye may get an\n\nimpression from all letters within a certain radius of that point.\nfor five letters than for one letter.\n\nimpression sufficient to indicate the approximate length of a short word, or especially\n\nFor example, the child's confusion of \"what\" with \"that\" is due to\nSimilarly, if any of us should see the\nletters \"teleg,\" we should know that it must be either \"telegram\" or \"telegraph.\"\nIf\nprominent letter.\n\nthe fact that he sees only the h-a-i part of the word.\n\none did not fit, we should immediately infer the other.\n\nWords \"making sense\"\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\n—\n\nand letters making words can\nIn the range of clear vision it is the\n\nphrases or clauses\n\nbe read more quickly than those not thus connected.\n\nupper half of the small letters which is really significant.\n\nThere are other ways which the\n\nmind may use in interpreting letters; for example, the o may be regarded as a patch of\ndark with a light spot in it, and the e may be a patch of dark with two light spots in it.\nThe average angle of vision is found to differ according to the familiarity of the passages.\nWith unfamiliar passages it was found by Erdmann and Dodge to be three degrees and\nforty-five minutes; for familiar passages, four degrees and fourteen to five degrees and\nthirty-six minutes.\n\nIt is\n\nshown, in Dr. Dearborn's recent valuable investigation of this\n\nsubject at Columbia, that the fixation point is not absolutely immovable;\n\nthere are cer-\n\ntain vibratory movements probably of some value in determining significance of stimuli.\n\nThe eye may move back to re-read symbols which are not understood, are possibly misExperiments made by Mr.\ninterpreted, or to catch impressions which have been lost.\nWeigel, in the Yale Psychological Laboratory, go to show that the return movements of\nthe eye often go to point where the voice is speaking the words, presumably to catch lost\n\nimpressions.\n\nMesmer showed fifteen letters for one two-thousandths of a second.\n\nfound three exposures necessary\n\nto see the whole;\n\nsome persons took\n\nfive\n\nHe\n\nor more\n\nexposures.\n\nThe interpretation of the eye symbols and the interpretation of meaning go on simul-\n\n— not always.\n\ntaneously, but usually the eye keeps ahead of the meaning-\n\nIn oral reading\n\nthe expression normally would follow both the eye and the interpretation of meaning, but\n\nmay precede the meaning.\n\nThere are two complex fusions\n\n—one of the elements of the\n\nsymbols to give them unity, and the other of the words with the thought, making a complex\nprocess which baffles analysis and is doubtless different in different individuals.\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4o6\n\n[Elementary\n\nOn the basis of these original data, fancy plays and the higher mental processes are\nevoked; but all fancies which are recognized as inconsistent with the previously acquired\ntrend of thought, those that are ridiculous or impossible, are subconsciously rejected.\n\nThe success of the child in silent reading\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\nin interpreting\n\n— based then,\nis\n\non his success in getting the symbols; secondly, on his abiUty to let his fancy play\nabout the words suggested; thirdly, on his ability to stick to the data, ruling out or\nfirst,\n\ninhibiting all inconsistent or incongruous fancies.\n\nOral reading is to be distinguished from pronouncing.\n\nThe secretary who reads the\n\nminutes of a legislative body at break-neck speed, with no understanding, becomes a mere\n\npronouncing machine.\n\nThe child's success in oral reading depends,\n\naside from the\n\nfeatures just mentioned in connection with silent reading, first, on the purely mechanical\nability to reproduce combinations of sound, and, secondly, on the added ability to imitate\n\nthe expressive features of his talking processes.\n\nIn the light of recent educational theory, it is hardly necessary to say that interest and\nfeeling heighten the success of the reading process at every point, whether instinctive, imitative, or acquired.\n\n—\n\nFor one who is endeavoring to be both a scientist and a pedagog a hard stretch, I\nit may not be safe to yield to the demand for applications.\nI venture, however,\nthe following, as suggested directly by the results and investigations made, altho I acknowledge that other external considerations might render them inadvisable. The child should\nfrom the first be accustomed to pass his eyes along the line as he expresses meaning,\nespecially when he has the idea, but has not the exact form of the expression of the book or\nblackboard. This means that the child should not try to see every letter by fixating upon\nThis is not necessary, as we have already seen that he can see five letters\nit, especially.\nas quickly and readily, as one. Pointing to the line should be allowed, but not to the word,\nand much less the letter. Children will be aided by reading, not lists of disconnected\nwords, but sentences or phrases. The confusion, to which Professor McDougall alludes,\nof the processes of getting the symbols and of getting the meaning may be avoided by\ngiving the child in advance a familiarity with one or the other before he attempts to read.\nRapidity of reproduction, or at least the readiness on the part of the child to try himself,\nand to see if he can reproduce the meaning in the words of the book after a single glance,\nwill also aid in getting the maximum value out of the sense data furnished by the momentary\n\n—\n\nadmit\n\nfixation.\n\nThe significance of the upper part of the letter means that especial attention should\nbe given to that by the teacher, in order to show the children the feature which brands it\ninstantly.\n\nThe same attention should be given any significant part of a litter. It will be equally\nadvantageous to pick out significant parts of words, and as these are even more useful than\nsigns of letters, we have a still stronger argument for the phonograms.\nStories should be reproduced, and points or data omitted in a child's fancying should\nbe discovered, and the place should be shown him where mistakes have been made.\nTeachers should gradually increase the difficulty and amount of data given. Such selections and subjects as are adapted to the knowledge of the child and appeal to his feehng,\nwill be most productive.\n\nThe books should be held away from the eye to get the full benefit of the angle of\nThe farther away a distinct image can be gained, the readier the reading. Words\narranged in blocks, rather than in lines, would make it easier to take in more at a single\n\nvision.\n\nglance.\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nSTUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION\n\nDepartmcDt]\n\n407\n\nON THE STUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION AS A MEANS\nOF ACQUIRING POWER\nMISS GEORGIA ALEXANDER, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL OF SCHOOLS,\nINDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nIn modem education the tendency is to train for power thru self-expression,\nparticularly for expression thru the medium of art.\n\nThe emphasis that is now\n\nplaced upon the manual arts, including drawing and color, upon music, and\nespecially upon EngUsh composition, or expression in language, is indicative\n\nOf all these avenues of expression that of language is the\n\nof this tendency.\n\nAll thinking is done in words by a self-conscious mind,\nand the language that a man uses is the measure of his thought.\n\nmost fundamental.\n\nBy virtue of its very intangibiHty, language is the most direct mode of\ncommunication from soul to soul, and attains a power over the mind of the\nlistener beyond that of the more concrete expressions of thought.\n\nBeautiful\n\nas is Westminster Abbey, it has never swayed the hearts of men as has that\n\nhymn so often sung within its walls\nSo long Thy power has blest me, sure it still\nWill lead me on.\n\nThe first means of developing power is conceded to be association with\nThat man who has seen the majesty of the mountains, or the shimmer\nof the sea, who has known seedtime and harvest, has forever had his thoughts\nnature.\n\nennobled by the great thought of which these are but the symbols.\nalone does not suffice for the development of power.\nin a complete\n\nBut nature\n\nThe first man, Adam,\n\nenvironment of nature, contributed only negatively\n\nworld's advancement.\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nThe centuries thru which man has toiled since then\n\nhave testified that the curse of labor pronounced upon Adam was but a blessing\nin disguise.\n\nMan has learned that he earns not only his bread by the sweat\n\nof his brow, but his heaven also.\n\nLooking farther along, we see Abraham, a colossal figure towering over\nthe great plains of Moab, surrounded by nature, yet not subdued by it.\n\nThe\n\ncare of flocks has given him food and shelter, has established the family and\nthe altar.\nTruly, Abraham was a man of power.\n''The Hebrew patriarchs\nhad small Hbraries, I think, if any,\" says the Autocrat; \"yet they represent\nto our imaginations very complete ideas of manhood and I think, if we could\n;\n\nask in Abraham to dine with us men of letters next Saturday, we should feel\n\nhonored by his company.\"\n\nWe have, however, the greatest embodiment of power in that man who\nhas added to his personal experience with nature and in society the experience\nof the great men of all time, found in Hterature and in art.\n\nthe scholar is the man of power.\n\nwhom these forces met ?\n\nIs not\n\nIn other words,\n\nDavid a perfect example of one in\n\nDid he not have contact with nature, the discipline\n\nthat comes from labor and social intercourse, and in addition the culture of\n\nscholarship ?\n\nWe see him a shepherd lad wandering over the green hills\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n;\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4o8\n\n[Elementary\n\nof Judea, lying at night under the stars; a minstrel with music so sweet that\n\nhe comforts King Saul\n\n;\n\na warrior so mighty that his triumphs become a song\n\na king of wisdom so beautiful that he is forever the ideal of the Jews; but,\n\nabove all, the divine psalmist whose words express the most exalted thought\nof God ever conceived by man.\n\nDo we wonder that the man who was able\n\nthrough the alembic of his nature to distill such language from his experience\nin Ufe was the progenitor of Him who said, \"Consider the UHes ?\"\n\nWith this idea that the power of any man is dependent upon the viriHty\nof his thought, and that his thought is the product of his Hving, we have come\nto a new notion of the relative importance of a number of things in the school.\n\nThe old-time school, with its barren drill upon the three R's, has been incorporated into a fuller, richer school which attempts to develop the child by\ngiving him Hfe thru nature, labor, and scholarship, and by training him in the\n\nuse of language, the expression of that life in words.\n\nThis modem school is working under new conditions, the result of our\nrapidly increasing urban population.\n\nIts\n\nproblem is how, on the one hand,\n\nto give to the city child that association with nature\n\nand that discipline of\n\nlabor which his home environment does not supply, and how, on the other\n\nhand, to help him to realize upon the riches of literary culture with which he\nis surrounded.\n\nThe child from the city tenement has had no such experience\n\nwith nature as had the roving shepherd lad David, but he does have Tennyson\n\nand the ''flower in the crannied wall,\" and under happy conditions may just\nas truly know \"what God and man is.\"\nSo much for the nurture of power in the child. Perhaps I have dwelt too\nlong upon it; but the child in his lisping, and the statesman in his power,\neach delivers in speech just what he has garnered from living. It is common\nenough to hear \"No impression without expression,\" but \"No expression\nwithout impression\" is a truth more fundamental, and one that is peculiarly\ntrue of expression in language.\n\nThis modem school is consciously organized as a social communiJ;y in\n\nwhich each child as a member in full standing discusses his work freely and\nspontaneously with his fellows. This is in marked contrast to the old-time\nmethod in which the child recited his lesson from the book verbatim and\nsolely to the teacher, and was not encouraged to reorganize its thought and\n\nmake it fully his own.\n\nNow every lesson is consciously a language lesson, in\n\nwhich the teacher judges of the definiteness and accuracy of the child's concepts in arithmetic, in history, or in geography, by the aptness of the words\nin\n\nwhich he clothes them.\n\nMoreover, the child himself is helped to clarify\n\nhis thought in these subjects by expressing them in words of his own choosing.\n\nIn addition to this general work in language, there is usually in the day's\nprogram a period devoted exclusively to the study of EngHsh composition.\nDuring this period there is practice in short themes as the most efficient means\nof developing faciUty and power.\n\nThese themes fall into two main classes\n\nthe reproduction of classic models, and the composition of original exercises.\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nSTUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION\n\nDepartment]\n\nReproduction exercises are not,\n\nstrictly\n\n409\n\nspeaking, exercises in composition,\n\nbut they are invaluable in giving the child those necessary tools of composition,\nvocabulary, and style.\n\nSuch exercises, however, are irksome to the child,\n\nwho has naturally a passionate desire for self-expression.\n\nFollowing the\n\ndictates of modem thought in education, that a child best learns form, not\n\nas a thing apart in itself, but as a necessary and most convenient mode of\n\nexpressing his thought, original exercises have become the chief part of the\n\ncomposition work.\nof literary\n\nIn these he embodies all he has learned from the study\n\nmodels and from the more formal instruction in the making of\n\nsentences, rules of syntax,\n\nThus he reveals\n\nand the mechanics of writing.\n\nto his teacher just what he has mastered, both in thought and form, and better\n\nthan he could possibly do in any other way.\n\nThe\n\nrecognition that language serves a distinctly social purpose has\n\nThe child no longer bends\n\ntransformed the requirements in composition.\n\nover long essays on \"Friendship,\" or excerpts from encyclopaedias which\nneither he nor anyone else ever wishes to hear.\n\nRather, his exercise is the\n\nrecital of some Httle thing which he has found interesting in his daily life, and\n\nwhich he knows his schoolmates will wish to hear.\nFurther, the mode of delivery has also changed to meet this social require-\n\nment.\n\nIt is\n\nnow often oral, or, when written, it is directly addressed to some\n\nperson or persons.\n\nThis social training is most stimulating to the child and\n\nhelps him to find his place in the world.\n\nHe must present his thoughts not\n\nonly in logical order and in agreeable phrase, but also in that modulated voice\n\nand with that poise of body that accompany the speech of the well-bred.\nThe choice of subjects for this composition work is limited only by the\nexperience of the child and his power of comprehension. He talks or writes\nof what has appealed to him, and his teacher skillfully correlates his languageexpression with his observation work in his nature study and georgaphy, with\nhis manual work and his little home tasks, and with his culture work in history\nand Hterature. The child writes on the opening of the spring buds as he sees\nthem on his way to school, tells how he made a sled, or dramatizes an episode\nfrom his history lesson. Of these exercises the last kind gives him by far\nthe greatest deHght, because it affords his imagination free play.\n\nPerhaps letter-writing is the most distinctly social form of written com-\n\nA letter presupposes a person to whom it is addressed, and between\nwhom and the writer there is a common bond of interest. A letter from\nposition.\n\nHans Christian Andersen to his little niece, Marie, was given at the midyear\ntest to\n\nour fourth-grade classes which had been preparing to celebrate the\n\ncentenary of his birth, and they were asked to answer it.\n\nCopenhagen, June 14, 1850.\n\nDear Little Marie:\nI am in the country now as you are.\nlarge, red strawberries\n\nIt is so nice, and I liave had some strawberries\n\n—with cream. Have you had any\n\n?\n\nYesterday I went down to the sea and sat on a rock by the shore.\nwhite bird that they call a gull came flying along.\n\nIt flew right\n\nPresently a large\ntoward me, so that I\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4IO\n\n[Elementary\n\nfancied it would have slapped me with its wings; but, mercy on us, it said, \"Mamaree!\"\n\n\"Mama-ree!\" it said again, and then, of course*\n\"Oh,\" said I, \"then you bring me a\n\"Ya-ya! Ma-ma-ree, Ma-ma-ree,\" it said.\ngreeting from Marie, that's what it is, eh?\"\nIt couldn't say it any better than that, for it only knew the gull language, and that is not\nvery much like ours. \"Thanks for the greeting,\" said I, and off flew the gull.\nAfter that, as I was walking in the garden, a Httle sparrow came flying up. \"I\nsuppose you now have flown a long way?\" said I. \"Vit, vit\" (far, far), it said. \"Did\nyou see Marie?\" I asked. \"Tit, tit, tit\" (often, often, often), it said. \"Then you give\n\n\"Why, what's the matter?\" I asked.\n\nI\n\nunderstood that \"Ma-ma-ree\" meant Marie.\n\nmy greeting to Marie, for I suppose you are going back,\" I said.\n\n\"Lit, Ut\" (a little,\n\nIf it has not come yet, it will come later on, but first I'll send you this\n\nlittle), it\n\nrepHed.\n\nletter.\n\nYou may feed the little bird, if you Hke, but you must not squeeze it.\n\nNow greet for me all good people, all sensible beasts and all the pretty flowers that\nwither before I see them.\n\nIsn't it nice to be in the country, to paddle in the water, to\n\neat lots of nice things, and to get a letter from\n\nYour sweetheart,\nHans Christian Andersen.\n[Adapted from Dye's Letters and Letter Writing.]\n\nThe personal appeal of the letter was so strong that, tho many of the\nchildren had never seen the sea or the sea-bird of which he wrote, tho it was\n\na cold January day with ice and sleet on the ground, and, more than all, tho\nthey knew that Hans Andersen is dead, their power of imagination under the\ninfluence of the letter overcame all difficulties, and they responded astonishingly well.\n\nThe following is typical of many others of equal quality:\nIndianapolis, Ind., Jan. ii, 1905.\n\nDear Unkil:\nYes, I am in the country.\n\nI love to pick wild flowers.\n\nI found a bird nest full of\n\nyoung birds. But I dident touch them for fear I would make the bird angry. I was\nsitting, under the tree when presently the mother sparrow came and fed her young ones.\nThen she flew towards me and chirped. I could not understand. But after I got your\nI gave the message to the gull to\nletter, I knew that she brought a message from you.\ngive to you.\nAs you was speaking about strawberries and milk, I Uke to pick them\nmyself, put them in my own saucer, skim the cream of the fresh milk and put it on the\nberries, and have a little dinner.\nThen I am a fine lady with a cabbage leaf hat. I pretend my bare feet is two big white horses and I ride acrost the stream. Once a craw fish\npinched my toe and I fell down. I thought I would take a ride in the little boat, so I took\nthe boat down to the deep part and jumped in.\nI sailed smoothly for a while.\nBut\ndirectly I hit a rock, tumbled out and got all wet.\nYou may be sure that I never sailed in\nthat boat again.\n\nGood by Uncle Hans,\nFrom your niece, Marie.\n\nA recent experiment in story-telling in which the same picture was used\nin every grade,\n\nfrom the first thru the eighth, was an interesting one.\n\nThe\n\npicture chosen was the frontispiece to Henry van Dyke's Fisherman's Luck.\n\nin\n\nA study of the construction of the compositions showed a steady increase\npower and in complexity of thought and form from grade to grade. The\n\nchildren were allowed to write for as long a time as they chose.\n\nIn the second\n\ngrade the average composition contained three sentences;\n\nin\n\ngrade, nine sentences;\n\nin the sixth, twelve sentences;\n\nthe fourth\n\nand in the eighth.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nSTUDY OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION\n\nDepartment]\n\nfifteen sentences.\n\n41\n\nThe number of simple sentences decreased from 88 per\n\ncent, of the whole in the second grade, to 35 per cent, in the eighth.\n\nIn the\n\nand eighth grades the sentences were very long and involved,\nshowing that the child was grapphng with thoughts which he could not yet\nfully express.\nFrom the beginning the adverbial clause was used, but there\nwere not many adjective clauses until about the fourth grade, and then there\nsixth, seventh,\n\ncontinued to be about three times as\nclauses.\n\nthe\n\nIf this is universally true, as\n\nmany adverbial clauses as adjective\nit\n\nprobably is, it would indicate that\n\nmind instinctively uses the relations of time, place, and cause as more\n\nfundamental than embeUishments thru description.\n\nA further study of the papers showed an increase in imagination and\nthought power from grade to grade, developing markedly about the fourth\ngrade,\n\nand gradually rising to the sixth, but showing a decided decrease in\n\nthe seventh and eighth grades, where the child has grown self-conscious.\n\nIn\n\nthe earHer grades there was no past nor future to the stories, the social relations\n\nbetween the boys in the picture did not prompt explanation, and there was\na painful recital of just\n\nhow many fish each boy caught.\n\ninstances in any grade was the lunch omitted,\n\nIn very few\n\nand at night all had fried\n\nfish for supper.\n\nThe idea of an ethical purpose necessarily underlying every story was\nminds of many of the children. Carelessness and disobedience met sure and swift punishment.\nThe boy who\ndisobeyed his mother was stung by bees or caught on his own fishing-hook.\nThe children were significantly silent as to the rewards of merit, picturing\nevidently, tho unconsciously, in the\n\nthe world as it is often presented to them, that a child should be good anyway.\n\nIndeed, if one had the insight, one could by reading these spontaneous exercises\nfind all that the child has stored from his Hfe-experience.\n\nHe will express it\n\nthere in concrete form; just as in the psalms we find all the life of David:\n\nshepherd boy, minstrel, warrior, king, philosopher, poet.\n\nThe teacher's responsibility in this work cannot be overestimated. ''Who\n''The one who awakens.\" \"Who is the\nscholar?\" \"The one who answers.\" What responsibility then rests upon\nhim who dares to call forth a child's thought in language\nHow must he ever\n\nis\n\nthe Master?\" says someone.\n\n!\n\nconceive himself as creator and artist making for this child his spiritual body ?\n\nHe must have what Froebel has called the Glied-ganzes, the view of the\nwhole\n\n—and he must plan that\n\nthis child, his creation, shall fill it beautifully,\n\nNay more, he should gradually awaken his pupil\nto a sense of his destiny, that he may begin to mold himself in conformity\nto the great Ideal; so that day by day and year by year he may grow in foregraciously, unctiously.\n\nsight, in judgment, and in desire to serve the world.\n\nIn other words, that he\n\nmay become a man of power. And how shall you know a man ?\nConfucius: \"A man can never be hid.\"\n\nSays\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n412\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Emma L. Johnston, principal of Brooklyn Training School for Teachers,\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\n— once heard the President\nI\n\nof this Association say that to be excellent\n\na paper such as we have just heard should arouse opposition, should provoke debate.\n\nIf\n\nI had to judge Miss Alexander's paper according to this standard, I should have to pro-\n\nnounce it a failure, since there is no part of it with which I do not heartily agree.\nI take it that the main thought of Miss Alexander's paper was that thru three great\nforces man acquires power.\nThese forces are nature, work, literature, and art. It was\nto be expected that a person from Indiana would emphasize the third of these forces\nrather than the other two, since, according to a literary authority in that state, Indiana\nhas by actual count 22,837 authors. Let it be my province then to enlarge a little on\nMiss Alexander's theory regarding the potency of nature and work-, to give some homely\n\nway in which, thru practice in composition, both nature study and\nmanual training may be improved, and, in consequence, the learner's power may be\n\nillustrations of the\n\nincreased.\n\nWe have just heard that the effort to express thought in language clarifies the thought.\nNow, the effort to express thought regarding the phenomena of nature and the work of\none's hands makes more keen and accurate the observation of nature, and more precise\nand effective the work of one's hands. It is not the amount of educative material lying\nwithin reach of a man that educates him; it is the use he makes of some part of\nthis material, be it ever so small a part.\n\nThere were many roving shepherd lads in David's\n\nOn the other hand, I believe that\n\ntime, but how many could have composed a psalm ?\n\nfor a David born and bred in a city tenement day unto day would utter speech, and night\n\nunto night would show knowledge.\nmistake to think that because the woods and the fields have gone from the\nNature herself has fled. Nature is more than woods and fields. What the city\nteacher needs to do is not merely to plan for her pupils trips to park and country. These\nare good, but better still is it to cause her pupils thru exercises in speaking and writing to\nhear above the city's roar the still small voice of Nature.\nCold and heat, frost and dew, rain and snow, are as interesting in the city as in the\ncountry; the wind is as wonderful, mysterious in its effects; the thunder and lightning\nIt is a\n\ncity.\n\nNo matter how narrow the street, the sky with its changing colors,\nand its stars is visible above it to the child who has been taught to look up.\nIt is affectation to regard the products of the florist's care and skill as objects unfitted for\nuse in nature study. They may not be so good for studies in scientific classification, but\nthey are just as much to marvel at and to admire. The florist's window is a fruitful and\ninspiring theme for oral and written description to the class whose teacher knows how to\nas awe-inspiring.\n\nits\n\nclouds,\n\nutilize the educative material that is near at hand.\n\nThe poorest-paid teacher in the city\n\n—one flower—on her desk.\n— there not\n\ncan afford to have every day thru winter and summer a flower\n\nAnd the bean or the grain of corn sprouting in its Httle pot or its tomato can\n\n^is\n\n—a miracle wrought by that most\n\na miracle here just as there might be in a wide field\n\nmysterious power called Hfe ?\n\nI\n\ncan think of a hundred city sights, from the green-\n\ngrocer's stall to the wan moon appearing in the daytime, which, by being made subjects\nfor oral or written composition exercises in school, would attract the children's attention\n\nout-of-doors and teach them some of the rhymes of the universe.\n\nAltho we may not be able as yet, for reasons connected with school machinery of one\nsort or another, to give an effective school course in manual training, manual training will\n\ngo on inside and outside of school as long as children instinctively use whatever is within\n\nTops will be spun, marbles rolled, balls tossed,\nThe girl will fashion garments for her doll; the\nboy will whittle and carve, build and pull down. The country lad will have his chores,\n\ntheir reach for making and unmaking.\nkites flown,\n\nmud pies mixed and baked.\n\nthe city boy his errands, the girl her many domestic duties.\n\nBut the teacher of language\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "TEACHING NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PUPILS\n\n•Department]\n\nis\n\nneglecting this field of doing for the field of mere seeing and hearing.\n\njects for exposition\n\n413\n\nNo better sub-\n\ncan be found than those which are suggested by the commonplace\n\nplays and work of children.\n\nIn a certain new text-book in rhetoric I notice that the title\n\n\"How to Peel an Onion.\"\nA better lesson on the dignity of labor can be given indirectly thru an exercise in com-\n\nof one of the compositions serving as a model for children is\n\nposition than thru a sermon preached by the teacher.\n\nLet the girl explain clearly and\n\naccurately how to set a table and the boy how to make the kitchen fire, while the teacher\n\ncommends or criticises as gravely as tho the theme were \"SoHtude\" or \"Friendship;\"\nand the much-needed lesson will be given that \"who sweeps a room as by God's laws\nmakes that and the action fine.\"\n\nThe point I am trying to emphasize is this: In the old-fashioned school the titles of\nThe teacher could find a list of them\nin a standard text-book, and could either let her class make a choice from this list, or\ncould herself choose for the class. She had only to ask herself: \"Do my pupils know\nenough of this subject to write on it, or can I put them in the way of getting sufl5cient\nmatter for a composition on this subject?\" With the new conception of the aims and\nmethods of teaching composition has come a new and important responsibihty for the\nteacher of EngHsh. She must ask herself, not, \"Do my pupils know enough of this subject to write on it ?\" but rather: \"Do I want my pupils to know something of this subject ?\nWill their coming to know give them a richer and fuller life thru the operation of that\ndivine threefold force which, as Miss Alexander has so beautifully shown us, made David\nthe man he was?\"\ncompositions were pretty well fixed by tradition.\n\nWilbur F. Gordy, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\n\n—As have\nI\n\nsat and\n\nlistened to these superb expressions as to the best way of developing power by composition,\n\nI have felt encouraged.\n\nThe speakers have said about all that is to be said.\n\nI was much\n\n\"No expression without impression.\"\n\nGreat mental\npower should be cultivated, and then this great power to express by voice and pen should\nstruck with the central thought:\n\nbe increased.\n\nGive the child nature, Hterature, and art, and then teach him to express\n\nthat which\n\na part of his very being.\n\nis\n\nstructure, spelling, etc.\nis\n\nWe overemphasize the formal side —sentence\n—and sometimes are merely juggling with words; and the\nresult\n\na struggle to say something in a certain way without having much to say.\n\nThe great\n\npoint emphasized today is the cultivation of thought.\n\nThe social side must be developed. This comes thru subjects chosen for consideraand composition. The imagination must be developed. The child may\nthus identify himself with great persons and movements of the past. He may think of\nhimself as the Lady of the Lake, Ivanhoe, Perry, etc., and express himself as they might\ntion in study\n\nhave done.\n\nWe will in the future put our emphasis upon what the child has to say before\n\nhe tries to say it.\n\nThus we increase the spontaneity and his power.\n\nTEACHING OUR LANGUAGE TO NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING\nPUPILS\nGUSTAVE STRAUBENMULLER, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\n\nNEW YORK CITY\nThe great problem, confronting our general government, of distributing\nnow approximating 1,000,000, is a civic problem\n\nthe annual alien arrivals,\nof really\n\nprime importance;\n\nbut the greater problem of assimilating these\n\nforeign elements into our civic\n\nlife\n\nis\n\neducational in nature, and belongs\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n414\n\nespecially to the localities in which are to be\n\n[Elementary\n\nfound colonies wholly alien to\n\nAmerican civilization and American ideals.\nIn the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, 840,714 aliens arrived in the\nUnited States, and 606,019 of that number landed in New York. We find,\nanalyzing the report of the commissioner-general of immigration that\n\nin\n\n109,150 were under fourteen years of age;\nso;\n\n172,856 were illiterate or almost\n\n501,530 brought less than $50 with them; and only 90,000 of these people\n\nspoke Enghsh.\n\nThis report also proves that emigration was particularly\n\nheavy from coimtries with limited educational facilities for the masses.\n\nEach\n\none of the items enumerated above should appeal strongly to our educational\nauthorities, and should impel them to provide effective and expeditious meth-\n\nods for amalgamation.\n\nThe problem of assimilating great masses of people with different tongues\nand customs is not a new one\n\n—\n\n^not\n\neven in our country, where the Indian\n\nThe Russians, the Austrians, the French, and\n\nproblem still confronts us.\n\nthe Germans are engaged, with varying degrees of success, in teaching their\n\nlanguages and their customs to peoples foreign to them in vernacular and\nhabits of thought.\n\nThey, however, are contending with obstacles external\n\nto the school as a hindrance to rapid assimilation.\n\nwith pertinacity to its mother-tongiie\n\n;\n\nit\n\nA subjugated race clings\n\nfosters it in the home circle;\n\nand it\n\nencourages secretly, and often openly, the retention and cultivation of\n\nits\n\nvernacular.\n\nIn our country we have no external opposition to overcome; our problem\nis\n\nmerely one of internal school management.\n\nsubjects;\n\nOur aliens are not im willing\n\nthey have come to make their home with us, and do not actively\n\noppose efforts to teach them and their children the language of our country*\n\nNon-EngHsh-speaking people may be divided broadly, for our purpose, into\ntwo classes\nolder.\n\n—those that are under fourteen years\n\nof age, and those that are\n\nThe former will gravitate naturally toward the elementary school, and\n\nwill become\n\nour charges.\n\nA speaking and reading knowledge of English is one of the most effective\ninstruments in assimilation\n\n;\n\nand as these children not only present an oppor-\n\ntunity for the most effective work in assimilation, but are active agents in the\n\nsame cause with their elders at home, it is plainly our duty to devise ways and\nmeans of bringing our language, and hence our ideals, within their understanding.\nclasses\n\nfor\n\nIt is\n\nmanifestly the duty of educational authorities to establish\n\nnon-English-speaking children,\n\nto\n\nplace none\n\nbut competent\n\nlanguage teachers in charge of them, and to provide them with an\n\nelastic\n\nand adaptable, but definite, course of study.\nIn the schools of New York city, wherever possible, two distinct classes\nfor non-English-speaking children have been formed:\n\nthe one for those that\n\nare five, six, or seven years of age, and the other for those older who, by reason\nof\n\nmore mature development, can advance more rapidly and should not be\n\nplaced in the same class with the little ones.\n\nThe aim is the same in both\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PUPILS\n\nclasses, viz. :\n\nto give them such a knowledge of English as will enable them to\n\n415\n\nunderstand the spoken and written expression of thought, and give them the\nability to express their\n\nown thought in words either spoken or written, and\n\nto fit them as quickly as possible to enter a regularly graded class suitable to\n\ntheir age and mental development.\n\nThe mother-tongue of the child cannot be used as the intermediary for\nthe comprehension of English, because of the heterogeneous composition of\n\nEnglish must, therefore, be the language of the class-room,\n\nthese classes.\n\nand translations are out of the question for obvious reasons.\n\nThe conditions that confront the teacher of non-English-speaking children\nare:\n1.\n\nA class unacquainted with English sounds, and with little or no foundation of\n\nEnglish words on which to build.\n2. A class in which no one foreign common language can be used as a medium for\ncommunication between teacher and pupil.\n3. A class that may consist of two or more grades, each of which requires special\n\ntreatment.\n\nTHE teacher's TOOLS\nAs the instruction must be objective with beginners, illustrative material\nshould be abundant and should be used extensively.\nor action should not be given unless the object\n\nperformed.\n\nis\n\nThe name of an object\npresent or the action\n\nis\n\nChildren's toys may be used to illustrate objects that children\n\nare famiHar with, but that cannot be brought into the class-room.\n\nor models cannot be obtained, pictures\n\neven outline pictures on the board may be used.\npreferable at all times.\n\nIf objects\n\nand charts will prove serviceable;\nObjects themselves are\n\nPictures of scenes in the everyday life of the pupil\n\nare a fertile source of a working vocabulary, and supply abundant material\nfor conversation exercises.\n\nIt is advisable to\n\nbegin with the objects and the\n\nactivities of the school-room, as they are nearest and most accessible ;\n\nthen pro-\n\nceed to the parts of the body, to home activities, and the common objects\n\nfound there, including furniture and kitchen\n\nutensils.\n\nLater on, pictures\n\nillustrative of street scenes, river scenes, landscapes, or historic\n\noccurrences\n\nmay be used.\nSOME BASIC PRINCIPLES\nEnglish is a living language and must be taught for practical application.\n\nThe spoken language must be taught first.\nClear enunciation must be established by constant practice; it must become a habit.\nAt no time can the teacher afford to neglect this in himself. Slovenly pronunciation must\n\nnot be tolerated.\n\nAnswers must be given in complete sentences.\nInstruction must be objective.\nWords must be learned by direct association, that is, in connection with the object,\nidea, or action that they represent.\n\nWords must be learned by using them.\nThe order of teaching words and sentences should be:\n\n(i) meaning, (2)\n\npronuncia-\n\nand (4) writing; the idea must precede the word, the object and 1;he\nactivity must precede the name.\ntion, (3) reading,\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "6\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n41\n\nThe sentences of a lesson must be interrelated;\n\n[Elementary\n\ndisconnected and unrelated work is\n\nwaste time.\nAll grammatical forms must be taught concretely to develop what might be termed a\nfeeling for grammatical relations, an intuition for syntax, or, as it is expressed to a nicety\n\nin German, ein Sprachgefiihl.\n\nTranslations into the mother-tongue of the child, or vice versa, while at times desirable, is as a rule impracticable in our country,\n\nand when practicable should be indulged\n\nin sparingly.\n\nGestures and play of features are important aids in conveying ideas.\nPupils should not be interrupted while speaking; mistakes should be corrected after\nthe pupil has finished the statement.\n\nThe verb is the soul or substance of a sentence;\n\nteachers should learn to give more\n\nattention to the verb; the emphasis of instruction should be placed on the verb.\n\nCommon idiomatic phrases and expressions, the despair of the foreigner, should be\ncarefully selected and learned by practice in the use of them.\n\nPrepositions and their idiomatic use also call for particular attention.\nPractice, incessant practice, in speaking, in the actual use of the language, is the one\n\nway to learn how to use it;\n\ndiscreet silence on part of the teacher gives the pupil more\n\nfrequent opportunity to speak.\n\nSOUND AND SOUND PHYSIOLOGY\nAs the non-EngUsh-speaking child is bewildered by the sounds he hears,\nthe training of the ear and the vocal organs of these children is one of immediate necessity.\n\nIt is\n\na truth that spoken language is an imitative art, and\n\nthat young children learn sounds quickly and successfully by mere imitation;\n\nbut these foreign children have at times great difficulty in the perception, and\ntherefore in the proper utterance, of certain\n\nEnghsh sounds.\n\nTo train the\n\near to new sounds, the teacher must at all times speak slowly and enunciate\nclearly, for a pupil cannot imitate what he does not hear.\n\nTo train the pupil\n\nin proper sound-production, the teacher must know how speech sounds and\n\ntones are produced, must\n\nshow the proper position of the vocal organs in\nand then have frequent practice\n\nuttering sounds not familiar to the pupil,\n\non the elements and combination of elements.\n\nDirections for producing\n\nor uttering sounds are not to be memorized; distinct utterance is to be practiced.\n\nAs accent is a necessary element of correct pronunciation, and as\n\nforeign children frequently misplace the accent and thus mystify the hearer,\nattention must be given to proper accentuation.\n\nSounds should not be studied abstractly, but by analysis of words.\nfirst\n\nThe\n\nexercise should consist of hearing and repeating the spoken word of the\n\nteacher; the repetition is to be first by individual members of the class, then\n\nby the class.\n\nLet us suppose the time has come to isolate the sound of an\n\nindividual letter.\n\nIt will\n\nbe well to begin with sounds that may be easily\n\nprolonged, or made continuous, because the child can do this readily, and\n\nhence feels he has attained something when he does it.\n\nSelect\n\nsome word\n\nbeginning with the sound to be isolated, as \"in,\" \"ice,\" \"on,\" \"old,\" \"at,\"\n\"ate.\"\nrepeat.\n\nThe teacher pronounces the word distinctly; individuals and class\nThe teacher then pronounces the word again, and drawls or lengthens\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING N ON -ENGLISH-SPEAKING PUPILS\n\nthe letter to be isolated;\n\n417\n\nThe sound is then\n\nindividuals and class repeat.\n\nisolated from the word and sounded by itself.\n\nBlending of sounds is good practice.\nis\n\nBlending, according to Landon,\n\ngiving in succession the sounds of the various letters at\n\nfirst\n\nseparately,\n\nand then with more rapid utterance until they blend into what is required.\nA German writer suggests that, if the sounds of two letters are to be blended,\ntheir symbols should be cut out of pasteboard, held at a distance from each\nother, be\nto\n\nsounded separately, and then, as they are actually moved nearer\n\neach other, blended.\n\nBy another method the teacher sounds the letters,\n\nand the children blend them into syllables or words.\nThere must be drill on the clear enunciation of all letters with somewhat\nsimilar sounds, as d-t, b-p, g-k, f-v, s-z; on d and / in words ending in -nds,\n-fits, -cts; on the sounds of wh and w; on terminations usually mutilated, as\n-ness, -less, -ment, -ing; on the sound of r in such words as \"door,\" \"art;\"\non the sounds of v and w frequently interchanged; on the voice-sound and\n\nThe teacher must also be on guard not to permit the sub-\n\nbreath-sound of th.\nstitution of the\n\nsound of one letter for another, as / for th, sh for ch, or the\n\naddition or omission of any sound or syllable.\n\nAs\n\ntimidity\n\nis\n\nfrequently the cause of indistinct articulation,\n\nrecitation of sounds,\n\nconcert\n\nsound groups, and short sentences should receive some\n\nattention, to accustom the pupil to the sound of his own voice, to give confi-\n\ndence to the bashful, and to give more practice than is possible by individual\nrecitation.\n\nThe teacher can easily select a pupil who is not in harmony with\n\nthe others, and call upon him to recite individually.\nis also a good exercise,\n\nDeliberate whispering\n\nbecause it develops the articulating powers.\n\nNames of letters should be taught only after the sounds have been mastered,\nand the sounds and names of the letters should be taught in connection with\nwords whose meanings have been taught.\n\nORAL PJIACTICE\n\nWith non-English-speaking children, instruction at the beginning should\nbe largely restricted to oral practice in conversation exercises and objectlessons.\n\nThe object-lessons should consist in teaching the names of familiar objects,\n\nwhat they are, where they are, what they do, what can be done with\n\nthem, what their form, parts, and color are.\nbe what the name indicates\n\n;\n\nThe conversation lessons must\nThey may be based\n\nthey must be conversations.\n\non games, pets, nature work, stories, pictures illustrating scenes familiar to\nthe child, the family, the body, occupations of man, and,\n\nmore important\n\nthan these, the daily experience of a child, its home and school activities, such\nas rising, dressing, taking breakfast, going to school, recess, luncheon, going\n\nhome, and going to bed.\n\nThe object of conversation lessons on these topics is to give the pupil\nthe vocabulary of daily life.\n\nWhen the pupil is to read a connected story,\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4i8\nlet it\n\nbe composed of the foregoing material.\n\n[Elementary\n\nLater on, the^ reading-lesson,\n\nwhatever it may be, is made the basis for conversation lessons.\n\nEach of these\n\nconversation topics may be treated as a theme, or as a basis for a number of\n\nthemes, in which the sentences are interrelated.\nobjective language\n\nand a subjective language.\n\nGouin says there is an\n\nThe former translates the\n\nparts of the external world; the latter, the parts and operations of the soul.\n\nThus:\n\n\"Walk to the door,\" is objective language, while the teacher's com-\n\nment, \"That's it\n\nI\n\nThat's very good!\n\nThat's right!\" is subjective language.\n\nThese two languages progress side by side, one gearing or working into the other.\nAs we find children of different nationalities in the same class, the so-called\nnatural method of teaching languages, or some modifications of it, seems best\nfoundation for future work. The principal features of this\nThe mother-tongue of the pupil is excluded from the class-room.\nThe instruction is oral and objective. Pupils learn by imitation. The new\nfitted to lay the\n\nmethod are:\n\nvocabulary is associated directly with objects and actions, and impressions\n\nThe method consists largely of an exchange of questions\nand answers between teacher and pupil. Instruction is begun with short\nsentences; pupils are led to reproduce what they have heard; new words are\ngradually and singly introduced; words already learned are used as a basis\nfor the introduction of new ones; gestures and pantomime are necessary.\nThe oral instruction leads up to easy reading for which the pupil is thoroly\nprepared; grammar is taught in installments as necessity arises, and when\nare therefore vivid.\n\npupils are prepared to understand explanations in the\n\nnew tongue.\n\nAltho\n\na great many words can be illustrated concretely, there comes a time when\nthis is impossible.\n\nF. Przibilla suggests for the teachers' consideration the\n\nfollowing four helps in conveying the meaning of a word which cannot be\nillustrated objectively:\n1. By means of synonyms, a new word is explained by means of one already known,\n\"attempt\" by \"try,\" \"commence\" by \"begin.\"\n2. By analysis and synthesis\npartictjarly useful in explaining class names, as:\n\"Apples, pears, and plums are fruit.\"\n3. By derivation, derivative nouns, verbs, and adjectives may be thus explained, as:\n\"a wooden chair a chair made of wood,\" Compound words may be treated in a similar\nmanner.\n4. By paraphrasing and story-telling, an abstract term may be made clear by telling\na short story.\n\nas,\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAs it would become monotonous to devote the whole day to object-lessons\nand conversation, physical exercise, arithmetic, nature study, manual training,\nand music may be taken up for variety. The teacher, however, should remember that the main aim is not the content of these subjects, but the creation of\na many-sided interest for the sake of the language connected with them.\n\nHence greater emphasis must be placed on the new vocabulary than is necessary\nwith our own children.\n\nThe first lesson in a syllabus prepared by Superintendents Shimer, Haaren,\nand myself is as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PUPILS\n\n419\n\nThe class is assembled in the room for the first time. Children and teachers are\nThe teacher has before her a list of the names of her pupils. The teacher calls\na name John Smith. There is no response. The teacher, looking at the class, sees an\n\nseated.\n\n—\n\nexpression of self-consciousness on the face of one of the pupils, and perhaps notices that\nthe other members of the class are looking at that child.\n\nThe teacher, looking at this\n\nAs she says \"stand,\" she herself rises.\n\nthen says: \"John Smith, stand.\"\n\nchild,\n\nIf this\n\nchild does not understand, or if he shows timidity, the teacher calls the next name on the\n\nThe teacher again rises as she says \"stand.\"\nThe teacher proceeds in this way until children respond immediately; as they respond,\nlet the teacher indicate her approval by using some such expression as \"Good!\" \"Right!\"\nlist,\n\nand says: \"Peter Wagner, stand.\"\n\n\"Yes!\" \"That's right!\" accompanying the subjective expression with the proper look and\nNow five or six children and the teacher herself are standing. She\nnow says: \"John Smith, sit;\" and she herself sits. If John does not sit, let her pass to\ngesture of approval.\n\nthe next pupil; in each case, however, she should be careful to perform the action herself\nuntil there is a prompt response.\n\nThe children and the teacher are now seated.\n\nThe teacher calls again upon one of\n\"John Smith, stand.\" She looks at John Smith, and, pointing to him, says: \"Your name is John Smith.\" She calls upon another to stand, and says:\n\" Your name is William Jones.\" Thus she goes on until eight or ten are standing. Then,\npointing to herself, she says: \"My name is Miss X.\" Now, looking at a pupil standing,\nthe confident ones to stand:\n\nshe says: \"What is your name?\" Answer: \"My name is X. M.\" Teacher: \"Sit.\"\nThis is continued until each child has told his name and all are seated. The teacher must\n\nemphasize \"my\" and \"your.\"\n\nWords in this lesson: \"stand,\" \"sit,\" \"my,\" \"your,\" \"name,\" \"is,\" \"what,\"\nIn the next lesson the words \"I,\" \"you,\" \"all,\" \"class,\" \"walk,\" are taken up in\nthe same way.\nFinally the teacher gets the four interrelated sentences: \" I sit,\" \" I stand,\"\n\" I walk,\" \" I sit.\"\nThe pupil speaks the words while performing the actions, and the other\npupils\n\ntell\n\nwhat John is doing.\n\nThus, when John\n\nsays,\n\n\"I stand,\" they say \"John\n\nIt is only a short step to \"you sit, you stand,\" etc.\n\nstands.\"\n\nThus the teacher proceeds to add to the speaking vocabulary of the child\nuntil its knowledge of English approximately equals that of our own children\n\nof the\n\nsame age.\n\nIf\n\nwe give them a good speaking vocabulary at the very\n\nbeginning, it will result in a great saving of time later on.\n\nReading, writing, and spelling are taught to reinforce the oral practice.\n\nThe methods to be followed in teaching these subjects do not differ materially\nfrom those in vogue with our own children in reading, words must be sounded;\n;\n\nin writing, they must be spelled.\nit should\n\nAs far as the course of study is concerned,\n\nbe confined to the essentials plus such subjects as are needed to break\n\nthe monotony.\n\nThese children should not be kept too long in a class by them-\n\nselves ; as soon as possible they should be placed with English-speaking pupils.\n\nAn intelligent, enthusiastic teacher, imbued with the proper spirit and\nequipped with a few living principles of the art and science of languageteaching,\n\nmay undertake with a clear conscience the instruction of these\n\nchildren,\n\nwhose remarkable progress' in acquiring our language has always\n\nbeen a source of wonder to me, even when conditions were not quite favorable.\n\nThere must, however, be careful preparation; there must be no sham work,\nno uncertainty, no indefiniteness, no discursiveness.''\n*\n\nAuthors read and consulted in preparation: Dr. Leopold Bahlsen, Henry Sweet, F. Gouin. F.\nKaphahn. A. Wrege, A. Jelitto, P. Odelga, L. Witt, and\n\nRzesnitzek, F. Przibilla, Schulrath Folz, Dr. Karl\n\nDr. Edward P. Thwing.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n420\n\n[Elementary\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Ida Mighell, principal of Bryant School, Chicago, 111.\n\n—The trend of discus-\n\nsion thruout this convention shows how this subject grows in importance with our inrceas-\n\ning tide of immigration.\n\nNot the increased number only, but also the changed character\nSo long as only Teutonic peoples came\n\nof our immigrants affects the teaching of English.\n\nhere, the problem was simpler than it is now that most of our immigrants are of the Alpine\n\nand Mediterranean races, whose languages and customs are more unlike ours.\nTho the school has the advantage of dealing with the plastic minds of children, it is\nnot the only, nor even the chief, agency in training the child in speech. At the point of\nlanguage-teaching the school touches most intimately the home and community life of the\nchild.\nIt may prescribe what he shall know in mathematics, but the language he shall\nuse will be determined by a contest between his school influences and his social environment, wherein the latter will have the advantage by reason of greater numbers of influences and longer contact. Also these children live chiefly in the crowded sections of great\ncities, where overcrowded schoolrooms and half-day sessions prevail.\nThese restrict\nthat freedom in expression and the individual training which are essential in teaching\nEnglish, and require instead much mass work. Many of these children are physically\nweak or ill-fed. These are some of our limitations.\nThe great differences in natural power of learning language among the different\nnationahties require that methods of teaching English should vary accordingly.\nThe\nHebrew and Russian of our so-called \"Ghetto\" districts are natural linguists and are\ninterested in language for its own sake.\n\nTheir interest extends to language exercises that\nFor these, language may be made, in part, an end. Not so the\nCzechs or Bohemians, for example, who come here in great numbers. They acquire\nEngUsh slowly and use it chiefly under necessity. Our language must be mixed with\ntheir deepest interests, or it will be cast aside. Then these interests must be paramount in\nare essentially abstract.\n\nEnglish training as in all other lines of study.\n\nIn most cities the very great majority of non-English-speaking children enter school\nat five or six years of age.\n\nThese will be considered here.\n\nFirst the child must learn to\n\nTo do this, he must be immersed in the sound of EngHsh, to compel\nhim to think in the language, that he may not form the habit of translating. No agency\nspeak our language.\n\nis more helpful toward this end than the good kindergarten\n\nwhen adapted to this languageThe\n\nteaching; or, if that be unobtainable, kindergarten methods in early primary grades.\n\nconversational method of the kindergarten,\nits\n\nits\n\nencouragement of initiative, its freedom,\n\nvaried materials for use in occupations and games, are of value in teaching English.\n\nBut special language work must be done in such kindergartens. Emphasis must be placed\non the use of verbs and nouns in connection with the actions and objects of the child's\nexperience.\nChildren name the games they play and the acts they perform, and to carry\non these occupations they must combine these words into the expression of thought. By\nlistening, repeating the expressions of others, and using them under these natural\nconditions, a working vocabulary is built up.\nContinuing this work in the primary grades, the child commits to memory, and frequently repeats, stories and simple poems which include the forms of language to be\ntaught.\nThis acquaints him with the sounds of these forms and with their values in syntax\nin connection with ideas that are of vital interest to him.\n\nThe idioms of our language\n\nare best acquired in this natural way of hearing, repeating, and then using these expressions.\n\nIn this way much of the simplest and finest Hterature can be given to the child.\n\nLike learning music, the acquiring of EngUsh speech comes with incessant practice. But\nour best music teachers give their beginners practice on compositions that are worthy of\n\nThe aesthetic sense must grow with the technique of an art. So\nwe should give the child the best models from which to learn our language. In all teachstudy as well as simple.\n\ning of the non-EngUsh-speaking pupils the teacher must read orally and speak with far\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PUPILS\n\n421\n\nmore deliberation than is required in teaching others, lest the child fail to hear each syllable,\nand so be seriously retarded in his progress.\nReading must be taught only as a means of gaining thought. Considerable training\nin phonetics is needed to bring out sharply the sounds of letters and to insure perfect\nenunciation.\nAs pupils advance, language lessons, based on familiar Hterature, should\nbring out consciously to the child the forms and their uses which he has gained by imita-\n\nFrom hterature also should the study of grammar proceed in the\ngrammar grades. Methods of developing correct speech apply, in general, to\n\ntion in earher grades.\n\nhighest\n\nteaching composition.\n\nMuch time is wasted in correcting compositions apart from their\n\nCorrecting in the child's presence,\n\nwriters.\n\nor,\n\nbetter\n\nstill,\n\nleading him to correct his\n\nown work, helps to create in him a sense of correct expression which is lacking at first.\nFor this purpose blackboard exercises in compositions are very effective.\nThose who would postpone all study of literature until reading and language lessons\nhave enabled the child to read and interpret it for himself,\n\nwill\n\nprobably never reach\n\nliterature, simply because lessons about the language cannot take the place of the language\nitself,\n\nas employed\n\nby the best writers of simple literature for children.\n\nTheir works,\n\nread or told by the teacher, and read or committed to memory later by the pupil, enrich\nthe experience and set the pattern for speech.\n\nsons and form their basis.\n\nSo literature must precede language les-\n\nWe must make the children love the EngUsh thru their love of\n\nthe beauties which they find in its highest expressions;\n\nelse they will not feel that\n\nthey\n\nneed the language, until, after years spent on hated abstractions, they enter the business\nworld and feel keenly their lack.\nBesides hterature, most of the studies of the school curriculum furnish content for\ntraining in the use of English in addition to their informatory value.\n\nThe English he\n\nuses in expressing his thought in the geography, history, or nature lesson is the measure\nof his acquired power of speech.\n\nTo insure freedom of expression it is wise not to be too\n\nyoung child's speech. The substitution of the correct form\nwithout disturbing thought, and the occasional correction by repeating phrase or sentence,\nhelp to ehminate errors by degrees.\nThese content studies, including the new branches, save the child from the deadening effect of formal language work. And they must be followed for their content, not\nespecially of the\n\ncritical,\n\nmerely to furnish material for language lessons;\n\nelse the formalism will still inhere.\n\nWhen\n\nwe are asked of what use to him who speaks no English are the studies, miscalled fads, it\nis safe to answer that they give meaning and value to the English he must use in studying\n\nthem.\n\nThey connect language and all school work with life. Without them, formal\nForm must ever be subject to sense\n\nlessons are soon forgotten and much epergy wasted.\n\nor spirit.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Tuesday, July 4, 1905\nThe Department of Secondary Education met in the First Presbyterian Church,\nAsbury Park, on Tuesday, July 4, 1905, at 9:30 A. m. The meeting was called to order\nby the president, William Schuyler, assistant principal of the William McKinley High\nSchool, St. Louis, Mo., who, after the preliminary announcements, delivered an address\non \" The Schoolmaster.\"\nDr. E. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y., state inspector of high schools for the state of New\nYork, read a paper on the subject, \" Should the Twelve-Year Course of Study be Equally\nDivided Between the Elementary School and the Secondary School?\" The discussion\nof the subject was led by Frank H. Robson, headmaster, Bancroft School, Worcester,\nMass.; Christopher Gregory, principal of Chattle High School, Long Branch, N. J.;\nCharles L. Mosher, superintendent of schools. Canton, N. Y.; and Walter M. Kern,\nsuperintendent of schools, Columbus, Nebr.\nReuben Post Halleck, principal of Boys' High School, Louisville, Ky., read a paper\non the topic, \"Why Do So Many Pupils Leave the High School in the First Year ? How\nCan They Be Induced to Remain ?\" The discussion was led by J. Stanley Brown, principal of Township High School, Joliet, 111.\nClal-ence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools,\nRochester, N. Y. Isaac Thomas, principal of High School, Burlington, Vt. J. W. Searson, superintendent of public schools, Wahoo, Neb.;\nand Charles Allen Marple,\ndepartment of physics and Chemistry, South High School, Cleveland, O.\n;\n\n;\n\n;\n\nThe president appointed the following\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\n\nReuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky.\n\nCharles L. Mosher. Canton, N. Y.\nErnest Clapp Noyes, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\nOn motion of Dr. C. A. Herrick, the following was adopted:\nResolved^ That a standing committee of five members of the Department of Secondary\nEducation be appointed by the president elected in 1905 to consider the question of dividing the twelve years given to elementary and secondary education equally between\nelementary and secondary schools.\n\nOn motion of Dr. E. W. Lyttle, the following was adopted:\nResolved, That a committee be appointed by the president elected in 1905 to consider the subject of securing proper professional preparation for high-school teachers.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nThe meeting was called to order by President Schuyler at 9 30 A. m.\nThe report of the special committee on \"Secret Societies in Secondary Schools,\" by\n:\n\nGilbert B. Morrison, chairman, was read\nsion, the report\n\nby the secretary. After an animated discusand the resolution accompanying were adopted as the expression of the\n\ndepartment.\n\n423\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n424\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following:\n\n—\n\nFor President Eugene W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y.\nFor First Vice-President Wilson Farrand, Newark, N. J.\nFor Second Vice-President Edwin Twitmyer, Bellingham, Wash.\nFor Secretary Philo M. Buck, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the gentlemen named were declared\nelected as officers of the department for the ensuing year.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned to attend the different conferences as follows\nA. Principals Conference. Topic: \"Should the Time and Energy of High-School\nPrincipals Be Taken up with Administrative Work to the Exclusion of Instruction?\"\nLeader, Walter B. Gunnison, principal of Erasmus Hall High Schbol, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\nTopic: \"Aims of English' Teaching: (o) Composition;\nGrammar; {d) Literary Criticism and Appreciation.\" Leader,\nPhilo M. Buck, department of EngUsh, WilUam McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nC. History Conference. Topic: \"What Facts of History Should be Taught Pupils\nin Secondary Schools That They May Better Understand the World They Live In?\"\nLeader, James SulUvan, head teacher of history. High School of Commerce, New York city.\nB.\n\nEnglish Conference.\n\n(6) Rhetoric;\n\n(c) Advanced\n\nD. Mathematics Conference. Topic: \"Individual Instruction in Algebra and\nGeometry.\" Leader, Franklin T. Jones, science and mathematics, University School,\nCleveland, Ohio.\nE.\n\nClassics Conference.\n\nSchool Work.\"\n\nTopic:\n\n\"The\n\nCollege\n\nRequirments and the Secondary-\n\nLeader, J. C. Kirtland, Jr., professor of Latin, Phillips Exeter Academy,\n\nExeter, N. H.\nF.\n\nModern Languages Conference.\n\nTopic:\n\n\"The 'Direct Method' of Teaching.\"\n\nLeader, Ernst Wolf, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nWilson Farrand, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTHE SCHOOLMASTER\nWILLIAM SCHUYLER, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL OF WILLIAM MCKINLEY HIGH\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nWe schoolmasters meet year after year to discuss what we can do for our\nWe have made great progress in many ways by so doing; but it is\n\npupils.\n\nwell occasionally to\n\nremember that \"charity begins at home,\" and to turn\n\nour attention to that ancient but important question: \"What can we do for\nourselves ?\" What can we do for ourselves, not as schoolmasters, but as men;\nnot as mere sources of knowledge, or as organizers or administrators of educational institutions, but as\nshort, as men of the world\n\nhuman beings who have to live in this world; in\n^not men of the world in the lower meaning of the\n\n—\n\nterm, but men who know the world thoroly, and can get out of it all that is\nbest\n\nand highest and noblest?\n\nAnd we should consider this, not only for\n\nour own comfort and pleasure in our personal life outside the school, but also\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE SCHOOLMASTER\n\nDepartment]\n\n42$\n\nFor he is\n\nin its ultimate effect on us in our special work as schoolmasters.\n\nthe best master\n\n—other things being equal—who\nevery schoolroom— a\nschool—\n\nof his school\n\nthoro man of the world.\nIt is a\n\ntruism that e,very\n\nis\n\n^nay,\n\nis\n\nthe most\n\nlittle world,\n\nand the better the schoolmaster is acquainted with the great world outside\nwith its heights and its depths, its hghts and its shadows, its virtues and its\nvices, its glory\n\nand its woe\n\n—the more he can make\n\nbecome like the great world,\n\nworld of his\n\nthis little\n\nand the better will his pupils be prepared when\n\nthey go forth to fight the battle of Hfe.\n\nEspecially is this true of us teachers\n\nwhose pupils are just about to\nand already know more of the world than some of us\nimagine, and who judge us, and judge us severely, according to our knowledge\n\nin secondary schools, the great majority of\nfinish their school life,\n\nor ignorance of that world they see opening before them.\n\nFor ages the schoolmaster has been the butt of satire and caricature, and\nthe honorable name of pedagog has become in the mouths of many a term of\nreproach\n\n—\n\nor,\n\nwhat is worse, the theme for cheap wit.\n\nAnd, if we\n\nwill\n\nbe\n\nhonest, we must see that there is good cause for this.\n\nToo great devotion to any profession always tends to narrow a man\nto lead him to substitute the special aims of his own particular work for the\ngreat aims of humanity, to substitute his own special standards for those\naccepted by the world at large.\nis most liable to this danger.\n\nAnd of all professions that of teaching\n\nIn the first place, there is the fascinating absorp-\n\ntion in one's special subject, which only too easily degenerates into pedantry\n\nwhere the means take precedence of the end to be attained\nis\n\n;\n\nand then there\n\nthat constant association with immature minds which, if not counteracted\n\nby a broad and varied outlook, ends in making the schoolmaster narrower\nand pettier in mind than the children he tries to control, for they at least are\ngrowing while he is drying up is fossilizing. The teacher who yields to\nHis little\nthese deleterious influences soon becomes the pedagog of satire.\nworld becomes to him the only world the little peccadillos and shortcomings\nof his pupils become in his eyes grievous sins and crimes; he is unutterably\nshocked by any irregular manifestation of the exuberant vitality he is trying to\ncontrol, and he does his best to stifle all free life and progress by his petty\nand annoying rules and requirements. To use an expressive slang phrase,\nhe may be able by constant effort to \"keep the lid on\" the seething cauldron\n\n—\n\n;\n\nof his school or class;\n\nbut his pupils soon learn that his outlook is limited\n\nand insufficient; they despise him for his ignorance of what they already\nknow; they hate him for th^ petty injustice of his regulations and the narrow\n\nand the stronger characters among them, the\n\"bad boys\" socalled, consider it a meritorious act to beat him, or even cheat\n\nexactions of his requirements;\n\nhim, at every opportunity.\n\nBut let the schoolmaster be a true man of the world;\n\nlet\n\nhim know all\nsuccumb to;\n\nthe temptations that not only children, but even grown people,\nlet him know^and feel the\n\nmanifold desires that moye human beings to noble\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n426\n\nand ignoble deeds;\n\nlet him view\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe wondrous drama of life in its entirety\n\nthen he will see that in the httle world of school nothing is fatal; that the little\nsinner of today becomes the good man of the morrow; that not by horrified\nrepression, but\n\nby sympathetic encouragement, he can develop his young\n\nbarbarians into efficient members of civilized society.\n\nHe will also see that\n\na youth will need something more than a mere mnemonic knowledge of his\ntext-books, something more than the ability to pass his examinations in order\n\nmake his way in the world efficiently and nobly. And that something\nmore can only be developed, not by what the schoolmaster says, but by what\nhe is, by his personality. For children learn, as we all know, most thru\nimitation, and they can have no better preparation for the world than the\nto\n\nunconscious imitation of a true man of the world.\nIt is just\nit\n\nis\n\nas easy for the schoolmaster to become a man of the world as\n\nfor anyone.\n\nIt is\n\nHis\n\nmainly the matter of choosing his associates.\n\nmany different callings as possible.\n\nassociates should be of as\n\nschoolmaster should be, above\n\nall things,\n\na social being;\n\nThe true\n\nhe should be at\n\nhome in the society, of merchants, mechanics, artists, journahsts, musicians,\nAnd he can be at home with\nlawyers, doctors, poHticians, and clergymen.\neach of these, if he cultivate an interest in those things which constitute their\nlife-work.\n\nEven where the circumstances of the schoolmaster are such that he cannot\nassociate himself directly with all forms of this varied life of the world, he can\n\nalways reach them thru great literature and art, wherein the world from age\nto age records its experience and sets forth its ideals.\n\nOutside of the direct\n\ncontact of actual life, there is nothing more broadening, more humanizing,\n\nthan a close and loving acquaintance with the great masterpieces of human\nexpression, not only those of our own time and country, but those of other\n\nlands and of bygone days.\n\nAnd yet many schoolmasters allow increasing\n\nabsorption in their daily tasks to cut off from this source of spiritual nutriment\n\nwhich meant so much to them in their youth.\n\nOf course, we cannot expect of one poor schoolmaster that he should be\nequally interested in every form of human activity;\n\nfor instance, that, not\n\nhaving an ear for music, he should be the chosen comrade of musicians, or\n\nan enthusiastic admirer of Beethoven's symphonies; but that is the ideal;\nand the nearer one approaches it, the better man of the world will he be yes,\n\n—\n\neven the better schoolmaster.\n\nFor if a man try to develop all his capabilities,\n\nhe will be surprised at possibilities in himself he had never dreamed of; and\nif he keep a broad outlook,\n\nhe will find that he can sympathize even where he\n\ncannot fully understand and appreciate.\nIt is this understanding, this appreciation, this sympathy, that distinguishes\n\nthe true man of the world from the narrow specialist, or the provincial;\nit is\n\nand\n\nthe same understanding, appreciation, and sympathy which will change\n\nthe schoolmaster from the absurd pedant of satire and caricature into what\n\nhe should be\n\n—a guide, counselor, and friend.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "—a\nTHE SCHOOLMASTER\n\nDepartment]\n\n427\n\nThere is an unfortunate tendency in some quarters at the present time to\nconsider the profession of teaching as something apart from the ordinary\nvocations of mankind, as endowed with a peculiar code of ethics considerably\n\nabove that of the world at large.\n\nBut this pharisaical, \"holier-than-thou\"\n\nattitude is fatal to the highest efficiency of the schoolmaster, whose business\nis to prepare his charges, not for another world\n\n—that belongs\n\nto the church\n\nbut for this world in which they must Hve and move and have their being. If\nhe insists upon standards different from those of the world about him, his\npupils, who are beginning to know the world, will judge him by those stand-\n\nards, and will consider him an antiquated or unpractical fellow whose admo-\n\nnitions have\n\nno real value; and so\n\nhis influence will\n\namount to little or\n\nnothing.\nIt\n\nmay be said here that, in spite of the screaming headlines of the yellow\n\njournals, in spite of ''Frenzied Finance\" and boodle exposures, the generally\n\naccepted ethical standards are neither dishonest nor debasing, but are as\n\ngood as can be expected at this time in this finite world of ours.\na truism that each era\n\n—each race even—has\n\nits\n\nIt is also\n\nown ethical standard, evolved\n\nby pecuUar temperament and circumstances; and it is not the part of the\nschoolmaster to pose as an exemplar of the ancient Israelitish ethics, of the\nantique Greek or Roman, of the mediaeval ascetic or the modem puritanical,\n\nnor of any fossilized code of morals, no matter how excellent and suitable\nthey may have been in their own time and place; nor should he construct or\n\nadmit a peculiar code applying especially to members of his vocation, as if\nthey were of finer or more fragile clay.\n\nBut he should be simply a man\n\n—\n\ntrue man of the world of his time, an American gentleman in all which that\n\nterm impUes and his reHgion, what it may please God.\n\nWe all know, or should know, what are the best ethical standards of our\ntime and coimtry; and that, in America at least, they are not mere empty\nprofessions\n\nis\n\nshown by the universal esteem and honor accorded to every\n\nman who consistently tries to live up to them.\n\nAnd a man does not need to\n\nbe a schoolmaster or a clergyman in order to satisfy them.\n\nThe schoolmaster then will be most efficient, both for his own and his\npupils' good, who has the most knowledge of the world as it is and as it has\n\nbeen.\n\nBut in obtaining this knowledge he must become the master, not the\n\nslave, of the world.\n\nHe will be like those pilots who know every reef or rock\nHe will then\n\nin the channel, but whose barks have never been shipwrecked.\n\nbe a guide, who can point to the loftiest heights and noblest vistas in the path\nof Hfe, and at the same time reveal the obstacles and abysses that are on every\nside.\n\nHe will be a counselor, whose advice will be heeded, because his charges\nhe knows whereof he speaks. He will be a friend, whose broad\n\nfeel that\n\ncharity will bear with failure and even perversity, and whose wise sympathy\nwill draw erring hearts to him for comfort and aid.\n\nLike St. Paul, he will be\n\n\"all things to all men, that he may by all means save some.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n428\n\n[Secondary\n\nSHOULD THE TWELVE-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY BE EQUALLY\nDIVIDED BETWEEN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND\nTHE SECONDARY SCHOOL?\nE. W. LYTTLE, INSPECTOR,\n\nSTATE OF NEW YORK, EDUCATION DEPARTMENT,\nALBANY, N. Y.\n\nTo those worthy men who believe that educators should follow, and not\nattempt to lead, pubHc opinion in matters educational, it may seem absurd\nto say at the outset that this discussion will not concern itself with material\n\nequipment nor with material obstacles.\nCertainly there are in every pubKc-school system serious obstacles to such\n\na change as that proposed in this discussion\ninsurmountable.\n\n;\n\nbut they are temporary and not\n\nA nation that pays its teachers $160,000,000 annually and\n\ndiscards milhons of tons of costly machinery each year, not because it is worn\nout, but because something better is on the market, will not hesitate long to\n\ndrop two of the eight elementary grades,\n\nif\n\nonce\n\nit\n\ncan forsee a gain in\n\nefficiency.\n\nMany here present can remember the day when few communities supported\nToday in New York state there are few villages of 500\n\nfree high schools.\n\ninhabitants that do not maintain a partial high-school course,\n\nand almost\n\nno villages of 1,000 inhabitants that do not support a full four-year academic\nTo do this sometimes calls for a school tax rate of i J to 2 per cent.\nschool.\nConditions in New York state are typical of those thruout the nation.\nThe first free pubHc high school was established in Boston in 182 1; in i860\nthere were only 40 free high schools in the United States; in 1880 there were\n\n800; and in 1900 there were 6,005, enrolling about 500,000 pupils.\n\nWhatever the declaration, *'A11 men are created free and equal,\" meant\nit means now to the great body of the American people\n\nto the men of 1776,\n\nequality of opportunity;\n\ntranslated into educational terms,\n\nit\n\nmeans a free\n\nhigh-school education for all who can avail themselves of it, and it will mean\nfree college and free university within the coming century.\n\nTo begin to understand what should be, it is proper to inquire how things\nare, and how they came to be what they are.\n\nOf fifty-two states and territories, five provide an elementary course of\nnine years;\nyears;\n\nthirty-eight,\n\na course of eight years;\n\nseven, a course of seven\n\nand two, Maryland and Georgia, a course of six years.\n\nThus it\n\nappears that eight years for the elementary course is so widely adopted as to\n\nbe considered normal.\n\nBut secondary education generally begins in Europe\n\nat the age of eleven or twelve.\nStates.\n\nIt once began at about that age in the United\n\nWhy is it that the years of elementary education have been prolonged\n\nin the United States ?\nIt is not\n\neasy to procure statistics or data, but fortunately the process of\n\nevolution or devolution is still going on and may itself be studied.\n\nThe eight-\n\nyear grade course is the resultant of two forces working in partial opposition,\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TWELVE-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n429\n\nand in consequence the child has lost speed. There are yet many communities\nin the United States where the academy or private school supplies all the\nsecondary education. There exist in these same communities free taxsupported grade schools. Almost never do these two kinds of schools work\nEven teachers are sometimes jealous; and the ideals of the\nin harmony.\n\nacademy and of the grade school differ widely. The grade school is dominated\nby a board of business men who wish the school to teach nothing that is not\npractical, and in the narrowness of their vision they insist that the three R's,\nwith much geography and a little United States history, are about the only\nThese practical studies must be pursued with a vigor and\npractical studies.\na thoroness that totally disregard the variety and scope of adolescent interests.\nThe arithmetic must be learned from cover to cover. Perfect spellers, good\nreaders, and accomplished penmen, pupils who have memorized their geographies and learned much that is not true, are ideal scholars.\nIf, in addition to these accomplishments, so greatly desired and so rarely attained,\nsome smattering of an impossible bookkeeping is added, some facility in\ndealing with the mysterious ^'s, ^''s, and z's of algebra, some knowledge of\nthe various battles and sieges of the various wars in which the United States\nhas engaged, that constitutes a practical education and is the broad foundation\n\non which the youth may aspire\n\ncompany at\n\nleast.\n\nhigher ambitions.\n\nThe\n\nteachers in\n\nto\n\nbe president\n\n—\n\nof a\n\nthese grade schools\n\nlife-insurance\n\nsometimes have\n\nOften they half surreptitiously teach other and better\n\nthings than the board knows of; but both teachers and board insist on holding\n\nback the pupil from the academy with its Latin, its Greek, its science, and its\nfolderol, until perfection shall have been gained in the fundamentals.\n\nthe elementary course\n\nis\n\nThus\n\nlengthened to meet the needs of that imaginary\n\nquantity, the average pupil.\n\nIn one school personally known to the writer\n\nthis elementary course has been gradually lengthened to ten years, of which\n\nThe pupils tire of endless repetitions and treadmill\nThe boys seek employment in the store, in the factory, or on the\n\ntwo are certainly wasted.\nreviews.\n\nfarm, and the girls watch out for beaux.\n\nSchool days are over.\n\nAt the head of the academy that exists in the same village is a college\ngraduate; his teachers are college graduates; his board of trustees are for\nthe most part college graduates.\n\nThe teaching of practical things does not\n\nappeal to the average college graduate, who is possessed of the larger truth\nthat the very best practical education\n\nis\n\ncharacter-building.\n\nThe academy\n\ntrustees glory in the fact that theirs is a college preparatory school, and in the\n\nnumber of graduates that pass from their school to college.\n\nUnfortunately,\n\nthey do not see that character may be built by other studies than Latin and\n\nGreek, and that their school should occupy a much broader field than that of\ncollege preparation.\n\nThe teachers in this academy do not wish to teach\n\nelementary English branches, and the trustees provide no course for young\n\nNor is the public inclined to pay even\nmoderate tuition, when schooling may be had free in the tax-supported school.\n\npupils that appeals to the public.\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n430\n\nBy and by the academy dies from lack of root-nourishment.\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe community\n\nsoon recognizes the necessity for higher education and establishes a free high\n\nBut the eight or nine or ten years of grammar-school instruction has\n\nschool.\n\ncome to be the accepted standard period for elementary education. Textbooks, teachers, and machinery for the long course have been provided, and\nit persists as a monument of educational folly and ignorance.\n\nThe above portrayal is in part real, in part imaginary, but is true as regards\nwhat occurred quite generally during the latter half of the last century; and\nthe process is not yet complete in some remote sections. The mistakes of the\nEast have been copied by the pioneers of the West,\n\nThe result is an eight-\n\nheaded monster with nine or more Hves.\nTeachers should not pose as\n\nDon Quixotes charging the windmills of\n\nestablished institutions, but they need to have no respect for windmills\n\nif\n\nmotors will be more efficient; for in education, even more than in\n\nelectric\n\nbusiness, the highest efficiency\n\nmeans the truest economy.\n\nIn the school,\n\nmore than anywhere else in the world, \"time is money,\" and much more than\nmoney.\nIs there any pedagogical point where secondary education should begin ?\n\nThere is.\n\nSecondary education should begin as soon as the elementary pupil\n\nhas acquired the tools with which he may gain a higher education.\n\nApproxi-\n\nmately this point in civiUzed countries very nearly coincides with the dawn\nof adolescence.\n\nWhat are the tools with which a higher education may be acquired?\nRoughly estimated, they may be stated as follows:\nAbiUty to read the news items of the ordinary newspaper inteUigently.\n1.\nAbility to express in words the thoughts gained from reading.\n2.\n3.\n\nAbiUty to express in writing the thoughts gained from reading or from\n\nconversation.\n4.\n\nAbility to express, however imperfectly, concrete images by drawings.\n\n5.\n\nAbiUty to perform ordinary arithmetical computations thru long\n\ndivision\n\nand common fractions.\n\nIf, in addition to these abiUties, there be gained\n\nsome skill in the purposeful\n\nuse of simple tools, Uke the needle and jack-knife, and a fair readiness in\n\nreading at sight simple music, the elementary school will have completed its\n\nproper work.\n\nIncidentaUy the pupil wiU have acquired more or less knowledge\n\nof geography and nature, of myth and Uterature.\n\nAs a matter of course, he\n\nwill have increased his self-control and his power of self -direction.\n\nThe elementary school may very properly confine its largest energies to\nsense-training and to the memorizing of those conventional forms of knowledge\n\nnecessary to civiUzed Ufe.\n\nBeyond this point secondary education should\ncom-\n\nbegin, tho elementary instruction should be continued and brought to\n\npletion, not thru tiresome reviews, but thru appUcation to fresh subject-matter.\n\nThere should be no violent break in the course of study, no flinging of the\nchild into waters beyond his depth, but a readjustment of discipline and study\nadapted to approaching adolescence.\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE TWELVE-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n431\n\nWe have all noted the marked mental changes that occur in boys and girls\nin the ages\n\nAmong the most noticeable of these\n\nfrom twelve to fourteen.\n\nchanges, and among those that concern the teacher most deeply, is the restiveness and lawlessness that\n\nmark the dawning consciousness of power, the\n\nsupersensitiveness to criticism, the reticence and variability of a mind trying\nto find itself.\n\nThe child is trying to throw off the restraints of childhood\n\nand has not yet acquired self-control. This age is well characterized as the\nmost unlovable, and yet the most in need of love, appreciation, and sympathy.\nIt is the age when the largest percentage of criminal careers is begun; it is\nAt this stage of\nalso the age of the greatest number of religious conversions.\nchild-life\n\ndeceit,\n\nparental control\n\nis\n\nmost Ukely\n\nto\n\nbreak down completely.\n\nby sheer insubordination, or by passive\n\nwishes are disregarded.\n\nindifference,\n\nBy\n\nthe parents'\n\nBoys, particularly, resent their mothers' cautions,\n\navoid the society of women, hate to be tied to any woman's apron-strings.\n\nThis is the age that needs the most cautious and firm discipHne, and the most\n\nmature judgment for guidance.\n\nIt is almost safe to say that no one who has\n\nnot been educated by actual parenthood is fit to deal wisely with this adolescent\n\nand yet this age, perhaps more commonly than any other, is intrusted\nWhat bond of sympathy can possibly\nexist between that boy of thirteen who wants to run away from home, fight\nIndians, sleep out of doors, play baseball or football, hunt and fish, do\n\"stimts\" in running and swimming, and that normal girl graduate who\ndreams of lovers and dances and dresses ? These two are mental and spiritual\n\nlife;\n\nto the callow young normal graduate.\n\nantipodes.\n\nShe loves a cat; he, a dog.\n\n—\n\nWhat are some of the results of this we will not say feminizing, but\npuellizing of adolescent education ? The active boy of fourteen, with his\nfreedom of movement, often knows more of the real world than his teacher.\n\nHe longs to be with men.\n\nHe says:\n\n**The world, with its factories, its stores,\n\nand its farms, is a better teacher than this girl. I will left-right for her no\nMy down sitting and mine uprising shall henceforth be at the behest\nlonger.\nof mfen.\"\n\nIn consequence, many high schools graduate three or four times\n\nas many girls as boys.\n\nIndeed, the boys are prone to leave school before the\n\nage of high-school entrance.\n\nBetween the ages of thirteen and fifteen in\n\nSt. Louis and Chicago, and between the ages of fourteen and sixteen in Boston,\n\nthe withdrawals from school each year are from 20 to 40 per cent, of the total\n\nenrollment.\n\nWithdrawals are most numerous in the sixth and seventh grades\n\nin St. Louis, and 34 per cent, of those who withdraw leave not from necessity,\n\nbut from lack of interest.^\n\nEducators are challenged to study the statistics of elementary education\nalmost anywhere in the United States and from them establish the claim\nthat the eight-grade system is a success.\nPsychologists are challenged to\nstudy the phenomena of adolescence and find, if they can, any justification\nfor the eight-grade system of elementary education.\n'\n\nSee C. M. Woodward, \"When and Why Pupils Leave School,\" in Reports of the United States Com-\n\nmissioner of Education, 1895-96 and 1899-1900.\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n432\nIt\n\nISecondary\n\nmay properly be claimed that simple fault-finding is the easiest and\n\none of the most detestable of vices. Admitting that the eight-grade system\nhas its defects, would a six-year high-school course extended downward be\na good remedy ?\n\nIf schoolmen can free themselves of the idea that the second-\n\nary school should be modeled on the lines of a college-preparatory school, if a\n\ncurriculum of secondary education can be built that will meet the needs of\nthe large majority that will never participate in college\n\nlife,\n\nit\n\nmay well be\n\nbeheved that the extension of the high-school course to include the sixth and\nseventh grades would be a great forward movement.\n\nAmong the advantages\n\nthat might be gained, the following seem specially worthy of mention:\n\nMore time could be secured for a well-rounded pedagogical course that\nwould permit wide differentiation in the eleventh and twelfth grades. That\ndifferentiation would naturally be along three general lines business, mechaniIn the first four years, from twelve\ncal arts, and professional preparation.\nto sixteen, the pupil could be tested on many sides and his aptitudes carefully\nNot only would the teacher be saved from giving much faulty advice,\nstudied.\n:\n\nbut the pupil would have opportunity to find himself, and to save himself\n\nfrom\n\ncostly mistakes\n\nand future readjustment.\n\nNot alone over the door\n\nof the college, but over the door of the high school, should be written\n\n:\n\n\"Know\n\nAt present the colleges, with their extravagant linguistic requirements for entrance, have forced the high school to overcrowd its four-year\ncurriculum with languages and literature. Science is slighted, history is\nthyself.\"\n\nshghted,\nneglected.\n\neducated.\n\nmanual and physical\n\ntraining\n\nand business\n\ninterests are almost\n\nThe pupil is so busy getting drilled that he has no time to be\nAbout the only choice he or his teachers can make is whether it is\n\nadvisable to go to college or not.\n\nAgain, by beginning high school with the seventh grade the study of a\nforeign language could be begun at a time when power to acquire a vocabulary\nis\n\ngreater than at any subsequent period.\n\nKnowledge of at least one foreign\n\nlanguage seems indispensable in any high-school course for the increased\n\ncommand it gives over English.\nOne of the weakest spots in the high-school curriculum, as generally laid\ndown, is due to the postponement of science studies, particularly physics, to\nDr. G. Stanley Hall is authority for the\nthe third or fourth year of the course.\nstatement that less than 88 per cent, of the boys in New England high schools\n\nstudy physics.\n\nNow the study of physical phenomena is the most fascinating\n\nof all studies, and one of the most beneficial to children of thirteen or fourteen.\n\nOur high schools, in order to give a course of physics acceptable for college\nentrance, have been obliged to postpone this study beyond the psychological\n\nmoment, and to fill the mind with matters less suitable to the age.\n\nWhen the\n\nsubject of physics is taken up two or three years later, natural interest has\noften disappeared never to be thoroly reawakened.\n\nThere needs to be no\n\ndisagreement with the present course of high-school physics, if\n\nit\n\nbe given as\n\nan advanced course; but elementary physics should be taught when interest\nin natural phenomena is highest.\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TWELVE-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n433\n\nBy beginning high-school studies two years earher than at present, substantial courses in manual and physical training could be introduced at a time\n\nwhen books begin to be tiresome to many and the desire for physical activity\nis\n\nseriously felt.\n\nMany a child now lost to school influences would thus be\n\nsaved for a complete course;\n\nmany more would be won for college or tech-\n\nnical training.\n\nThe seventh school year also is about the point when departmental work\nmay be most advantageously introduced. Pupils below the adolescent age\nsuffer distinct loss from frequent change of teachers.\nThe young child likes\nteachers whom he knows, and dreads change.\nHe is apt to like old books, old\nstories, and famihar faces;\n\nbut the adolescent revels in change.\n\nCivic and moral training may also be promoted by bringing children into\n\nthe high school earlier than the ninth year.\n\nSocial agglutinations begin to\n\nshow themselves distinctly between the ages of ten and fourteen.\n\nAt present\n\nfew teachers know how to use these tendencies for the good of the school.\nHigh-school societies uncontrolled have shown themselves so far to be a\npositive evil.\n\nProperly guided, these primitive social movements have been\n\nmade most powerful instruments of moral development, as the work of the\nGeorge Junior RepubHc and other juvenile organizations proves.\nSome or all 9f the betterments suggested have been introduced into some\nelementary schools. The success that has attended their introduction into\nthe seventh and eighth grades makes it more clear than ever that the dawn of\nthe new interests of adolescence should mark the beginning of secondary\ninstruction, instead of breaking into the elementary course near its close.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nFrank H. Robson, head master, Bancroft School, Worcester, Mass. The paper to\nwhich we have listened undoubtedly represents the present tendency of educational\nthought and method. The unsatisfactoriness of present conditions is evidenced (i) by\nthe lack of agreement in time and subject-matter; (2) by the efforts toward elimination\nof subjects; (3) by the efforts toward enrichment; (4) by the loss of interest of pupils thru\n\ninappropriateness of work;\n\n(5)\n\nby the large number of pupils constantly lost;\n\nunsatisfactory compromise between practical and cultural courses.\nis\n\npedagogical in the management of pupils.\n\n(6)\n\nby the\n\nThe plan of division\n\nIt recognizes the incipient psychological and\n\nThis age should be separated from those younger. Different personalities in the teaching force supplement one another, and all the pupils may be touched\n\nphysical changes.\n\nand inspired. The close of the first six years is the proper time to begin courses essentially\ndifferent in content, giving due regard to the abilities and expectations of the pupils.\ntrial training must find\n\nIndus-\n\nmore logical, broader, and more technical work in order to com-\n\npete with foreign-trained mechanics.\n\nTime of the scholar is saved (i) because of elimina-\n\ntion of unrelated subject-matter; (2) because department teachers know their pupils year\nafter year;\n\n(3)\n\nbecause they have a larger working knowledge and experience of teaching\n\nmaterials.\n\n—\n\nChristopher Gregory, principal of Chattle High School, Long Branch N. J. The\nCan we in six years accomplish in a satisfactory manner the\nelementarv course to which we are now giving eight years, and would it be wise to add the\nquestion before us today is:\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n434\n\ntwo years thus gained to the high-school course ?\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe suggestions as to how the length\n\nof the elementary course is to be reduced one-fourth are of so general a nature that a school\n\nsuperintendent would find them of no value in aiding him to prepare a course of study.\n\nCondensation, correlation, and the omission of nonessentials from the course are not new\n\nFor fifteen years or more efiforts have been made to prune the elementary\nThe course had to be pruned vigorously to allow of\nThe course now to be cut two years is not the old\nthe introduction of new subjects.\nTwo years cannot be taken from\ncourse, but a course that has already been well pruned.\nit without injuring it; it is doubtful if one can be taken.\nIf time can be taken from the elementary course, it should be given to secondary\nThe change from elementarysubjects, but it will be better spent in the grammar school.\nschool methods to those of the secondary school should be gradual, and the gradual tranThe results of\nsition can be better made in the grammar school than in the high school.\nthe sudden change made at the end of the eighth year hold out no good promise for a change\ntwo years earUer. Care should be taken that the teachers of the seventh and eighth years\nare teachers, not only of skill and experience, but of such broad training that their familiarsuggestions.\n\ncourse and modify it as suggested.\n\nity with their subjects shall enable them to connect the work of the elementary school with\n\nthat to be done in the high school.\n\nA college training is desirable.\n\nIt\n\nshould also be\n\nassigned as definite part of their work that they famiharize themselves with high-school\n\nmethods, and gradually approximate their methods to those of the high school.\n\nCharles L. Mosher, superintendent of schools. Canton, N. Y.\n\n—The suggestion\n\nthat six school years be devoted to elementary and six to high-school work springs from the\n\nundeniable need of more time for high-school studies, and from the beUef that the pupils\nof the seventh and eighth school years are subjected to methods which they have outgrown.\n\nWe cannot ask pupils doing the work of these grades longer to be satisfied with the\ninspiration furnished by one teacher.\n\nas women.\nplan;\n\nPupils at this stage need contact with men as well\n\nThey need the expert teaching which can be had only under the departmental\n\nthey need the \"laboratory idea\" in connection with such facts of science as they\n\nare to receive; they are in better condition than they will ever be again to do the ground\n\nwork in foreign languages; they are physically and mentally ready to receive, and they\nwill eagerly grasp, if offered, those ideas of personal responsibility which are the basis of\n\ngood citizenship, good service, and good living everywhere. In short, they are ready to be\ntreated as thinking beings, to be instructed and led as such.\nHence I believe it can be maintained that sixth-and seventh-year pupils are greatly\nhelped by high-school methods intelligently applied. Are they ready for high-school\nwork ? Is it not largely the question: How long should repetition continue ? How long\nshall we require pupils in the grades to cover the same field year after year, widening the\nCannot the child with profit finish much of his elementary\nfield with the child's growth ?\nwork in six years ? We have long enough been victims of the idea that a child's preliminary training must be finished, boxed, sealed, and deHvered before anything else is\nattempted, when, in truth, some of the ideas connected with elementary work require\nmaturity for digestion, and some of the work of the high school would be much better done\nif attempted before the child grows up.\nWe have maintained a distinction of work when\nIt makes little difference whether we have elementary\nin many cases none really exists.\nand high-school courses of six years each, or introduce into the elementary course of eight\nyears those elements of the high-school course which properly belong there. Surely, we\nmust at least offer the child a readjustment that will allow him to begin any particular\nwork at such time as he is best suited for it.\nThere are some indications that it would be possible to complete preliminary training\nin six years.\n\"Skipping a grade\" is not an unusual performance, nor, in New York state\nparticularly, is it considered remarkable for many pupils to do the so-called eighth-year\nwork in a half-year. From which it is seen that, even under present conditions, many\npupils spend little over six years in 'preparatory work.\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TWELVE-YEAR COURSE OF STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n435\n\nWhy, if preparatory training can be gained in six years, do we devote more time to\nThe answer is: On account of custom. There is a further answer, however, still\nfound in a large number of schools, which says that eight years are needed on account of\nit?\n\novercrowded rooms, overtaxed teachers, poorly trained teachers, lack of co-ordination\nbetween a grade and those preceding and following it, lax methods of promotion, unskillful\ngrading, noisy and ill-ordered rooms with resulting bad habits of misbehavior and indolence, failure to note the physical condition of the pupils.\n\nThese conditions must be\n\nremedied, and when they are, we shall have found a large part of the two years' time for\n\nwhich we are searching.\n\n—\n\nWalter M. Kern, superintendent of city schools, Columbus, Neb. In its general\nOur chief needs for grammar pupils are\n\nfeatures I concur with the address of Dr. Lyttle.\n\nmore flexible courses, better teachers, and a recognition of the individuality of the child.\n\nThe incorporation of the grammar grades with the high school has the weight of the\nfollowing evidence:\n\nThe experience of private schools. These schools take the pupils at approxiat the time when they would be entering the sixth grade of the\nThey attempt to differentiate the work, to respect individuaUty. They\npublic schools.\n1.\n\nmately the age of twelve\n\n—\n\nemploy a superior grade of teaching ability. Emerson, writing to his neice as she was\nabout to begin her education, used this line: \"It matters little what your studies are; it\nMiinsterberg bears high evidence to the influence of his\nall Ues in who your teacher is.\"\nHe was \"three years ahead of the New England boy of\nteachers (see American Traits).\nIf I think back, I feel sure that the chief source of this success was the\nthe same age.\nI had no teacher from my ninth year in any subject who had not completed\nteachers.\nEven the first elements of history and geography and\nthree years at the graduate school.\nmathematics were given us by men who had reached the level of the doctorate.\" Such\nenthusiasm as these teachers would exhibit is contagious.\nIn these schools grammar-grade\n2. The experience of the English pubHc school.\nOnly honor men from England's best\npupils are under tuition of a very high order.\nuniversities are employed, and from these schools have come England's greatest men.\nNo\ndoubt a large measure of this success has been due to the fact that such pupils entered upon\nthe languages, science, and history at the period of greatest interest.\nThose who defend the present course will need to show: {a) that eight years are\nrequired for a pupil to acquire the arts necessary to enable him to complete his educational\nsuperstructure;\n\n(&) that\n\nthe mind begins to classify and systematize at fourteen or later\n\nrather than earlier.\nIt\n\nmay be claimed that because of the widespread conviction that high-school sub-\n\njects are ornamental rather than practical,\n\nfewer pupils, under the plan proposed, would\n\ncomplete the work of the seventh and eighth grades.\n\nWhen we consider, however, that\n\nthe vast falUng off in attendance of pupils in the pubHc schools is thruout the fourth and\n\n—\n\ngrades in some cases as high as 55 per cent, at the close of the fifth grade and 75\nper cent, at the close of the sixth graded and not at the dose of the eighth grade, as is so\nfifth\n\ncommonly supposed, this objection has Uttle of value in it.\nMiss Marion Brown, New Orleans, La.\n\n—The pupils\n\njust referred to in private\n\nschools and the English pubHc schools are picked pupils and of a homogeneous people;\nthe public schools of the United States take all races and classes.\n\nA comparison is not\n\nAnother embarrassment is that many high-school teachers have never taught in the\nelementary schools, and do not know the capabilities of the pupils that come to them.\n\nfair.\n\nW. B. Ferguson, Middletown, Conn.\n\n—Adolescence does not begin with boys\n\nthe age of fourteen, and this is the age at which they enter the high school.\n\nuntil\n\nThe elemen-\n\ntary-school course has already been trimmed almost to the Umit.\n\nW. L. Griswold, Youngstown, O.\n\n—Would not\n\nelection in the seventh\n\ngrades, under careful supervision and restriction, help the matter ?\n«\n\nReport of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, p. 1367.\n\nand eighth\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n436\n\nA. F. Smith, Lonaconing, Md.\n\n—In Maryland we have\n\n[Secocdary\n\ntried the experiment of reduc-\n\ning the grammar school to six grades, and find that we cannot do the work.\n\nWe shall\n\nhave to restore the seventh and eighth grades.\n\n—\n\nO. The people have not asked for and do not desire the\nOur pupils fail in the high school because they cannot spell and do not\nknow English grammar. They cannot learn Latin unless they first know EngUsh.\nS. P. Humphreys, Ironton,\n\nproposed change.\n\nCharles S. Hartwell, Boys' High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\n\"The highest efficiency means the truest economy,\"\n\n—Dr. Lyttle well says:\n\nIf the high school has\n\n\"unloaded\"\n\non the grammar school, as the last speaker said, let it take the last two years and do the\nwork. An equal division of time will (i) improve the education of teachers, as highschool teachers must be college graduates; (2) transfer pupils from the atmosphere of\nthe three R's to a liberal atmosphere conducive to broader lives.\n\nEqual division is feasible, and is being made in New York city. There departmental\nThe board of education has\njust transferred many teachers to Pubhc Schools Nos. 24 and 62 in Manhattan, devoted\nDr. Maxwell at the national superinexclusively to seventh- and eighth-year pupils.\ntendents' meeting last year favored this division, and these intermediate schools are an\nteaching in the last two years is done in 140 of 500 schools.\n\nentering wedge.\n\nThe consequences of this movement will be great,\n\n(i)\n\nThe scheme of education will\n\nchange from four quadrennial to five triennial periods, for the first year of high school will\nconnect with these two years, and the previous and succeeding six years will be equally\nsubdivided.\n(2) Many pupps will get a ninth or additional year.\n(3) The college course\nAt the Boston meeting in 1903 Dean West, of Princeton, advocated\nwill be reduced a year.\nfour years for the college course; President Butler, two; Presidents EUot and Harper stood\nfor three; but nothing substantial by way of change has been accomplished.\ntion will probably come about in this way.\n\nThe reduc-\n\n(4) There will be great economy both of time\n\nand money by this equal division of the twelve years of school education.\nE. W.\n\nLyttle (in closing the discussion).\n\n—\n\nThis is the Fourth of July, and a very\nHowever, there seems to have been a misunderstanding\nThe question reads:\nin regard to the question on the part of some who have discussed it.\nproper time for pyrotechnics.\n\n\"Should the twelve years now occupied by the grammar and high-school courses be divided\nThis is not a question of substracting two years from the school\nWe would by no means recommend that. We would prolong the school\nlife of pupils.\nlife even beyond the period of twelve years for all who can avail themselves of increased\neducational opportunity. Neither do we, as high-school teachers, wish to disparage good\ngrammar-school teachers anywhere they may be found; but we do claim that in far too\nmany places the interests of fifth-, sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade pupils are generally\nconfided to immature teachers.\nAgain, it is nowhere claimed that twelve is the age of adolescence; we admit that age\nto be about fourteen, as has been said; but the dawn of adolescence was referred to, and\nthat period usually begins some two years earlier.\nequally between them ?\"\n\nWHY DO SO MANY FIRST-YEAR PUPILS LEAVE THE HIGH\nSCHOOL? HOW CAN THEY BE INDUCED TO REMAIN?\nREUBEN POST HALLECK, PRINCIPAL, BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE, KY.\nTeachers as a class are prone to worry, so it may calm us secondary teachers\n\nsomewhat at the outset to understand that problems of survival are not peculiar\nto the high school.\nGeological strata testify to the enormous waste of life.\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHY FIRST-YEAR PUPILS LEAVE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n437\n\nSudden climatic changes have modified or killed whole species. The cataclysms occurring in the fourth and the ninth grades are not so destructive as\nmany that happen around us in the world of nature. If all the progeny of\none pair of gypsy moths survived, they might in eight years devour all the\nNature has seemed to take delight in producing in enorearth's vegetation.\nquantities,\nmous\nso that individuals would encounter a desperate competitive\nconflict from which only the strongest could emerge.\nThe high school has recently suffered overmuch blame. Doubtful statisThe high school has received\ntics have been employed to cover it with odium.\nall\nthe\nmuch\nblame\nfailing\ngraduate\npupils\nwho never enter its doors\nfor\nto\nas\nas for its failure to graduate all who enter its first year.\n\nI think that figures\n\nwill show^ that secondary schools do their work as well as any other department\n\nof education.\n\nIn 1894 the state superintendent of Ohio said that 50 per cent,\n\nof all enrolled pupils dropped out by the end of the fourth school year.\n\nCity has excellent progressive schools, and\n\nKansas\n\nyet in 1904 her superintendent\n\n''It is safe to assume that 50 per cent, of the pupils enrolled in the public\n\nsaid:\n\nschools of Kansas City never get beyond the fourth year's work.\"\n\nIt is\n\nan\n\nappalHng fact if 50 per cent, of the children of a republic whose watchword\nis\n\n''education\" do not get beyond the fourth grade.\n\nThis whole nation ought\n\nto rise and discover the reason for this condition.\n\nGreat universities have their own shortcomings.\n\nI do not believe that the\n\nhigh school can be charged with allowing its pupils to waste their time in as\n\npronounced a degree as students do at some colleges.\n\nProfessor Bycrly, of\n\nHarvard, says in the Harvard Graduates^ Magazine for December, 1902:\nIt is commonly, and I believe correctly, asserted that a student of fair ability entering\n\nfrom a good preparatory school, choosing his studies with discretion, using borrowed or purchased lecture notes, and attending one of two lecture \"seminars\" for a\ncouple of evenings before the mid-year and final examinations, can win our A.B. degree\nwithout spending more than half an hour a day in serious study outside of the lecture and\ncollege\n\nexamination rooms.\n\nThe Tower of Siloam has for some time been falling on the high school,\nbut I hope that I have made you feel that we are not worse than some on whom\n\nam perfectly wilHng to admit the\n\nthat tower has not yet fallen.\n\nIf I have, I\n\nfaults of secondary education,\n\nand to ask you to buckle on your armor to\n\novercome them.\n\nNo matter how wasteful nature is, it is our duty to try to make\n\ntwo blades of grass grow in the high school where one has grown before.\nIn any city, however healthful, some are certain to die each year.\n\nIf the\n\ndeath-rate is too high, a good board of health will make inquiries and devise\n\nremedies.\n\nWhat is the percentage of that special type of high-school mortality\nThe answers are nearly as various as the schools.\n\nwhich we are discussing ?\n\nThe assistant commissioner of education of the state of New York said in\n1904 of the high schools of New York city:\nenrolled in first-year classes;\nfourth.\"^\n*\n\n\"Approximately 52 per cent, are\n\n26 in the second, 13 in the third, and 7 in the\n\nAs a result of his quite extensive studies, Professor A. C. Ellis\n\nEdttcalional Review, October, 1904.\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n438\n\n[Secondary\n\n\"Of the boys entering the high school, nearly half drop out before the\n\nsays:\n\nsecond year in all sections of the country.\"*\n\nThere is general agreement that the percentage of those falling by the way\n\nWhat are\nThe statistical method has been tried to answer the question\ndefinitely, but those who have tried this way acknowledge its failure.^\nSecondin the first year of the high school exceeds that for any other year.\n\nthe causes?\n\nary education is in such a transitional state, and the teachers change so frequently, that figures from the same school for different years are often worthless\nfor purposes of comparison.\n\nMr. William F. Book^ adopted a more suggestive method than the statistical\nHe had 961 high-school\nboys and girls in fifteen different cities and towns discuss this question in\n\nin finding out why high-school pupils leave school.\n\nMany of the repHes show\nMany different reasons are given,\nbut there are some points on which all the papers agree. These common\n\nwriting, so as to get the pupil's point of view.\n\nremarkably good sense and penetration.\n\npoints of agreement are that pupils leave the high school because their interest\nis not secured;\n\nbecause the teachers fail to give them proper help and encour-\n\nagement, or are positively unsympathetic; or because, from a plain business\npoint of view, going to high school does not pay.\n\nThree extracts from what\n\nOne says: \"Many a boy stops rather\nthan be tormented by a teacher who fails to understand him.\" Another\nthe pupils wrote will be suggestive.\n\nexclaims:\n\n\"Nothing doing\n\nin school!\"\n\nattribute most of the interest I\n\nA boy of seventeen writes:\n\n\"I\n\nhave taken in any subject to the teacher in\n\nthat branch.\"\nI should like to offer\n\nsome suggestions based on my secondary-school\nI remember that the mortahty in\n\nexperience extending thru twenty years.\n\na certain hospital once resulted in an investigation.\nthat the causes were two:\n\nThe committee reported\n\nyoung and inexperienced doctors unscientifically\n\ntreating an unusual epidemic of a virulent disease.\n\nI believe that this same\n\nverdict will account for much of the excessive mortality of the first year in\n\nHigh-school teaching is not yet a profession, and the first\n\nthe high school.\n\nyear develops an unusually virulent disease in the pupil.\n\nHigh-school teaching is not a profession in the same sense as the practice\nof law and medicine.\n\nProfessor Dexter,* from his study of a selected group\n\nof high schools, gives the average years' experience of high-school teachers\n\nas varying from 8 9 for men in the North Atlantic Division of states, to 4 4 for\nwomen in the Western Division. Superintendent Aiton, state inspector of\n.\n\n.\n\nhigh schools of Minnesota, writes:\n\n\"In my judgment, the average term of\n\nservice of the high-school teacher in this state is not over four years.\"\n\nam reminded that many drop out of medicine and law, I must ask:\n\nIf I\n\nAre the\n\nbest lawyers and the best doctors the ones most likely to abandon their pro-\n\n*N.E. A. Proceedings, 1903, p. 794.\n•\n\n\"Report on High School Statistics,\" by J. M. Greenwood. N. E. A. Proceedings, 1900, p. 340.\n\n» \"\n\nWhy Pupils Drop Out of the High School,\" Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1904.\n\n* Fourth\n\nYearbook of the National Society for the Scientific Study of Education, Part I, p. 52.\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHY FIRST-YEAR PUPILS LEAVE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nfessions ?\n\nDo our most intelligent young men and women remain in teaching ?\n\n439\n\nIn twenty years I have known but one high-school teacher, whose resignation\n\nwas desired, to present it voluntarily. If the most capable young men and\nwomen do not find enough in secondary teaching to attract them permanently,\nit is\n\nThe high\n\nplain that our high schools can never reach high-water mark.\n\nschool of which I am principal pays from $1,000 to $1,800, but I am never\nsatisfied\n\nwith that worth of ability in my teachers.\n\nare worth vastly more\nless\n\n;\n\nI usually get\n\nbut, as a rule, they leave in a short time.\n\nchange, this increasing difficulty in finding suitable\n\nmen who\n\nThis cease-\n\nmen teachers to\n\ninspire adolescent boys, and of avoiding incompetents who would mar God's\n\nimage in the making, causes me often to say:\n\n''Uneasy lies the head that\n\nwears a secondary crown.\"\nAuthorities tell us that less than 20 per cent, of the boys who enter high\n\nThe Boys' High School of Louisville has for\n\nschools remain to graduate.\n\nsome years maintained an average of nearly 38 per cent, of graduates. This\nwould not be a large average for a girls' school, or for a mixed school, or for\na school in a smaller town where the population is more homogeneous and\nthe chance for social mingUng greater; but I am sure that this percentage\ncould not have been maintained in a commercial city of a quarter of a million,\nunless the remedies, which I shall now briefly outline, had been prescribed\nto stop withdrawals from school.\nFirst,\n\nstate in\n\nan endeavor is made to get the best teachers, irrespective of the\nwhich they were born or educated.\n\nCollege graduates are always\n\nchosen, largely in terms of their individuality, which must be such as to inspire\n\nand stimulate adolescents.\n\nThe teacher of\n\nenthusiasm, and sympathy.\n\nI have found that inefficient teachers allow the\n\nadolescents must have energy,\n\nlargest proportion of pupils to fail, irrespective of the subject.\n\nThose teachers\n\nwho cause the most to drop out are either those who have little skill in the\nart of teaching, or those of the self-righteous, unsympathetic type, who remain\non their pedestals and offer no encouragement to a stumbler.\nask such in a roundabout way:\n\nI sometimes\n\n\"Suppose the Messiah had been of your\n\ntype ?\"\n\nSecond, put your best teachers in charge of first-year classes, and you will\n\nbe astonished at the size of your second-year classes.\nThird, even the best teachers should remember that the majority of incoming pupils are very immature.\n\nIf instructors\n\nare not careful, they will find\n\nthemselves teaching subjects like algebra and Latin as if the pupils were expert\nmetaphysicians.\n\nI have often sat in the rear of the room and listened to the\n\nexplanations of the teacher, and failed to comprehend them on the run, because,\nlike the pupil, I\n\nwas not an expert in that line.\n\nAt such times there comes\n\nover me a feeling of thankfulness that I am no longer a child compelled to\n\ngrasp at hurried explanations which have no meaning for me.\n\nRemembering\n\nhow I dreaded to be in the clutches of a teacher 'whose explanations I could\nnot comprehend, I sometimes wonder that more pupils do not leave.\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n440\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn the fourth place, I should like to emphasize the fact that the first eight\n\nweeks in the high school are the most important in the course.\n\nThe psycho-\n\nlogical moment has\n\ncome to endear the pupil to the school, and to put him\non such a firm foundation that the floods of discouragement and the winds\nNever again will he be so impressionof bad preparation will not shake him.\nable, never again will he slave so willingly, never again will the mere novelty\nThe\nof mastering things hard and dry seem like such a glorious victory.\nmajority of teachers begin a new subject too rapidly, and give the pupils too\nlittle\n\ntime to find themselves.\n\nIn many cases a third of the class is so far\n\nbehind at the end of eight weeks that their doom is already sealed.\n\nA horse-\n\nor a dog-trainer who failed with such a large percentage of animals would\n\nbe speedily asked to change his occupation.\n\nEvery enduring element of human progress is built on repetition.\n\nThose\n\nteachers are geniuses who can have the pupil repeat foundation facts in such\n\na variety of settings that he never feels the mental paralysis that comes from\ntoo much sameness, but seems to be getting something new with each recitation,\njust as a skillful cook can make you and me think that we have a varied bill\nof fare, altho the essential articles of diet have been the\n\nsame for a month.\n\nIn the fifth place, high-school teachers must be able to teach pupils how\nto study.\n\nThat is one of the most important parts of our business.\n\nAll\n\nteachers are too prone to forget that the study of books, however necessary,\nis\n\nat first unnatural.\n\nThe first year in the high school suddenly presents\n\nmore difficult and abstruse point of view, and book study\nbecomes correspondingly more unnatural. For untold ages man's chief\nbusiness was with external things, with rain and shelter and fruits and animals\nand clothing. He cared little for the idea divorced from the thing. They\nwent hand in hand. In the study of algebra and Latin, for instance, how\ncould this unnatural divorce be more complete ?\nsubjects from a\n\nThe complaint is universal that high-school pupils do not know how to\nHow many high-school teachers really know how to break pupils\n\nstudy.\n\ninto dealing with ideas apart from things ?\n\nwhen left alone with ideas.\n\nMany pupils are simply bewildered\n\nThey do not know what such study means.\n\nIt is simply mockery to tell them to concentrate their minds, and not to think\n\nof the dog or the boy whistling to them to\n\ncome outside.\n\nI have found out\n\nby costly experience that many pupils will never learn how to study unless\nThey need that\ntheir minds are steadied by some objective external aid.\nmuch\nFor instance, a pupil who\njust as\nas a carpenter requires a scaffolding.\ndid not have the power of putting much consecutive study on his Latin forms\nwas handed a lead pencil and a piece of paper and told to write down the\nforms. The movement of the pencil and the black marks appealed to his\nbodily eye and furnished the requisite external scaffolding to keep his mind\n\nThen he was told to repeat the words aloud, and his ear afforded\nSome pupils need to represent their algebraic\nproblems graphically before they mean anything. One beginning class.\nsteady.\n\na different type of scaffolding.\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n:\n\nDepartment]\n\nWHY FIRST-YEAR PUPILS LEAVE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n441\n\nwhich had done execrable work in English composition, was made to follow\na rag-picker for half an hour, or to spend the same length of time watching\na street fakir, or a policeman, or a dog, or a cat, or a freight depot, or a central\n\nmarket, or a peddling huckster, or something else that afforded scope for\n\nThe pupils were\nThe improvement was\n\nmental action in connection with things or movements.\nthen required to report what they had seen or done.\n\nso rapid that the whole school was then given regular assignments, just the\nsame as if all the pupils had been reporters on a daily paper. The improvement in writing was so striking that this output was exhibited at St. Louis,\nand was one of the factors in securing an individual gold medal for the\nschool.\n\nIn the next place, my experience has convinced me that first-year pupils\nshould receive special attention the moment signs of delinquency begin to\nappear.\n\nThis attention, which can be given before or after school, or during\n\nstudy periods, is as absolutely necessary for delinquents as for a physically\nsick person to have a doctor.\nI know that this special attention will save\nmany from leaving school.\nLet me tell you how certain altruistic teachers carried a class of twentyThe class was merely\neight boys thru the first year with a loss of only two.\nan average one in point of abiHty. One special teacher adopted that class.\nHe told the class that he should consider them his boys, that he was responsible\nfor them, and that he had already boasted that they would stand by him and\n\nHe asked them to let him know personally if any trouble developed.\nFrom the start the class was interested in keeping his good opinion; but soon\n\ndo well.\n\nthere began to be copying\n\n—that almost invariable precursor of delinquency\n\nand then some boys fell behind.\n\nHe said to them\n\nBoys, this class is like a city or a town, and you must help each other out.\n\nIf one boy\n\nam going to hold the entire class responsible.\n\nWhat would you\nthink of a city that had no infirmary or hospital and paid no attention to its sick ? You\nmust yourselves help all your classmates who need assistance in any study, but you must\nfails and stays a failure, I\n\nhelp them right here in the class family with me, but not on the outside, unless I first have\n\nan understanding with you about that.\n\nYou won't find it necessary to copy any more.\n\nThen, to break the ice, he had boys begin to help each other at once.\n\nA number who had been sent to the board to work algebra problems could\nnot solve them, and he promptly sent other boys there to help them in such\na way that they could work the problem alone.\n\nOthers were detailed to go\naround the room to find out if more needed help, and the helpers were very\n\nproud to be designated as such.\nTheir patron teacher regularly visited all their other instructors to ascertain\n\nand to see that the needed\nThat class became patriotic to a fault. It was\nproud of itself, its teachers, and the entire school. About a month before the\nend of the year, I was detained an hour after closing time. As I left, I was\nsurprised to see two boys from that class coming from a room.\n\"Sam,\" I\nsaid, \"you and Will must have been very naughty to be kept so long after\n\nif\n\nthere were delinquencies in other subjects,\n\nattention was at once given.\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n442\nschool.\"\n\n''No,\" replied Will;\n\n''Sam didn't understand\n\n[Secondary\n\nGerman very\n\nhis\n\nwell, and I just stayed to help him.\"\n\nWe saved all but two of that class of twenty-eight. And every one of\nthose twenty-six boys would have behaved like a Tartar at home, if anyone\n\nhad suggested his stopping at the end of the year.\n\nWe never have such success with those classes whose teachers we change\nIt takes\n\nboth pupils and teachers some months\n\nadapt themselves to each other.\n\nTo make a change when they really\n\nin the middle of the year.\nto\n\nbegin to understand each other results in much wasted force.\n\nIf\n\nmid-year\n\npromotions necessitate tearing up the school in the middle of the year, then\nI doubt their wisdom.\n\nI have seen classes that had done good work the first\n\nhalf of the year go completely to pieces under a change of teachers the second\nhalf.\n\nWe have found out thru experience that the work of the first year should\nWe make it 20 per cent, less in\namount. But whatever is taught should be thoroly taught. A pupil will\nnot be so severe as that of the other years.\n\nnever amount to\n\nmuch\n\nunless he learns\n\nhow\n\nto\n\nface\n\nhard work.\n\nMr.\n\nBook's investigations show that no teacher who was lenient or easy in her\nrequirements was mentioned by the pupils as a favorite instructor.\n\ncomment is:\n\nHis\n\n\"All said that they did as much work for their favorite teacher\n\nas for all the other teachers combined, and that it was always a pleasure to\n\ndo it.\"\n\nNow I shall try to epitomize as briefly as I can the points which seem\nmost important in discussing withdrawals from the high school.\nthat for lasting, orderly improvement, high-school teaching\n\nI believe\n\nmust become a\n\nprofession ; that teachers of adolescents must be chosen largely in terms of their\npersonality, with the chief emphasis on sympathy and the power to stimulate\n\nand inspire; that these teachers should understand that the break between\nthe eighth and ninth grades is due more to an emphatic difference in the\nkind and amount of mental activity required in the high school than to mere\ndifference in the subject-matter;\nis the study of abstract ideas\n\nthat they should realize\n\nand relations\n\n;\n\nhow unnatural\n\nthat they must learn the absolutely\n\nnecessary art of teaching pupils how to study; that first-year classes should\n\nbe put in charge of the very best teachers; that the first eight weeks are the\n\nmost important; that the start in new studies must not be made too rapid;\nthat delinquents must immediately receive special attention;\n\nthat some one\n\nteacher should watch a special class like a parent, and that he should receive\nspecial credit for having as few delinquents as possible, as should every teacher\n\ndown the number of delinquents in his special branch; that a\nshould be developed so that the members of each class\nwill be willing to help their own delinquents under the direction of the teacher;\n\nfor keeping\n\nspirit of co-operation\n\nthat classes should change their teachers as little as possible during the year;\nthat the work of the first year should be very thoro, but about 20 per cent, less\nin\n\namount than for the other years;\n\nthat good teaching and the spirit of the\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHY FIRST-YEAR PUPILS LEAVE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n443\n\nschool are more important to prevent withdrawals than the addition of manythat the enrichment of the course may not result\n\nso-called popular subjects;\n\nin the enrichment of the pupils;\n\nthat to a certain extent different causes are\n\noperative in leading the two sexes to stop school, the boys seldom mentioning\nthat more attention should be paid to differentiation\n\nill-health or overwork;\n\nin secondary instruction for the two sexes, the reason for this belief not being\n\nbased on introspection, but on the concurring testimony of experienced secondary teachers coming to\n\nmy school from schools where the female sex pre-\n\nponderated, that, in spite of much previous successful experience, it took them\nat le'ast a year to learn how to handle boys properly;\n\nthat a scientific study\n\nshould be made of the psychology of adolescence of both sexes;\n\nthat the\n\nschool should foster some branches of social activity appealing to the play\nor recreation side of the most varied personalities;\n\nand, finally and chiefly,\n\nthat teachers should aim to develop moral stamina, since\n\nmore pupils drop\n\nout from lack of moral vigor than from deficient intellectual ability.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJ.\n\nStanley Brown,\n\nprincipal,\n\nTownship High School,\n\nJoliet,\n\n111.\n\n—The natural\n\ninstinct for money-getting in many cases outweighs the desire for further school training.\n\nThe high school does not provide enough phases of education to fit the natural aptitudes\nThe elementary course of study fails to meet the needs of the youth and\nthe youth stage of life. The close of the elementary stage ought not to be marked by\nof the children.\n\ndiploma and formal graduation, because this gives a wrong impression of what has been\nThe elementary course is too long by about two years. If we could get\n\naccompUshed.\n\nthe student well settled in the high-school course of study before he reaches the adolescent\nperiod, we should take a long step toward the settlement of the trouble.\n\nIsaac Thomas, principal of high school, Burlington, Vt.\n\n—\n\nStatistics on this question\n\nare almost wholly valueless, because they touch upon only the superficial, local, and tem-\n\nporary elements in the problem.\n\nThe real causes of the defection from the high school lie\n\ndeeper, are more fundamental.\n\nI shall name only these, all applying to the teacher or the\n\nteaching,\n\nand all, therefore, fundamental.\n\nFirst, the predominance of\n\nwomen among high-school teachers.\n\nCeteris paribus this\n\n—harmful\n\npredominance is harmful simply and solely on the ground of sex\n\nto die girls and\n\nabsolutely disastrous to the boys.\n\nSecond, as a corollary of the first, the general character, professionally speaking, of\nthe teachers in the high schools.\n\nI do not attach much importance to the fact that these\n\nteachers, as a body, are untrained in pedagogy and psychology; for in a properly sized high\nschool, under the care of a good principal, an inexperienced teacher will gain more in one\nyear's actual teaching than any agency for the training of teachers we now possess in this\n\ncountry could give her in all the years of its course.\n\nBut that the high schools should be\n\nat the mercy of makeshift and stepping-stone teachers is, indeed, a serious thing.\n\nThird, the uneducated specialist.\n\nA certain amount of specializing among teachers\n\nin the high schools is necessary, but the extent to which that is being carried is working\nevil\n\nevery day.\n\nUnder the care of this specialist two things happen:\n\n(a) his subject is\n\nviewed without regard to its relation with other subjects, of which he knows little or\nnothing; (b) he cares only for the development of his subject and loses sight of the pupil,\nhis motto becoming, \"the pupil for the subject,\" and not \"the subject for the pupil.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n444\nRemedies:\n\nfirst,\n\nthe\n\n[Secondary\n\nemployment of fewer women as teachers in the high school;\n\nsecond, a competence secure enough to induce men to enter the profession of teaching as\n\na calling; and third, the education and humanization of all speciaUsts.\nJ.\n\nW. Searson, superintendent of public schools, Wahoo, Neb.\n\n—In our\n\ncivilization,\n\nas organized today, there are certain forces which tend to draw a child from our secondary\nschools.\n\nOne of the strongest forces is the spirit of commercialism, which leads a child\n\nto place a higher value upon a dollar than upon abiUty to enjoy Ufe and to make dollars.\n\nThe child's innate desire for possession, to own something, makes this spirit appeal to him\nvery strongly.\n\nIn all industrial communities where there are packing-houses, factories,\n\nor other fields where child labor can be utilized, this spirit of commercialism operates\n\nmost strongly.\nAnother force which, in a negative way, permits pupils to drop out of school in the\nfirst year of the high school, is the lack of parental appreciation of the value of an education to a child.\nLack of firmness on the part of parents, lack of home discipline, and\nover-indulgence tend to give to a child the idea that he can do as he pleases, and he soon\nLow ideals in a community have operated to\nrealizes that he can quit school if he likes.\nprevent many children from completing their secondary-school course. The efficient\nteacher can do much to remedy this condition, if her personality is so strong and her\ncharacter so true that her ideal of life and work may be felt in the community in which she\nlives.\n\nThere are certain forces within the school which should be made to operate more\nstrongly to keep a child anxious to pursue the full course.\n\nUnder-appreciation of child-nature\n\nfrom the child's standpoint has done much to keep children from school. The child who\nHappy is that teacher\nis misunderstood hates school; the child who is appreciated loves it.\nwho can touch the hidden springs in the heart of the child, and who can encourage the\nIn the matter of men\nchild to be his true, best self, as he strives to work out his ideals.\n\nand women teachers in the secondary school, I believe it is conservative to say that the\nratio of men teachers to women teachers should be at least as great as the ratio of male\n\npupils to female pupils in the high school.\n\nAny conditions, or series of conditions, which\n\npermit pupils to drop out of the high school, may be summed up in the question, \"The\n\nUnder-Appeal.\"\n\nIf a child does not feel that the branches offered contribute to his growth,\n\nhe resents the requirements of the school.\n\nIt\n\ndoes not make so much difference what a\n\nbrought into the right attitude to his work.\n\nHe must be\nHe must be led to appreciate his powers by\n\nbeing made to feel that he can do things well.\n\nThere is no higher inspiration that can be\n\nchild studies in the secbndary school, as the spirit with which he studies it.\n\nbrought to the life of a child than the inspiration that is born of the consciousness of\n\nThe child is appealed to strongly by the spirit of organization at this period.\nHe is one of a \"gang.\" The teacher who utilizes this \"gang\" spirit in promoting safe\n\nmastery.\n\nand sane school organizations develops the best in her boys at this stage. Literary societies, debating contests, athletics, and charitable or economic organizations enlist the\nkeenest and best enthusiasm of the child. When a teacher, by reason of strong insight\ninto, and an abiding sympathy with, child-nature can appeal to the very heart of a child,\nno force, either out of the school or in the school, can cause the child to stop short of the\nattainment of his ideal.\n\n—\n\nErnest C. Noyes, Franklin School, Cincinnati, O. One consideration seems to\nhave been entirely overlooked by the preceding speakers; namely, that it is only proper\nand natural that a certain proportion of pupils should not complete the high-school course.\nIf our courses amount to anything, not every pupil is capable of assimilating highschool studies.\nBy encouraging incompetent boys and girls to take work for which they\nhave not the capacity, we produce that most abnormal and useless object, the top-heavy\nstudent.\nMoreover, in the world of nature and in the men of world of men the law of\nlife is the survival of the fittest.\nWhy should we seek to impose an artificial law upon\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT ON SECRET FR.ATERNIT1ES\n\nthe school world?\n\nAs Professor Wendell has well said: \"Tho education is a cure for\n\nmany evils, the panacea for the evils of\nthink,\nI.\n\n445\n\neducation is not, as Americans are prone to\n\nmore education.\"\n\nFranklin Patterson, South High School, Cleveland, O.\n\n—One reason why pupils\n\nfail in the high school is because in the lower schools they have been entirely under\n\nwomen,\n\nand are not ready for the sterner treatment from men.\n\nWilliam Albert Craito, Curtis High School, New York city.\n\n—Not\n\nfitted to go thru the high school, and it is cruel to try to force such thru.\n\npupils are\n\nall\n\nWe must recognize\n\nthe limitations that God has imposed on his creatures.\nC.\n\nI.\n\nWebster, East Orange, N. J.\n\n—In East Orange we are trying\n\nto\n\nmeet the\n\ndifficulty by providing an intermediate class for pupils not fully ready for the high school,\n\nand it is hoped in this way to reduce the percentage of those who fail.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SECRET FRATERNITIES\nGILBERT\n\nB.\n\nMORRISON, PRINCIPAL OF WILLIAM McKINLEY HIGH SCHOOL,\nST. LOUIS, MO., CHAIRMAN\n\nAt the last meeting of this department at St. Louis, a paper was read by the chairman of the committee now reporting, setting forth the conditions and nature of secret\nfraternities in high schools.\nAt the close of that meeting a committee was appointed by\nIn subthe department to investigate the matter further and report at this meeting.\nmitting this report, the committee has thought best to review somewhat in detail what\nhas been thought and done by those who have undertaken to subject the fraternity question\nto thoughtful analysis.\n\nOn March 15, 1901, Mr. Edwin Twitmyer, of Seattle, Wash., sent out the following circular letter to a number of city school superintendents, high-school principals, and\nothers who had had more -or less experience with these organizations in the schools:\n\nDear Sir:\nThe boys of the Seattle High School are anxious to estabUsh Greek-letter fraternities\nin connection with my school.\nIt is a problem with which I have had no experience,\nand before giving the movement\nsanction or encouragement, I desire to inform myself\nas fully as possible regarding the value or advantage of such organizations, if they have\nany, to our high-school boys\nI trust I may be pardoned for asking the benefit of your experience and observation\nas to the advantages moral, physical, and intellectual of these fraternities in connection with the public high schools.\nWhat, in your opinion, is their influence on the boys\nbelonging to them ? What on the school as a whole ? Are they a thing to be encouraged ?\n\nmy\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSixteen of these letters were sent out, and fourteen replies received. They came\nfrom principals, college professors, and superintendents, at that time located in Buffalo\nCentral High School; University of Michigan; Kansas City Central High School; Ypsilanti (Mich.) High School; Hyde Park (Chicago) High School; San Francisco High\n\nLake View (Chicago) High School; superintendent, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Detroit\nOakland (Calif.) High School; professor in University of Cahfornia; Saginaw (Mich.) High School; Los Angeles High School; Ann Arbor (Mich.)\nHigh School. The following extracts are representative, and show the opposition to be not\nSchool;\n\n(Mich.) High School;\n\nmerely unanimous, but decidedly pronounced:\nCentral High School, Bufi'alo: \"I am unalterably opposed to them, and have yet to\nsee any good resulting from them in schools where they exist.\"\nProfessor in University of Michigan: \"I have had considerable experience with\nhigh-school fraternities, and, in consequence, have no hesitancy in condemning them as\nundemocratic, immoral, and from every point of view deleterious to the highest welfare\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nof the school.\n\nThey are clannish, interfere with class elections and class policies, and\n\n[Secondary\n\nhave no hesitancy in placing the good of the order above that of the school. I say this,\nHighin spite of the fact that I am myself a member of a prominent college fraternity.\nschool boys are not old enough to discriminate.\"\nYpsilanti (Mich.) High School: \"You people will greatly err if you allow any society\nAllow no society that has ramifito start in your school that is secret or dark lantern.\ncations in, or any connection with, other high schools; if you do, the society will get away\nfrom you.\"\nSan Francisco High School: \"From my experience, running over a period of fifteen\nThey\nyears, I am compelled to advise strongly against such fraternities in high schools.\ntend to jealousy and clannishness to a degree that is detrimental to the interests of the\nschool.\"\n\nLake View High School, Chicago: \"It is difiicult to prevent class distinctions from\narising where fraternities exist.\nThis is, to my mind, the most baneful result of these\nsocieties in the high school.\nThe public high school should stand for democratic thought.\nI should not encourage fraternities, or anything which would tend to produce caste in\nour schools.\"\nPrincipal of High School, Ann Arbor, Mich.: \"In\nopinion, based on many years\nof experience and observation in public-school work, there can be no benefits, either\nmoral, physical, or intellectual, derived from Greek-letter fraternities in connection with\npublic schools that would not be greatly outweighed by the disadvantages, some of which\nare these: the engendering and fostering an un-American spirit of caste; the formation\nof cliques; the tendency to make school work a secondary matter; the doing of unmanly\ndeeds as a body in secret, that no one would think of doing openly; the formation of questionable habits; the constant tendency to pull down rather than aid in building Up and\nmaintaining discipline. As you do not have the 'elephant' on hand, I certainly would\nnot encourage it to come.\"\nLos Angeles (Calif.) High School: \"I do not think the pupils are benefited by belonging to secret societies. There are occasionally reports that their actions at some of their\nmeetings are reprehensible. The exclusiveness of the societies is opposed to the true\ndemocracy that should rule the public schools. They tend to divide the school into\nclasses socially.\"\n\nmy\n\nShortly after the organization of the Manual Training High School of Kansas City,\nMo., a few boys, sub rosa, formed a chapter of a secret fraternity. Before taking decided\naction for or against them, the principal,\n\nMr. G. B. Morrison, sent out the following\n\nquestionaire to high-school principals in two hundred of the largest cities in the United\nStates as ascertained from the census report.\n1.\n\n2.\n\nThree questions were sent as follows:\n\nHave you secret Greek-letter fraternities in your school ?\nIf so, do you regard them as beneficial or harmful to the best interests of the\n\nschool, and why ?\n3.\n\nIf not, have you had any experience in keeping them out ?\n\nAnswers\n\nto\n\n185 of these letters were received.\n\nOf these,\n\neighty-seven reported\n\nexperience with fraternities, and ninety-eight reported no experience.\n\nFifty-three prin-\n\nno positive opinion, but were inclined to look upon fraternities with\ndisfavor.\nThree spoke for them. One thought they might do no harm, if properly\nmanaged. One hundred and twenty-eight spoke against them in unqualified terms.\nFive had tried to keep them out and failed. Four had succeeded in getting them out.\nOf these answers, the few given below are fairly representative:\ncipals expressed\n\nI regard any society or organization which exerts an influence in the school over\nwhich the principal has no authority as wrong in principle. The principal is the head\nof the school, or ought to be.\nHe is responsible for the school in all its activities, and\nshould, therefore, be clothed with an authority commensurate with his responsibiHties.\nIn all societies of the school the principal should have a guiding and a controlling hand.\nHe should allow the largest measure of freedom consistent with good work.\nArthur Burch, Principal of East Division High School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n—\n\nI was a member of a fraternity in college and know something of such organizations\nI think such organizations in high schools are positively harmftd and ought\nnever to be established.\nStanley Brown, Principal of Joliet Township High School, Illinois.\n\n—\n\nThe next letter is from one who has had experience in getting them out:\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON SECRET FRATERNITIES\n\nDepartment!\n\n447\n\n\"We have no chartered fraternities. We have school debating societies with GreekThey are harmful, and only harmful, to the best interests of the schools.\nThey introduce school poHtics of the most demoralizing nature, create school dissensions,\nand offer constant temptations to which schoolboys should not be subjected. I have had\n\nletter names.\n\nexperience in getting them out. Two such societies were organized a few years ago in\nour school, and were so thoroly pernicious in their influences that I took effective measures\nto get rid of them.\nI was unable to discover one redeeming feature connected with them,\nwhile their demoraUzing influence was constant and thoroly evident.\nO. D. Robinson, Principal of High School, Albany, N. Y.\n\n—\n\nAll but one of the letters defending fraternities showed plainly that the defense was\n\nbased more on a desire to compromise than upon any belief in their virtues.\n\nThe next\n\nletter is representative of this class:\n\nWe have two boys' and two girls' fraternities. So far they have done no harm. On\ngeneral principles I distrust them, but there are from two .to five teachers in each of ours.\nThey are managed almost entirely in accordance with the suggestions of the teacher\nmembers. One maintains a chapter-house near the school. Ours are so dominated by\nthe teachers and the better element among the pupils that so far they have been a help\nrather than a hindrance; yet, / should welcome the knowledge that all were comfortably\ndead and buried.\n'\n\n— Charles D. Larkins, Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\nThe next two letters are characteristic of the 128 which condemned fraternities in\nunqualified terms:\n\nThey are harmful, (i) They ultimately injure school spirit. (2) They tend to set\nexamples of social extravagance. (3) Some boys and girls are withdrawn from public\nschools by thoughtful parents because the home does not like to see children made unhappy.\n(4) Some of the members can not, without hardship, pay the fees.\n(5) Secondary-school\npupils are too young to manage such societies wisely.\nThey are liable to degenerate into\nsmoking and gambling clubs on the part of the boys, and into frivolous, gossipy, idling\nplaces on the part of girls.\n(6) The boys cannot help using their organizations for\npolitical machines to place their members in such positions as may be open to election.\nW. H. Smiley, Principal of High School, Denver, Colo.\n\n—\n\nYes.\nexist.\n\nThree for boys and three for girls.\n\nThey kill absolutely all true school spirit.\n\nwish with all my heart they did not\nWe issue two school papers each month,\n\nI\n\npublished by the two oldest fraternities, and while it is generally conceded that one good\nschool paper could be produced if all would work together for that purpose, such result\ncannot be obtained because of fraternity jealousy. Athletics have been cursed by them.\nThe spirit of toadyism is manifest for the purpose of admission. Debating societies\ncannot flourish because of the immediate attempts, upon information, of fraternity boys to\nrun them. I have succeeded in getting them out of my building for meeting purposes,\nbut the spirit is still there, and will be until the board of education takes action contrary\nto that which permitted their entrance into our school.\nH. D. SiMONDS, Principal of High School, Bridgeport, Conn.'\n\n—\n\nOne strong objection to fraternities is found in the fear they inspire in many highschool principals, thus showing them to be factious, intimidating, and dominating forces.\n\nThe next letter, from Massachusetts, is a type of many received illustrating this fact:\nYes.\nI have two small societies, which are as good as they will average.\nI give the\nfollowing answers with the distinct understanding that they shall be confidential, and\nunder no circumstances be printed or used so as to identify my connection with the answers,\n(i) I regard secret fraternities as harmful in a public school.\n(2) A secret society organized for the purpose of distinguishing a particular class of students from others and entered\nupon by an oath of fidehty to secret principles is inconsistent with the democratic idea of\na pubhc school. (3) Such organizations quickly become social clubs where are cultivated\nthe worst tastes and practices between young people.\nThey are not maintained for the\npurpose of cultivating the noble side of young men or developing in them pure thoughts.\n(4) High-school pupils are too young to maintain social clubs without some older and wiser\n\nguarding power.\n\nHenry L. Boltwood, principal of Evanston (111.) Township High School, has given\n\nmuch thoughtful attention to fraternities, and in a recent article he says:\nWithin ten years there have sprung up in the public high schools at least a dozen\nGreek-letter societies which are cheap imitations of college fraternities, especially in the\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n448\n\nthings wherein the college societies are most at fault.\n\nmuch harm and little good in these school societies.\n\n[Secondary\n\nFrom personal experience, I find\nThey encourage clannishness and\n\nand are subversive of school and class spirit. Loyalty to the society takes\nthe place of loyalty to the school.\nEach new society affords pretexts for additional social\nfunctions and extra expenses\nMothers with tears in their eyes tell me of the heartless and cruel ways in which their daughters are slighted and snubbed by society girls.\nself-conceit,\n\nIn 1903, a committee was appointed by President WilHam R. Harper of the University of Chicago, to report upon the influence of fraternities and sororities in secondary\n\nschools to the Conference of Academies and High Schools in relations with the University\n\nIn 1904 the committee reported progress and called for further time.\n\nIn\nan investigation of two years, made a report.\nExtracts by the chairman, Principal Spencer R. Smith, were pubUshed in the January\nnumber of the School Review. They had received answers to an exhaustive questionaire\nsent to principals thruout the United States.\nThe investigation was conducted with\nfairness and deliberation, and we take the liberty of quoting its main conclusions, which\n\nof Chicago.\n\nNovember last this committee,\n\nafter\n\nfollow:\n\nSumming up the argument for and against the secondary-school secret society, it\nfound that there are some schools which thoroly believe in and strongly favor the\npresence of the secret society in the school. Prominent among these are Lewis Institute,\nChicago, and Colgate Academy, Hamilton, N. Y. But these two schools are closer in\nspirit to the college than is the average secondary school.\nThe arguments made in favor of fraternities are: (i) they can be made very useful\n\nis\n\nto the individual student as well as to the school at large; (2) they aid school disciphne;\n(3) they foster friendships; (4) they increase school spirit and loyalty.\nThe arguments against secondary-school fraternities and sororities were numerous\nand various, but those recognized by the committee were mainly these:\n1.\nTheir influence is detrimental to the school. They have been found an evil and\na curse. Their tendency is to break up all literary societies and divide the school into\ncliques, and bring into the school the worst kind of politics and morals.\n2. They are detrimental to the student himself.\n(a) Positively, in that they hurt his\nmind and character. The greatest injury has resulted to the members themselves. It\ncauses a decline in school interest and in the preparation of school work.\nspirit of\nindifference to consequences and an air of superiority seem to follow.\nMany never complete the course.\nIn their fraternity rooms rumor has it that there is little' evil that boys\ncan indulge in that is not carried on. {h) Negatively, they are of injury to the student in\nthat they keep him from doing things that he might otherwise do if he were a loyal member\nof a united, single-spirited school.\nThe elect owe all that they have of excellence in\nforce, character, and manners to lift the level of the mass.\nThe school as a social organization ought to be unified by the generous spirit of those able to give, not broken into\nsuspicious cHques.\nThey spHt the school on every project in which unity is desirable.\nThey fill no real need, as the college fraternities do.\n3. They are unnecessary.\n,\nThe students are at home and are too young to choose any life outside of the home life,\nand supposed to fill some of its needs. They ape the college, with no other reason than\nto be \"collegey.\"\nThey cause much jealousy and heart-burning, especially\n4. They are undemocratic.\namong the girls. They are a source of grievance to many who are not \"called.\"\n5. The standards they set up are different from, if not opposed to, the standards\nideally set up by the school authorities.\n\"All are organized on a social basis; the faith-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n'\n\nA\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsmoke, or dress well are not wanted.\" They \"are filled\nwith sons and daughters of the wealthy to whom life seems only an idle dream.\"\n6. They are often an element of danger in the government of the school, when they\nhave grown old and strong, and are a source of much annoyance to the authorities.\n7. The committee, finding the final argument against fraternities and sororities\nvery well voiced by a gentleman from Massachusetts, quotes him fully:\n\"Any system that makes paramount the decisions of immature minds on questions\nAny plan that\nof social and other school distinctions is, in my opinion, radically vicious.\ntends to break up the soHdarity of the school in the interest of imaginary class distinctions\ncannot be too sedulously avoided. Any scheme that weakens the influence of the master\nand his teachers, and exalts the power of pupils without regard to masters or teachers,\nstrikes at the very foundation of the American school.\n\"The absolutely inane antics of initiation among these secret societies are enough\nto condemn them in the minds of intelligent people.\nTo my certain knowledge, the\n\nful students, that neither dance,\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON SECRET FRATERNITIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n449\n\nusefulness of more than one headmaster has been destroyed in the community by friction\n\"\narising from the prevalence of the secret-society evil\n\nAt the close of this report, President Harper asked whether the committee had any\nrecommendations to make. The chairman stated that the committee would like to present its report as a report of progress, and to be continued with a view to report further\nat the next session.\nIt was accordingly moved that the committee be continued.\nAfter further discussion of the question involved in the report, it was voted that, in\nview of the evidence submitted, in the opinion of those in attendance at this meeting,\nthe presence of secret societies in schools of secondary grade is harmful to the best interests\nof these schools, and of the individuals concerned.\n\nUntil recently, the apprehension that fraternities would,\n\nif\n\nnot discouraged,\n\nulti-\n\nmately become a menace to the welfare of the pubHc schools has been confined to the\nprincipals of the high school,\nschools.\n\nwho are in a position best to see the inner working of the\n\nBut superintendents are now taking up the matter in a vigorous way.\n\nSuper-\n\nintendent E. G. Cooley, of Chicago, has, after a careful investigation of the conditions\nin\n\nthat city, denounced fraternities in unqualified terms.\n\nSuperintendent Cooley's investigation\n\njustifies liberal\n\nWe feel that the value of\n\nquotations from his report.\n\nHe\n\nsays:\n\n\"In one Chicago high school having 1,330 pupils there are twenty-five elective posiby the students from their ranks. The fraternity members in the school\nnumber 130, as against 1,200 pupils not members of any secret order. At the time the\ninvestigation was made, it was found that twenty of the twenty-five elective positions in\nthe school organization were held by fraternity or sorority members, and that the representative government of the school was as firmly in the clutches of the 'frat ring' as the\nmunicipal politics of New York are controlled by Tammany. If high schools are\ntions filled\n\noperated for the training of political bosses, then the 'frat' is an indispensable adjunct\nif government by clique is a desirable ideal with which to impress the\nmind of the young American, as a part of his high-school training, then the fraternity\nis accomplishing an excellent mission and should be encouraged in the secondary schools.\n\"Next let us consider the question of scholarship in this connection. When this\nproblem reached a critical stage in Chicago, the principals and teachers were instructed\nto report upon the scholarship records of pupils belonging to fraternities and sororities,\nand to indicate what kind of a record might reasonably be expected from the pupils, if\nthey were unconnected with any secret organization. The consensus of these reports\nwas that, as a general thing, these orders contained much of the best elements in the\nschools in point of capacity and of favorable home environment, while the scholarship\n\nof high-school life;\n\nrecords were far below par.\n\n\"Feeling that the principals and the teachers coming into close contact with pupils\n\nwere the best judges of the influence exerted upon school life by these secret orders, I\nsought an individual expression from fifteen principals and 375 teachers in the high schools\nof Chicago.\n\nWithout an exception or a dissenting voice, they characterized the influence\n\nof the fraternities and sororities as harmful to scholarship and to discipline, as un-American\n\nand undemocratic.\n\nThat the attitude of these principals and teachers may be clearly\n\nunderstood, I give below the round-robin to which all of them affixed their names:\n\n\"'Dear Sir: We, the principals and teachers of the Chicago high schools, desire\nto express to you,\n\nand through you to the patrons of the schools, our disapproval of high-\n\nWe believe these organizations are undemocratic in\ndemoraHzing in their tendencies, and subversive of good citizenship; that\nthey tend to divert their members from scholarly pursuits and to put the so-called interests\nof the organization above those of the school.\n\nschool fraternities and sororities.\ntheir nature,\n\n\"'The effect of secret societies is to divide the school into cliques, to destroy unity\nand harmony of action and sentiment, and to render it more difficult to sustain the helpful\nrelations which should exist between pupils and teachers. ....\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n450\n\n[Secondary\n\n'\"In addition to this, our experience shows that the scholarly attainments of the\nmajority of students belonging to these secret societies are far below the average, and\n\nwe have reason to believe that this is due to the influence of such organizations.\n\"\nIn view of these facts, we feel that secret societies in the high schools ought to be\n'\n\ndiscouraged by all reasonable means.'\n\n\"This communication covers the situation admirably and accurately, but the reports\nrom individual teachers bring certain features of the matter into clearer relief. One\nprincipal writes: 'The general influence upon the school is harmful.\nTime and effort\nis given to these organizations which should be given to school work.\nBoys sit up late\nsmoking and chatting, and have little enthusiasm for study next day. Cliques are formed,\nand any question of discipline or scholarship, small in itself, is resented by the whole club.'\n\"Another principal calls attention to the fact that a *frat house' located near the\nschool is especially harmful because the boys secure permission, on legitimate pleas, to\n\nabsent themselves from the room, and then abuse the privilege by sneaking to the 'frat\n\nBoth the fraternities and the sororities assume to represent the 'swell' element\nit is apparent that pupils of certain races are tabooed, and in\nother instances there is reason to believe that the business or profession of the father and\n\nhouse.'\n\nof the school membership;\n\nthe social standing of the family are taken into consideration in passing upon the qualifi-\n\nThat the religious associations of pupils enter into their acceptamembers of these organizations is firmly believed by some principals who are\nin position to make very close observations.\ncations of a candidate.\n\nbility as\n\n\"What kind of a training is this for a young American, at the most impressionable\nperiod of his life ?\n\nChildhood and youth should be the period of democratic association,\n\nthe time when the purely artificial and conventional lines of social and class distinctions\nare most obscure.\n\nCaste should not be permitted to enter the mind of the American\n\nAnything which fosters the idea of clique and caste in the\nmind of the boy or girl of high-school age will help in making of that hateful thing, a\nschool-boy or school-girl.\n\nyoung American snob.\n\"In the handling of this problem in Chicago, it has been found that some parents\nhave been foolish enough to encourage their children in 'standing up for their rights.'\nTo all parents inclined to take this attitude I would point out the fact that such a point\nof view endangers the high-school system in any large city.\nMost of the children of\nparents of small means are compelled to drop out of school and take up the fight for a\nliving before they reach the high school;\n\nin a sense, those\n\nwho reach the high school\n\nand enjoy 'its costly benefits are 'the favored few.'\"\nAt the last meeting of the Connecticut State Teachers' Association, fraternities in\nsecondary schools were discussed and unanimously condemned. Your committee has\nbeen unable to find any defense of these societies by any competent person who has given\nthe subject thoughtful attention.\n\nFrom an able paper published in Cleveland, Ohio, January 12, 1905, it plainly appears\nthat the two private schools mentioned above as favoring fraternities cannot be taken as\n\nrepresenting the position of private schools in general.\n\nMr. George D.\n\nPettee, prin-\n\ncipal of the University School (a private institution), Cleveland, Ohio, in a very able\n\npaper prepared for his patrons and students preparatory to abolishing fraternities, reached\nthe conclusion that they are detrimental to the best interests of the school.\n\nThe legal aspect of the question.\n\n—In a number of\n\ncities,\n\nboards of education have\n\ndiscountenanced fraternities, and have passed resolutions barring them from participating\nin students' societies, athletics, and other privileges outside the class room.\n\nIn Kansas City, where such a resolution was passed, a parent served an injunction\non a high-school principal to restrain him from enforcing the resolution. The board of\neducation employed its attorneys for the defense, which resulted in quashing the injunction\non a technicality. In dismissing the case. Judge Slover gave advice to the boys that\n\ncaused the matter to be dropped.\n\nAfter closing his official discussion throwing the case\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT ON SECRET FRATERNITIES\n\nDepartment]\n\nout of court, he said:\n\n451\n\n\"The principal's resolution is reasonable on its face, and was\n\nintended for the good of the school, and would readily be obeyed by any boy having proper\nrespect for the faculty and the school.\"\n\nThe following from Superintendent Cooley's article states the situation in Chicago:\n\"Urged by their children, some misguided parents appealed to the courts for an\ninjunction prohibiting the school authorities from enforcing the rules embodied in the\nresolution.\nThe injunction was granted on the ground that the enforcement of the rules\nwould deny to pupils belonging to fraternities and sororities certain rights and privileges\nenjoyed by other pupils.\n\"Here the matter now rests, but there is no doubt that it will be appealed to a higher\ncourt.\nMeantime there has been a notable falling away of *frat sentiment' on the part\nof pupils, and an equally significant awakening on the part of parents to the fact that\nthese secret societies have no legitimate place in high-school life\nwhatever may be said\nfor or against them in connection with the college and the university.\n\"Parents should clearly understand that the high-school 'frat' means an early and\na liberal education in snobbishness, in loafing, in mischief, and in the manipulation of\nschool politics.\"\n\n—\n\nThere is no legal precedent for the guidance of the courts in these cases, and the\noutcome will, we believe, be determined largely by public sentiment. This sentiment seems at present to be setting strongly against fraternities in the secondary schools.\nThe importance to the schools of the first court decision is so great that it seems to us that\nnothing should be left undone in propagating the sentiment so strongly prevalent among\nfinal\n\neducators.\n\nTherefore your committee submits that,\n\nWhereas, The sentiment of superintendents, principals, and teachers against secret\nfraternities is almost universal,\n\ncoincides\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nand their testimony, as disclosed in the foregoing report,\nand experience of the members of the committee\n\nobservation\n\nindividually, be it therefore\n\nResolved,\n\nThat we condemn these secret organizations, because they are subversive\n\nof the principles of democracy which should prevail in the pubUc schools;\n\nbecause they\n\nare selfish, and tend to narrow the minds and sympathies of the pupils; because they stir\n\nup strife and contention; because they are snobbish; because they dissipate energy and\nproper ambition; because they set wrong standards; because rewards are not based on\nmerit, but on fraternity vows; because they inculcate a feeling of self-sufficiency among\nthe members; because secondary-school boys are too young for club life; because they\nare expensive and foster habits of extravagance; because they bring pohtics into the legitimate organizations of the school; because they detract interest from study; and because\nall legitimate elements for good\nsocial, moral, and intellectual\nwhich these societies\n\n—\n\n—\n\nclaim to possess can be better supplied to the pupils thru the school at large in the form\nof Uterary societies and clubs under the sanction and supervision of the faculties of the\nschools.\n\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nGilbert B. Morrison,\n\nEugene W. Lyttle,\nB. F. Buck,\n\nEdwin Twitmyer,\nJohn M. Downen.\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "?\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n452\n\n[Secondary\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCES\nA.\n\nPRINCIPALS' CONFERENCE\n\nSHOULD THE ENTIRE ENERGY OF A HIGH-SCHOOL PRINCIPAL BE GIVEN TO MATTERS OF ADMINISTRATION\n\nTOPIC:\n\nWALTER B. GUNNISON, PRINCIPAL OF ERASMUS HALL HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\nThere is no doubt that the tendency at present in all the large cities of our country is\nto centralize, especially along the line of supervision.\n\nThe superintendents are constantly\n\ntaking the ablest teachers and principals, and giving them the supervision and direction\n\nWith the unparalleled growth of the high schools this tendency\nseems unavoidable, and many of our best teachers and strongest men are practically\nabandoning the field of teaching, and taking up the better-paid but entirely different work\n\nof special branches.\n\nof administration.\n\nA good teacher is too rare a person in the economy of an educational\n\ninstitution to warrant his entire withdrawal from the work of teaching.\n\nBy teaching I do not mean that the principal should occasionally direct the classroom work for the instruction of the teacher, but I mean that he should take the entire\nresponsibility for the term's work of some entire class; that he should submit himself to\nthe same rules and perform the same duties as any regular teacher of a subject; that he\nshould give and correct examinations; demand and examine home work; goad the sluggard and restrain the overconscientious; apply the same tests to himself that are appUed\nto other teachers; take the classes as they come, good, bad, and indifferent; and cheerfully\nabide the results.\n\nParents must be met in regard to what is the wise treatment of their sons and daughters,\n\nand no time given to this should be treated as unwisely spent; one's experience and\n\nspecial knowledge should be given freely to the many seeking it.\n1.\n\nThe art of teaching involves many things, and one of these is the necessity of\n\nkeeping alive one's interest in the imparting of knowledge.\n\nby disuse than this.\n2.\n\nNothing is lost more easily\n\nTo feel this daily contact with the young is absolutely essential.\n\nA man in charge of a high school must direct and adjust the working of specialists\n\nin many branches.\n\nThere still remains the fact, however, that a principal should represent\nsound and accurate scholarship in some line.\n3. The most valuable duty of a principal is to know his pupils, not by name or number, but to know them so that there is established, however imperfectly, the kindly and\nfriendly relation that exists between the parent and child.\nHe should be the one into\nwhose ears the Uttle and great troubles can be poured with the assurance of a sympathetic\nhearing.\n4. Again, closer than the intimacy between pupil and principal should be the intimacy\nbetween teacher and principal. The real success of an institution depends, not on one,\n\nThe educational czar should understand that he is an anomaly in these days,\nand is beset with the same dangers in the educational world as his prototype in the poUtical world.\nHe may succeed for the time, but his crown is the target for every missile, and\nwill remain in place only because of a Cossack cordon of official red-tape and bureaucratic\nbut on all.\n\ninefficiency.\n\nthat\n\n5.\n\nAgain, the assumption of simple direction and supervision is a dangerous one in\n\nit\n\ntoo often leads to a feeling of superiority\n\nhumorous to the one who knows the facts.\n\nand dogmatic infallibility which is\n\nIt is wise, however, for us all to be humble in\n\nour work.\n\nThat we may, therefore, be in position to do our fullest service to our charges, and to\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRINCIPALS' CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n453\n\nadvance our usefulness in the honorable and commanding places we occupy, I would urge\nyour careful consideration of this matter, and earnestly give it as my humble opinion that\neach principal can do no greater service than to demand that conditions shall be so\n\n—\n\n—\n\nchanged or, better and truer, that he should so change conditions that his time shall not\nbe used in the less essential matters of a clerical assistant, but that his training and ability\nshall be felt in the noblest part of school work, so that, when he lays aside his work, he\n\nmay be entitled to that greatest of all titles\n\n—\"teacher.\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nA. H. Waterhouse, principal of High School, Omaha, Nebr.\n\n—The paper of Mr.\n\nGunnison eliminates from consideration the high schools in cities with a population\nbelow 70,000. This was no doubt done for the purpose of disposing of those schools\nabout which there could be but very little difference of opinion. It is admitted, I think,\nwhere the work of admistration is insufficient in amount fully to occupy the time of the\nprincipal, that he should do some regular instruction work.\nThe question is determined\nnot so much by the size of the city as by the size of the high schools in the city.\nCould I dissociate the theory advanced by the writer of the paper from the conditions\nactually existing in large western high schools, I should find myself agreeing most heartily\nwith it. This theory to me, however, like many other theories, must encounter the inertia\nof condition.\nIt may so commend itself by apparent gain as to justify its acceptance.\nYet in measuring gain in one direction it would be well to determine whether the law of\ncompensation does not apply, and whether the apparent gain is not more than offset by\nreal loss elsewhere.\n\nWhether there is substantial accord with this recommendation of the writer depends\nIn the paper the word is\nmeasured in this sentence:\nvery largely upon the definition of the word \"administration.\"\n\nIn nearly half of the cities the most capable and ablest men had been, therefore, withdrawn from the real work of the school, and had allowed themselves to become registrars\nof attendance, janitor inspectors, and watchers of teachers, petty judges of petty infractions\nof petty rules\na wicked and needless waste of valuable capacity for teaching service.\n\n—\n\nWith\n\nthis\n\napparent understanding of administration\n\nI\n\ncannot bring myself into\n\nWere this real administration, then I should agree with Mr. Gunnison; aye,\nI think I should contend with him for a maximum limit of teaching.\nHowever, with no\nsympathy.\n\npart of that statement of administrative duties do I find myself in accord, except in the\nhighest sense of the suggestion \"watchers of teachers,\" and in a modified statement of the\n\nnext phrase.\n\nWere that phrase to read \" sympathetic advisers against willful or thoughtwould accept it. The other duties seemingly classed\n\nless infractions of needed rules,\" I\n\nunder administration no doubt are properly classed, but their performance belongs to\nmoderately paid clerks, or to the superintendent of buildings, and not to the principal.\n\nThere are two essential lines of effort in high-school work leading to satisfactory\nThe first is the getting and keeping of the school in a teachable condition; and\nthe other is that degree of intelligent teaching which will, with a school in that condition,\nresults.\n\nlead surely to those results.\n\nWith the working out of the first of these problems, and with the constant appUcation\nof the results to the ever-varying conditions of the school, the principal finds his best and\nhis full time-occupying work.\n\nTo do this best demands so much of time, so much of\n\nobservation, so much of thought, and so much of essential planning, that there is neither\n\ntime nor energy left for the teaching of classes.\n\nThe first essential in getting a school in a teachable condition is to cause a feeling of\nconfidence in the efficiency of the management.\n\nThis condition is contributed to largely\n\nby the plans for just classification of pupils; for means of keeping pupils informed as to\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n454\n\ntheir classification, their progress, and their deficiencies;\n\n[Secondary\n\nfor the organization of school at\n\nand for the expeditious assignment of pupils to their various classes. The results of these plans need not be heralded.\nSoon the efiiciency begins to be recognized, and pupils unconsciously get into the swing of\ndoing things and going ahead with their work. Enough of this work has to be done by\nthe principal to give him such a knowledge of conditions as the better to enable him to\ndirect the work of the school.\nWhen the school is in session, in my judgment, the very ends sought by Mr. Gunnison\ncan best be brought about by the freedom of the principal from teaching regular classes.\nthe beginning of the year without waste of valuable time;\n\nThe eflScient principal can do farther-reaching teaching in another way.\n\nHe could visit\n\nthe various classes in his school, and could easily determine whether the teaching there\n\nbeing done rang true.\n\nIn order that he may become so general a leader, there must be time for him to go into\nclasses and to remain for a sufficient period to determine wisely whether what he might see\n\nin hurried visits as errors are errors when measured by results.\n\nWith regular classes in\n\ncharge, the value of this direct contact with numerous classes and with teachers is apt to\n\nbe limited; for then the principal hopes to gain by illustration of class work what he otherwise might the better get by consultation with teachers.\n\nThere would be much personal\n\ngratification in using a class-room as a private laboratory in which to make pedagogical\n\nexperiments, but the benefits of those experiments are hardly commensurate with the\nloss in other directions occasioned by taking time for their successful making.\n\nThere is much gain to the school if the principal can hold himself ready at all times\nfor service, but free from the exact time demands of classes.\n\nviews with pupils, parents, and teachers.\n\nThat gain comes in the inter-\n\nScholastic ends may be reached successfully\n\ncome from contact with the individual.\nThere are many in a large high school who need the personal contact with a wise principal in the privacy of his office.\nTheir standards of deportment may be deficient, and\nneed elevation. This can be done in personal interviews. They may have become discouraged in work. A word of sympathy from the principal may hearten the pupil. The\nhigh-school age and the little or not at all self-understood period of physical growth quite\nclosely coinside.\nThere are many times when words of explanation here may help.\nBusy parents call for interviews. They are impatient if required to wait. They are\nsomewhat to be considered. The fact that a principal is in class, and will be for forty-five\nminutes, does not seem a sufficient reason for keeping them away from business.\nAdmitting the strength of the excellent arguments of the writer of the paper, and\nweighing both the loss and the gain from following his suggestion, I am unable to agree\nwith him that principals of large schools should spend part of their time in teaching. Full\n\nin organized classes, but true character results\n\ntime should be given to wise administration.\n\nB.\n\nENGLISH CONFERENCE\n\nTHE AIMS OF ENGLISH TEACHING\nPHILO M. BUCK, DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, WILLIAM MCKINLEY HIGH SCHOOL,\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\n[an abstract]\nIt is well for teachers, as well as other professional men, to pause often and ask them-\n\n\"What are we trying to do?\"\n\nselves:\n\n—a study that presents a\n\nEnglish\n\nhuman soul.\n\nEspecially should this be so for teachers of\n\nfield as wide as the universe itself, and as complex as the\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nENGLISH CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nIs it, as its name indicates, the study of our mother-\n\nWhat is this study of English ?\ntongue\n\n—\n\nits\n\n455\n\npaleontology, its comparative grammar, its flexibility of form for every mood\n\nan understanding of certain classics recommended\nIs it an attempt to gain a mastery of\nthe means of self-expression ? No, not any or all of these alone, worthy as they may be\ntho each has been made the sole aim. It combines all these and many more. It is too\n\nand emotion ?\n\nIs it a study to gain\n\nfor perusal by certain learned bodies of educators ?\n\nbroad a study to be simimed up in a single sentence.\nEnglish is primarily a culture study. Now, we can agree with a prominent educator\nwho says that \"m esse there is no real distinction between studies for culture and studies\nfor technical skill.\"\nWe recognize that manual training can, by a teacher who possesses\nit himself, be made a means of gaining culture, as well as of acquiring the power to see with\nthe eye and do with the hand.\n\nWe can well conceive of a teacher of wood-turning as\n\ninspiring in his class a love for the beautiful.\ntail\n\nBurns wrote his most exquisite lyrics at the\n\nof a plow.\n\nBut the aim of English is not to train the eye or the hand; it is to train the soul.\nHands, eyes, and ears are but the means in the process. It is a harmonious activity of\nthe various faculties that we desire\n\n—a\n\nfinely adjusted balance of understanding, emotion,\n\n—a lack\n\nAny distortion shows a corresponding lack of culture\n\nand will.\n\nof what one of\n\nour greatest critics, Matthew Arnold, called \"sweetness and light,\" power to see things in\nproper relations, and power to put ourselves into proper relation with them.\n\nand light\n\n—how much\n\nis there\n\nSweetness\nabroad in the land .today, this day af material welfare and\n\nunwelfare ?\n\nNor is it difficult to see the part English plays in the pursuit of this ideal.\n\nFor what\n\nare rhetoric and composition but teachers of good manners in expression, the exterior of\nculture ?\n\nMore fundamental is literary appreciation, for it brings us into harmony with\n\nthe ideal world of the poet and the romanticist, or the real world of the novelist.\n\nWhen\n\nwas there greater need of broad sympathy and high ideals, this spirit of culture, than in\nthis age of materialism, of social and industrial aloofness, of faith in the superficial, of\nweakness of faith in humanity ?\n\n—\n\nThe weakness of us as teachers is the weakness of the whole world we read too little\nReading is as much a fine art as painting or sculpture, but almost a lost\n\nor too much.\nart today.\n\nNever were our manners more polished, but never was the soul of culture more\n\nneglected.\n\nThis brings us to our subject:\n\nIf culture is the aim of English teaching, how shall it\n\nbe obtained ?\nI.\n\nFirst, as teachers, we must look to ourselves.\n\nA child is rnoved more by one per-\n\nson with whom he comes into frequent close contact, than by a hundred apart from him.\n\nWe are entirely too prone to forget this.\nbook, that works for inspiration.\nis to influence\n\nHere it is the man behind the book, and not the\nHe who stands for most with the child is the man who\n\nhim most.\n\nThe teacher, then, is the first means whereby this ideal aim of English instruction\n\nmay be accompUshed.\n\nHis importance cannot be exaggerated.\n\nThere is no teacher on\n\nthe faculty who should be selected with more care.\nIt is not necessary that the teacher of English be an adept in comparative philology,\n\nnor eminent in minute critical analysis.\nliterature\n\nBut he must be one whose taste for the best in\n\nhas been sharpened, whose sympathies are wide, and whose powers of self-\n\nexpression have been cultivated.\n\nWe hear it frequently asserted that the drudgery of correcting themes dulls the artistic\nWe must deny this most emphati-\n\ninstinct, and renders the teacher less a creative artist.\ncally.\n\nThere is such a thing as wearing oneself out in mere matters of petty detail, and\n\nall desire of expression.\nBut this should not be. There are ways by\nwhich most of this drudgery may be eUminated\nII. In the next place, we must look to our course of study.\nThis is receiving consider-\n\nthus smothering\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n4S6\n\nable attention these days.\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe number of text-books has multiplied almost miraculously.\n\nHardly a journal of education appears without some discussion of this subject. And all\nthis diversity is excellent for our purpose.\nBut we still at times hear a desire for uniformity in teaching expressed in this way: \"Let us have something definite, something\nfixed, something which we can all do in the same way.\"\nThis, I grant, would save all of\nus considerable trouble and thinking. If we only were told exactly what to do from day\nto day, it would save many hours of careful planning.\nBut grant that fixedness would be a good thing, upon what shall we fix ? Immediately\nthere are as many answers as there are teachers of English.\n\nYet we may not go so far as to throw open the English course to the individual caprice\nTheoretically this may not be a bad solution, but it is hardly\npracticable.\nThere would unavoidably follow a great deal of confusion. The maxim\nthat \"in the ideal state there is no law\" may be true; but EngHsh teachers have not yet\narrived at that happy millennium. Harmony of action demands that we follow, some\nwell-outlined course, but that within this course there be absolute freedom of action.\nNor is it so difl&cult to select a course that will appeal to most teachers. Keeping\nbefore us the general idea of culture as the aim of English teaching, we may divide the\nEnghsh course into the following departments:\n1.\nGrammar, or the mere mechanics of language.\n2. Rhetoric and composition, or the art of self-expression.\n3. Literary appreciation, or the aesthetic study of what others have expressed.\nBefore we take up each of these in detail, let us glance at one fact which is of considerable importance in the present-day history of education; that is, the general apathy\nof boys toward English; not of the exceptional, but of the ordinary boys.\nThis must be\navoidable, for all of us have found by actual experience that the ordinary boy is as fond\nof reading as the ordinary girl, and that he can be made just as fond of writing.\nBut as\nthings now are in many places, he is not drawn to the course in EngUsh.\nWe need not\ngo into the psychology of adolescence to inquire for reasons, but we must so arrange the\nof every teacher of EngUsh.\n\ncourse that it will appeal as strongly to him as to his sister.\n\nLet us briefly take up each department of the English course:\nI.\n\nGrammar.\n\nIn the first place, can we not say, once and for all, the secondary\n\nschool does not appear to be the place for any study of formal grammar ?\n\nMr. Chubb,\n\nin his book on the teaching of English, gives an excellent reason why in the first year, at\n\nenpy work very different from that\nwhich has occupied him during his years in the grammar school. Can we not go one\nstep farther the pupil in the high school should find himself on his entrance thoroly\ngrounded in formal grammar ?\nWe must teach grammar, but only through composition, oral or written, and that by\naccustoming the pupils to make use of the principles they have already learned.\nII. More difl&cult to answer is the question: What shall we attempt in rhetoric and\nleast, of the high school the pupil should be invited to\n\n—\n\ncomposition ?\nHere, as in grammar, individual instruction must predominate. Differences in\npower of expression early make themselves manifest, and each pupil will present an\nindividual problem that calls for solution.\nBy individual instruction is meant making such an atmosphere in the class-room that\neach individual will write or speak as his nature moves him to write or speak. Of course,\nwe must constantly apply the proper cultivation to each individual nature, so that it may\nbring forth all of which it is capable. Certainly there must needs be frequent drills to\nwhich the whole class is subjected, like squad drills in the army; but these should be only\non mere matters of technique, Uke the many exercises in music. No music teacher would\ndream of setting a child at five-finger exercises alone for a year or two, before he allowed\nhim to play simple melodies. It seems that much of the same spirit should hold sway in\nthe class-room as moves writers in the world of letters.\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "ENGLISH CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n457\n\nThe real difficulty in class composition lies in the fact that too often it is made a perNow, if any good is to come of it, the pupil must be led to\nwrite with pleasure.\nIt is at this point that we remember that famous quotation from\nSchiller's Msthetical Letters: \"Man only plays when in the full meaning of the word he\nThis is equally true of the\nis a man, and he is completely a man only when he plays.\"\nchild.\nIf we are to get the best out of him, we must approach him in the spirit of play.\nHow different is the attitude of the child at play from the attitude we too frequently see\nfunctory work, a mere drill.\n\nin the class-room!\n\nIt is\n\nbecause he feels his play so intensely, because it is the natural\n\nThe same should be true of a\nand especially should this be true in composition which involves the\nart side of human nature; for, as Schiller also says: \"All art work is conceived and\n\noutgrowth of his being, that he plays so well, so easily.\nchild's school\n\nlife,\n\nexecuted in the spirit of play.\"\n\nIt is\n\ndone with the whole soul for the pure delight in\n\ndoing it.\n\nBut we hear the objection that this is \"soft education,\" that children should be\nTrue\nthey must learn to do hard things, but h n much better will they do them if they are\napproached in the spirit of play!\nEvery teacher can learn how he can best appeal to this play-instinct in his class.\nThere need be no upheaval of class discipline in play, for it is at this stage that boys are\ntrained to do unpleasant things so as to be fitted for the struggle for existence.\n\nlearning to subject themselves to system n their athletics.\n\nThen get the children to write or sp\n\nAs\nNot much is gained\n\nik on subjects in which they are interested.\n\nfor rhetorical theory, let that be illustrated by what they are reading.\n\nby the study of abstract rhetoric in the secondary school.\nThis art feeUng\nIII. Again, there exists in every soul the germ of art appreciation.\nmay remain at the low level of the bargain-counter souvenir, the ephemeral song, and the\ntrashy novel; or it may be raised by skillful suggestion to the lofty heights of Michael\nAngelo's frescoes, Beethoven's symphonies, and the dramas of Shakespeare. It should\nbe the aim of the teacher of English to take this taste when he finds it and raise it to the\nmasters of literary expression. As Taine has said: \"Art manifests whatever is most\nexalted, and it manifests it to all.\"\nExperience has proved that children may be included\nin this \"all,\" if only they are approached properly, that is, in the spirit of play.\nFor this reason there should be, at first at least, Httle careful critical work. Let the\nclass read for the sheer pleasure of discovering\n\nnew objects of interest.\n\nThe pupils as\n\nwell as the teacher should be allowed considerable choice in what they shall read at home\n\nand in school. There is a suggestive article in a late number of the School Review, by\nSamuel Thurber, Jr., which all of us ought to read. We must bridge the chasm between\nbooks read at home voluntarily for pleasure and books prescribed by the teacher. One\nof the greatest compliments a teacher ever received was given when several boys asked\nhim to make a list of books for their summer reading. This showed, at least, that they\nhad not found uninteresting the books which had been placed in their hands during the\nschool year.\n\nThe school classics which now form an important part of our English courses are\nadmirably adapted for the development of Hterary appreciation. There is, however,\ngreat danger that a misuse of them in the class-room may kill the very spirit which should\nbe so carefully cherished and developed.\n\nBut if the pupils, instead of being forced to toil\n\nover uninteresting details, are led to laugh at Rip Van Winkle and Ichabod Crane» to\n\nbehold the exquisite pictures in Evangeline and the Lady of the Lake, to feel the chivalry\nof Ivanhoe, to suffer and to be redeemed with the Ancient Mariner, new worlds will open\n\nbefore them in which they will love to move and play.\nBesides, this artistic study of the works of the masters, if properly carried out, will\nhave a great effect on the actual work of original composition. Unconsciously the perfect\n\nphrases will sink into the memory of the children; they will long to imitate them; and not\nonly will their writing be improved, but their conversation and even their actions.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n458\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt makes little difference if we teach our class not one date or fact in the history of\nany one writer; it makes Little difference if we fail to explain to our class the meaning or\nsyntax of every sentence they read; if we do succeed in gaining their love and respect for\nthe author, and thus succeed in widening their horizon, and in giving them a means whereby\n\nthey may take their places in the world of true culture.\n\nTHE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION\nTHEODORE C. MITCHILL, DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, BOYS' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\n[an abstract]\n\nComposition may be defined as the interpretation of life thru words arranged in\nstructural units.\n\nThe teacher of composition in the secondary school has to deal with ado-\n\nlescent pupils in large groups.\ntation,\n\nTheirs is a hfe rich in content, rich in modes of interpre-\n\nbut comparatively weak in constructive^ tendency and constructive power.\n\nSome\n\nthe large number will leave early.\n\nof these pupils will take the full high-school\n\n)urse;\n\nThe problem before the teacher is that of devel\n\njing in each of the largest possible number\n\nand within a limited time, the ability to give in words a many-sided structural\ninterpretation to manifold aspects of life, singly and in combination; to equip them to\nmeet their current and future needs. Hence th( teacher must make himself conversant\nwith the mental equipment, tendencies, and tone ^f his classes. He must then build upon\nwhat he finds, not upon what he expected to find. He must set before his pupils tasks\ndemanding real constructive interpretation of life; must so vary these problems as to\ntouch life from many sides and in many combinations; must see to it that the length,\ncomplexity, and intensity of these tasks so keep pace with the broadening experience and\nmaturing powers of his pupils as to demand of them always their best effort; .and must\nmake these problems fit, not only current needs, but a future in an industrial democracy.\nAs there is available an abundant literature upon this subject, it is not the purpose of\nthis abstract to review the many special forms and methods that such instruction should\ntake, but rather to indicate some faulty methods now widely prevailing.\nIn some instruction more attention is paid to style than to structure; emphasis is laid upon isolated units\nrather than upon a constructive unit. Again, certain hyper-idealistic teachers develop\nmuch sweetness, but little light; they fail to give their pupils a fundamental equipment in\nIn contrast with these, others afford no adequate opportunity for construcessentials.\nof pupils,\n\ntive interpretation of the beautiful in hfe.\n\nStill\n\nothers adhere so rigidly to the plan of\n\nsome text-book, or syllabus, or school program, as to rob pupils of healthy interest in their\nwork. Courses in some schools become traditional, lacking in original constructive conIn some institutions composition is confined almost entirely to\ntent for all pupils alike.\nwriting done in connection with the hterature read. Here the emphasis is upon words,\nsymbols of life, rather than upon life as Uved. This is a reversion to the standards of\nscholasticism.\n\nIt is largely traceable to a tendency to make success in passing examinations\n\nthe criterion of fitness to graduate from the school.\n\nIn some institutions the work done\n\nin composition demands of the older pupils no real constructive effort;\nearlier terms writ large.\nsition\n\nand argumentation\n\nit is the\n\nwork of the\n\nConspicuously lacking is sound, original, mature work in expo-\n\n—the most\n\nvital\n\nneeds of the future citizens of an industrial\n\ndemocracy.\n\nThe methods and tendencies mentioned above are in largest measure the outgrowth\nof the conditions under which teachers of English now labor.\n\nA combination of circum-\n\nstances makes their duties the most irksome of the secondary-school curriculum.\n\nOnly\nby an amelioration of these conditions can we hope for the betterment of instruction in\ncomposition. This amelioration will, I believe, come in the wake of four hnes of endeavor\nmade unitedly by teachers of English. The first of these is the demand that English shall\nbe regarded as a laboratory subject, with all that this implies in the way of properly\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nENGLISH CONFEkENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n459\n\nappointed rooms for instruction, opportunity for frequent conferences with individual\npupils, and, most important of all, an assignment of work to each teacher on a basis of the\n\nnumber of pupils taught, instead of on the prevailing basis of the number of assigned\nperiods of instruction. A second demand should be that for such real co-ordination\nbetween the instruction given by teachers of English and that given in other departments\nas shall, in particular, forbid these latter to regard as outside their domain of instruction\nthe linguistic form\n\nof recitations, oral\n\nand\n\nwritten.\n\nIn the third place, teachers of\n\nsecondary EngUsh should themselves prepare for instruction in composition with large\nclasses text-books emphasizing the vital phases of a well-rounded training in English\nflexible enough for use by students of various tastes and equipment, and so organized and\n\nwritten as to enable the individual pupil to derive strength from the ideas therein conLastly, as a material incentive for a\n\ntained, with but little assistance from his teacher.\n\nricher and more mature preparation in composition, local, state,\n\nand national boards of\n\nexaminers should be urged to frame, in addition to the ordinar>' minimum requirement in\nEnglish, an advanced requirement parelleling those now set in mathematics, the sciences,\n\n—\n\nand the foreign languages this same requirement to involve, side by side with a written\ntest, the presentation of an exercise book containing certified original work of such scope,\ncomplexity, and intensity as it is impossible to examine upon.\nWith the amelioration thus afforded, we shall be in a fair way to realize adequately\nthe true aim of instruction in composition.\n\nDISCUSSION\nREPORTED BY ERNEST G. HOFFMAN, WILLIAM MCKINLEY HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\n— Class\n\ncriticism is a failure\n\nunless the foundation for it has been laid by the teacher's criticism.\n\nIt cannot supersede\n\nErnest C. Noyes, Franklin School,\n\nCincinnati, O.\n\nthe teacher's correction, but it supplements and lightens his labors.\n\nThe following are suggestions based upon experience:\n\n(i) The papers should be read\n\nat least twice by the critics; the first time for criticism of the thought and structure of the\n\nwhole; the second time for the correction of mechanical errors, sentences, and paragraphs.\n(2) Definite questions should be given the class so as to\n\ncisms.\n\nThus even the lazy are forced to think.\n\ndraw out specific, helpful criti-\n\nQuestions, to be answered in writing,\n\nmay be such as:\n\n\"Is the theme interesting?\" \"Does the writer stick to his subject?\"\n\"Point out any digressions.\" \"Can the essay be improved anywhere by expansion or\ncondensation, and, if so, where?\"\n\nso forth.\n\n(3)\n\n\"Rewrite any sentence that you can improve;\" and\n\nQuestions should be varied, and should be graded to correspond with the\n\nprogress of the class.\n\nThey should also be used to apply the principles of form and\n\nand literature. Thus, for a story appro\"Does the introduction give the time, the place, and the persons?\"\n\"Does it arouse interest at once ?\" \"Does the interest increase up to the cilmax ?\" \"Is\nthe climax strong, yet natural?\"\n\"Does the ending come soon enough?\" \"Are there\nany inconsistencies or impossibilities?\" \"Are the conversations natural?\" \"Does the\nwriter make you see the persons and places described?\"\n(4) Of course, pupils should\nfeel that this exercise is a serious one, upon which they may be marked for their thought\nand discrimination. For this reason, they should sign their criticisms. (5) The teacher\nshould actively assist the critics while at work by passing about the class, to talk with\n\nstructure taught in connection with rhetoric\npriate questions are:\n\nindividuals both answering questions and offering suggestions.\n\nThe benefits of this exercise are\n\n:\n\nthe judgment of their peers makes a deeper impres-\n\nsion upon pupils than that of the teacher; the poorer students are not only spurred by the\ncriticism of their classmates, but are also inspired to emulation;\n\nmore writing may be\n\ngiven; pupils do this work with enthusiasm; the class learns by doing, while the teacher\n\ndiscovers how much of his instruction has been assimilated:\n\nthe dissection of student's\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n46o\n\n[Secondary\n\npapers is substituted for the dissection of literature; and by the practise gained in criticising\none another's papers, students acquire self-rehance and independence.\n\nPercival Chubb, director of English, Ethical Culture School, New York city.\n\n—\n\ncannot say with too much humility how modest have become my expectations of developing a deep and abiding interest in literature.\nthat count and that do not.\n\nI have had to revise many times the things\n\nI beHeve less and less in the attempt to take things of beauty\n\nby violence; and I live more and more by the pedagogical fossil that is not over-anxious\nabout results that what is sown well will in some way come to fruition.\nWhat counts is what comes out of one's own heart and personality. What comes\nfrom nerves reaches only nerves. You will not get a boy into a mood of tender appreciation of anything by bumping his head against it.\nHe balks at your efforts to make him\nadmire any beautiful thing. He takes his cue from your behavior toward it. One's own\nattitude must be so contagiously sincere, so simple, so unofficial, so assured, that it carries\n\n—\n\nno impression of strain, or of perfunctory assuming, no touch of schoolroom pose or\nnervous anxiety.\n\nWe should not expect too much either; as is shown when thanks come\n\nfrom our pupils, not generally expressed in appreciative terms.\n\nIt is the\n\nhuman values\n\nthat are of greatest concern to us.\n\nThe best means of developing appreciation is reading aloud, on the part of both\nteacher and pupils; further, in a discussion of their Ukes and impressions, and their difficulties.\n\nas\n\nits\n\nDebates should be developed from the larger features of the work read, such\nand the development of character and plot. Furthermore, in creation\n\npattern,\n\nwork lies much of the power of appreciation. We should imitate the greatest writers,\nfor from this process comes the insight into the basic qualities of the original production.\nThere is more to be derived from an attempt to imitate ten lines of U Allegro than by spending two hours in the study of them. In this we are using nothing more than the methods\nof the shops, where the love of creating artistic products prevails.\nThis was Aristotle's\nprinciple: to learn music for the sake of appreciating it.\n\nAnd, so from pattern-making in the shops we receive the inspiration that prompts\nus to verse-making.\n\nThe things we make are their own excuse.\n\nThe artistic motive\n\nmust rule; but reinforced by the natural desire to have them count.\nThe teacher himself must be a craftsman. He must have worked in the school of\nproductive effort; he must have made sketches. \"I, Uttle thing that I am, weave my\nlaborious songs,\" as earnestly as the bee among the bells of thyme on the matin\nmountains.\n\n(Operosa parvus carmina fingo, p. 75.)\n\nThe schoolroom should be indeed a laboratory, or, as I should prefer to call it, a\nstudio, and the teacher as well as the pupil must be productive and creative.\n\nC.\n\nHISTORY CONFERENCE\n\nWHAT FACTS OF HISTORY SHOULD BE TAUGHT PUPILS IN\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS THAT THEY MAY BETTER UNDERSTAND THE WORLD THEY LIVE IN?\n\nTOPIC:\n\nleader: JAMES SULLIVAN, HEAD TEACHER, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK CITY\n\nMr Sullivan opened the meeting by calling attention to the difficulty of answering\nAs to what that\nThere would, how-\n\nthe question before the conference without making a complete syllabus.\n\nsyllabus should contain no two men would be agreed in every detail.\never,\n\nbe certain topics on which there would be unanimity of opinion.\n\nHe pointed out\n\nthat it was unfortunate that the Committee of Seven had not done more in the way of\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "HISTORY CONFERENCE\n\nDcpartraentl\n\n461\n\nspecifying more particularly those subjects in the fields laid down by it which should be\n\ntaught in a secondary school.\nIf possible, it would be highly desirable to teach everything which had ever happened\n\nbetween creation and the present day.\n\nThat being impossible, it is necessary to exercise\n\njudgment in selecting the important and eliminating the unimportant. In carrying out\nsuch processes, attention is to be constantly centered on the aim that those facts which help\na pupil to understand the world in which he lives should be retained. The elimination\nof the details of military campaigns of great wars was advocated by the Committee of\nSeven, and its advocacy should continue to receive our support.\nUnfortunately, there\nhas been a tendency to turn from wars to the details of constitutions easily forgotten by\nboth pupil and teacher, and making very little for getting the former to reahze the progress\nof the race.\n\nThe theory that only interesting stories should be told has been given up, but teachers\nare sometimes at a loss to know what to put in the place of many of these old favorites.\n\nThe leader called attention to examples of the teaching of trade in the market-places of\nGreece and Rome, of the mediaeval theory of interest and a just price, and the processes\nof manufacture which in his own experience had proved exceedingly interesting to pupils\nof high-school grade.\n\nIn laying down certain canons of selection, three groups of facts were mentioned as\nof great importance:\n\n(i) those things of the past which were the same today;\n\n(2) those\n\nthings of the present derived directly from the past; (3) those things which show progress.\n\nIn closing his introductory remarks, the leader called attention to the fact that the\nworld about us can be largely made clear by not going farther back in the past than 1750,\nexcept in cases affecting our religious life, our art and architecture, and certain constitu-\n\nAbove all things, then, it is necessary to study the history of the last\ntwo or three centuries with the greatest of thoroness, because it is in them, and not in\nthe remote past, that the student of today is to find an explanation and thoro understanding\nof the world in which he is living.\ntional matters.\n\nWHAT FACTS OF ANCIENT HISTORY SHOULD BE TAUGHT TO PUPILS\nOF THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN ORDER THAT THEY MAY\nBETTER UNDERSTAND THE WORLD THEY LIVE IN?\nDAVID SAVILLE MUZZEY, DIRECTOR OF HISTORY, ETHICAL HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY\n\nThe history situation in the secondary schools has been pretty thoroly discussed within\nthe last few years, and the great improvement in our recent text-books in history is at once\na proof of the effectiveness of the discussion and a promise of the still further rationalization of the treatment of history in our secondary schools.\n\nBut I feel for all that (especially\n\nin view of the discussion held by the Association of Teachers of History of the\n\nMiddle\n\nStates and Maryland at New York University last March) that there is by no means as\nyet a clear understanding of what the advocates of retrenchment in the course of ancient\nIt is not, as one gentleman said in the discussion last March, to\nhistory have in mind.\nhave \" all of ancient history taught in a half-year.\" It is not to have all of ancient history\n\ntaught at all.\n\nIt is rather that a good many of us teachers are beginning to think that half\n\na year is sufficient for the teaching of the things in ancient history that need to be taught to\nThe discussion has been about the wrong thing, it\nthe young student in the high school.\n\nseems to me. It has been about the rather secondary question of hpw long ancient history\nshould be taught two years, one year, or half a year. The real question is: What needs\nWhat aspects of the Hfe of the Egyptians, the Babyloto be taught in ancient history ?\nnians, the Persians, the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the Romans are worth bringing to the\n\n—\n\nattention of the boys and girls who are Hving in this age so rich in opportunity for study\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n462\n\nin science, literature, the manual arts and crafts, and the fine arts ?\nis\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe main problem\n\nnot the division of time, but the selection of material.\n\nThe matter has formulated itself in my own mind in four very simple propositions,\nwhich seem to me to underlie our choice of material to be presented to the students of\nhistory in the secondary schools a psychological proposition and three general peda-\n\n—\n\ngogical propositions.\n1.\n\nAttention\n\n—without which any \"study\"\n\nis\n\nvain\n\n—\n\nto\n\nany fact of past history can\n\nbe secured only when there is the understanding of a corresponding present fact to appeal\nThe intricacies of the Athenian law courts or prytanies are ridiculous matter to teach\nto.\na child who does not know what juries or legislative committees are. The young student\nmay learn the page by heart, but he has nothing to relate the matter to, so that when he is\ncut off from the book the thing may remain in experience.\n2.\n\nA pedagogical proposition.\n\nEvery fact of the unhmited number of facts of history\n\nis taught at the sacrifice of some other fact of history, and also to the exclusion of instruc-\n\ntion in some other of the numerous branches that are clamoring for the pupil's time.\n\nAnd\n\naltho we teachers of history have no call to apologize for appropriating an undue share of\n\nthe school periods (having, according to Dr. Paul Munroe's figures, only 4J per cent, of the\ntime allotment in New York city—less than that given to opening exercises, penmanship,\nor physical training; and in other cities as low as 3 per cent, of the time allotment; nowhere\n\nmore than 6.7 per cent.), we should feel all the more pressing the necessity of choosing well\n\nThe text-books do not even yet choose\nThey hate to part with old favorites; they shrink\n\nthe facts of history that shall fill that Httle time.\nresolutely\n\nand unsparingly enough.\n\nfrom leaving unsaid anything that a former text-book has said, tho they are getting some\nand occasionally some of the major points too.\nof the minor points into diamond type\nWe must remember that the text-book is inspired scripture to the boy of fifteen equally\n\n—\n\n—\n\nand it is dangerous to put anything into it merely for the vindiEven a difference in the size and heaviness of type is not,\ncation of our own scholarship.\n\ninspired in all its parts;\n\nI fear, going to have nearly so much the effect of distributing the attention of the student\n\nwisely as of disturbing the continuity of the narrative.\n3.\n\nA common-sense proposition.\n\nof us have been teaching five years;\nhistory mean to us ?\n\nWhat is Greece ?\n\nHere we are a group of teachers of history, some\nsome, perhaps,\n\nfifty years.\n\nWhat does ancient\n\nHow much intellectual nourishment or stimulus\n\ndo we get from the redivision of Athenian political rights under Cleisthenes, or the various\nkaleidoscopic alliances of the Greek states of the fourth century B. C. ?\n\nWhat does\n\nRome mean to us ? Anything that gains an iota in clearness or in the thrill of enthusiasm\nfrom the fact that there were three Samnite wars instead of one, or that the most eminent\nauthorities are still divided on the questions of the origin of the plebeians and the number\nIn other words, what is the residuum of Greek and Roman\nof the Roman assemblies!\nhistory, the part that stays with us, deep-seated in memory ?\n\nWhat are the facts which,\n\nafter years of acquaintance with Greek and Roman history, have laid hold upon us;\n\nthe\n\nfacts which we have in mind in October as well as in February,\n\nand do not need to look\nup annually when the class reaches the point where it is expected to recite upon them ?\nFor nothing is worth giving fresh to a student that is not worth keeping fresh in our own\nAnd what is a teacher for if not, out of his richer experience of the values of the\nminds\nmyriad facts of history, to help the student choose wisely ?\nThe question of the teaching of history\n4. And finally, an evolutionary proposition.\nis all a part of a larger question, which today is a burning question, perhaps the question\n!\n\nof the educational world, namely: What is culture ?\n\nIs it the the ability to read Thucydides\nand annotate the same with marginal comments in a fine hand ?\nIs it the possession of an esoteric knowledge which grows in value in inverse ratio to the\n\nin the original tongue,\n\nniunber of those with whom we may share it ?\nglass case ?\n\nIs it something to be preserved under a\n\nOr is that museimi idea of culture yielding to a conception of culture based\n\non the criterion of use ?\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "HISTORY CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n463\n\nThere are then, it seems to me, these four considerations on which the selection of\nThose facts must be such as can be\nrelated to the experience of the child; they must be of sufficient value to justify their\nexcluding the many facts that might have had their place; they must be valuable enough\nto fill a permanent place in the teacher's mind; they must be of organic value, capable of\nculture, as I apprehend the word,\nassimilation, that is, into a larger scheme of culture\nmeaning the understanding of the world as it is, thru a sympathetic knowledge of the\nworld as it has become, or came to be, what it is.\nAgainst a resolute and radical revision of the teaching of ancient history there are\ntwo stubborn obstacles to be reckoned with: the college-entrance examination, and the\northodox history syllabus the first a terror to teachers who would lead their pupils in the\ndelightful paths of history, the second a terror to pubUshers who would like to issue a\nreadable narrative of ancient history as a text-book. But against both these obstacles it\nseems to me the argument is very simple. As to the first: When the schools begin to teach\nthe essentials of ancient history, the colleges will begin to examine in them.\nThe secondary schools with their 650,000 pupils are the prime factor in determining what boys and\ngirls from fourteen to eighteen ought to know about ancient history, and the tide of their\nconviction will sweep enthroned examining boards with it as surely as the waters drove\nKing Canute off the beach. And as to the second obstacle, it is enough to say that to\npattern new text-books on syllabi compiled from old ones is to renounce progress from\nthe very start, and fall into what the logicians call the \"vicious circle.\"\n\nthe facts to be taught in history must be based.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nAs to the actual facts to be selected in ancient history, I could not, of course, preBut I may suggest what seems to me a feasible\nplan to follow in choosing them. The subject for our discussion is: \"What facts should\nbe taught\n... in order that the pupils may better understand the world they live in?\"\nWell, then, why not begin with the world they hve in, and see what is to be understood ?\nThe boy is in the midst of a certain material civiHzation, in the first place. The most\nobvious thing about him (so obvious, in fact, that they do not seem to have or need any\nhistorical explanation) are the tools and tokens of this material civihzation: buildings,\nstreets, vehicles of trade and transportation, speech, money, produce, factory, and mart.\ntend to catalog them this morning.\n\n.\n\nHe sees the great majority of men going to business, to be absorbed in this material civili-\n\n—\n\nmaking a Uving, as we say (so largely is life occupied with these pursuits).\nThe part which ancient history has contributed to this civilization in its types of archization\n\ntecture, its trade routes, its principal industries, its improving methods of barter, all can\n\nbe made clear to a boy of fifteen, and will help explain his world to him, while dynasties\n\nPharaohs and consular fasti will be only so much disordered material to lumber his\nmemory.\nAgain, the boy is in the midst of a social civilization. He sees men grouped together\n\nof\n\nin villages, towns, cities, states, countries, with certain rights to respect in each other,\n\ncertain duties to perform toward each other.\n\nHe knows that there are many thousands of\n\nmen, from the president of the United States down to the poUceman or letter-carrier of\nrunning\nhis own town, who are spending their days serving town, city, state, or nation\nThis aspect of our life\nthe machinery, that is, which is necessary to a social civihzation.\nespecially the\nis not so obvious to the boy of fifteen as the material aspect, and much of it\nwould\nintricacies of courts, the details of party platforms and parHamentary procedure\nbe unintelUgible to him. But the main types of government under which societies have\nUved in the past may be pointed out in simple language, and such slight contributions to\nour modern democracy as the ancient world made may be dwelt upon. For example,\nthe fact that at a certain point in the development of both Athens and Rome wealth\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsupplanted birth as a basis for pohtical privilege\n\ndevelopment of\n\nsociety,\n\nand a matter very easy\n\nas to the old classes of Eupatrids or the exact\n\nis\n\n—\n\nof the utmost importance in the\n\nmake clear, whereas speculation\nnumber of centuries in the Tullian\n\nComitia are a tedious, unrelated, useless exercise.\n\nto\n\nSo\n\nI\n\nwould boldly omit from a\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n464\n\n[Secondary\n\nancient legislation except the very few needed to\nFor the high-school student it is enough to know\nsomething of the structure of ancient society as illustrated by selected epochs the\nHomeric age; the Greece of the Tyrants; the Spartan military camp; the Periclean\ndemocracy; the monarchy of Philip; the empire of Alexander; the federal leagues of the\n\nhigh-school course\nexplain\n\nits\n\nall\n\ndetails\n\nof\n\nnature and purport.\n\n—\n\nsecond century; the semi-federal, semi-monarchical polity of early republican Rome; the\nsenatorial oUgarchy; the veiled monarchy of Sulla, Caesar, and Augustus; the military\ndespotism of the empire.\n\nWhat a flood of light even a very slight appreciation of these\n\ntypes of government would throw on the accounts the young student reads and the dis-\n\nand Japan, Norway and Sweden, the United\nThe aim of many teachers of ancient\nhistory apparently is to fit the youth for citizenship in Athens, Sparta, Rome, or ConAnd I remember with shame that I knew quite familiarly the details of the\nstantinople.\nRoman consular election of 60 B. C, when I did not know even the names of the candicussions he overhears relating to Russia\n\nStates and the Philippines, Germany and Morocco\n\ndates,\n\n!\n\nmuch less the machinery of the election, for the president of the United States in\nI see now plainly enough why that was\nthat it was due to certain\n\n—\n\nthe year i860 A. D.\n\nBut we shall come to that in a moment.\nA third aspect of the civilization in which our students are to Hve their lives is what\nI shun the word \"spiritual\" because of its religious conI may call its psychical aspect.\nBesides the men who are going to earn their living by work in factory, shop,\nnotation.\nrequirements of Latin Hterature.\n\nor office; besides the men who are debating bills in Congress, or deciding cases in courts\nof law, or emptying the contents of letter-boxes into leather pouches, there is an army of\n\nmen and women devoted to the cultivation of the higher faculties of man, in the creation\nor mediation of works of art and letters, the interpretation of the works of nature, the\nelaboration or elucidation of systems of thought, the administration of forms of worship,\n\nThis vast and important aspect of civilization is\n\nthe presentation of ideals of duty.\n\nhardly touched upon by our current text-books of ancient history. As tho the ethics of\nSocrates were not infinitely more important for the student to know, and infinitely more\ninteresting\n\nand teachable, than the campaigns of Agis and Agesilaus!\n\nA few pages,\n\ndeeply indented or truncated by illustrations, are all that the author can spare for men\nlike Pheidias and Socrates, and those few pages are often accompanied by an apologetic\nfootnote to the effect that they may be omitted if the teacher does not wish to interrupt\nthe narrative of the political history.\n\n—\n\nSocrates\n\nclear, simple, full of Hfe\n\nis\n\ndescription of the Athenian law courts.\n\nWhy, the Apology of\n\nPohtical history, indeed!\n\n— ten times as much value\n\nto the\n\nboy as pages of\n\nIt is the concrete example the child wants.\n\nHe\n\nshould get his history without reahzing that he is studying history at all. It should be\nthe appreciation of the atmosphere of an age that distills in his mind from the contemplation of the men, the events, the inventions, the monuments of art, the flights of thought,\n\nthe wit and satire of the age.\n\nBut you will think that with all this discussion of the principles on which the selection\nof the facts of ancient history should be based, I have not got\n\ndown to the topic of\n\nwhat facts should be selected. Take the history of Greece. I almost think the whole\nof Greek history could be taught as an illustration of the single word \"motion,\" as contrasted with the fundamental inertia of the Orient activity reveaUng itself in the extreme\nindividualism of every phase of Greek Hfe, even beginning with the interminable, inextricable legends of migration, crossing and recrossing each other like a huge spider's web\n\n—\n\nacross the httle land; activity manifesting itself in the immense field of colonization from\n\nthe Straits of Gibraltar to the Caucasus, in the intense passion for Hberty and\n\nself-\n\ndevelopment on which the flood of Persian invasion broke as on a rock; activity showing\nactivity\nitself in the rapid vicissitudes of monarchy, aristocracy, tyranny, democracy;\ngloriously fruitful in the imperishable monuments of art and letters in the Periclean age;\n\nand activity running to pernicious individualism in the petty factions which weakened\nGreece in the face of dangers from Macedon and Rome. Would not the topics here sug-\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nHISTORY CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n465\n\ngested form a sufficient outline for the study of Greek history in the secondary schools:\nthe Homeric society, the Greek colonies, the rise and fall of the tyrants, the Persian war,\nthe Periclean age, the conquest of\n\nMacedon, the Hellenistic culture, the absorption by\n\nRome ? These large topics could be connected by the most meager thread of narrative\nneeded to explain their sequence and location.\n\nSuch a course could be fairly covered, I\n\nbelieve, in a term of eight weeks of four periods each.\nit\n\nThe student would come thru\n\nwith a coherent idea of what Greece stands for in the world, even if he never heard the\n\nnames of Draco, Cylon, Isagoras, Ephialtes, Niceas, Chalrias, and Phaebidas. Likewise\nRoman history an adequate course could be laid out in amplification of the great\nabsorbing mission of Rome the equilibration of the political and social forces of the world.\nTo that end her consoUdation, first of Italy, then of the Mediterranean basin, then of the\nfarther lands of Europe and Asia under the sway of the central city; to that end her millennial strife between patricians and plebeians, nobles and commons, within the body\npolitic; to that end the splendid reaches of Roman road and the majestic span of Roman\nbridge; to that end the marvelous work of her legislators thru a thousand years from the\nDecemvirs to Justinian; to that end the unconquerable legions, and the machinery of her\nin\n\n—\n\nprovincial government.\nof Pax Romana ?\n\nRoman history in this expansion of the text\nman in her history whose significance cannot be\n\nIs not the whole of\n\nIs there a single great\n\nheld in the grasp of this great mission of the nation, or a single great event that canIf so, why not study\nRoman history in these few great topics that hold the meaning of Rome for civilization\n\nnot find its place as a contribution to the realization of that mission ?\n\ngrown stable where others were ephemeral, because of a slow,\nelastic, tolerant, rational development toward the supreme\nend of social andjDolitical equiHbration ? Ten or twelve weeks would be enough, I believe,\nHere again the student would come thru\nto bring this lesson to high-school students.\nthe course without having heard even the name perhaps of many men and measures which\nthe story of an empire\nassimilative,\n\nfill\n\nco-operative,\n\na large place in our text-books.\nI\n\nam aware that I have but hinted at the plan of teaching ancient history which I\n\nshould like to see put into practice, in place of the present encyclopaedic method.\n\nIt\n\nleaves the student with fewer facts and names floating more or less hazily in his memory.\nIt deliberately postpones even the\n\nmention of many things which it is desirable that the\n\nmaturer student of history should know.\n\n—the constitutional\n\nsome of these things\n\nBut why can we not be willing to postpone\n\ndetails, for example ?\n\nThe trouble is that in the\n\npast we have not considered that ancient history has been studied unless the student could\n\nrepeat ghbly the comparison between Aristides and Themistocles as statesmen, and tell\njust when each curule ofiice was opened to the plebeians.\nIt seems to\n\nme that we have a fruitful hint (or rather example) for the treatment of\n\nGreek and Roman history in the sections of the history of the oriental nations which are now\ngenerally prefixed to the treatment of Greece and Rome.\nHere are excellent summaries\nin a few pages of the permanent contributions of Egypt, the Tigris-Euphrates states,\nPalestine, and Persia to the world's history.\nWhy is not the same principle carried thru\nGreek and Roman history ? Simply because we are taking a fresh view of oriental history,\nbut perpetuating an old, old view of classical history.\nHere is the crux of the whole matter. Our study of classical history is in bondage\nto the traditional demands of classical philology.\nIn fine, we are in bondage to the Greek\nand Roman historian and orator. We have been studying ancient history in order to\nelucidate their text, not to explain our civilization.\n\nThe concise period of Tacitus, the\n\nmajestic diction of Livy, the charm of Herodotus, the acumen of Thucydides, have led\n\nenraptured scholars to dwell on the details of their story as on the details of their syntax.\n\nWhat we need is a change of perspective. We need to look back on a total Greece and\nRome as we do on a total Egypt and Assyria, where we are practically unincumbered by a\nsanctified Hterature.\n\nWe need to get away from the Greek and Roman historian, and\n\nbring in the philosopher, the comedian, the satirist, the epic, and the lyric poet.\n\nAnd we\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n466\n\n[Secondary\n\nneed above all the courage to leave unsaid, even at the risk of appearing not to know,\nthe tedious details of political and military history which have been repeated from generation to generation to disgust the normal, healthy child with the history of classic Greece\n\nand Rome.\n\nD.\n\nCONFERENCE ON MATHEMATICS\n\nINDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION IN ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY\n\nTOPIC:\n\nFRANKLIN TURNER JONES, UNIVERSITY SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO\n\nNowadays the mathematics teacher has to become an experimenter.\n\nHis labora-\n\nand his apparatus improved methods of teaching. Confidence\nin present ways of teaching mathematics, and even in its subject-matter, is seriously\ntory is his class-room,\n\nAmong the plans now in process of\n\nshaken.\n\nevolution\n\nthe so-called individual or\n\nis\n\nlaboratory method.\n\nThe success of laboratory work in enlivening the natural sciences has for some years\ndirected the attention of mathematics teachers toward a similar solution for the mathe-\n\nmatics situation.\n\nCorrelation of physics and geometry has been seriously undertaken in\n\na number of schools, notably Bradley Polytechnic Institute and the high school at Lincoln,\nNebr. In both of these places results have been satisfactory. Following the outline used\nat the former place, I tried similar work at University School in 1903-4.\n\nContrary to my\n\nexpectation, the introduction of physics laboratory experiments in plane geometry did not\nyield the results desired, and so they were abandoned for exercises on construction, curve-\n\nand experimental determination of areas.\nworked successfully, and have been continued in a modified form.\n\nplotting, use of cross-section paper,\n\nThese\n\n•Experience has led me to believe, however, that the essential feature of success is not\nthe method, but the spirit in which the subject is presented by the teacher, and the zeal\n\nwith which the pupils follow the teacher's lead.\n\nIn other words,\n\nif\n\na class will work,\n\nThe crucial test for any\nteaching plan is then whether it brings out the full working power of the student. The\n\nthere is no question but that the results will be satisfactory.\n\nrepetition of mechanical processes\n\nis\n\nnot the kind of work desired, but an intelligent\n\nunderstanding of what is being done.\n\nI believe\n\nit is\n\npossible to attain these results in\n\nmathematics teaching without bringing in experiments from other subjects.\nIt has been assumed, and I think unnecessarily, that physics apparatus and a special\n\nlaboratory are requisites of an experimental presentation of mathematics.\n\nFor experi-\n\nmental algebra or geometry cross-section paper, a hard lead pencil, and a compass are\n\nNo change in room or text-book is necessary.\nAnyone who looks thru an elementary physics text-book will be greatly surprised to\n\nenough.\n\nfind how little mathematics is involved.\n\nIn geometry, the solution of the parallelogram\n\nand triangle with two sides and included angle given, the rectangle and square, similar\ntriangles, Pythagorean theorem, perpendiculars, and equal angles include the whole list.\nIn algebra numerous uses of the equation x=^zy-\\-k and solution for x, y, or z; one\naffected quadratic {x^Sot+^at^)',\n\nseveral\n\npure quadratics of extreme simplicity, as\n\nS^^2ax; one or two equations involving radicals, comprise the total.\n\nCertainly every\n\npupil, after two years study on algebra and geometry, ought to solve such simple problems\n\nwith ease.\ntent,\n\nThe mathematical difficulties of physics do not lie in the mathematical con-\n\nbut in the translation of physical ideas into mathematical form.\n\nlation\n\nthat our mathematical training\n\nis\n\nwithout interpretation of their meaning.\n\nweak.\n\nForms\n\nIt is in this trans-\n\nare solved thruout algebra\n\nSome algebras have ventured to call equa-\n\ntions of the first degree linear, but none, to\n\nmy knowledge, have thereupon explained\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFERENCE ON MATHEMATICS\n\nDepanment]\n\nhow to plot such an\nchapter.\n\nAlmost,\n\nif\n\non simple equations\n\n467\n\nAny such explanation is tucked away in a separate\n\nequation.\n\nnot quite, every elementary algebra has long\n\nlists\n\nof exercises\n\nWith only two exceptions, as far as I\nElementary Algebra, and Fisher and Schwatt's Algebra),\n\nin its early\n\nchapters.\n\nhave observed (Schultze's\neach author neglects to emphasize the fact that these are exercises in translating\nfrom ordinary language into the symbol language of mathematics, and that the\nexplanation of the formal processes is all for the purpose of solving these s)anbol\ntranslations.\n\nFailure to learn to look for the idea back of the equation is the cause of\n\nour mathematical difl&culties in physics. Lack of facility in translation makes equally\nhard the solution of problems where no equations are given. We know how much more\ndifficult are the equations for formal solution than the equations produced by the problems.\nIs it not possible that we are making our tools unduly sharp for their proper uses, and are\n\nhke the carpenter who spent all day filing his saw, when he had been called in to fix a leak\nIt seems to me that too little emphasis is being placed where too much can-\n\nin the roof ?\n\nnot be, i. e., on the formation of practical equations and the interpretation of both equations and geometric figures.\n\nI have found that the vividness of both algebraic and geo-\n\nmetric expressions has been sharpened by calling frequent attention to the fact that xy^7,o\n\nmeans the area of a rectangle;\n\nthat 2{x-\\-y)\n\nmeans its perimeter;\n\nthat {a+b+c)\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nperimeter of a triangle; that 16 ir means the area of a circle with radius 4 or the circumference of a circle of radius 8; that ^ab means the area of a triangle with base b and alti-\n\nWhen I am doing such work, I regard it as an essential part of an experimental\n\ntude a.\n\nmethod.\nfigures.\n\nAnother experimental device of great value is the interpretation of geometric\nmy knowledge, the only text-book which intro-\n\nPettee's Plane Geometry is, to\n\nduces geometric interpretation in a systematic manner.\n\nIt is the\n\nonly book which has\n\nthe experimental spirit and still retains all the force of the older geometries.\nSufficient\n\nencouragement has not yet been given to the accurate construction of\nMost of us know that our pupils can usually solve an original exer-\n\ngeometrical figures.\ncise, if\n\nthey can only \"get the figure.\"\n\nled into most ridiculous errors.\n\nThey disregard the correct proportions and are\n\nI think that a course in geometry should be preceded by\n\nThis year I have had a class of boys who\nwere thus equipped when they entered the geometry class, and their work has been a conWhere the manual-training school does not proclusive indorsement for such a course.\na course in accurate geometric construction.\n\nvide for this, I believe it a month well spent to take that much time at the beginning of the\n\ngeometry course, for the double purpose of teaching how to construct figures for originals\naccurately, and of giving some practical information on the properties of the figures which\n\nmust be dealt with.\n\nWe must remember that geometry is a system of logic, and that we\n\nare trying to base that system on a subject in which our pupils are only slightly informed.\n\nThis is in itself a very illogical process. The best preparation for demonstrative geometry\nobservational geometry in the grades followed by a course in geometrical construction\n\nis\n\njust before the formal study begins.\nIt is a well-recognized fact that our mathematics courses do not support one another\n\nThere have always been \"water-tight compartments for arithmetic,\nAt University School this is not the case. We have a different\narrangement, of which the advantages are obvious. Below the eighth grade nature study,\ndrawing, and manual training are very closely related. In the fifth and sixth grades a\nconsiderable amount of geometrical drawing is done.\nIn the eighth grade mensurational arithmetic, simple algebra, and concrete geometry are given.\nIn the ninth grade\n(first-year high-school) five periods a week are divided between algebra to quadratics and\nAt present there is no systematic attempt to do more than\nthe first book of geometry.\nIn the tenth grade a similar arrangement exists. Plane\ncarry on the two side by side.\ngeometry is completed and algebra continued thru the elementary college requirement.\nIt was with this grade that my experiments have been conducted.\nAt the beginning of the tenth grade these boys get a course in mechanical drawing\nas they should.\n\nalgebra, and geometry.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n468\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn the eleventh grade college algebra is taught and\nAt the close of this year the boys come up for their college\npreUminaries with both algebra and geometry fresh in mind, the two having been studied\ncontinuously for almost four years. I have been repeatedly surprised by having boys in\nmy physics and chemistry classes ask for logarithm tables with which to work problems.\nin connection with their shop-work.\n\nplane geometry reviewed.\n\nIn the twelfth\nI do not know of a better testimonial to the success of the arrangement.\ngrade (senior year) solid geometry and trigonometry are studied by those who require\n\nthem.\n\nThe success of the above-mentioned arrangement has led me to modify my views as\nto the desirability of correlating algebra, physics, and geometry, and has compelled me to\n\nbeheve that algebra and geometry, side by side with assistance from mechanical drawing,\nand possibly a few illustrative experiments from physics, give us the kind of a mathematics\ncourse we want. As such a course operates year after year, the subjects will be brought\ncloser and closer together.\nNow, as to the bearing of these remarks on individual or laboratory methods of\ninstruction, we are all ready to grant that our present system of grades holds back the\n\"While objections to the individual method may be\nbright and discourages the slow boy.\nraised, none can carry much weight as long as satisfactory results can be obtained.\ndifficulties of\n\napplying it to geometry teaching are much greater than to algebra.\n\nThe\nThe\n\nlaboratory method as outlined for Bradley Polytechnic Institute does not from my experi-\n\nence justify the introduction of physics laboratory experiments into a course in geometry,\nnot because the experiments themselves are not interesting and useful, but because the\ngeometrical results can be arrived at more expeditiously in other ways.\n\ndoes\n\nMy experience\n\ncommend the introduction of graphic solutions of equations in algebra and the\n\nexperimental verification of rules for areas, etc., by the use of cross-section paper, on the\nground that they give meaning to the algebraic forms, and help to establish and to fix more\nTranslation from ordinary and\nfirmly in mind the reasons for the rules in mensuration.\ngeometric language to algebraic symbols is a most important aspect of algebra, since\nThe experimental\nalgebraic translation is used continually in both geometry and physics.\nspirit of cut and try is a more important attainment than any special experimental knowObservational geometry and mechanical drawing assist in cultivating this scienledge.\nThe most important item, however, is such an arrangement of courses in\ntific spirit.\narithmetic, algebra, and geometry as to form a consecutive mathematical whole, so that\nalgebra and geometry are kept continuously before the pupil for a period of years, compelling, as in strictly laboratory courses, the mind to dwell for a considerable time on a\nparticular topic, and thus giving the ideas involved a chance to \"soak in.\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nJoseph V. Collins, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. -In this country we\nhave what Professor James calls the \"American recitation method\" used in all studies\nAccording to the law of evolution, most teachers will do better to improve this method,\nrather than make a radical change.\n\nThe question presents itself: Are there plans which\n\npossess the merits of both class and individual instruction ?\n\nTo save time, several such\n\nexpedients are stated formally, viz.:\n1.\n\nThe setting apart of regular consultation periods to be used to assign extra outside\n\nwork to strong members of the class and to aid weaker ones over difficulties.\n2. Brief conferences at the end of recitations for the same purpose.\n3.\n\nIndividual instruction during the first part of the hour, followed by class\n\nwork\n\ncovering the same ground.\n4.\n\nThe discontinuance of the class form of instruction before the end of the hour,\n\nfollowed by individual study of the work on the blackboard.\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONFERENCE ON MATHEMATICS\n\nDepartment]\n\n469\n\n5. The \"chalk and talk\" method in which all members work with pencils on the\nsame problem, one student talking, teacher supervising.\n6. The \"chalk and talk\" method in which one student works and talks at the blackboard, and the others give attention, the teacher supervising.\n\nThe first three of these plans are doubtless already in wide use.\n\nI fancy the fourth\n\nmore or less novel. I have found it to work well. The fifth, a compromise between\nPersonally I have got\nclass and individual instruction, is much used in German schools.\n\nis\n\nthe best results from the sixth.\n\nUsually in class instruction, as Professor Jones points\n\nout, the difference in abiUty and attainment between members causes waste, the weaker\n\nmembers being too slow to understand the recitations of the brighter ones, and the brighter\nThis, I should say, is the bane of the class\n\nones being bored by the dullness of the others.\n\nform of instruction.\n\nThe sixth plan rightly used obviates to a certain extent these\n\ndifficulties.\n\nIn conclusion I may say that this question of the form of the recitation hsis interested\nme much during the past four or five years. Thru such correspondence as I have had I\nam led to believe that our progressive teachers are rapidly breaking away from old customs,\n\nand are introducing all sorts of methods and expedients adapted to their own conditions.\nEvidently this is a most hopeful sign.\nC. E. CoMSiocK, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111.\ntrial of the Bradley Polytechnic Institute outlines\n\nyear work only.\n\n—A word in regard\n\nmade by Mr Jones.\n\nto the\n\nHe used the second-\n\nThe work he substituted is done by us in the first year, and is presup-\n\nposed in the work of the second year. The justification for the use of physical experiments in classes in geometry and the results we have obtained I have discussed in a paper\nbefore the Science Department on Tuesday.\n\nmechanical rather than thoughtful algebraists.\n\nThe individual method tends to produce\nThere is a waste of time in repeated\n\nThe student who is not serious does not receive the proper incentive to\nwork when he works alone. The class system incites to work. It enables a student\nexplanations.\n\nto learn other\n\nways than the one he has hit upon.\n\nIn open class discussion he gains\n\nHe learns from his fellows as well as from his teacher.\n\ninspiration and breadth of view.\n\nThere should always be the greatest possible degree of personal contact between teacher\nand pupil. A judicial combination of individual instruction and class instruction will,\nin my mind, yield the best results.\n\nH. Clay Harvey, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n\n—^We are hearing a great deal\n\nnow concerning individual instruction in secondary mathematics, some teachers\n\njust\n\nreporting results of their experiments with such enthusiasm as to compel investigation and\n\ncomparison by those of us who still believe there are many more advantages with fewer\ndefects in collective teaching.\n\nIn the time at my disposal, I can only speak briefly of what appear to me to be the\n\nmost prominent objections to the individual treatment of a boy or girl studying mathematics.\nWe believe that the teacher's aim should be so to direct the child as to arouse interest\nand enthusiasm for the subject under consideration, so as to lead him to investigate, and\nthus to broaden his intellectual horizon; to lead him to discover his own misconceptions,\nand overcome his own difl5culties to teach him how to study, to acquire mental power\nand habits of quick, accurate, and logical thinking. Can this be accompHshed by the\nThe inspiration of numbers is second only in imporindividual method ? We think not.\n\n—\n\ntance to a skillful teacher in accomplishing this work.\n\nThe clash of thought between\n\nstudent and teacher, and between student and student, so necessary in securing the desired\nend,\n\nis\n\nimpossible without numbers.\n\nIn a class many questions asked publicly by the\n\nstudents will be of great value to the entire class, and would likely be overlooked by both\nteacher and student in the individual method.\n\nIn problem-solving\n(i)\n\nsix\n\n\"What have you given ?\"\n\nquestions should be kept constantly before the student:\n(2)\n\n\"What do you wish to obtain ?\"\n\n(3)\n\n\"How can this\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n470\nbe obtained?\"\n\n[Secondary\n\nWhen these three questions are satisfactorily answered, the problem is\n\n(i) \"How did you obtain the result?\"\n(2)\n\"Why did you take each step that was taken in the solution ?\" (3) \"What authority is\n\nsolved.\n\nThen three other questions arise:\n\nthere for each step that was taken ?\"\n\nCan you accomplish all of these things by the method of individual instruction, where\nMost certainly not. The best that\nyou can hope to do, in the time at your disposal, is to make clear the how. Can all of these\nthere are twenty-five or thirty students in your class ?\n\nthings be accomplished by the method of class recitation directed by a skillful teacher ?\nI\n\nanswer most emphatically \"yes.\"\n\nI\n\nhave seen it done over and over again.\n\nThese\n\nintellectual bouts indulged in by the different members of the class are of great value to\n\nThe weak student grows strong because\nand because of what he learns from, the strong one; and the\nstrong grows stronger because of what he learns from the teacher, and often from the weak\nstudent as well. The best teacher works his students under some pressure in the recitation.\nYou can never develop that speed and accuracy necessary to the great scholar\nwithout working him with a running mate and under pressure. By this method you are\narousing an interest which could never be aroused by individual instruction. You are\nsolving problems and developing power as well, while in individual instruction you are\nsolving problems and developing but little power.\nTo sum up what has been said, the advantages of class instruction over the individual\nthe entire class, and often to the teacher as well.\n\nof his association with,\n\ninstruction are these:\n\nThe student has a chance to learn from others;\n\nstudy; questions by the class are valuable;\n\nit offers a\n\nit\n\nteaches how to\n\nbetter opportunity to develop mind;\n\nthe teacher has a better opportunity to discover the student's difficulties.\n\nThere should be a specific aim in class instruction. There can be none in individual\nIndividual instruction is poor economy of both time and energy. A thoro\ntest in Kansas City Manual Training High School proved individual instruction a failure.\nLet us, then, use a method that is up to date a method which will enable us to\n\ninstruction.\n\n—\n\nconcentrate our time and energy so as to accomplish the greatest good to the greatest\n\nnumber.\n\nE.\n\nCLASSICS CONFERENCE\n\nTHE COLLEGE REQUIREMENTS AND THE SECONDARY-SCHOOL\nWORK\nJOHN C. KTRTLAND, JR., PROFESSOR OF LATIN, PHILLIPS EXETER ACADEMY, EXETER, N. H.\n[abridged by the author]\n\nThe vexatious question of the college-entrance requirements in Latin and Greek cannot be accepted as settled, and it is of the greatest importance that the present movement\ntoward uniformity should not be allowed to fix finally upon the schools a fundamentally\n\nwrong and unfair standard, one that must inevitably contract their ideals to the narrowest\nutilitarianism and wholly vitiate their work.\nAt the present time the attitude of many\ncolleges is one of arrogance, tempered by the desire for students; the attitude of most\nI do not mean that either attitude is conscious, and I reaUze that both\nschools, servile.\nare natural.\nBut arrogance is no less arrogance when it seems to the arrogant a mere\nassertion of superior wisdom for the guidance of the erring or the maintenance of rights;\nand servility is no less servility when it seems to the servile the counsel of expediency for\nthe attainment of a desirable end.\n\nThe college feels that it is the sole arbiter of the prepa-\n\nration of the candidate for admission, and that it is its duty to impose upon the school\n\na correct standard of work.\n\nThe school knows that it is judged largely by its success or\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSICS CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nfailure in getting boys\n\nand girls into college.\n\n471\n\nBoth need a clearer understanding of the\n\nsituation, a higher sense of their duty to each other, a better criterion of judgment.\n\nWhat, then, do the colleges wish ?\n\nI take it that they desire evidence that the appli-\n\ncant for admission has the power and has had the training that will enable him to do their\n\nwork effectively.\nIt\n\nThe entrance examination has both a general and a particular aspect.\n\ndetermines whether the applicant is prepared to do the freshman work in the given\n\nsubject;\n\nit\n\nmay also be used, together with the examinations in other subjects, to deter-\n\nmine whether the applicant has sufficient abiUty, and has had adequate training for such\nwork as is required of freshmen in the various courses open to them. The latter is the\nmore important in the case of colleges allowing to the student from the outset a wide\nchoice of studies; the former, where the course of study requires the continuance during\nthe freshman year of the subjects in which the applicant is examined.\nis it\n\nfeasible to demand accurate knowledge of large fields.\n\nledge, is the\n\nend of school training.\n\nIn neither case\n\nPower, not organized know-\n\nEven if this were not so, the demands upon the\n\nsecondary schools are so great and so various that it would be impossible for them, in the\npresent state of American education, to equip their students to meet severe tests of their\n\nknowledge of the many subjects which it is necessary that they should study.\nWe must train the mind to be a good instrument for the work of the college.\n\nThat\n\ndemand that we are facing in this view of the college-entrance requirements. I\npurpose to turn to the classics, and to endeavor to make it clear that the college and the\nschool may unite to their mutual advantage upon a true test of the preparatory work which\nis\n\nthe\n\nshall not impose upon the school an alien and tyrannical authority.\n\nI shall confine myself\n\nin the treatment of details to Latin, for the sake of the gain in definiteness.\n\nshould the teacher of Latin aim ?\n\nIt seems to\n\nschool may be divided into two periods.\n\nAt what\n\nme that the Latin course of the secondary\n\nIn the first of these the language should be\n\ntaught with reference to the training of the mind in logical and methodical habits, to the\n\nmastery of the elements of grammar and rhetoric of universal application, and to the\ncultivation of the\n\npower of attention and concentration.\n\nI believe that so\n\nmuch Latin\n\nas will accomplish these things may profitably be required of all students in our secondary\n\nTwo years' study of the language should suffice for this. I would have the\nwork of these two years planned and carried out without the sHghtest reference to collegeentrance requirements or examinations. Only those should go on who are Ukely to get\nschools.\n\nan adequate return for the time spent, either in the way of literary training or in helpful\nknowledge of ancient life and thought. The work will center in the study of formal grammar, the memorizing of forms, and the application of rules of syntax to discover the exact\nmeaning of the text read.\nDuring the later years of the course the chief object should be the cultivation of\nliterary taste, and the second place should be given to the Romans themselves, their\ninstitutions, and the influence they exerted upon European civilization.\nThere should\nbe large and varied reading of the best authors, the study of the science of translation,\nand the closest possible approximation to the art of translation; and so much consideration of men and events and institutions mentioned as is necessary to make the writer's\nmeaning plain. The choice of authors and the choice between dififerent parts of the\nworks of each, together with the order in which they are to be read, should be left largely\nor wholly to the schools.\nI know by experience that the course of reading which proves\ngood for one school may not meet the needs or the tastes or the abiUties of another. Much,\nindeed, depends upon the teacher. His class will surely enjoy most the authors which he\nenjoys most and reads with greatest enthusiasm. Moreover, the teacher is more likely to\ngrow, less Ukely to petrify into an automaton, if his teaching ranges over a large field of\nliterature.\nThe same vivifying influence is felt directly in the school, as well as indirectly\nby reflection from the interest of the teacher. Every year, after the first, some poetry\nshould be read, and the study of an author should not continue so long at a time that teacher\nand student aUke are utterly tired of him.\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n472\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe certificate system of admission to college has this advantage, in the case of Latin\nand Greek, that the colleges admitting on certificate are generally willing to accept any\nreading of the required amount and the right sort, and without regard to the time when\nthe particular author was read; whereas the examination system requires that the authors\nThis, at any rate, most\nset for examination be read in the year of the examination.\nteachers feel to be necessary, if their students are to make a creditable showing on the\nexamination. Could not the colleges which are unwilling to rely entirely upon certificates\nof the candidate's preparation safely and properly accept the statement of the schools\nas to the amount of Latin and Greek read ? I hope to show that they might still reserve\nto themselves an adequate test of the candidate's fitness to continue the study of the lan-\n\nguage in college, and of his training.\n\nIndeed, I beb'eve that the weakness of the certificate\n\nsystem might be remedied by such a test.\nI think\n\nit\n\nwill\n\nbe agreed that, granting our premises, the test that will most surely\n\ndiscover the candidate's preparedness or unpreparedness for college,\n\nand at the same\n\ntime do least violence to the ideals of the schools, the one that will bring school and college\ninto the closest harmony, is the sight -examination.\n\nThe abiHty to translate into idiomatic\n\nEnglish a new piece of Latin gives evidence of an adequate preparation for the freshman\n\nLatin courses of the colleges, and of mental power and mental discipline.\n\nSuch an\n\nexamination can be made, moreover, to serve practically all the purposes of any examination in Latin.\n\nIt will show the state of the candidate's knowledge of forms and of syntax,\n\nthe extent of his vocabulary, his command of his own tongue,\n\nand even, if the passages\n\nare carefully chosen, his acquaintance with classical antiquity.\nIt is\n\nmy belief that it is entirely possible to set passages in infinite number and variety,\n\npreviously unknown to the candidate, and so simple that the examiner may confidently\n\nsay that those who cannot read them either are not of the caliber desired by the college or\nhave not had the necessary training in the subject. The passage should be clear and complete in its meaning, and that meaning should be simple (for this reason description, and\n\nnarrative are the best material), and the words should be those of commonest occurrence,\nor, in\n\ncase they are likely to be strange, their meaning should be given.\n\nBut I should\n\nnot make the sight-examination the sole test, lest the blindness that sometimes falls upon\nthe boy and girl on examination cause injustice to be done in occasional cases,\n\nand lest\n\nthe school and the student lose sight of the fact that the ability to translate at sight comes\n\nonly by mastering the language and thoughtful reading.\n\nThe preHminary examination\n\nshould include a test in grammar, and both the preliminary and the final examination\n\nmight well include a searching test of the candidate's study of a small portion of the htera-\n\nThe portion should be very small, so small that the study of it will not form a\n\nture.\n\nlarge part of the year's work or hamper the teacher in the choice of reading.\n\nI am of the\n\nopinion that a single oration of Cicero or a single book of Vergil is enough.\n\nIf there is\n\nnot to be both prose and poetry at sight, as I think there should be on both examinations,\nthe preliminary as well as the final examination should have these set portions of both\nstyles.\n\nThis I urge from the conviction, already expressed, that no one of the later years\n\nof the course should be given exclusively to either prose or poetry.\nif\n\nThe prose, especially\n\nonly one author is read, palls, and the long-continued reading of poetry by young stu-\n\ndents leads to neglect of the grammar.\n\nThe requirements now generally in force bring\n\nabout the division of the last two years of the course into one of undiluted Vergil and one\nof undiluted Cicero.\n\nTo sum up, the best and fairest college-entrance examination is sight-translation;\nby the addition of tests of the\nwork done on a very small amount of prescribed reading, and by grammatical questions;\nif a larger amount of prescribed reading must be made sure of, the certificate of the school\nthe results of the sight-examination might be corrected\n\nshould be accepted for this; the questions on the subject-matter should be limited to such\nas\n\nmay be answered by one who understands the meaning of the passage.\n\nThe pre-\n\nliminary examination would consist, then, of sight-translation of easy narrative or descrip-\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSICS CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nlive prose (Caesar,\n\n473\n\nNepos, Livy, Quintus Curtius, and the like); passages from the pre-\n\nscribed prose and poetry (let us say Cicero's oration for the Manilian Law and the second\n\nbook of the jiEneid, tho the choice is a large one, and might range over a wide field if the\namount is to be small), with such questions on the subject-matter as will bring out the\nmeaning; and grammatical questions, with simple sentences for composition, based on\nthe passage of prescribed prose.\nThe advanced examination would contain sighttranslation of prose and poetry, not necessarily limited to Cicero and Vergil; passages\nfrom the prescribed prose and poetry (say the oration for Archias and the sixth book of\nthe yEneid), with questions on the subject-matter; and a piece of connected prose to be\nturned into Latin, based upon the prescribed prose.\nWhat are we to do if we do not succeed in getting the sort of examination we desire ?\nI hope we may have the clearness of vision to see our duty and the strength to do it.\nLet\nus teach Latin and Greek, not the method of passing an entrance examination in Latin\nor Greek.\n\nLet us strive to make the study of these languages do all it is capable of doing\n\nand girls, and for the cause of American education. We shall then read\nwhat seems to us most helpful, when it seems best, and as we have time and strength and\nfor our boys\n\ninspiration.\n\nThe entrance requirements will, after all, take care of themselves, if we\nIf we are teaching as we ought,\n\nwill remember that they are not for us, but for the college.\n\nwe should have little reason to fear the entrance examinations; but in case they are unreasonable and our students do not succeed in passing them, let us first examine ourselves,\n\nand then, if we are assured that we are doing our higher duty, be content to fail. To such\nan attitude as this the colleges must soon adapt themselves, and the result, I am persuaded,\nwould be a distinct gain to all concerned.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMaynard M. Hart, William McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n—For some\n\ntime past the requirements in classics for entrance to college have been criticised as being\nexcessive and mechanical.\n\nanything better.\n\nMany desire a change, but are not practical enough to suggest\n\nA number feel— and rightly, too—that for the general good the relations\n\nexisting between the college professors and the teachers in the secondary schools ought to\n\nbe much closer than they are at present.\n\nI\n\nam thankful to say that all concerned are\n\nbeginning to realize that it is best to come into more sympathetic touch with one another.\n\nMy experience in both college and secondary work has taught me that there is something\nfor the college instructor to learn from the teacher in the preparatory institution, and that\n\nthe opinion of the latter, if he be at all competent as a scholar and as a practical student\nof pedagogy, ought to carry, at least, as\n\nmuch weight as that of the former in outlining\n\nthe scope and nature of the requirements for college entrance; for this means, practically,\n\nthe work of the secondary school.\n\nThe attempts to satisfy the college requirements have produced many ills. In our\nthought on this matter we must not lose sight of the high school, as by far the greater\nnumber of pupils doing preparatory work are to be found in our public schools. Mark,\nSince so many subjects are now claiming the attention of the high-school\npupils, it seems that the proper time cannot very well be given to the classics, and the\nteacher finds it difficult enough to read over hurriedly the minimum amount of author\nwork. Under ordinary circumstances, with many pupils in the class who do not think of\na college course, or who have no particular aptitude for language study, it is not possible\nfor the instructor to accompUsh all that is required without sacrificing quality for quantity\none of the fatal mistakes in our education, and nowhere more noticeable than in the\nteaching of Latin and Greek.\nWe are to consider not merely the college requirements, but the work of the secondary\nschool in its relation thereto.\nCan this work be made more effective ?\nOur course is\nI say, doing.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n474\n\ntoo stereotyped, and the division of labor is too artificial.\n\n[Secondary\n\nA mistake is made in expecting\n\nthe average pupil, after a rapid survey of some first -year book, to enter upon the serious\n\nstudy of an author like Caesar.\n\nA great part of the period must be spent by the teacher\n\nin trying to explain the grammatical structure of the sentence to the loss of any appreciative grasp of the\n\nCommentaries as a piece of literature or of history.\n\nSentiment and\n\ntradition seem to dictate this course, and so it is followed from year to year.\n\nSince it has\n\nbeen decreed that Caesar must be taken up in the second year, Cicero in the third, and\nVergil in the fourth, who can think of modifying or changing the course ?\n\nFor some time I have contended, and experience has confirmed my contention, that\nsome introductory reader ought to be used before Caesar is read. Such a reader as Fabulae\nFaciles (ably revised for American students by our leader) can be taken up in the beginning of the second half of the first year, and continued along with the \"first-year Latin\"\nfor a whole year; or, it may be used during the first half of the second year.\n\nMany may\n\nsay that by giving only two years and a half to the three important authors we shall not\n\nbe able to cover the prescribed work.\n\nHowever, I maintain that, even as things are, with\n\nthe requirements too exacting, and having only four years in which to complete the course,\nthe pupil would understand his Latin much better than is the case at present, due to the\nextra time spent\n\nthoro foundation.\n\non the introductory work and the probable enthusiasm created by a\n.\n\nbeheve that there should be prescribed some limited and definite work.\n\nFor\nand Vergil in Latin,\nand of Xenophon and Homer in Greek, ought to be thoroly prepared to give the pupil an\nopportunity to show that he can master, and has mastered, what may be expected of him\nin the way of forms, syntax, prose, and such general information as may be required.\nNaturally there is necessity for definiteness, and this would be a guide, not only for instructors in the secondary schools, but also for tutors and those who may get up their work in\nI\n\ninstance, at least a book from each of the works of Caesar, Cicero,\n\nprivate.\n\nFrom time to time the prescribed books could be changed.\n\nThen, in addition\n\nand other reading indicated by\nthe college requirements or, in some cases, selected by the teacher.\nUpon this work very\ngreat stress ought to be laid, and for several reasons.\nSo far as the student is concerned,\nit will give him a wider range of classical literature; and the mere fact that the reading\nThere will be no great likeUis not specified ought to result in the absence of cramming.\nhood of the use of translations, the bane to classical study, and there will be greater interest.\nI have always been pleased to note how much satisfaction it gives a boy or girl to be able\nto make out and master some piece of translation that is not prescribed.\nVery often\nthis is the only method by which a dull or lazy pupil may be awakened and interested.\nFor the teacher greater freedom in the translation means much. It will give him an\nimpetus, and he will find it necessary to continue to be a student. He will be compelled\nBy hints and\nto use judgment and care in the selection of suitable portions of literature.\nto this, wide scope should be given for sight-translation\n\nsuggestions that the reading may demand he will get into closer touch with his pupils.\n\nAnd we need more of this co-operation in our school work.\nAs for admittance to college by certificate, I must state that not much time has been\ngiven by me to this matter.\n\nHowever, I have always been inclined to believe that the\nmore satisfactory method is by examination. Professor Kirtland has pointed out the\neffectiveness of the examination in sight translation, and I agree with him; for if I desired\nto gain an idea of the ability of any student in classics, I should be satisfied with the results\nof a paper on sight-work, and I, of course, should not object to giving him something to\ndo in prose, which, also, shows the pupil's grasp of his subject.\nIn conclusion, let me state that by doing thoroly less work than is at present required,\nand by giving more attention to additional work in the way of reading selections, merely\nindicated, and in sight, and by emphatically giving the pupil in his examination an opportunity to show ability to do contemplated work, the efficiency of the secondary school\nwill certainly be marked, and the standard of the classics in the college will be raised.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE MODERN LANGUAGES CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nF.\n\n475\n\nTHE MODERN LANGUAGES CONFERENCE\n\nTHE DIRECT METHOD OF TEACHING A MODERN LANGUAGE\nERNEST WOLF, \\EATMAN HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n[abridged by the author]\n\nTlie mode of procedure employed by tlie old dictionary method could not fail to result\nin disaster.\n\nThe pupil was required to commit a Hst of disconnected words to memory,\n\na grammatical recipe was given him, and then he was expected to \"create\" the very\n\nlanguage which he was to \"learn.\"\n\nThis \"cook-book method\" could not but produce\n\nresults which were both unpalatable and indigestible.\n\nInstead of the living language we\n\ngave our pupils the disconnected words of the dictionary and the dead rules of grammar.\n\nand one of those very few which\nupon the intensity of the\nimpressions.\"\nCan the impressions made by sounds of foreign words be intense, if they\nare immediately preceeded or followed by the sounds of English words? The \"direct\"\nmethod boldly assumes that results in pronunciation must be more satisfactory if the\npupil hears, reads, speaks, even sings in the foreign language alone. Nor have we any\nright to expect that the foreign word will linger any great length of time in the memories\nof our students, if we replace it immediately after it is read by its Enghsh equivalent.\nBy\nits overwhelming weight, the English must smother, as it were, the foreign word before the\nlatter has had an opportunity to take root in the mind of the student.\nFrom what has been said it is clear that the habit of translating is held chiefly responsible for the meager results attained by the \"grammar,\" \"translation,\" and often haughtily\nIt is one of the fundamental principles of pedagogy,\n\nare generally accepted, that \"the secret of success depends\n\ncalled \"scientific method.\"\n\nIn learning our own language we associate words and sentences with objects, events,\n\nA certain group of sounds enters the mind thru the sense of hearing.\nAt the same time the corresponding image enters the mind thru the eye. When a foreign\nlanguage is first taken up, the student will unconsciously, and often against his will, associate the word of his mother-tongue with the corresponding object, action, or event.\nI\ncherish no illusions concerning the difficulties of overcoming this habit; but conceding\nthat it may not be overcome is equivalent to conceding that foreign languages cannot be\nlearned.\nThe old \"translation\" method persists in confirming the learner in the very\nhabit which it should try to destroy. The \"direct\" method is based upon the fundamental principle that the association formed by word and image is more intense than that\nbetween the foreign word and its English equivalent. To form this habit of thinking in\nTheoretically, this standpoint, it seems to me, is\nthe foreign language is its aim.\nExperience shows that it has stood the test of practical schoolroom work.\nunassailable.\nEven the advocates of the translation method admit that the student should, in the end,\nactions, and thoughts.\n\nacquire the habit of reading the foreign text without first translating it.\n\nEverybody will admit that it is more diflScult to form the habit of thinking in the\nforeign language after the translation habit has once been formed.\n\nIf\n\nit is\n\npossible to\n\navoid translations in the reading of the classics, it certainly must be possible to do so in\nreading elementary\n\ntexts.\n\nBy the use of objects,\n\npictures,\n\nexercises such as\n\nGouin\n\nrecommends, a vocabulary of one thousand words may be acquired, sufficiently large to\nread, with the assistance of a well-prepared and skillful teacher, almost any foreign text.\nNothing, in my opinion, retards the progress of a class more than the indiscriminate\nuse of the dictionary.\n\nhave no meaning.\n\nSomeone has called it \"a positive curse.\"\n\nDisconnected words\n\nA word receives its meaning thru the associations in which it is used.\n\nThe use of the dictionary'leads to mental inertia.\n\nNothing is gained by looking up the\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n476\n\nword, the process is entirely mechanical.\nis\n\n[Secondary\n\nHow much greater is this activity, if the student\nI am prepared to\n\nrequired to make out the meaning of a word from the context!\n\nhear someone raise the objection: \"This method leads to mere guessing.\"\n\nIt cannot be\n\ndenied that, when practiced under a teacher without skill and experience, it may deterio-\n\nBut when done in the proper way and at the right time, it means a mental\nit impUes an alertness of mind, due to the capac-\n\nrate into such.\n\nactivity of the highest educational value;\n\nity for readily forming mental associations;\n\ninferior to the\n\nit is\n\nreal logical reasoning;\n\nit is\n\nin no way\n\nmental activity required in the solving of an algebraic equation with an\n\nunknown quantity.\n\nA few words remain to be said in regard to the application of the principles advocated\nA few months ago, when I was discussing the relative\n\nin the work of the schoolroom.\n\nmerits of the direct and the translation methods with one of my St. Louis colleagues, the\nlatter remarked: \"Even conceded you get to your question a perfectly correct answer from\nyour pupil, how do you know that he understands the words which he uses. Take, for\n\nexample, the question: 'Wohin fiel das Bienchen?'\nin das Wasser.'\n\nmean?\"\n\nI\n\nThe answer is: 'Das Bienchen fiel\n\nHow can you tell that the pupil knows what the words Bienchen and fiel\n\nwilUngly grant that a superficial teacher, or one without experience, will be\n\nsatisfied by the answer as given.\n\nA thoro teacher, one of experience, however, will con-\n\n\"Was ist ein Bienchen ?\" Answer: \"Das Bienchen\n\"Was gibt uns das Bienchen?\" Answer: \"Es gibt uns Honig.\" As\nthere is only one insect in the universe which gives us honey, I may feel reasonably sure in\ntinue to ask questions such as these\n\nist\n\n:\n\nein Insekt.\"\n\nassuming that the pupil knows what Bienchen signifies.\nOn the other hand, I might raise this objection to the translation method: \"How\ndo you know the student knows the meaning of the English word which he found in the\ndictionary?\" Are there no teachers in this audience who have had experiences of this\ncharacter? In the case of fi^l, I should drop a pencil on the desk and ask: \"Wohin fiel\nder Bleistift?\"\n\nTo make me absolutely sure that the words are understood, I should\nAnd should there still remain any doubt\n\nask the class to use them in new combinations.\nin\n\nmy mind, nothing would be left but to ask for the English meaning; such cases, how-\n\nNor would it mean that the student had learned the\nmeaning of the German word thru the English ^he cannot give the English without\nunderstanding the German, no more than he can give the EngUsh synonjTn of an English\nword which he has not understood; but it would be merely for the convenience of the\nI never hesitate to translate in such\nteacher, so he may feel sure he is on the safe side.\na case, wishing to have it distinctly understood, in making this statement, that nevertheless\nI consider every word of translation a step backward.\nA room in which German is taught by the direct method should be weU supplied\nwith maps, charts, and pictures. There are hundreds of large wall pictures, some of real\nartistic value, in the market which may be had at very reasonable prices.\nThey will not\never, are of very rare occurrence.\n\n—\n\nonly render valuable services in the study of texts, but also impart interesting information\n\nconcerning the foreign people, land, customs, and habits.\n\nBut these alone will not suffice,\nand for explaining unfamiliar words we must look for other means. In some cases we\nshall readily find familiar synonyms; viz., for erblicken, schen; for kluge, weise; the word\nObst we may explain by a process of analysis: \"Obst sind Aepfel, Birnen, Beeren;\" other\nwords by one of synthesis. In the case of derivatives we shall have to look for the root;\nA word like die Waise is explained\nin the case of compounds, for the different components.\nby a definition: \"Eine Waise ist ein Kind, das keinen Vater und keine Mutter hat.\"\nAbstract words offer greater difficulties; if they do not become clear thru the context,\nas in most cases they will, they may become so thru a short story; for example \" Furcht\":\n\"Ein Knabe was auf der Strasse; ein grosser Hund kam; der Knabe schrie, denn er hatte\nFurcht.\"\n\nOften the teacher may, thru the expression of his face, or thru gestures explain the\nmeaning of a sentence. From the face of the teacher the pupil readily reads joy and\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "a\n\nTHE MODERN LANGUAGES CONFERENCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nanger, happiness and sadness, satisfaction and the reverse.\n\n477\n\nIn many cases, the student\n\nwill half understand a lesson at the first reading by the teacher, provided the teacher knows\n\nhow to read and has some histrionic talent.\n\n—immeasurably harder than the\n\nBut, after all, this is very hard work for the teacher\ntranslation method;\nskill,\n\nit\n\nrequires more patience,\n\nand a good deal of experience.\n\nmore careful preparation, some natural\n\nThe transition period from the object-teaching to\n\nthe reading of texts is almost always slow and discouraging.\nfind his efforts rewarded.\n\nBut the patient teacher will\n\nThe progress made later on will be the more rapid, since the\n\n—\n\na most difficult, indeed too difficult task, with its tiresome and often\nand therefore discouraging, looking up of words, the memorizing of word-lists,\nlearned in ftUuram ohlivionem is no longer required of the student.\ntask of translating\n\nfruitless,\n\n—\n\nDISCUSSION\n0. S. Westcott, principal of Robert Waller High School, Chicago, 111.\n\n—Twenty-\n\neight years ago last February, I wrote in a western educational journal as follows:\n\nThe remark is frequently made that nothing but a critical study of the dead languages\nwill fit a person for the proper understanding of our English vernacular.\n\nThis sweeping\n\nclaim has too little foundation in either fact or reason, and the undue amount of time\nusually given to the pursuit of Greek and Latin should be curtailed to more reasonable\nproportions, that the time now allotted to German, French, and other modern languages\n\nmay be correspondingly increased.\nFurther,\n\nit is\n\nbelieved that a large measure of responsibility for the standard behef\n\nin almost unhmited amounts of Latin and Greek, as compared with the hmited amount\n\nof time devoted to French or German, is fairly attributable to the unphilosophical modes\n\nand thus unnecessarily creating in\nBy the standard mode,\nto be sure, such a knowledge of a language may be acquired as will enable one by strenuous\nefforts, and with the constant aid of both grammar and dictionary, to pick out something\nwhich remotely resembles the meaning of a foreign author; but such a knowledge as\n\nof presenting living languages as if they were dead,\n\nthe mind of the student a distaste which only years can eradicate.\n\nreally puts one en rapport with the language itself, or with those\n\naccustomed to its use,\n\nthe student by this process acquires never.\n\n—\n\nBut there is a rational method of presenting modern languages to the learner\nmethod which not only accomplishes the object aimed at, but never attained by the common\nschool, viz., a thoughtful famiharity with the real genius of the language and those who\nemploy it as a means of communication; but also brings about a result rarely or never\ncontemplated by the old plan, viz., that the student shall be able to express himself fluently,\nvigorously, and intelligibly in the language of his adoption.\nThe unanimous opinion of the most competent judges of the matter appears to be\nthat the study of the ancient languages accomplishes for the student:\n1.\n\nA familiarity with the exalted type of Greek and Roman civilization and high art.\n\nThe acquisition of such a discipline of mind as fits the student always afterward\nmore readily to grasp and more easily to retain anything in the vast range of human research\nto which he may be inchned to turn his attention.\nA familiarity with the significance of the roots of the vast number of words in\n3.\n2.\n\nour vernacular which have been, wisely or unwisely, called from the storehouse of the\nancients.\n\nThe first of these somewhat specious pleas may be answered with a word; viz.,\n\nthat the ancient art and civiHzation are for the consideration of the EngHsh or American\n\nstudent now well presented in an EngHsh dress, and the toilsome and rugged road which\nalone has heretofore led to the accomplishment of this design need surely be no longer\ntrodden.\nis\n\nThe second consideration demands thoughtful attention.\n\nIndeed, everything\n\nwillingly admitted which the strongest adherents to our classical courses can possibly\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n478\n\n[Secondary\n\nBut why is it\nassumed without investigation that the German does not have within it just such germs\nof disciplinary power as are at once admitted for Latin ?\nMay it not be that the instructor\nhimself fails properly to appreciate or deftly to handle the modern language by reason\nof his neglect of the same for the undue cultivation of the other ? Why should there be\nsay in their behalf, so long as they refrain from invidious comparisons.\n\nso much hidden virtue in the variations of the Latin third declension of nouns, or in the\n\nramifications of the conjugations of the Greek verbs, while in the inflections of the cor-\n\nresponding parts of speech in German no such subtle force is found ?\nBut, further, what shall be said of the famiharity with the numerous roots in our\nmultiform language which plainly point to a Greek or a Latin origin ? Granted that\n\na knowledge of their significance is essential to a proper appreciation of our numerous\nEnglish derivatives therefrom, and will it be said that other derivatives are of less importance ?\n\nWhen our best authorities assert without contradiction that three-fifths of our\n\nEnglish roots are from PlattdetUsch, surely there is no reason in the eternal fitness of\nthings, or from pure democratic principles, why the three-fifths should yield to a fraction\n\nAltho Greek in the secondary schools has now been largely superseded\nby modern language or by science, and altho the influence of Latin has been noticeably\ndiminished and the time devoted to it curtailed, it is lamentably true that the methods\nprevailing with the teachers of Latin and Greek have unfortunately not been abandoned,\nbut have in many schools been retained to the great disadvantage of pupils wrestling\n\nof the two-fifths.\n\nwith modern languages.\n\nSuch a position a quarter of a century ago was reckoned extremely heterodox, and\nI was not at all surprised to be taken severely to task for the presumptuous promulgation\n\nof such views.\nI\n\nAn opponent was willing to admit that by the colloquial method which\n\nadvocated more confidence was required, but he assumed that correctness could not\n\nthus be obtained.\n\nThis very admission appeared to me the strongest recommendation\n\nfor the method I was advocating.\n\nI did not hesitate to assert that it was substantiated\nby the most abundant and undoubted proofs, that by the new method both confidence\nand correctness may be acquired in the same time as by the old method the partial correctness may have been acquired with no confidence, and consequently with no further practical\nadvantage than what accrues from a passable reading knowledge of the language studied.\n\nMy critic prefers correctness to confidence.\n\nI prefer confidence with correctness.\n\nacquire confidence with correctness, the confidence must be acquired first.\nso in all instruction.\n\nTo\n\nThis is surely\n\nToo often does the teacher fail in obtaining results precisely because\n\nhe is too rigidly exact in the matter of form, creating thereby disUke for the underlying\n\nand more important thought without which the word is hfeless, useless. Hence, our too\nnumerous mechanical and thoughtless alleged educational experts. The new method\ndoes not by any means look to the continued exclusion of grammatical information, but\nrequires that it shall be left until the pupil is so far advanced as to be able to appreciate\nthe etymological and syntactical peculiarities of the language.\nWhy should the teacher incessantly ring the changes on the German article, until\nthe forms and proper use of the same are both perfectly familiar to the pupil, before tolerating his attempts to employ them in sentences ? Would he not ipso facia condemn the\nlanguage of many reputed German scholars both native and foreign ? Well-educated\nGermans themselves admit their frequent conversational obliquities in so elementary a\ngrammatical matter as the proper form of the article in various circumstances. Indeed,\n\nwho of us invariably uses correct EngUsh, whether it be in our off-hand conversation or\nShall we then cease to talk or write because we are aware\n\nin our more studied efforts ?\n\nof not attaining perfect accuracy ?\n\nThe point may be raised whether talking a language is the main object in its acquisiWith the ancient languages most teachers beheve that a reading familiarity is all\nI say most teachers, since there are some who believe that even Latin\nand Greek should be taught colloquially. I know of one teacher, who is a past master\n\ntion.\n\nthat is desirable.\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE MODERN LANGUAGES CONFERENCE\n\nin theology and entitled to write S. T. D. after his name,\n\n479\n\nwho recited all his theology in\n\nLatin, and who writes epistles in Latin with the same freedom that he exercises in EngUsh\n\nor in his own vernacular, which is French.\n\nBefore his linguistic accomplishments I bow\n\nwith great respect, and yet this man failed to pass an examination to entitle him to teach\n\nLatin in a secondary school, because the examiner thought it more important to know\nthe quantities of Latin vowels than to be able to speak and write Latin with facihty.\nit\n\nTell\n\nnot in Gath, publish it not in the streets of Ashkelon.\n\nBut with the living language of the moderns the case seems to present itself thus:\nShall we, on the one hand, study the grammar and the dictionary, and with the assistance\nof the vernacular obtain a passably good knowledge of the new language in four years'\n\nstudy; or shall we, on the other hand, learn to speak the new language with such fluency\nas to transact business by its use, and have at the same time an excellent reading knowledge\nof the language by having put the same number of hours per week upon the matter for\n\ntwo years ? I say an excellent reading knowledge, for the reason that by the new plan\ndouble and triple the amount of reading material may be gone over in one-half the time.\nAll who heard our beloved Dr. Harris Tuesday morning before the National Council\nwill recognize him as indorsing our contention.\nWe have all reverenced him for years\nas our psychological expert, and you remember that in his brief discussion of the cultivation\nof the heart he showed us conclusively that, antecedent to the intellectual appreciation of\nthe moral position, the will must be called into strenuous action.\nFirst the habit of resisting no evil, insisted upon by the instructor, and, after the habit is formed, then the information tending to the intellectual appreciation of the ethics of the case. Just so do we argue\nin the matter of linguistic instruction.\nintellectual appreciation of the\n\nFirst, the\n\nhabit of conversation;\n\nafterward the\n\nreasons for certain forms of expression.\n\nPsychology\n\nand pedagogy, here as elsewhere, go hand in hand.\n\nThe man who wishes to learn German may easily discover that in dent Wasser and\nin das Wasser are constantly and uniformly used in peculiar places, and he may be infal-\n\nwithout having been instructed, perhaps tormented, by a discussion of rest\nand motion, place and direction, or the dative and the accusative cases.\nIndeed, the greatest advantage of excluding the vernacular from the class-room\n\nlibly correct\n\nis accustomed soon to think in the new language.\nWhile he is pondering over the comparative grammars and the varied idioms, translating\nfrom the old language to the new, he is creeping when he might walk, run, fly. Tho\n\nconsists in the fact that the student\n\nhis gait\n\nmay be staggering, his flight unsteady, his progress is surely more rapid, and\n\nby practice and by practice alone. Speech is habit;\ngrammar, an art. After the habit is acquired, then let the art be called upon to make\nthe habit a more graceful one.\nthe style of progress will improve\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 1905\nThe Department of Higher Education met in the First Presbyterian Church at\nAsbury Park at 2:30 p. m., July 5.\nIn the absence of President Richard H. Jesse, Vice-President William L. Bryan, of\nthe University of Indiana, presided.\n\nIn the absence of Secretary Joseph Swain, of Swarthmore College, President G. E.\nFellows, of the University of Maine, was elected secretary pro tern.\n\nPresident William L. Bryan presented the introductory paper on the subject \"The\n\nExcessive Expansion of the Course of Study.\"\n\nThe second paper was presented by Charles Alphonso Smith, professor of English,\n\"Honor in Student Life in Colleges and\n\nUniversity of North Carolina, on the subject\nUniversities.\"\n\nThis paper was discussed by Professor McCloskey, of Princeton University; Dr.\n\nAmy E. Tanner, professor of philosophy, Wilson College, Chambersburg, Pa.\n\n;\n\nPresident\n\nOscar J. Craig, of the University of Montana; and President E. G. Lancaster, of Olivet\nCollege.\n\nPresident J. H. Canfield, of Columbia University, next presented a series of letters\nfrom various college and university presidents which had been collected by President\nJames H. Baker, of the University of Colorado, on the subject: \"Does wide election,\npermitting narrow reading, especially in literatures; and do minute courses, prohibiting\nviews of whole subjects, weaken undergraduate courses in the universities ? Are colleges\nmore fortunate in these things?\"\n\nAfter appointment of a Committee on Nominations by the president, the department\n\nadjourned.\n\nG. E. Fellows, Secretary pro tempore.\n\n(Signed)\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Friday Morning, July 7\nActing President William L. Bryan called the department to order at 9 :,30 a. m.\n\nThe first paper was by President George E. MacLean, of the Iowa State University,\non the subject: \"Which is better: the western plan of admitting students to colleges and\nuniversities by certificates from duly inspected secondary schools, or the eastern method\nof admitting only by examinations conducted by representative boards or otherviise ?\"\n\nThe discussion of this paper was led by Edward J. Goodwin, second assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.;\ntion of Michigan;\n\nJ.\n\nDelos Fall, ex-superintendent of public instruc-\n\nA. Foshay, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.; H.\n\nSlauson, superintendent of schools, Ann Arbor, Mich.;\n\nM.\n\nOscar J. Craig, president of the\n\nUniversity of Montana.\n\nThe second paper was presented by Professor Albert Ross Hill, dean of Teachers\nCollege, University of Missouri, on the subject:\n\n\"Should chairs of pedagogy attached to\n\ncollege departments of universities be developed into professional colleges for the training\n\nof teachers, co-ordinate with those of law, medicine,\n\nabolished ?\n\nand engineering, or should they be\n\nShould such chairs be in colleges at all ?\"\n481\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n482\n\n[Higher\n\nA general discussion followed, led by Professor William M. Aber, of the University\nof Montana.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following nominations:\n\n— —\n—\n\nFor President William L. Bryan, of the University of Indiana.\nFor Vice-President -Charles Alphonso Smith, of the University of North Carolina.\nFor Secretary Oscar J. Craig, of the University of Montana.\n\nOn motion, the report was accepted and adopted, and the nominees declared elected\nas oflScers for the ensuing year.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n(Signed)\n\nOscar J. Craig, Secretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTHE EXCESSIVE EXPANSION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY\nWILLIAM L. BRYAN, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND.\nI wish to consider briefly what I believe to be a certain evil condition of\n\nthe courses of study in American universities.\n\nI believe that\n\nwe offer too\n\nwide a range of undergraduate courses, and that this is done at the expense,\n\non the one hand, of the quality of our collegiate work, and, on the other hand,\nat the expense of graduate and research work.\n\nI believe that, without violent\n\nchange, the evil may be in a considerable measure remedied.\nI.\n\nThe chief factor in determining from decade to decade the actual course\nAmerican imiversities has been, as I think, the pressure of new\n\nof study in\n\nThis pressure changed the curriculum of seventy-\n\nsubjects for recognition.\n\nfive years ago, with its slender list of subjects, into the curriculum of forty and\n\ntwenty-five years ago, whose aim was to compress a bit of each sort of learning\ninto a four-year course.\n\nWhen this became impossible, two courses of study\nThe ground must be covered. No one student\n\nwere made, and then three.\n\ncould cover the ground, but the catalog must do so.\n\nThe same pressure, growing always greater, caused the so-called all-round\ncourse of study to blow up from within, leaving its debris in many new and\nstrange forms of educational practice.\n\nIt has happened more than once that\n\nthe old course of study has blown up in the hands of a faculty whose members\nbelieved in its ideal, and who were simply trying to rearrange the details.\nFinally, the same pressure which has caused the multiplication of depart-\n\nments has caused the multipHcation of specialties within departments.\nhas developed such and such new fields of learning.\ntion.\n\nWe must recognize\nWe must cover the ground. No student can cover the ground, but\n\nThey are recognized as such and such institutions.\n\nthem here.\n\nScience\n\nThey demand recogni-\n\nthe university must do so.\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nIf\n\nwith\n\nEXCESSIVE EXPANSION^ OF COURSE OF STUDY\n\n483\n\na university were rich enough to cover the whole ground of learning\nintroductory courses on the freshmen-sophomore level, and\n\nfirst-rate\n\nthen to cover the whole ground again on the junior-senior level with a vast\narray of electives, and finally to support research in a correspondingly adequate\n\nmeasure, we might say:\n\n**Let it be so; let this limitlessly rich university do\n\nby itself what it is really the business of all the universities and learned societies\n\ncombined to do.\" It is fine to imagine an institution where every science\nand every art might be studied upon every level, with no lack of money or of\nmen, or of leisure for the men who do productive work. It is not surprising\nthat this splendid conception, which must be the ideal of the university world\n\nas a whole, should be more or less consciously the ideal of particular universi-\n\nBut, in point of fact, the whole university world is not at present rich\nenough for the full realization of this ideal. And when a single university,\nties.\n\neven the\n\nrichest,\n\nfailure of the\n\nattempts to do everything on every\n\nlevel,\n\nundertaking is sure to appear in some way.\n\nappear very generally in two well-known ways:\n\nfirst,\n\nthe inevitable\n\nThe failure does\n\nin the cheapening of\n\nthe elementary collegiate work; and, second, in the restriction of productive\n\nresearch work.\n\nIt is said that in the American university there is a necessary\n\ninternal conflict between the collegiate interests and the university interests.\n\nMy judgment is that in the larger American universities generally the greatest\nenemy of both these interests is the excessive expansion of the course of study.\nII.\nThere are obviously two ways of cutting down the amount of work\nwhich the university shall offer we may cut down the number of departments,\nor we may cut down the number of courses offered by the several departments.\nThe first of these methods is radical. It is a grave matter to abolish a\nuniversity department not really more grave, I think, than the establishment\nof a new department whose justification may be doubtful, but, for many and\n:\n\n;\n\nobvious reasons, a procedure which university authorities must hesitate to\nadopt.\n\nNevertheless, even such radical pruning\n\nmay be justified.\n\nIt\n\ncan\n\nbecome a question between cutting off some large limbs or allowing the whole\ntree to languish.\n\nI shall not be surprised if within the next generation the\n\npressure of circumstances should force the universities to the adoption, in a\n\nconsiderable degree, of this extreme form of selection.\n\nMeanwhile, we have at hand a much gentler, and yet scarcely less efficient,\nmethod of selection, if the departments will cut down the amount and range of\nwork offered by them. Let me put this method of reorganizing and concentrating the course of study in the form of definite proposals.\nLet there be in each principal imiversity department\n1.\n\n2.\n\nA fundamental elementary course.\nA very strictly Hmited amount of undergraduate work beyond the\n\nintroductory course.\n3.\n\nAll the rest of the\n\nwork offered by the department strictly graduate\n\nor research work.\nI shall discuss each of these in turn.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n484\n1.\n\nThe fundamental course.\n\n[Higher\n\n— should be a problem of maximum importIt\n\nance to make this course as good as college work can be made.\n\nproblem of determining what to do\n\nThere is the\n\n—what things out of the whole\n\nfield to\n\nselect which shall represent typically the present state of learning in the field,\n\nand that on a level appropriate for the younger college students. There is\nthe problem of finding men whose training, whose personal good temper, and\nwhose pedagogical tact fit them to introduce young people to a great department of learning. Wherever possible, the head of the department should\ntake part in this work.\nIt is here, as\n\nwe know, that the small colleges have the chief advantage\n\nof their smallness, and it is here that they have the best chance of excelling\n\nthe great universities.\n\nI beHeve,\n\nhowever, that the university has great\n\nAbove all things, it must have, on the average,\nprofessors who are stronger and in closer touch with the most recent learning.\nI believe, therefore, that, in spite of the great numbers and the many sections,\ncountervailing advantages.\n\nit is\n\npossible for the university to develop elementary courses which shall be\n\nI wish to remark\nand achieve such a course is of itself productive original work\nof a high order, as truly as the writing of a monograph.\n2.\nThe advanced undergraduate courses. Most of our universities have\nbetter than are ordinarily possible in the small colleges.\n\nthat to plan\n\n—\n\neither the major-subject system or the\n\ngroup system.\n\nThe object of both\n\nthese systems, as we know, is to furnish, in Ueu of the old-time college cur-\n\nriculum, a number of curricula each of which has a substantial center.\n\nThe\n\nessential requirement which we must make of every group and of every major\nis\n\nthat a competent social consensus shall judge it to have the real internal\n\nunity, together with the progressive grades of difficulty\n\nwhich\n\nfit\n\nit\n\nto\n\nbe\n\nBoth systems exclude a college course\nBoth may, and I think should, admit a major or a group\n\nthe center of a college curriculum.\n\nmade up of scraps.\n\nwhose internal unity is assured by the fact that it leads to one of the learned\noccupations.\n\nWhat I wish now to urge is that, without affecting the number of majors\nor of groups or of departments, we may very decidedly reduce the number of\n\nundergraduate courses offered.\nknife.\n\nHere, as I think, is the place for the pruning-\n\nThe universities can cover the whole field of learning in typical intro-\n\nductory courses on the freshman-sophomore\n\nlevel.\n\nWe cannot each of us\n\nby any possibility cover the ground on all higher levels. We must select.\nWe must reject right and left subjects which have every argument in their\nfavor, except that we cannot do them all.\n\nWe must weed out the suckers as\n\na condition of having cornstalks.\n\nThere would result apparent hardships for the undergraduates and for\nsome members of the faculty. The. undergraduate would not be able, on the\none hand, to take a large proportion of his college course within one narrow\nfield, thus becoming a specialist without becoming an educated man; and\nhe would not be able, on the other hand, to browse far and wide over any and\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "EXCESSIVE EXPANSION OF COURSE OF STUDY\n\nDepaitmcnt]\n\nevery field which\n\nmodem learning has developed.\n\n485\n\nHe would find instead\n\nan abundantly wide choice of majors or of groups, each offering an austerely\ncenter for a college course.\n\nmake a substantial\nAnd this, whether or not he is to become a\n\nI beheve, the\n\nbest thing which the university of today can\n\nchosen\n\nof representative courses so arranged as to\n\nlist\n\nspecialist,\n\nis,\n\nhim.\n\noffer\n\nI have considered in this connection also the possible hardship to the\n\nyounger professors who want to have each at least a small amount of advanced\n\nwork to do.\n\nI do not wish to sHght this consideration, for it is an essential\n\nfeature of the university life that the younger men should have the door of\n\nhope open.\nsay\n\nthis:\n\nI have not solved this\n\nIf an instructor\n\nproblem to my own satisfaction, but I\n\ncan do important productive work, the university\n\nshould try to offer him as much leisure as the value of his work appears to\n\nwork with students or alone. What the\nuniversity cannot afford to do is to pay so dearly for elementary non-productive\njunior and senior work.\nThese courses are the suckers.'\nwarrant, whether he is doing the\n\nProductive\n\n3.\n\nwork.\n\n—The freshman-sophomore fundamental courses\n\nshould be the first gainers from the resources of money and leisure saved by\ncutting off excessive expansion.\n\nand research courses.\n\nThe second gainers should be the graduate\n\nI wish to consider this second gain as it might affect\n\nthe larger universities and then as it might affect the smaller ones.\n\nOur greatest imiversities are very rich. They have great graduate\nThey have scholars who have proved to be productive men. And\nyet, when the total output of scholarly work done in them is compared with\na)\n\nschools.\n\nGermany, for example, the result is generally conceded to be\nIn many cases, Httle is accompUshed beyond the comparatively\nelementary research work which has its terminus in the doctor's degree. No\n\nthat done in\n\ndiscouraging.\n\nexplanation of this result seems so probable as the fact that the\n\nGerman\n\nprofessor has, as a rule, the leisure which the American professor secures by\n\nexception only.\n\nIt is doubtful whether the\n\nGerman rule can or should become\n\nthe American one, while we have the college and the university united in one\ninstitution.\n\nWe wish our greatest scholar to surrender a httle of his time to\n\nthe freshmen.\n\nBut, having asked this of him as a duty of rehgion, we should\n\nWe should\nWe should sacri-\n\nspare his leisure as the most precious asset of the university.\n\ncount it a sin to require such a man to \"cover the ground.\"\nfice the catalog,\n\nmake it thin and full of holes, confine the students to a narrow\n\nrange of typically good choices, and by these inconsequential sacrifices preserve\nfor the great man his chance to do the work which he alone can do.\nb)\n\nThere is an evil suggestion in the air that a university should not\n\nattempt to do advanced graduate and research work unless it is very rich.\n\nI\n\nbe remembered that conditions vary widely in the different departments. For\nexample, first-year work in a foreign language is not really collegiate work at all, and if it must be done in\n»\n\nIt should, of course,\n\ncollege, the amount of possible collegiate work in the subject is lessened.\n\nas astronomy or geology presupposes collegiate work in other sciences.\n\nOn the other hand, such a subject\n\nGood sense requires that such differ-\n\nences should be recognized at whatever expense of superficial consistency in the treatment of departments.\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "»\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n486\n\nknow of nothing to justify such a counsel of discouragement.\n\n[Higher\n\nThe history of\n\nlearning, the history of the Uttle universities of Europe, the current history\nof scholarly\n\nwork in America, all show that the conditions which permit a\n\nman to do productive work may be created anywhere. At the worst, some\nmen in the smaller universities, in the little colleges, and in whatever places\nmay seem more unlikely, will continue to prove that creative work is free for\nall and is the one thing which can never be controlled by a monopoly.\n\nthese\n\nWherever\n\nmen are they prove also, directly thru their pupils or indirectly thru\n\ntheir colleagues, the vitalizing effect of research upon teaching, and so demon-\n\nstrate the true\n\nbond of unity between the university and the college.\n\ninstitutional conditions\n\nscholars.\n\nIt\n\nNo\n\ncan wholly suppress these masters of the guild of\n\nhowever, our main business to organize conditions which\n\nis,\n\nshall not tend to repress them, but which shall enable them to give their whole\n\nservice to society.\n\nIn conclusion I will say that the problem of selecting from all the things\n\nwhich might be done the things which shall be done is the most difl&cult and\nthe most imperative problem confronting the entire school system.\n\nan\n\nartificial\n\nproblem.\n\nThe school must represent civilization.\n\nIt is not\n\nWhen we\n\nhave detected and dismissed the fads and frills, there remains the great circle\nof science and arts which will not suffer dismissal, and yet for which our long\n\nand expensive school system has not yet found enough money nor enough\nThis means simply that the school has forced upon it as never before\nthe problem of selecting its course of study.\n\ntime.\n\nHONOR IN STUDENT LIFE IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\nCHARLES ALPHONSO SMITH, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, AND DEAN OF THE\nGRADUATE DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA,\nCHAPEL HILL, N. C.\nIn the fourth book of his work on The German Universities, Dr. Friedrich\nPaulsen analyzes student honor into three constituent elements:\nindependence,\n\nand\n\ntruth-telling.^\n\ncourage,\n\nThis analysis, however, besides being\n\npurely abstract, looks more to the foundation of student honor than to the\nsuperstructure.\n\nThe\n\nanalysis\n\ngiven by Le Baron Russell Briggs, dean of\n\nthe faculty of arts and sciences in Harvard University, is\n\nmore\n\nconcrete,\n\nbecause it is based on the actual working out of honor ideals in college hfe.\nSays he:\n\nWant of a fine sense of honor appears chiefly in athletic contests, in the authorship\nof written work, in excuses for neglect of study, in the relation of students to the rights of\n\npersons who are not students, and in questions of duty to all who are, or who are to be,\nnearest and dearest.\n»\n\n\"Drei\n\nStiicke scheinen\n\nmir in erster Linie zu stehen:\n\nMut, Unabhiingigkcit und Wahrhaftigkeit.\"\n\nSee Paulsen's Die deuischen Universitaten (1902), p. 346.\n\nSee the excellent chapter on \"College Honor\" in School, College and Character (1901).\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nHONOR IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\n\nThese defects Mr. Briggs considers \"a part\n\n487\n\nof that lopsided\n\nimmaturity\n\nwhich characterizes privileged youth.\"\nWithout attempting an adequate analysis of student honor, either of its\nexcellences or of\n\nits\n\ndefects,\n\nit\n\nmay be said that the most popular error in\n\nregard to the subject is to view it wholly as a phase of ethics.\n\nStudent honor\n\nOne of the most effective appeals\nthat I ever heard made to a band of college hazers was based not so much on\nThe students\nthe view that hazing is wrong as that it is puerile and common.\nis\n\nonly partly a thing of the conscience.\n\nwere told that society is coming more and more to regard hazing as belonging\nwith slovenly speech, loud neckties, and even eating with the knife.\n\nThe\n\nappeal was made with tact and sympathy, the students seeming to feel that\ntheir honor had been invoked because nothing was said about the Ten Commandments or the Golden Rule. Student honor, as it exists in our colleges\n\nand universities today, is only in part, therefore, an ethical dictate; it is rather\na curious blend of conscience and convention, of individualism, on the one\nhand, and comphance with the canons of good form, on the other.\n\nBeing\n\ncommunal sentiment, a facultS d'ensemhle, it is peculiarly susceptible to the consensus of opinion prevailing in its own college and in the\nessentially a\n\ncolleges that\n\nform\n\nits\n\nsocial or athletic environment.\n\nA college president\n\nwrites\nI\n\nam almost coming to the conclusion that student honor is based entirely upon cam-\n\nConvince one team that\npus sentiment, and refuses to receive any other standard\nall the other college teams sign certain pledges as a matter of form, and they will consider\nthemselves justified in doing the same.\n\nAnother misconception is to regard student honor as instinctive or intuitive,\nas having the simplicity of the great emotions, and but little affinity with the\nanalytic distinctions\n\nand reasoned processes of the intellect.\n\nShakespeare's\n\nunanswered question of fancy may be asked with equal pertinency of student\nhonor:\nTell me where is fancy bred,\nOr in the heart or in the head ?\n\nUndoubtedly the impulses of student honor come chiefly from the feelings,\nbut the code of student honor frequently finds place for more subtle distinctions than ever vexed the brain of rabbi or scholiast.\n\nIt recalls at times\n\nthe phrase with which Charles Lamb characterized the comedy of the Restora-\n\nhe called it \"the sanctuary and quiet Alsatia of hunted casuistry.\"\nBut when all is said, student honor remains an asset of incalculable moral,\nsocial, and civic worth.\nYou may smile at it now and then; you will more\ntion;\n\nby it. Its inconsistencies are apparent, but student life\nwould be gross and sordid without it. No college discipHne would be tolerable\n\noften be thrilled\n\nthat did not strive with sympathy and patience to identify itself with the honor\n\nNo teacher would deserve the name that did not seek\nand out of it to invest these ideals with ever-increasing\n\nideals of its students.\nin the class-room\n\nworth and dignity.\n\nStudent honor needs above all else neither praise nor\n\nblame, but recognition, enhghtenment, and co-operation.\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n488\n\n[Higher\n\nThat it has not received the consideration that its importance merits is\nevidenced by the dearth of literature bearing on the subject.\n\nIt is true that\n\nmore attention is now given to the ethical aspects of education than ever\nbefore; the ethical note is more often and more clearly sounded; but student\nhonor, tho it is unquestionably the strategic point in student character, has\nreceived but scant notice from writers on educational themes.\n\nNo thoro\n\ntreatment of the subject has 3^et been attempted, and no concerted action has\n\nbeen taken.\n\nIf\n\nwe beHeve in the primacy of character rather than in the\n\nprimacy of mere intellect, we cannot afford to ignore the standards of honor\n\nand dishonor that students impose upon themselves and that affect more or\npermanently their character in after-years.\n\nless\n\nIf\n\nthis\n\npaper, therefore,\n\ndoes nothing else than call attention to an oversight and a need, it will at least\njustify its, niche in the program.\n\nWhile it is true that student honor is measured today chiefly by the student's\ndeportment on examinations and on the athletic field, there was a time when\nthe phrase connoted primarily the student's bearing toward the faculty and\n\ntoward the property-owners in the neighborhood of the college or university.\nIn both these respects, however, there has been a significant change for the\nbetter.\n\nOrganized rebellions against college authority are comparatively\n\nThey occur at times, and perhaps will occur thruout the century; but\nthey are exceptional and marked by less violence and rowdyism than in earlier\nyears.\nThey arose out of conditions which are now obsolescent, if not obsolete.\nForemost among these were the petty restrictions imposed by faculties, and\nrare.\n\nenforced by a system of espionage and inquisitorial investigation that rarely\nfailed to beget\n\nan insurrectionary feeling on the part of the students.\n\nDr.\n\nCharles F. Thwing,^ declares that \"down even to the middle of the present\ncentury, a system of pecuniary fines represented the most popular\n\nmethod\n\nSo far as my information\nIn many cases students were not\n\nof securing good order among college students.\"\n\ngoes, this was not true of southern colleges.\n\nonly not trusted, but their very presence at a college or university seemed the\n\nwarrant of suspicion.\n\nThey were expressly forbidden to do what only the\n\nmost versatile ingenuity would ever have thought of doing.\n\nIn the inhibitions\n\nlaunched against them no attempt was made to discriminate between the\n\nmalum prohibitum and the malum in se.^\n\nThis is a distinction, however, that\n\nstudents never fail to make, and, be it said to their credit, their insistence on\ntheir natural rights, together with their consistent opposition to artificial and\n\nunnecessary restrictions, has had its share in bringing about the era of better\nthings.\n\n\"The history of the government of the students in American colleges,\"\n\nsays Dr. Thwing,^ \"is a history of increasing liberality\n\nand orderHness;\"\n\nof increasing orderliness because of increasing liberality.\n\nThere has been also a corresponding change in the attitude of college\n»\n\nCollege Administration (1900), p. 115.\n\nIn Quincy's History of Harvard University Vol.\nlying\" are fined^the same: \"not exceeding i s. 6d.\"\n'\n\nijCollege_Administration, p. 113.\n\ny\n\nII,\n\npp. 499, 500, \"absence from recitation\"\n\nand\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nHONOR IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\n\nDepartment!\n\nstudents toward those living in the college environment.\n\n489\n\nConflicts between\n\ngownsmen and townsmen are no longer a settled feature of college life.\n\nThis\n\nconsummation is to be ascribed in part to the growth of college towns, and\nto the attendant blending of student life with a larger social and civic life.^\nIt\n\nhas been brought about also by the greater attention now paid to the\n\nphysical comfort of students in dormitories and lecture-rooms, by the modernization of the curriculum, and by the wider introduction of the elective system.\n\nThe adaptation of student to study, which it is the aim of the elective system\nto effect, leaves little room for the restless leisure that used to vent itself on\n\nsign-boards and hen-roosts.\nto\n\nCongenial work and plenty of it will do more\n\nharmonize a student to his surroundings than all the formal regulations\n\nor systems of espionage that the mind of man could devise.\n\nBut while there has been improvement in the respects noted, student\nThe two nerve centers of student\nhonor are now athletics and examinations. It would be hard to overrate\n\nstandards have still their inconsistencies.\n\nthe significance of athletics in\n\nmodern college life.\n\nTime was when the\n\ncormnencement exercises furnished the chief point of contact between the\n\nbody and the outside public. The point of\nnow the intercollegiate game of football or baseball. Both\n\ncollective life of the student\n\nintersection\n\nis\n\ngames are characteristically American, and have proved effective agencies\nand the development of college spirit. The\npopularity of these games, however, and especially the unprecedented interest\nin football, have grown faster than the means devised to meet and control\nthe abuses connected with them. Methods of safeguarding intercollegiate\nWhile I have perfect faith in the\nathletics are yet in an experimental stage.\nultimate competency of student honor, reinforced by the American love of a\nsquare deal, to meet the exigencies presented, the duty of the hour is to educate\npublic sentiment in and outside of our colleges so that it will despise the\ndoctrine of victory at any price. This is the slogan that is responsible more\nfor the discipline of manliness\n\nthan anything else for the lie signed to the examination paper as well as for\nthe lying evasion of the aspiring athlete.\n\nIn intercollegiate\n\nathletics,\n\nas practiced in nearly all of our\n\nAmerican\n\ncolleges and universities, a student becomes ineligible who has received or is\n\nreceiving compensation, \"direct or indirect,\" for his athletic services.\ninhibition, it is true, strikes at the root of athletic commercialism;\n\nThis\n\nbut there\n\nhas grown up a code of casuistry in the interpretation of this clause that\nthreatens to undermine the integrity of athletic ideals.\ncolleges have here a rare duty and opportunity.\ninsight, courage,\n\nThe faculties of our\n\nIt is a duty requiring tact,\n\nand unfailing fidelity to truth and honor.\n\nThe slightest\n\nPostmaster-General Cortelyou, in his recent addre<is, June 7, before the students of the University of\nIllinois, touched happily upon this general phase of education as follows\n\" Our modern educational system is becoming more rational. It takes account of actual needs; it deals\n»\n\nless with the theoretical and more with the practical.\n\nthe acquisition of knowledge.\n\nIt looks to the\n\ndevelopment of character as well as to\n\nIt makes the experience of the past serve the\n\npurposes of the present.\n\naims to educate the student not alone as an individud, but as an integral part of the body politic.\npates his responsibilities to the state and prepares him to meet them.\"\n\nIt\n\nIt antici-\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n490\n\n[Higher\n\ninconsistency or evasion on their part, the slightest concession to the lust of\nvictory without merit, the slightest relaxation of vigilance or interest, even the\n\ncomplacent smile that sometimes accompanies the formal rebuke of victorious\ntrickery, may lower the whole standard of athletic honor.\n\nIt must be remem-\n\nbered, too, that no institution can long maintain one standard of honor for\nthe athletic field\n\nand another for the recitation room.\n\nBoth student and\n\npublic are quick to make their inferences, and these inferences, even if unfair,\n\nbecome in turn almost as prejudicial to the maintenance of student honor\nas are overt acts of dishonor.\nI\n\nam convinced, however, that in many instances of supposed under-\n\nhandedness in college athletics the case is one of perverted vision rather than\nof\n\nmoral obliquity.\n\nWe need constantly to remember that many things,\n\nwhich to the faculty and to outsiders appear palpably dishonorable, are not\nso regarded by the student, because he is in the grip of a collective athletic\n\nHe is in need of enlightenment\nHe is a reminder that athletic tactics have not been\n\nsentiment of which others know but little.\nrather than of censure.\n\nadequately interpreted to college students in simple terms of right and wrong.\n\nThe strategy, for example, by which a pitcher leads a runner on the bases\nto overestimate his chances\n\n\"to get away,\" is perfectly legitimate; but the\n\nstrategy employed by the catcher who habitually pulls the ball down as he\n\ncatches\n\nit,\n\nThe\n\nand thus leads the umpire to call a strike, is dishonest.\n\nprinciple is perfectly clear: to practice deception on the umpire is to practice\n\nBut how many students ever pause to\nmake the distinction, and how often has it ever been made to them ?\n\nimposition on the opposing team.\n\nMr. Briggs^ narrates the following case:\n\nA whole-souled and straightforward young athlete told me once, with smiling good^\nhumor, that a football player in his own college (who had everybody's respect) owed his\nsuccess in the game to a knack of holding his opponent in such a manner as tnade his\nopponent seem to hold him.\nDoes not the very frankness of the young man in making this disclosure to\nHis sense of honor\nwas not involved, because his intelligence had not been appealed to. So far\n\nthe dean show that he saw nothing dishonorable in it ?\n\nfrom purposely affronting faculty sentiment, he was ignorant of it.\nAnother case in point is found in the most important declaration made\n\nby the well-known Conference on Intercollegiate Athletics held at Brown\nThe declaration reads: \"The practice of\nUniversity, February i8, 1898.\nassisting\n\nyoung men through college in order that they may strengthen the\n\nathletic\n\nteams is degrading to amateur sport.\"\n\nis\n\nThis declaration, I repeat,\n\nall-important; but it needs explanation to the prospective matriculate.\n\ndoes not\n\ncommend itself to his sense of fairness or of consistency.\n\nIt\n\nHe is\n\nmore likely to see in the offense inhibited, so far as it regards himself, not a\nHe knows that the practice of\nassisting worthy young men thru college in order that they may strengthen\n\nmalum in se^ but only a malum prohibitum.\n«\n\nSchool, College and Character, p. 75.\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHONOR IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\n\n491\n\nsome musical organization, or serve as typesetters in the office of the college\n\n\"Why may not I,\" he asks, ''pay in part for\nmy education by my physical prowess, if my brother pays in part for his\npaper, is perfectly legitimate.\n\neducation by his musical talent ? \"\n\nThe question is a natural one, and should\n\nbe answered before it is asked.\n\nLeft unanswered, it tempts the student to\n\nevasion and duplicity.\n\nOne other illustration of the obscurity that should not exist in matters\naffecting student conduct relates, not to athletics, but to examinations\n\n—an\n\nillustration that may serve also to introduce the subject of the honor system.\n\nIn an article entitled \"Student Honor:\nwrites as follows\n\nA Study in Cheating,'\" Earl Barnes\n\ni\n\nNot long since there was a flagrant case of cheating discovered in one of our large\nAn examination paper had been stolen from a printing-office, and several\nstudents had used it to secure superior standing. An attempt was made to arouse public\nsentiment in the institution; and the student body appointed a committee from its\nnumbers which was to receive reports and try future offenders.\nuniversities.\n\nWhile the matter was under discussion, three professors in\n\ndifferent\n\nand\n\nrepresentative departments asked their students to state in writing whether\n\nthey would themselves, had they become cognizant of the theft, have reported\nit\n\nto the student\n\ncommittee, it being taken for granted that they would not\n\nThe majority of the students, men and women, said\n\"No.\" The author concludes: \"And so we must be patient with children,\nand university students, and with ourselves until we grow up to social manhood\nand womanhood.\"\n\nreport to the faculty.\n\nThe position of the author seems to me not well taken. Something ought\nSome of the students\n\nto have been done, but all the world despises a tattler.\n\nwrote:\n\n\"I despise the spirit that actuates a tale-bearer.\n\nHow can a person\n\nand be a tale-bearer?\" Others said that \"even the faculty\nprofessors would secretly despise them, and the public would consider them\ncontemptible informers.\" Was there no other exit except thru tattling ?\nMy own feeling is that a student who had witnessed the theft would under the\ncircumstances have done his full duty had he gone to the ringleaders and\nexpressed to them his own sense of indignation and wrong, adding no threat\nof possible exposure.\nBut if the student committee had been an established\nagency of the institution, and not called into being solely by this emergency;\nin other words, if the honor system had prevailed in the institution, reporting\nto the committee would not have been tattling, nor would it have been so\nregarded by the students themselves. If an institution uniformly ignores\nthe student's sense of honor on examinations, is it to be expected that this\nsame sense of honor can be confidently appealed to when an emergency\narises\nan emergency due to the almost inexcusable carelessness of a member\n\nrespect himself\n\n—\n\nof the faculty?\n\nThe honor system as it prevails in southern colleges and universities today\nSee the International Journal of Ethics, Vol. XIV (1903-04), p. 481.\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n492\nis itself\n\nan evolution.\n\n[Higher\n\nInaugurated by Thomas Jefferson' in the founding of\n\nthe University of Virginia in 1825, it was not until 1842 that the system may\n\nbe said to have culminated at the University of Virginia in the following\nresolution:\nResolved^\n\nThat in all future written examinations for distinction or other honors of\n\nthe University, each candidate shall attach to the written answers presented by him on\n\nsuch examination a certificate in the following words: I, A. B., do hereby certify on honor\nthat I have derived no assistance during the time of this examination from any source\nwhatever, whether oral or written, or in print, in giving the above answers. ^\n\nThe pledge is now simplified into:\n\n\"I certify upon my honor that I have\n\nneither given nor received aid on this examination,\" and is used in this form,\n\nor with unimportant modifications, in all southern colleges and universities.\n\nThe professor remains in the room during the examination to preserve quiet\nand to answer necessary questions, but there is no suggestion of espionage.\nThe student is presumed to be a gentleman, and this trust in his honor is a\npowerful influence in making him honorable. It at least shields him against\nthe subtle temptation to act on the principle that where there is no confidence,\nViolations of the written pledge are rare and are usually\ndeceit is no crime.\ndealt with by the students themselves, sometimes by the faculty alone, not\ninfrequently by both.\nThat the honor system prevails only to a limited extent outside of the\nSouth is no indication that student nature is essentially different in different\nI have yet to hear of any college or university where the honor\nsections.\n\"I have yet to meet a single\nsystem, if faithfully tried, has proved a failure.\nman,\" says Mr. Briggs,^ \"who has lived under the honor system (as I have not)\nwho does not give it, in spite, perhaps, of a priori skepticism, his absolute\nfaith.\"\n\nMr. Briggs is not, however, a believer in the honor system for two reasons:\n\"Theoretically,\" says he,4\ntho in a doubtful case I should always accept the word of a suspected student, I object to\nthe honor system as nursing a false kind of sensitiveness that resents a kind of supervision\n\nwhich everybody must sooner or later accept, and as taking from the degree some part of\nits sanction.\n\nThe same objections reappear in a letter recently received (June 3) from\nJerome N. Greene, of Harvard University, secretary to President Eliot:\nThe honor system, so called, does not obtain at Harvard.\n\nWith us all examinations\n\nare held under the supervision of a college ofiicer, either an instructor in the course, or a\n» It is possible that the honor system may have been in vogue in a few southern colleges before 1825.\nThe claim of precedence is often made for the South Carolina College. President Benjamin Sloan writes,\nhowever, as follows (May 27, 1905): \"I am very sorry that I can find no record of the origin of the honor\n\nsystem in South Carolina CoUege.\n\nIt seems, though, that this principle was adopted at the birth of the college,\n\nfor one of the by-laws published in 1804 states that 'rewards and punishments shall be addressed to a sense\n\nof duty, and the principle of honor and shame.'\n\nI can find no further documentary evidence of the adoption\n\nof the honor system by the board of trustees.\"\n*\n\nSee The Genesis of the Honour System, by Professor William M. Thornton, an address (1904) privately\n\nprinted.\na School, College and\n\nCharacter, p. 83.\n\nIbid, p. 82.\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "HONOR IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSTTIES\n\nDepartment]\n\nproctor appointed and paid for such service.\n\n493\n\nSuch supervision is valued by honorable\na guarantee which is absent\n\nstudents as a guarantee of the good faith of an examination\n\n—\n\nfrom a diploma based on examinations which are not supervised. An honest student has\nno more objection to this method of vouching for the honesty of his examination than a\nbank official has to having his accounts audited.\nIt is not\n\nmy purpose to take up the cudgels for the honor system, but to\n\nremove what seem to be the two prevalent misconceptions of the system as\n\ncompared with the so-called system of supervision.\n\nIn the first place, Mr.\n\nGreene's contention that the honest student has no objection to this method\nof vouching for the honesty of his examination\n\nmay be conceded at once.\n\nNo one would maintain that the students of an institution accustomed to no\nother system would resent the system of supervision.\n\nsystems prepare for life ?\nof supervision\n\nBut how do the two\n\nIf the one system prepares the student for \"a kind\n\nwhich everybody must sooner or later accept,\" does not the\n\nother system prepare the student for a kind of personal accountability which,\ntmfortunately, everybody does not sooner or later accept ?\n\nIn the second place, is it true that a diploma based on examinations con-\n\nducted under the honor system is less trustworthy than one based on supervised\n\nexaminations?\n\nGranting that there\n\nis\n\nundetected\n\nboth systems, is there more under the honor system?\n\ncheating under\nHaving known only\n\nthe honor system myself, let me cite, out of much available material, the testi-\n\nmony of three teachers who have tried both systems. Says Professor William\nH. Hulme,' of the College for Women, Western Reserve University:\nIf any instructor, even with the help of two or three assistant \"proctors,\" supposes\nhe can prevent cheating or cribbing in a room of fifty or more college boys by seating\n\nthem in any possible order, he certainly does not understand human nature, and he is\nentirely mistaken.\n\nAn inquiry among a half-dozen of his best students will convince\nIt is, in fact, the boast of many\n\nhim that cheating goes on regularly right under his eyes.\n\nstudents in colleges where they are watched on examinations that they cheat and crib at\n\nevery opportunity, and they feel that they have a perfect right to do so, because they are\n\nbeing watched and are, therefore, suspected.\n\nDr. G. Carl Huber, of the University of Michigan, writes as follows (May\n18,\n\n1905):\n\nIn view of the fact that the so-called honor system has been tried only in the department of medicine and surgery of the University of Michigan, President Angell has for-\n\nwarded your communication to him, of recent date, to me for answer. I may state that\nsome four years ago, largely through the instigation of our present graduating class, a set\nof resolutions were adopted by the class and approved by the faculty, according to which\nthe class, and especially an appointed committee of the class, which also was approved\nby the faculty, were to have charge of all examinations, written quizzes, and all written\nThe class\nexercises in which this class would participate during its stay in the university.\nadopted a very good set of resolutions, and has been enthusiastic in carrying out the\nAs concerns this one class, the honor system has\nspirit and the letter of these resolutions.\nproved very satisfactory. It has elevated the tone of the class, and its conduct has been\nmuch more loyal through its entire stay at the university.\nProfessor H. B. Fine, of Princeton University, writes (May 25, 1905):\n*\n\nSee The Western Reserve University Btdletin, Vol. VII, No. 3 (May, 1904), p. 123.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n494\n\n[Higher\n\nThe honor system, I may say, has proved an unqualified success here in Princeton.\nIt\n\nhas banished cheating from our examinations, and before the system was introduced\n\nOnce in a while, to be\n\nthere was a great deal of cheating in the Princeton examinations.\n\nsure, a student so far forgets himself and his honor as to cheat, but he is pretty certain to\n\nbe detected, and, if so, his dismissal from college on the recommendation of the student\nhonor committee follows almost as a matter of course.\n\nIn conclusion, there is no room for pessimism, for there was never a time\nwhen the relations existing between college faculties and college students were\nmore frank and cordial than they are today. There was never a time when\nthe personal influence of college professors was more potential for the direction\nand ennoblement of student Ufe. If the honor ideals of the students find in\ntheir instructors prompt recognition, kindly enlightenment, and hearty\nco-operation, both students and instructors will be alike the beneficiaries.\n\nDOES WIDE ELECTION, PERMITTING NARROW READING,\nESPECIALLY IN LITERATURES; AND DO MINUTE\nCOURSES, PROHIBITING VIEWS OF WHOLE SUBJECTS,\nWEAKEN UNDERGRADUATE COURSES IN UNIVERSITIES?\nARE COLLEGES MORE FORTUNATE IN THESE THINGS?'\nJAMES H. CANFIELD, LIBRARIAN OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\nIt seems only proper that a word of explanation be offered.\n\nI was asked\nopen the discussion of President Baker's paper, and consented. No\nabstract of his paper reached me.\nJust before coming to Asbury Park, I\nto\n\nreceived a letter from Vice-President Bryan, informing\n\nme that President\n\nBaker had gone to Europe for the summer, had not prepared a paper, but had\nsent all the preUminary correspondence to Mr. Bryan, and that the latter\n\nwould confer with me about this when we met here. At ten o'clock this\nmorning President Bryan brought me a large package of letters, and we\ndetermined to present the greater part of them here this afternoon, as a\nsymposium, in place of the paper.\nI have read these letters carefully; have classified them, partly according\nto territory, and partly according to reputation ;\n\nthe gist of each.\n\nand am prepared to give you\n\nYou will observe that they are marked by local color, and\n\nby some personal \"atmosphere\" as well, and that they indicate very clearly\nthat the question under discussion, Hke the tariff from the standpoint of a\n\none-time unsuccessful candidate for the presidency,\nissue.\n\nis\n\nsomewhat of a local\n\nYet there are certain underlying principles which are clearly funda-\n\nmental; and you will find a very general consensus of opinion that a student\n\nought not to ''scatter,\" and that sound and thoro training ought to precede\nevery attempt at speciaUzation.\n«The material for this paper was collected by President James H. Baker, University of Colorado, who\nwas absent in Europe at the time of the convention. Editor.\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "WIDE ELECTION AND MINUTE COURSES\n\nDepartment]\n\n495\n\nI have taken, first, the more well-known universities east of the AUeghanies,\n\nas follows:\n\nHarvard\n\n:\n\n\" In the experience of Harvard University, v^^ide election is more open to the\n\ndanger of a scattering of attention among elementary courses than to the danger of narrow\nreading or undue specialization. In fact, the attention of our faculty has of late been\ndirected to several contrivances for encouraging students to specialize\n\nmore than they\n\ndo.\"\n\nYale:\n\n—\n\n\"We have not had much trouble at Yale of the kind suggested by your ques-\n\nnot, I think, more than is the case with small colleges.\n\nThe influences of the Yale\n\ntraditions and Yale undergraduate life which tend to take a\n\nman outside of himself are\n\ntion\n\nstrong enough to guard against the danger, except in the case of those few individuals\n\nwho tend to specialize wherever they are put.\"\nColumbia: \"These prescribed courses having been satisfactorily completed, the student will be at liberty to choose the remainder of his courses at pleasure, subject to the\ngeneral restriction that, prior to receiving his degree, he must have made at least nine points\n\nThis restriction is new and is intended, of course, to preThe man who has attained to freedom, and sees before him the immense\n\nunder some one department.\nvent scattering.\n\nand variegated bill-of-fare which Columbia College is able to offer in virtue of its place in\na great university, is tempted to nibble and sip instead of eating and drinking. There are\nso many languages and sciences to be begun, so many 'interesting* courses of lectures to be\nheard, that he is in some danger of making up his entire curriculum out of more or less\nelementary odds and ends, and so coming to the end of his course without having acquired\nsoHd knowledge or the spirit of scholarship in any subject whatever. It should be observed\nthat the new restriction, which virtually requires the student to take from three to five\nhalf-year courses in one department, is not at all onerous.\nIt implies nothing more than\nwhat is already done by a large proportion of Columbia students. It is not designed to\nmake an utter end of browsing, which within Umits is not such a bad thing after all, but\nto admonish the student betimes of the importance of the long and strong grapple with\nsome one subject.\"\n\nUniversity of Pennsylvania: \"You will observe that we are not in favor of free\nthat a certain amount of required work must be done by every man who is a\ncandidate for any one of our degrees.\"\n\nelection\n\n—\n\nJohns Hopkins: \"The experience of the Johns Hopkins University cannot furnish\nevidence of value on the subject referred to in your recent letter.\n\nOur undergraduate\n\ncourses are quite distinct from the graduate courses, and we do not to any extent permit\n\nnarrow reading, especially in hterature,' and minute courses prohibiting views of whole\nAs to whether colleges are more fortunate in these things, I can only say that\neverything depends upon the college.\n'\n\n'\n\nsubjects.'\n\nCornell: \"The tendency of opinion in this university, as recorded in the history\n\nThe course for the \\.B. degree\nnow all elective, and in the profes-\n\nof its legislation, is toward a wider range of elective work.\nat the beginning was practically all required.\n\nIt is\n\nsional courses elective work is beginning to creep in of recent years.\n\nThis course of action\n\nWe do not think that such wide election\n\nreflects the prevaiHng opinion at this university.\n\nweakens undergraduate courses, or that other colleges are more fortunate in making less\nprovision for elective work.\"\n\nTo these I venture to add opinions of three of the typical colleges in the\nsame territory:\nDartmouth: \"I think that the terms of the question which you propose restrict the\nanswer which may be given. I should say that colleges were more fortunate than under'\n\ngraduate courses in universities,' if the question is stated in precisely the way you put it;\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n496\n\n[Higher\n\nbut as regards the latter question of electives, I see very little reason for difference between\ncollege work and the undergraduate work of universities.\nelective after freshman year,\n\nAt Dartmouth all courses are\nand a part of the courses within freshman year. The only\n\nrestriction to this is thru the group system.\"\n\nUnion: \"I regard any system of education that permits narrow reading and forbids\na study of whole subjects as pernicious in its influence, and sure to show in the general\n\nweakness of our college men.\"\n\nWilliams: \"There is discernible at this time a decided reaction from the elective\nsystem as practiced in the universities where it is most free, and an increasing demand for\na more careful regulation of courses so as to provide a man with a reasonably symmetrical\ntraining before he begins to specialize in any minute way.\n\nWe have here the group system,\n\nby means of which we seek to reach this end, and are likely to diminish the number of\ncourses taken rather than to increase them.\"\n\nOf the state universities I have selected the following:\nMichigan: \"In reply to the question which you have submitted to me, I should say\nthat if wide election and minute courses are so administered as to compel narrow reading\n\nand to prohibit views upon whole subjects, they would be open to criticism. But, so far\nas I know, pains are taken in universities to avoid those perils by requiring a broad foundation in the first year or two of study, or by controlling the work of the student to a large\nextent by the authority of the committees which direct or advise the elections.\nWe, at all\nevents, take such precautions here ourselves.\n\nProbably the danger is greater in the large\n\nuniversities than colleges, for the reason that the colleges are not able to allow much liberty\nof election, and of course by that fact they lose some of the advantages which are gained\n\nin the larger universities by greater opportunities for intensive work.\"\n\nWisconsin: \"The question is one which is very difficult to answer except by a long\nstatement; and, in my judgment, -it can hardly receive a satisfactory answer\n\n\"Put in another way, I think the question is equally difficult to answer:\n\nIs it better\n\nto secure a thoro knowledge of a relatively small portion of a subject, or a more superficial\n\nknowledge of a larger part ?\n\nI do not think that any answer can be given to this question\n\nin general terms, but that the only profitable discussion regarding it can be with regard to\n\nthe wisdom of the practical solution reached in the courses offered by a given department\n\nor institution.\n\" Speaking for the\n\nUniversity of Wisconsin, I do not beHeve that the courses given in\n\nhterature are so narrow and minute as to weaken the undergraduate courses, as compared\n\nwith similar courses in colleges. I have no question, however, but that the large number\nof electives offered permits students to select a course which is narrower than is advisable.\nThis, however, is something which is incidental to the elective system in any form.\n\n\"My own feeling regarding the relative advantages of colleges and universities is\nthat, on the whole, the university has a decided advantage in these advanced courses\n\n\" For myself, I do not believe that the advanced courses in our universities are 'minute,'\n\nor that they 'prohibit views of whole subjects.'\"\n\nCalifornia: \" It is my present conviction that the small colleges have very much the\nbest of us in their maintenance of smaller classes, attended by fixed groups of students;\nin their provision of instruction in certain selected and most important studies;\n\nin their\n\npresentation of these studies, especially in the freshman and sophomore years, in the general form more fitting for assimilation to culture-life; in their insistence on a certain order\n\nand the wider range of studies.\n\nI have in\n\nmy experience found that the best candidates\n\nfor advanced specialization come to us from the Canadian colleges, and others that have\n\npreserved the narrower curriculum.\n\nA man who has browsed about in many cheerful fields\n\nwhich he has chosen at will is very Hkely to be of no use for graduate work. The academic\nand the life-chances are altogether against a man who has begun specialization early.\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "WIDE ELECTION AND MINUTE COURSES\n\nDepartment]\n\n497\n\nThe so-called elective system sometimes turns toward early specialization, sometimes\ntoward continuous scattering; and both are bad. As things are now in this country, I\nthink the first turn toward speciaHzation in method of teaching and of learning should not,\nas a rule, come earUer than the junior, i. e., the third, year of the college course.\"\n\nIndiana: \"In general, I believe, as I suppose all do, in broader courses in the more\nelementary work, and in courses somewhat specialized in the more advanced work.\n\nThe\n\ncolleges have the advantage in the more elementary work on account of their smallness;\n\nthe universities have the advantage thruout the courses\n\non account of their superior\n\nfacilities.\"\n\nNebraska: \"The undergraduate work in the University of Nebraska for the past\nfour or five years has been almost wholly elective.\n\nDuring this period it is probable that\n\nthe students never have been happier, or presented a stronger or more efficient grade of\nscholarship.\n\nYet a majority of the faculty feel that such wide election permits unwise\n\nchoice on the part of weak students who enter the university without definite plans or\n\nHence the faculty at a recent meeting recommended a new course of study,\n\npurposes.\n\nwhich gives opportunity of free election within certain range and groups of studies.\n\nThis\n\nwill be explained in the new catalog now in press\n\n\"My own observation has been that students seldom err in selecting too narrow a field.\nOur own students have in a great majority of cases elected wisely, taking, a sufficient\nvariety of subjects to give breadth, and enough of some one subject to give depth.\nI should reply to the first part of the question\n\n'\n:\n\nHence\n\nNo, except in rare cases and usually with\n\npurposeless students.'\n\n\"'Do minute courses prohibiting views of whole subjects weaken undergraduate\nUndergraduates are profited by a number of intensive courses,\nbut too many such courses are weakening. The intensive courses should come in the\n\ncourses in universities ?'\n\nstudent's\n\nmajor or special lines, and should not, in my judgment, include more than\n\none-fourth or one-third of his undergraduate work\n\n\"'Are colleges more fortunate in these things?'\n\nI do not think they are.\"\n\nOhio: \"There is a distinct protest in our faculty against undergraduate students\ndoing very much work in what might be termed 'minute courses.' One or two\nsuch courses each year would seem to be all that would meet with hearty approval. We,\nfurthermore, insist on general courses in particular subjects before the more minute\ncourses are taken.\n\"\njudgment is that the ordinary college is no more efficient and the results are no\n\nMy\n\nbetter in their undergraduates than in the universities of the class in which you and I are\n\nlaboring.\"\n\nPennsylvania State College: \"Every complete course of education must furnish\nsome stage a course of systematic, continuous, well-co-ordinated drill in the fundamentals of the principal bfanches of human thought and learning.\n\"The range of knowledge is so wide that no man can fully grasp it in such a way as\nto make all parts of it equally available; but, in the course of three or four years, the mind\nat\n\nof the ordinary student, well trained in advance, can acquire a knowledge of the essentials\n\nand physical science, moral science, and political\nDuring the same period, also, he may make excursions, more or less extensive\nand fruitful, into the outlying fields of literature and art, and general history, so that, at\nthe end, he should be prepared to begin any independent work in any specialty that he\n\nof mathematics, philology, natural\nscience.\n\nshould choose.\n\n\"During this period he may wisely be offered an election of studies by 'courses,' but\nThat is\nto say that, if a young man wishes to pursue studies that will qualify him to become an\nengineer, men who have spent years in surveying the ground are far better able to direct\nhis course of study than is the young man who enters upon it as a terra incognita.\n\nonly to a very slight extent, if at all, by individual subjects, or parts of subjects.\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n498\n\n[Higher\n\n\"Whatever the title of an institution, as long as it maintains undergraduate courses,\nsuch courses are necessarily, in my judgment, subject to this controlling principle.\"\n\nWest Virginia:\n\n\"Election with reasonable limitation, and with wise guidance on\n\nthe part of a competent class ofl5cer, seems to give the best results with the largest\n\nnumber of students.\"\n\nOregon: \"The tendency, very strongly marked, is toward greater freedom in choice\nand more intensive work in the subjects offered. With us the prevailing\n\nof subjects,\n\ncustom will be to give large rather than minute courses. We have not yet reached the\npoint of specialization that makes minute subdivisions either practicable or desirable. In\nour judgment, the undergraduate work should not tend too strongly toward specialization.\nComplete, whole views are better for the undergraduate than single, narrow phases of a\nIn graduate work, of course, a different rule would apply.\"\nsubject.\n\nFrom letters from other institutions of the university type the following\nextracts are of interest:\n\nClark: \"The answer to the first question would be a unaniinous affirmative. Narrow intensive methods in literature, especially in English Hterature, also in history, we\nthink an almost unmitigated evil, a sad bequest from the university movement so new in\nthis country that it has not passed beyond the self-conscious stage to the college.\n\nThis\n\nuniversitization of the college has something to do, I believe, with the anxiety in regard\nto the future which some of our colleges are feeling.\n\nI\n\ncannot but expect a reaction in\n\nthis particular.\"\n\nBoston: \"Too many courses taken at once almost inevitably tend to make the work\nWith most students it is not wise to divert the attention among too\n\nsuperficial\n\nmany distinct subjects.\"\nChicago: \"Wherever courses are limited in scope and free election is permitted,\nthere is a possibility of a student's skipping from one subject to another without mastering\n\nanything.\n\nOur unit of instruction at the University of Chicago is a course extending thru\n\nonly three months, so that in the Senior College, where election is practically complete,\n\nThe result is not so serious as might be\nFor the great majority it is my conviction that the present tendency\ntoward specialization much more than counteracts this possibility of scattering energy.\nThe typical schedule at this university in the Senior College would comprise relatively\nfew subjects, and rather a large number of courses in each; these courses often consecutive,\nand, when not consecutive, bearing a close relation and interdependence, one to another.\n\"There is in minute courses a chance of intellectual dissipation; but in the majority\nof cases this chance is overcome, entirely naturally, by the student's own desire to specialize.\nWhere the danger is not thus overcome, nearly all the evil effects can be prevented by\ninterest on the part of the faculty in their students and sympathetic advice.\"\nwe encounter this danger at its maximum.\nexpected\n\nStanford: \"Wide election in universities greatly strengthens the work as a whole.\nThe wider range given to good students, the better use they make of their time; and one of\nthe most important elements of education is to learn to think for oneself and to devise for\noneself courses and lines of study.\n\nAt the same time, for second-rate students, wide elecon the one hand, for narrow specialization which may sometimes be weak in its results because of too narrow a foundation. It also sometimes\npermits frittering away of one's time on unrelated subjects. This is especially true on the\npart of society men and others, whose time has no value anyhow. The remedy for both\nthese difficulties we have found in the major subject system, whereby each student selects\na major subject and a major professor, who is his adviser thruout his course, and who\nmust assume responsibility for the elections in each year\nThere is a constant\nstruggle between the desire of professors to furnish their own students with minute and\nelaborate courses leading to erudition and profundity of view, as compared with the\ntion offers opportunities,\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nWIDE ELECTION AND MINUTE COURSES\n\nDepartment]\n\n499\n\ndesire of the same professors to have other departments give courses of a broad and superficial\n\nnature, which shall give wide views of the subject.\n\nThese two points of view will\n\nexist so long as colleges endure, and the major professor system tends to ease the strain by\n\nrequiring the major students in the department to do their work on the elaborate and\n\nminute plan, while courses may be given to others of a less exacting nature.\n\nThey have a very\n\n\"Small colleges are not, I think, more fortunate in these matters.\n\nnarrow range of choice, and a student is compelled to spend a large part of his time in\nsubjects in which he has no interest, or with professors whose methods do not appeal to\n\nhim.\"\n\nWestern Reserve: \"The serious difficulty in a general elective system is that stuThey get knowledge and that\n\n—\n\ndents scatter their electives over too many departments.\nof a most superficial sort\n\n—without power. Power\n\nis\n\ncreated, I think,\n\nby the prolonged\n\nstudy of one or two subjects.\"\n\nWashington: \"Your question is not fair.\n\nYou suggest that wide election permits,\n\neven induces, narrow reading, and that minute courses necessarily prohibit views of whole\n\nIn every elective system the beginning courses in each subject, which are pre-\n\nsubjects.\n\nrequisite for later courses in the same subject, are general in their character.\n\n\"Putting the question, 'Does wide election weaken undergraduate courses in universities ? '\n\nbeg to say that it is not the general opinion here that it does.\n\nI\n\nThe elective\n\nThose institutions that can afford to have it, have it;\nthose that cannot, retain a fixed curriculum and glory in the splendors which they see in\nColleges are no more fortunate in having a fixed curriculum than universities are in\nit.\nhaving wide election. The elective system is an intent to fit the instruction in an institution\nto the students' needs, as they are supposed by faculty, students, and parents to exist.\n\"I cannot see that colleges are more fortunate than universities in any particular,\nexcept that, as they undertake work of lower degree, they have less responsibilities. There\nalways will be people who sigh for the Golden Age, when every family kept a cow. These\nsame people choose to send their children to colleges having a fixed curriculum, thinking\nthat thereby they are getting the same education that Daniel Webster had, and are\nsystem is simply one of money.\n\n.\n\npursuing the 'simple life.'\"\n\nNorthwestern: \"Wide election\n\n— that means scattered election—\nif\n\nment, and I think in the judgment of our faculty, unwise.\nto the student, there\n\n^is,\n\nin\n\nmy judg-\n\nIf great variety is presented\n\nmust be reasonable safeguard that the opportunity to elect is not\n\nabused, and that the student shall continue in the field elected until he secures some rea-\n\nsonable command over it.\n\n\"As to minute courses, my judgment is that these should supercede broader and\nmore general courses, that intensity can only be secured after the student has a pretty\nbroad view of the whole subject.\n\nIf the university\n\ncontinuity, or high specialization without\n\nmistake.\n\npermits scattered election without\n\nfundamental preparation,\n\nit\n\nmakes a serious\n\nI think, however, this mistake is as likely to occur in a college as in the college\n\ndepartment of a university.\"\n\nColleges not otherwise classified report as follows\nSmith:\n\n\"We have found here that wide election, unless balanced by required studies,\nmy report, we\n\ndoes weaken the undergraduate courses, and, as you will see from\n\nhave endeavored to require enough to prevent superficiality in electives.\"\n\nOberlin: \"There is real danger in both directions you note, and I think the limitation of the colleges here has been, in some respects, a real safeguard, particularly when\n\none is thinking of undergraduate education and not of the work of specialized scholarship\n\nIf a man's\n\nstudy is made up of narrowly specialized courses, he is sure to\n\nlack both in needful discipline and in breadth of training.\"\n\nCornell (Iowa): \"Wide electives and minute courses in universities and colleges\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n500\n\n[Higher\n\nweakens undergraduate courses, and in general the lower the electives come in the courses,\nExcessive electives may not be quite as prevalent in the\nthe more are they weakened.\ncolleges as in the universities.\"\n\nWashington and Jefferson:\n\n\"Colleges are more fortunate in the matter of elec-\n\ntions, except in cases where they try to imitate too closely the universities;\n\nand the under-\n\ngraduate departments of universities are subject to harm from the introduction of the\nfreer and narrower elections and methods that belong properly enough to graduate courses.\"\n\nKnox: \"The policy of offering elective courses has gone entirely too far for the\nbest results in undergraduate study.\n\nIt\n\nseems, however, to have reached its limits, and\n\nthe tendency at present appears to be in the other direction\n\n\"The wide election given in many of our universities does, in our judgment, seriously\nweaken the undergraduate courses.\n\nIt\n\nhas seemed to us that the undergraduate work\n\ndone in universities suffers in this respect, because, almost of necessity, it has been dominated by the university idea, which is and should be essentially different from that which\nshould govern undergraduate work.\"\nBeloit:\n\n\"We beheve in requiring students to take broad preUminary studies before\n\ntaking up specialties, and\n\nwe naturally think that the wide election of studies, and\n\nthe narrow courses taken by students in the universities, naturally weaken the student.\n\nHere at Beloit we are finding difficulty in getting men of sufficiently broad training and\nwide sympathies to give our undergraduate courses as they ought to be given. The\ntrouble is the universities are making narrow men, and they are not able to teach the\nbroader courses required in the colleges.\n\nIt seems to\n\nme that it is a great mistake, unless\n\nuniversity graduates are going to be content to do special\nuniversity graduate, at present,\n\nis\n\nwork alone.\n\nThe average\n\ncertainly incapable of teaching college courses, not\n\nbecause of inability, but because he lacks training in the wide sense of the term.\"\n\nAdelphi (Brooklyn): \"It is the opinion here that a wide range of electives and\n'minute courses that prohibit views of whole subjects' do weaken undergraduate studies\neither in universities or in colleges.\nWe believe here in the group system of electives,\nwhereby the student takes his choice among groups of related and necessary subjects\n\nrather than among separate subjects.\"\n\nOlivet: \"The undergraduate course should give us a world-view of things, with\nvery little concentration upon any one part of a subject, and the university course for three\nor four years should follow the college course\n\n—which today gives a man but an introduction\n\nto an education, whereas a few years ago it completed his education.\"\n\nSyracuse: \"The vertebral column of a university should be the classical course,\nand all electives should be group electives conservatively and wisely chosen.\"\n\nSimmons (Boston):\n\n\"On the average undergraduate the influence of unrestricted\n\nelection gives a far less sound education than an election restricted by the group idea, and\n\nminute courses, while emphasizing intensive criticism, absorb so much time that the\nstudent is prevented from getting the broad view of the field of learning which ought to\nbe characteristic of the undergraduate courses.\"\nI desire to say, in closing, that the complaint of Beloit College\n\nis\n\nwell\n\nOur scientific friends are far too apt to forget that there is unity\nin science as well as variety; and that an educated man wishes, rightly, for\nsuch general scientific instruction as will enable him to read an article in a\nfounded.\n\ncurrent periodical without too frequent reference to a dictionary.\n\nHe wishes,\n\nagain rightly, to be able to understand the general movement in the scientific\nworld.\n\nFor this he needs to be given general views, not the ground-work\n\nfor advanced speciaUzation\n\nwhich in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred will\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nDepartment]\n\nWESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\n501\n\nTo place a semester's work in the study of the angleworm at the opening of the only course in physiology offered to college men,\nNot to know anything whatever except along the narrow line\nis rank folly.\nnever be undertaken.\n\nof a specialty is to get into a rut, and one of the worst of all ruts is the educational rut.\n\nThe only difference between that and the grave is in its length.\n\nTHE WESTERN PLAN OF ADMITTING STUDENTS TO COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES BY\nCERTIFICATES FROM DULY INSPECTED SECONDARY\nSCHOOLS, OR THE EASTERN METHOD OF ADMITTING\n\nWHICH IS BETTER:\n\nONLY BY EXAMINATIONS CONDUCTED BY REPRESENTATIVE BOARDS OR OTHERWISE?\nGEORGE E. MACLEAN, PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA, IOWA\nCITY, lA.\n\nThe question assigned me as a topic is a pressing one at this moment in\nWithin a few years it may be determined\n\nthe history of American education.\n\nwhich plan, with all it implies in shaping far-reaching educational\n\nideals\n\nand practices, shall be national. The terms \"western\" and ''eastern\"\nmust not import provincial pride, or sound a note of sectionaHsm. As a\nNew Englander somewhat late adopted by the West, may it not be the good\nfortune of the speaker to lead you all in the discussion to common American\nground ?\nWe can adopt the words of Miss Lucy Larcom:\n\nTwo worlds I live in— East and West,\nI cannot tell which world is best;\n\nThe friends that people both are dear:\nThe same glad sun\nShines into each; far blends with near,\n\n—\n\nAnd then is now and there is here\nAnd both are one.\nIn truth, there is no single \"western\" or \"eastern\" plan of admitting\nstudents to college, tho there are dominating practices warranting the use of\nthe terms.\n\nBluntly stated, all the colleges are so anxious to get students that\n\nno system is consistently lived up to.\n\nThey mix the certificate and examina-\n\ntion plans, they distribute examinations in time and space, they annex local\n\npreparatory schools, or have quasi-certified schools of individual tutors and\ncoaches.\n\nFrom the point of view of the entering student and of the average American,\nwho beheves in the widest opportunity for a higher education in a democracy,\nthe existence of twelve gates, open day and night, in the college Jerusalem\n\nmay seem desirable.\n\nBut to the economist and educator the evils of the\n\ncompetition are glaring and threatening, and opposed to this age of the\nconquests of co-operation and combination.\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n502\n\n[Higher\n\nA glance at the evolution of our methods of admission of students to\ncollege will\n\nshow what evils are imminent, and which is the better plan of\n\nadmission.\n\nThe so-called \"eastern\" method of admitting by the examination of the\nindividual student in its earlier form might have been called colonial or English.\nOriginally each college examined for itself.\n\nbetween the student and examiner.\n\nThere was \"personal contact\"\n\nThe examination was more or less oral.\n\nThe appearance and character of the candidate were weighed.\n\nWith the\nand of entrance standards, the substitution of written\nexaminations, first at the college, then at a distance, and with the multiplication\nof studies, the applicants have become not even names, but mere numbers to\nbe hit at long range by rapid-firing examination-paper guns.\nWhen the colleges began to fire into one another in concentrating their\nguns upon certain large preparatory schools, and particularly when the big\nuniversities brought up their heavy artillery, loaded some with ancient and\nsome with modern subjects and methods, the situation became well-nigh\nintolerable.\nThe secondary-school men cried out, and justly \"continually\ndo cry,\" and certain great movements were organized. Among the first was\nthe New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools dating\nfrom 1885. According to Dr. William C. Collar, of Roxbury, Mass., the\nassociation was formed for the purpose of bringing about uniformity in the\nincrease of students\n\nrequirements for college.\n\nHe believed, at the sixteenth annual meeting in\n\nwork would receive its consummation by providing for admission\nexaminations by a joint examining board, as in the middle states and Maryland.'\nHe believed these two boards \"would slay the certificate system, and\nlonged to see that done.\"* It was believed that \"the certificate system was\nmaking no headway, and that the colleges, generally speaking, would be glad\nOn the contrary, apparently aroused by the discussion of\nto give it up.\"\n1 901, that its\n\nthis very meeting, the friends of the certificate plan formed the next year the\n\nNew England College Entrance Certificate Board, 3 now consisting of eleven\nNew England colleges.\nMr. Virgil Prettyman, principal of the Horace Mann High School, is an\nexample of the schoolman's cry for relief.\n\nIn an article on \" College Entrance\n\nRequirements and the High School Programme of Studies,\"4 he contrasts\nwith today a generation ago, when a boy was admitted to college with a training\n\nwhich would today place him not higher than the junior year of high school.\n\nThe colleges require a training two years in advance of former times, s The\nis in quantity rather than quality.\nOne must know more things.\nIt is a question if he needs to know any one thing better.\n\nincrease\n\nThe Harvard examinations are arranged in such a way that a boy must keep fresh\nin at least six studies up to the close of junior year of the preparatory course.\n» School\n\n* First\n\nReview, Vol. IX (December, 1901), p. 610.\n\nAnnual Report, 1902-3 (Providence:\n\n* Educational Review,\n»\n\n*\n\nIhid., p. 625.\n\nSnow & Famham 1904).\n\nVol. XXVIII (October, 1904), pp. 304, 305.\n\nCf. Professor John H. Wright, of Harvard, School Review, Vol. V, p .700.\n\nUnless a\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n\n:\n\nWESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\nDepartment]\n\n503\n\nboy passes in at least three subjects (eight credits), no credit whatever is given. It is\nnecessary for the pupils in the last two years of the preparatory course to carry at least\nThe total result of the present program of studies is haste in preparasix studies abreast.\ntion, dissipation of energy and interest, physical strain, or a tendency to neghgence of\nduties, and illiteracy.\n\nMr. Prettyman suggests two remedies (not including the certificate system,\nin\n\nmy opinion the cure for his difficulties)\n\nReduce the number of studies and raise the passing mark, or permit the boy to take\nThe necessity for haste and\nWill the\nfor a cramming process is the greatest burden of the secondary-school man.\nexaminations in three years instead of two as at present.\ncolleges lend a helping hand to the school ?\n\nAnother representative secondary-school man, Mr. Edwin J. Goodwin, of\nMorris High School, of New York city, in an article on \"A Comparison of\nCollege Entrance Examinations,'\" shows the bhght for secondary schools\nof separate examinations by the individual universities, and indicates what a\n\ngreat want brought forth when it established the College Entrance Examination Board.\n\nHis study is a comparison of the questions of this board with\n\nthose of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and Pennsylvania.\n\nHe rejoices\n\nin the attempt to evolve a scientific method of examination that shall test the instruction\n\nand training of candidates for admission to college with substantial accuracy, without\ncramping the schools or bhghting the enthusiasm of the teachers. That the College\nEntrance Examination Board has made invaluable contributions toward the accomplishment of this end cannot be doubted.\n\nThe rise and progress of the College Entrance Examination Board represents doubtless the best that can be done for \"the eastern method of admitting\n\nonly by examinations,\" and meets, where it is accepted, the evils of the conflicting\n\nexaminations of competing colleges complained of by the secondary-\n\nschool men.\n\nOrganized^ as recently as November\n\n17, 1900, at\n\nColumbia,\n\nunder the inspiration of Nicholas Murray Butler, its first secretary, it has\n\ngrown from eleven colleges and four representatives of the secondary schools\nand Preparatory Schools in the Middle States\nand Maryland, to twenty-five colleges and universities, and seven representa-\n\nin the Association of Colleges\n\ntives of the secondary schools.\nIt has fulfilled the hope, expressed by the editor of the Educational Review\n\nwould hold annual uniform examinations in June, for the\nOhio and Potomac. 3 The candidates\nexamined have risen from 973 in 1901 to about 2,100 in 1905. Examinations\n\nin\n\n1 901,\n\nthat\n\nit\n\nentire territory north and east of the\n\nhave just been held at about 160 points in the United States and its dependencies, and at five points in Europe.\n\nA staff of almost 100 readers at the offices\n\nin New York city are to pass on more than 20,000 examination papers.\n\nIn the words of President Butler:\n\n*'The board has accepted the oppor-\n\n'\n\nEducational Revietv, Vol. XXVI (December, 1903), pp. 440-56.\n\n»\n\nIbid:, Vol.\n\nXXII (Ocober, igoi), p. 264.\n\n3\n\nIbid., Vol.\n\nXXII (December, 1901), p. 531.\n\nArticle by Thomas S. Fiske, in\n\nNew York Daily Evening Post, June 20, 1905.\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n504\n\n[Higher\n\ntunity that President Eliot pointed out during the discussion which led to its\n\nformation of 'making an immense contribution to American education.' '\"\n\nIn\n\nthis\n\nday of \"co-operative endeavor\"\n\nit\n\nhas been whispered:\n\nIs\n\nit\n\npossible that the eminent forerunners of th'e College Examination Board, the\n\nRegents of the University of New York, with their tested examination system\n\nand its thousands of candidates, might join in the combination?\n\nFurther,\n\nthere have been niovements to make the tests for graduation from secondary\n\nschools identical with the tests for admission to college, upon the basis of the\n\nCollege Board's examination papers.\n\nis\n\nMr. Fiske, the present\n\nsecretary,\n\nHe declares that the work of the board\n\nsays \"it is to be devoutly wished.\"^\n\nnow almost ready to pass from a temporary initial state to a permanent\n\ncondition. 3\n\nImpressed by its record, and beHeving that the time of its crystallization\nis at hand, one cannot suppress the query:\n\nnation Board become national ?\n\nWill the College Entrance Exami-\n\nWill it fasten an examination system upon\n\nOf course, to do this it would have to change its local complexion from\n\nus ?\n\na Httle group of twenty-five institutions centering about Columbia.\n\nThe\n\ntendency to a close corporation, since membership is no longer dependent\n\nupon meeting an announced standard, but upon election, would have to be\nreversed.\n\nAfter the fashion of the Equitable Life, the nature as well as the\n\nvastness of the interests would require the mutualization of stock\n\nsubjection to some form of governmental inspection.\nfield,\n\nand the\n\nTo cover the national\n\nthe present work of the board would have to be so hugely increased that\n\nwork would appear lilliputian.\nTaking the figures of the United States census of 1901-2,4 and the present\nmodes of the board, with the desire accomplished that graduation from the\nschool should be dependent upon passing the board's papers, instead of\nexaminations at 160 points they would be at the 8,127 public and private\nhigh schools.\nThe present average of nine and one-half papers for each\ngraduate would require for the 66,262 graduates the reading of 629,489 papers,\nin place of the present 20,000, and a staff of above 3,000 readers in place of\n100, at an expense, upon the present estimate of $5 a candidate, of $331,310,\n\nits present\n\nin place of the present $10,000.\n\nTho the scheme smacks strongly of concentration and the dangers of\nbureaucracy, and lacks a point of national attachment in the Bureau of\n\nEducation as at present organized, there is nothing insuperable in it, if the\nCollege Entrance Examination Board system is really better than any other.\n\nBefore making answer,\n\nwe must review two or three competing plans.\n\nFirst is that of old-fashioned examinations held\nhis annual report last week to the\n\nsome by saying:\n»\n\nIn\n\n\"We shall probably continue to hold separate examinations\n\nEducational Review, Vol.\nIbid., Vol.\n\nby individual colleges.\n\nYale alumni. President Hadley surprised\n\nXXII (October, 1901), p. 296.\n\nXXIV (October, 1902), p. 305.\n\na\n\nIbid., (October,\n\n1904), p. 302.\n\nAnnual Report, 1902, Department of the Interior Commissioner of Education, Vol. I, p. xvii.\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "WESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\nDepartment]\n\n505\n\nWe may take him as the fairest and\n\ninstead of joining with other colleges.\"^\n\nablest protagonist of the old way, while recognizing possibilities of new ways,\n\nas is shown by his address on ''The Use and Control of Examinations\" before\n\nthe Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association\nin February,\naspects,\n\n1 901.2\n\nj^ brief he says:\n\nAn examination has two distinct\n\none looking toward the past, the other toward the future.\n\nIt is\n\na\n\nmeans of proving a student's past attainment, and also of testing his power\nfor that which is to come.\n\nA written examination is apt to be a test of the\n\nrange of a student's proficiency rather than of its thoroness.\n\nIt loses a major\n\npart of its value as a measure of fitness for anything which is to come.\n\nIn the passage from the high school to college, the evil is felt most seriously\nbecause of the complete separation of control, and the remoteness of location\n\nwhich so often makes a system of personal consultation impossible.\nthe most acute controversy.\n\nThree methods have been devised:\n\nHere is\nto\n\nmake\n\nthe range of examination questions wider; to supplement the written examinations by other tests like certified notebooks; to depend upon certificates given\n\nby the teachers of the candidates.\nThe first method may give too much help to the undeserving student.\nIt offers great opportunities for the coach, for hasty cramming, and for the evils\nof the English civil-service and university examinations.\n\nThe second method,\n\nand correcting the results of examinations by accepting\ncertified notebooks, etc., has the merits and defects of a compromise.\nThe\nfrank adoption of a certificate system as a whole would be more logical and\nof supplementing\n\nbetter.\n\nThe third method, a certificate system, without full discussion of its merits\nand demerits, has much in its favor.\n\nA good preparatory teacher, in nine\n\ncases out of ten, can judge of the fitness of his pupils to enter college better\n\nthan any college-entrance examination board.\n\nEach teacher\n\nalso\n\nhas a\n\nfreedom in choice of methods which is of great advantage to him and his\npupils.\n\nThe first obvious objection is that, on account not of dishonesty but\nincompetency, a large number of our secondary-school teachers cannot be\ntrusted to give certificates.\n\nSecond, the abandonment of an examination by\n\nthe college takes away an important stimulus for keeping up the standard of\n\nadmission requirements.\n\nThe third objection, and the decisive argument for the retention of the\nold plan,\n\nis\n\nthat the colleges which insist on examinations think they get a\n\nThey get the boys\nwho do not shirk a trial. The fable of the choice of the two doors applies:\nThe first door is labeled, \"Who chooses me shall get what he deserves;\" the\nsecond, \"Who chooses me must hazard all he has.\" The certificate system\nattracts those who would go to the former door; the examination system,\nbetter class of students by that means than by any other.\n\nthose willing to venture the latter.\n^New York Daily Times, June 28, 1905.\n\n'Educational Review, Vol. XXI (March, 1901), pp. 386-300.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5o6\n\n[Higher\n\nIf each of these alternatives thus proves unsatisfactory, is there not some\n\npossible combination which may be suggested?\n\nLet us divide our require-\n\nments into three groups of subjects:\nFirst, the prerequisites for power to go on with\n\n—\n\ncollegiate study\n\n—\n\nviz.,\n\nmathematics and the required languages to prove power of precise thought\nand of precise expression, where the examinations would be maintained in\nthe hands of the college which is to have the student in charge.\n\nThe second group of subjects\nliterature, in\n\n—\n\nviz.,\n\nthe prescribed readings in English\n\nLatin and modern languages\n\n—\n\nis\n\nattainment of power signified by the first group.\n\nconsidered auxihary to the\nPresident Hadley. says:\n\nI should be in favor at once of putting all examinations on the extent of knowledge\n\nin these auxiliary subjects into the hands of a common examination board.\n\nWhether it\n\nwould be wise to go a step farther and introduce the certificate system in subjects of this\ngroup, is a matter which I should hardly like to prejudge at present.\n\nIn the third group of studies, history and descriptive sciences, which,\nPresident Hadley assumes, are not a necessary basis for subsequent work,\n\nbut a part of a general scheme of secondary education, recognized by the\ncolleges as a concession to satisfy teachers able to teach\n\nthem and not to\n\ndegrade these subjects, the certificate system would be allowed from the very\noutset.\n\nIn wrestling with the objections to his combination and complex, if not\ncompromise, system, he finds relief in extending \"to teachers of proved ability\nthe opportunity to recommend, at the risk of their own reputation, for provisional admission to our freshman classes, pupils to whom the\n\nnew system\nThus President Hadley is not far from the\nkingdom of the outright accrediting system, for which we hope he may become\na leader, not only among his brethren of the eleven colleges in the New England\nCollege Entrance Certificate Board, but thruout the nation. The whole\nseemed to have done injustice.\"\n\nthing might be done if Commissioner Draper and President Butler became\nhis coadjutors.\n\nThere is time for but a moment's glance at the evolution of \"the western\nplan of admitting students to colleges and universities by certificates from\nduly inspected secondary schools.\"\nIt might be called the continental or German plan, whence it in part\ncame to reinforce pre-eminently, and first in Michigan, a state system of\npublic schools crowned by a state university. It, in some form, logically\naccompanied a state public-school system with a teaching state university, and\nhas been cheerfully adopted, and to their edification, by the private colleges\nand universities, so that it covers the entire territory from the Ohio to the\nPacific, and overflows into southern and eastern states.\nIn its rudimentary form, which the New England College Entrance\nCertificate Board has adopted, an applying school is placed on an approved\nlist when it can prepare for a college course, and continue to prove its ability\nto give preparation for college by the record of its students already admitted\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "3\n\nWESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\nDepartment]\n\nto college.\n\n^o'j\n\nThe admission of the candidate without a collegiate examination\n\nin the subjects for which he is certified as prepared by the approved school is\n\nprobationary.\nNaturally, with the increase of schools and students, and with a zeal to\n\nmaintain standards, there followed the visitation of the approved schools\n\nby members of the faculty related to preparatory subjects.\n\nThus informally\n\ninspection of schools began, until now there are twelve state, or state university,\ninspectors in as many great western states, supplemented by visitors from the\nfaculties, including great private institutions.\n\nIn the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and Colleges\nthere has been for six years a Commission on Secondary Schools and College-\n\nEntrance Requirements, at the heart of which is a Board of High-School\nInspectors.\n\nUniform standards and entrance blanks have been prepared.\n\nFor some time, by comity, schools accredited by one state university have\nbeen accredited by another.\n\nBut now a list of first-class schools meeting the\n\nstandards of the commission is becoming an accredited list thruout the entire\n\nNorthwest.\n\nIn another way has been attained what President Butler said\n\nthe College Entrance Examination Board stood for: \"uniformity of definition,\n\nby topic, with a uniform test, uniformly administered.\n\ntopic\n\nEach college\n\nwill continue to fix its own standards of admission and to admit its own stu-\n\ndents.\"^\n\nThe difference is that the examination or uniform test is of the institution\n•\n\nand not of the individual, ridding us of the evils of personal and paper examinaPresident Hadley's\ntions, massed so that all is staked at once for the pupil.\nEntrance examinaallusion to the fable of the two doors is too literally true.\ntions become a gamble, and the student seeking to gamble is commended.\nA long fine of witnesses might be cited from inspectors, college men, and\nsecondary-school men, working under the plan of certificates from duly\ninspected schools, all in favor of the plan. Leon J. Richardson,* of th^\nUniversity of California, shows how the accrediting system has evolved\nrapidly since 1883 in that state, in harmony with republican institutions.\nThe schools voluntarily estabhshed their relations with the university and\n\nmay sever it at will.\nWilliam J. S. Bryan, principal of the Normal and High School of St. Louis,\nsays the practice of admitting to the university on certificate only the pupils\n\nwho have graduated from the approved schools has been a powerful lever\nin raising the standard of the work done.\n\nEdwin G. Dexter, professor of education, University of Illinois, says:\nThe East has been attempting the system of admission to college thru the certificate\nsystem\n\n—a modified accrediting system but they have\n;\n\nand therein lies the trouble.\n»\n\nEdticational Review, Vol,\n\n• School\n\nReview, Vol.\n\ni Proceedings of\n\nleft out of it the high-school visitor,\n\nNo inspection on the part of a college professor can ever take\nXXII (October, 1901), p. 291.\n\nX (October, 1902), pp. 615-19.\n\nthe Fifth Annual Meeting of the North Central Association of Secondary Schools and\n\nColleges (1900), p. II.\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "«\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5o8\n\n[Higher\n\nthe place of the visitation of the inspector, the expert of the secondary-school system,\nthe trained friend, adviser, and helper,\n\nand visible connecting link with the university.\n\nAn advantage of the accrediting system is the increased proportion of high-school students\nwho go to college.\n\nIt is suggestive that in the graduating class of the pubUc high schools\n\nin the North Atlantic states, the part of our country little given to the accrediting plan,\n\nIn the same class\nNorth Central states, where accrediting prevails, the percentage was 34. The\n\n26 per cent, were for the year 1901 in the college-preparatory course.\nin the\n\naccrediting system gives the college students with a better average preparation.\n\nThe\n\nUniversity of Pennsylvania receives about an equal number each year upon each of the\n\n—\n\ntwo plans individual examination and certificate. In the fall of 1901, 112 entered by\nthe first method, and loi by the second. At the end of the semester 49 per cent, of those\nentering by examination were conditioned, as against only 29 per cent, of the certificated\nstudents.\nA suggestive, but not a conclusive, comparison is of the percentage of failures\nin first-year subjects in one of the Atlantic coast universities, admitting only by examination, and those of five of the larger Middle West state universities, where 80 per cent,\nenter without examination.\n\n34 per cent.\n\nEast:\n\nfailed in\n\nalgebra,\n\n26 per cent.;\n\nin trigonometry,\n\nWest: failed in algebra, 15 per cent.; in trigonometry, 11 per cent.^\n\nPrincipal Ramsay, of Fall River, some years ago, in a study to determine\n\nthe relative merits of the two methods of college entrance, received answers\n\nfrom college officers in favor of certificated students: in mental ability, five\nto one; in the general performance of college duties, three to one.\n\nProfessor Whitney, of Michigan, investigating the freshman grades of\n\nmore than 1,000 students, about equally divided between those entering upon\ncredit and those taking entrance examination, found that the average standing\nof the former was more than i^ per cent, higher than for the latter.\nImpartial testimony might be gleaned from European educators. Professor T. Gregory Foster, in the report of the last Alfred Mosely Commission,\nrejoices that it is a fundamental principle in American universities that the\n\nman who is fit to teach is also to be trusted to examine his own students.\n\nHe\n\nremarks:\n\nAs long as examinations control the teaching, whether in universities or schools, in\nthis country [Great Britain], so long will the teaching continue to be academic in the worst\n\nsense of the word, cribbed, cabined, and confined.\n\nHe\n\nnotes\n\nthe\n\ndegree\n\nto\n\nwhich examinations by external bodies or\n\nexaminers is regarded as baneful in the United States, both to the pupil and\nfor the educational organization,\n\nand commends the attempt of the College\n\nEntrance Examination Board to guard against some of the evils by having\nsecondary-school men on the board.\n\nBut to professor Foster the accrediting\n\nsystem of the Middle West is \"a more significant plan,\" and one rapidly\nspreading into the East.\n\nHe says:\n\nIn the states where it has been adopted\n\nThe\nThe teaching\n\nthe whole educational system has been unified and strengthened.\nbarriers between various grades of teachers are being removed.\nof all classes of teachers is thereby made more direct,\n\nattractive to students.\n\nthe teacher\n»\n\nmore stimulating and\n\nThe accrediting system as versus the older leaves\n\nand the taught free, and thereby stimulates to better training.\n\nNational Conference of Secondary Education, Northwestern University (October 1903), p. 94.\n\n»Pp. 115-18.\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "WESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\nDepartment]\n\n509\n\nProfessor Foster quotes President Harper as opposed to the accrediting\n\nsystem when he left Yale, but now as a firm believer in it as a result of his\nexperience.\n\nThe\n\nprofessor\n\nconcludes:\n\n**It\n\nis\n\nperhaps one of the most\n\nnoteworthy contributions of America to educational progress.\"\n\nMr. M. E. Sadler, director* of special inquiries and reports. Educational\nDepartment of England and Wales, speaks^ decisively as to certain principles\napplicable to our discussion:\nState certificates bestowed as results of written examinations at a prescribed moment\nat the close of their school life are injurious in their influence as well on the work of the\n\nschools as on the physical, mental, and ethical development of the pupils, and also on the\n\nnational ideals of education,\n\nand ought to do.\n\nand on the parents' conception of what education can do\n\nThe more valuable influences of a secondary school lie in its tone, its\n\n^dos, in its tradition, in the\n\noutlook which it encourages its pupils to take on\n\nlife\n\nand\n\nand scholars, in the relation among the scholars\nthemselves. None of these things can be tested by written examinations, conducted by\nexaminers, however able or impartial, who have never seen the school. It is judged on\npaper.\nIt is possible for a school to simulate great intellectual efficiency by reason of an\nintensive progress of \"cram,\" which reflects immense credit on the skill and industry of\nthe teachers, but guarantees little of permanent educational value to the pupils prepared.\nYet a system of merely written examinations conducted by examiners at a distance fails,\nand must necessarily fail, to discriminate between two effects superficially and temporarily\nsimilar, but really and permanently different.\nduty, in the relation between teachers\n\nHe adds: -\"the natural antithesis to written examinations is a system of\nHe weighs the difficulties of inspection in a national provision\n\ninspection.\"\n\nfor secondary education,\n\nand would find a formula for some form of con-\n\nsultative committee with the state\nstate.\"\n\nlittle\n\n*'\n\nto have too much state nor too\n\n''Laissez-faire is impossible in this period of rapid transition.\"\n\nThis last is true in America.\nsystem\n\n— neither\n\nWhat we do'we must do quickly.\n\nA national\n\n—meaning thereby governmental co-ordination and possible inspection\n\nin harmony with the voluntary co-operation of private institutions,\n\naccrediting systems\n\nHke the\n\nnow prevailing in many western states, concatenating\n\nsecondary schools, colleges, and universities\n\n—\n\nwill give\n\nmodern inter-state\n\neducational privileges, long needed to keep up with inter-state commerce and\n\nand heightening national ideals and power.\n\nlife,\n\nThe line of evolution is clear: the oral examination of the individual pupil\nby the separate college; the written examination in the same fashion; the\ncombination of colleges for written examinations;\n\nthe slight recognition of\n\nthe preparatory teacher in the combination; the great recognition of the pre-\n\nparatory teacher, and his examinations by the certificate plan; and the highest\npoint of evolution, the examination by the combined colleges of the secondary\nschool as a whole, and the accrediting of it organically, trusting it all in all\n\nor not at all.\n\nThe disappointed hearer who looked for a formal\n\ndisputation in this\n\npaper may be still demanding a categorical answer to the question of our\ntopic,\n»\n\n\"Which is better,\" etc. ?\n\nEdticational Review, Vol.\n\nLet him draw his own conclusions from the\n\nXXI (May, 1901), pp. 497-515; cf. pp. 507-12.\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5IO\n\n[Higher\n\ntestimony marshaled from the best representatives of the different systems.\n\nAs an evolutionist, I see every system has a part to perform, and perceive\ncertain principles at work which promise us, not only a better system, but a\n\nnational and best.\n\nDISCUSSION\nEdward J. Goodwin, second assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N. Y.\nThe permanence of any method of admission to college must depend upon its ultimate\nIf it can be shown that admission by certificate is more productive of\ngood teaching in the preparatory school, and that students instructed under such conditions acquire superior scholarship and more effective training, it is easy to believe that\nthe college-entrance certificate will ultimately displace the entrance examinations. It is by\nno means conclusive, however, to call attention to the fact that the certificate system\npleases tender-hearted parents; that it reUeves the strain upon students; that it finds\nfavor with the teachers; that it gives a greater degree of freedom to the schools; that\n\neducational value.\n\nit is\n\nless expensive;\n\nthat it possibly increases the\n\nnumber of students going to college;\n\nthat it lessens the work and minimizes the responsibiUty of college faculties.\n\nUnless it\n\ncan be demonstrated also that its net results are favorable to vigorous training, accurate\nscholarship, and mental and moral virility, its value as an educational agency may rightfully\n\nbe questioned.\n\nNo experienced teacher can fail to recognize the common abuses and serious limitations of written examinations as tests of a student's knowledge or ability.\n\nAnd yet, if\n\nwe may base an opinion of their value upon the use made of them in the colleges, technical schools, and professional schools, we must conclude that not even the teachers in\nthe higher institutions have been able to devise a more effective method of testing the\nattainments of their students or their fitness for promotion and graduation.\n\nIt is sig-\n\nnificant to note, in this connection, that the oldest and most influential universities of the\n\neastern states have never yet seen their way clear to admit or to graduate students without\nwritten examinations.\n\nWhether this pohcy is based upon the belief that the written\n\nexamination is the best available test, or upon the conviction that satisfactory standards\nof instruction\n\nand scholarship cannot be maintained in the preparatory schools, if the\n\nadmission certificate is substituted for the entrance examination, is a question which\nonly the universities can answer.\n\nIn either case it cannot be denied that colleges and universities are justly chargeable\nwith a large share of responsibiUty for the success of secondary schools, and that this\nresponsibility is evaded when methods of admission are established with a sole view to\n\nkeep out the unworthy.\nabove.\n\nProgress in education, like the rain and sunshine, comes from\n\nIn recognition of this responsibility, Harvard College within a generation by its\n\nentrance examinations has radically transformed and materially improved the instruction\ngiven in the secondary schools of New England.\n\nThe same work for the schools of the\nMiddle States is being done today by the College Entrance Examination Board.\nUnder the certificate system, colleges can control courses of study, cause laboratories to be built, regulate the equipment of the school, and fi_x the number of teachers\nto be employed; but they cannot establish and enforce methods of training and standards\nof instruction.\n\nBenjamin Kidd, in his School Evolution, says that, \"left to himself, this high-born\nman, whose progress we seem to take for granted, has not the slightest innate\ntendency to make any progress whatever.\" Colleges that register schools on the testimony of an inspector tacitly recognize the modicum of truth in this affirmation, and the\nadvocates of examinations act on the belief that an entrance examination is a more\ncreature,\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "1\n\nWESTERN PLAN OR EASTERN METHOD\n\nDepartment]\n\ninfluential agent of the college\n\n51\n\nthan an inspector present in the school every day of the\n\nyear.\n\nTeachers whose pupils enter college on certificate do not face an immediate, direct,\nand personal responsibihty. Many of the subjects taught in the school are not continued in the college, and the minds of students entering college are not disorganized,\neven tho their knowledge may be. A student's failure in college may not be chargeable\nto the school;\n\nit is\n\nquite as likely to be the natural sequence of his home training, or the\n\nlack of good teaching in the college, or the contagious influence of immoral associates\n\nfrom the evil effects of which the college gives him no protection.\nBut when a teacher's work is to be tested by an entrance examination, he faces a\ndirect, immediate, and personal responsibihty.\nThen, if ever, he is under bonds to\nacquire an accurate and comprehensive knowledge of his subject; to lay out with deliberate forethought the work to be done by his class; to give systematic and precise instruction every time he meets his class; to concentrate his own efforts and the attention of his\nstudents upon the essentials of the subject taught; and to follow up his instruction with\nsuch frequent written exercises as shall give his pupils adequate training in written expression,\n\nand reveal to the teacher the defects of his instruction and to the student the imper-\n\nfections of his knowledge.\n\nhighest degree of skill\n\nComphance with these conditions brings to the teacher the\n\nand success.\n\nTo assume that the average teacher will lead this\n\nlaborious and self-sacrificing life without the impelling power of necessity, is to disregard\n\nthe well-known laws of\n\nhuman nature and the common knowledge of experienced\n\nschoolmen.\n\nThe final and decisive argument for entrance examinations is the effect of them upon\nBoys, Hke men, work when they must,\nand rest or play when they can. Capable students expecting to enter college on certificate may easily reach the minimum standard required by the school for certification\nthe student's efforts, scholarship, and character.\n\nwithout doing the full measure of hard work that ought to be required from boys whose\n\nhome life in the large towns and cities is more and more, as wealth increases, free from\nall work that carries serious thought and responsibility.\nMy own observations unmistakably confirm the statement that the certificate privilege causes many well-endowed\nstudents to relax their efforts, and that an impending examination is a constant and muchneeded incentive to faithful study.\nFurthermore, the knowledge of a student preparing for examinations must be care-\n\nThe drudgery of reviews, so essensound scholarship in the secondary school, is so irksome to the teacher that it is\nrarely done thoroly and systematically, if the teacher is not held to a more rigid accounting than is possible in a school whose standing is fixed by a single annual visit of a univesity\nfully organized by systematic and frequent reviews.\ntial for\n\ninspector.\nIt is a fact well known to experienced teachers that students are likely to fail in written\n\nexaminations unless they have had constant practice in written recitations.\n\nNo one of\n\nthe teacher's tasks is quite so costly or so exhausting as the reading and rating of these\n\nNo part of his work is more essential. It is an axiomatic truth that\nno training given by the school is more valuable than that which enables the student\nclearly and accurately to state in writing what he knows and thinks.\nTrue it is that this\ntraining may be given to classes of students under the certificate system; it is much more\nlikely to receive adequate attention when students are preparing for written examinations.\nIt is often said that an entrance examination is a cruel strain, an unnecessary hardship\nput upon immature and growing youths. The answer to this is that young men old\nenough for college are old enough to undertake serious tasks, to assume some responsibility.\nAn examination for admission to college is something more than a test of a student's knowledge.\nIt is a test of his self-control, his judgment, his power to meet a critical\nhour in his life with a steady nerve and a clear head. The training for such a crisis,\nwritten exercises.\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n512\n\n[Higher\n\nand the experience obtained in meeting the crisis, make for self-poise, for self-respect,\nand for viriHty.\nAside from its ostensible purpose, to ascertain the fitness of candidates to enter upon\na course of higher training, the college-entrance examination has very great educational\nvalue to the school and college, and for this reason, if for no other, ought to be maintained.\n\nSHOULD CHAIRS OF PEDAGOGY ATTACHED TO COLLEGE\nDEPARTMENTS OF UNIVERSITIES BE DEVELOPED INTO\nPROFESSIONAL COLLEGES FOR THE TRAINING OF\nTEACHERS, CO-ORDINATE WITH THOSE OF LAW, MEDICINE, AND ENGINEERING, OR SHOULD THEY BE\nABOLISHED?\nALBERT ROSS HILL, DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI,\nCOLUMBIA, MO.\n\nThat education, which is the highest concern of man, and which, in the language of Davidson, is \"self-conscious evolution of the race,\" should be deemed\n\nworthy of human reflection, is, I believe, beyond dispute.\n\nCourses in the\n\nphilosophy of education, the history of education, and in genetic and educational psychology, that set forth educational aims and values, give meaning\n\nand give an account of the history of social progress, have the\nsame right to a place in a scheme of liberal education that have general phi-\n\nto education,\n\nlosophy, ethics, sociology,\n\nand the like.\n\nEducational problems are\n\namong\n\nthe most important of social problems, and demand the intelligent consideration of every citizen in a free state.\n\nTheir study should be recognized, not\n\nonly as a part but as an essential part, of a liberal education.\n\nBut probably the person who proposed this question had in mind by\n\"pedagogy\" the technical study of the methods and practices of teaching\nand of managing schools.\nDo courses in the theory and practice of teaching,\nin school management and the like, belong to a Hberal education, and should\nthey form part of a college course leading to the degree of bachelor of arts ?\nTheir aim is decidedly practical to give skill in the instruction of children,\nand in the organization and management of schoolrooms and school systems.\nThey would seem, then, to have no more claim to recognition as part of a liberal\n\n—\n\neducation than have technical courses in law, engineering, or medicine, which\n\naim to give skill to the prospective lawyer, engineer, or medical practitioner.\nTheir presence in college courses is probably to be explained, strange as it\n\nmay appear, by the unwillingness of the universities to acknowledge that\nteaching is a profession for which an extensive special training is demanded.\n\nForced by public opinion and the development of normal schools to offer\n\nsome work designed to prepare the graduates of their college departments\nfor teaching, they\ntheir colleges,\n\nhave grudgingly established chairs of\n\nwhose work, as we have noted,\n\nis\n\npedagogy within\n\npartly liberal\n\nand partly\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\ntechnical.\n\nSHOULD CHAIRS OF PEDAGOGY BE ABOLISHED?\n\n513\n\nThe latter aspect does not logically belong with liberal studies,\n\nbut to a distinct professional school for teachers.\n\nBut is the amount of this technical work demanded in preparation for the\nprofession of teaching great enough to warrant the establishment of colleges\nfor teachers within the universities, distinct from the colleges of liberal arts ?\n\nGranted that the teacher needs a liberal education equivalent to that represented by the average A.B. course, does he need enough technical training\n\nand of managing schools to warrant universities in\n\nin the art of teaching\n\norganizing professional colleges for teachers co-ordinate with those of law,\n\nmedicine, and engineering?\n\nTo answer this question we must consider the\n\nneeds of the teacher on the professional side, and examine the influences\nthat tend to determine the teacher's skill, assuming sound scholarship and a\n\nreasonable amount of native aptitude for the teacher's calling.\n\nThe tendency\n\nto\n\nimitate, strong\n\nin\n\nhuman\n\nnature generally,\n\nvery\n\nis\n\nmarked in the conduct of class work by the teacher, and is perhaps the strongest\ninfluence in determining\n\nhow he will teach.\n\nIt is inevitable that teachers\n\nwill teach as they have seen others teach, which usually means, as they have\n\nbeen taught.\n\nNow, it must be noted that this influence tends to perpetuate\n\nnot only the practices of good teachers, but those of poor ones as well.\n\nSo\n\nmany bad examples are set that it becomes necessary for the institution that\nwould train teachers effectively to provide facilities for the observation of\ngood models of teaching in the various grades of school work.\nfor the establishment of\n\nThis calls\nmodel schools in which prospective teachers can\n\nacquaint themselves with the best forms of educational practice.\n\nThe time\n\nspent in observation cannot be expected to count toward the A.B. degree.\n\nAgain, the insight into the best methods afforded by the observation of\nmodel teaching, combined with conscious reasons for the same, which courses\nin methods and management aim to supply, still leaves the prospective teacher\nto acquire personal skill by practice or experience;\n\nany institution which pretends\n\nto\n\nand it would seem that\n\ntrain teachers should\n\nmake practice in\n\ncarrying out his theories and ideals possible for the teacher in training.\n\nTrue,\n\nhe will get practice enough in the course of experience, but the practice he\nthus gets is at the expense of pupils who cannot afford to be subjects; and\nthe danger is that he may develop habits that are bad, or that fall short of\nhis best possible effort,\n\nand that these habits may become fixed, leaving his\n\nfine theories ineffective.\n\nHe needs first to practice under guidance, both in\nwhom he will teach during\n\nhis own interest and in the interest of the pupils\n\nthe years that follow his graduation from the university.\n\nThese technical aspects of instruction in pedagogy\nspecial methods, organization\n\n—theory of teaching,\n\nand management of schools, observation of\n\nmodel teaching, and practice in teaching\n\n—naturally\n\ncall for the\n\norganization\n\nof a distinct professional school for teachers, co-ordinate with the schools\n\nand engineering in any large university. Along with this\nwork should be grouped the courses on education that properly\n\nof law, medicine,\n\ntechnical\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n514\n\n[Higher\n\nbelong also among the liberal studies, such as history of education, philosophy\n\nand educational psychology, together with all work that has\nspecial significance for the teacher and is not provided by the college of liberal\nOne\narts, such as free-hand drawing, manual training, and vocal music.\nof education,\n\nreason, then, for advocating the establishment of teachers' colleges as schools\nof large universities is that there is a demand for a large body of instruction\n\nbearing quite directly upon the work of teachers which college departments\n\ndo not and cannot offer to students, unless we are willing to modify greatly\nour notions of the aim of a college course.\n\nA second reason for their establishment is that not only are such courses\nas have been mentioned desirable courses, but it is very important that they\n\nshould be grouped and organized for definite ends, and this cannot be done\n\nby a professor of pedagogy, or by any other professor, until he is authorized\nto do so by his appointment as director or dean of a college for teachers to\n\nwhich such courses belong.\n\nThe organization of all work that bears on the\n\nprofessional training of teachers is at least greatly facihtated by the establish-\n\nment of a distinct school or college with its own courses of study and its own\nfaculty.\n\nTo the faculty of such a college should belong professors of educational\npsychology, history of education, theory and practice of teaching, school\nadministration, art, manual training, vocal music, as well as professors repre-\n\nwho are qualified\n\nsenting the various liberal subjects of school instruction\n\nto give courses on the teaching of the subjects which they respectively represent.\n\nThis will bring together in one faculty at least about twenty-five men devoted\nto teaching and to the training of teachers, who will strengthen the hands of\n\none another, and will develop among themselves and their students a professional enthusiasm and a devotion to the cause of education that will compare\n\nwith the professional spirit now shown by the faculties and graduates of our\ncolleges of law, medicine, and engineering.\n\nA chair of pedagogy in a college\n\ndepartment, however well conducted\n\nwork may\n\nits\n\nbe,\n\ncannot hope to\n\naccomplish this result.\n\nNot less important will be the influence upon the whole college faculty\nof these representatives of liberal studies who are also members of the faculty\nof the teachers' college.\n\nThey will serve as a leaven in the interest of good\n\ncollege teaching, and help to make indifference to good teaching on the part\nof the members of the college faculty impossible, whereas now it is more or\nless\n\npopular.\n\nThis value of the teachers' college\n\nwill\n\nprobably be more\n\nreadily appreciated by state universities, whose responsibilities to the general\n\neducational interests of the state are apparent.\n\nThe establishment of professional schools for teachers within large universities is advisable, I think, because it will permit a more extensive and definite\n\ntraining of teachers for their profession;\n\nwill favor a better organization of\n\ncourses conducted with that end in view;\n\nand give\n\nwill dignify the teacher's calling\n\nprofessional enthusiasm to those graduates of universities\n\nwho\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHOULD CHAIRS OF PEDAGOGY BE ABOLISHED?\n\n515\n\nengage in teaching; and will tend to keep alive and strong the interest in\n\ngood teaching and in educational work at large which should characterize\nthe faculties of college departments in large universities.\n\nThe state university\n\nwhich does not do something like the equivalent of estabUshing a school of\neducation will finally have to yield the leadership of educational work in its\nstate to institutions that aim especially to train teachers for the public schools.\n\nBut a further question arises as to whether the professional school for\nteachers within a university should be essentially a graduate school, beginning\n\nwith the junior year of the college course, or should be a teachers' college in\nthe stricter sense, offering a four-year course of undergraduate study in which\nliberal, professional,\n\nand semi-professional studies are organized with a view\n\nThe latter has some advantages.\n\nto training efl&cient teachers.\n\nIt is\n\nHkely\n\nto give the prospective teacher better instruction in the liberal studies, at least\n\nbetter adapted to his needs;\n\nit\n\nshould make a model high school unnecessary,\n\nas the freshmen courses offered by the professors of Enghsh, foreign languages,\n\nmathematics, and the sciences in the teachers' college should be practically\n\nmodels for high-school instructors also;\n\nthese same professors, being also\nmembers of the faculty of arts, would exert a still greater influence upon the\n\nteaching in the college of liberal arts, because they would not only offer courses\n\non how to teach their subjects for students of the teachers' college, but also\nactually exemplify good teaching in their own general courses;\n\nyear course of undergraduate study,\ncourses, would naturally produce\n\ncombining\n\nliberal\n\nand\n\nand the fourprofessional\n\nmore efficient teachers than two years of\n\nhberal studies without advice from the dean of the teachers' college, followed\n\nby two years during which he guides the selection of studies and otherwise\nassists the student to prepare for teaching.\n\nBut, in general, I think that the\n\ncourse in the teachers' college should begin just where courses in law, medicine,\n\nand engineering begin, and that the teachers' college itself should be no more\nsubordinate to the college of liberal arts than are the other professional colleges.\nI can see no reason why the teachers' college course should not begin at the\nclose of secondary education, and continue thruout both the undergraduate\nand graduate phases of university study, leading to both the bachelor's and\n\nthe doctor's degree.\n\nteachers for\n\nall\n\nIt would then be possible for a university to train efficient\n\ngrades of school work, and at the same time devote such\n\nattention as is necessary to graduate work in education, with a view to training\n\nleaders in educational thought\n\nand\n\n—school superintendents and\n\npractice\n\nprincipals, and teachers for normal schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday Morning, July 5, 1905\nThe Department of Normal Schools met in the First Presbyterian Church of Asbury\nPark, and was called to order at 9:30 A. m. by President Charles C. Van Liew, of the\nState Normal School, Chico, Cal.\n\nThe regularly elected secretary. Miss Anna Buckbee, California, Pa., being absent,\nthe president appointed Miss Agnes E. Howe, San Jose, Cal., to act as secretary pro tern.\n\nPresident Van Liew appointed J. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kans.; Guy E. Maxwell,\nWinona, Minn.; and Miss Montana Hastings, Kirksville, Mo., as a nominating committee.\nThe regular program was then taken up, and first in order came the President's\nAddress on \"A Statement of the Issues before the Department.\"\nThe next paper, on the subject, \"The Modern High-School Curriculum as Preparation for a Two- Year Normal Course, and the Sort of Training Which Makes for the Best\nNormal-School Preparation,\" was presented by David Felmley, president of the State\n\nNormal University, Normal, 111.\nHe was followed by Theron B. Pray, president of the State Normal School, Stevens\nPoint, Wis., who opened the discussion on the subject.\nCharles De Garmo, of Cornell University; F. M. McMurry, of Teachers College,\nColumbia University; President John W. Cook, of the State Normal School at De Kalb,\n111.; Edward Brooks, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa.; President Livingston\nC. Lord, of the State Normal School at Charleston, 111. Stuart H. Rowe, of the Brooklyn\nTraining School, and others, joined in the discussion, which was closed by Mr. Felmley.\nThe second paper presented was, \"How Can the Normal School Best Produce\nEfficient Teachers of the Elementary Branches as Regards the Control of Both Method\nand Subject-Matter ?\" by Grant Karr, superintendent of Training Department, State\nNormal School, Oswego, N. Y.\nThe discussion was opened by H. T. Lukens, of the Normal School of CaUfornia, Pa.,\nwho was followed by Miss Emily B. Rice, of the State Normal School, Albany, N. Y.; President Theodore B. Noss, of the State Normal School, CaHfornia, Pa.; President John R. Kirk,\nof the State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo.\nPresident Z. X. Snyder, of the State Normal\nSchool, Greeley, Colo.\nFrank M. McMurry, of Teachers College, Columbia University.\n;\n\n;\n\n;\n\nPresident Z. X. Snyder, of Colorado, offered a resolution that a committee of three,\nof which the president should be chairman, should be appointed by the president to formulate a\n\nstatement of policy regarding the preparation and quaUfications of teachers of\n\nelementary and high schools.\n\nOn motion, the resolution was adopted.\nThe president appointed President David Felmley, of Normal, 111., and President\nZ. X. Snyder, of Greeley, Colo., as members of that committee.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday Afternoon, July 6\nIn the temporary absence of President Van Liew, Vice-President J. D. Burks, Paterson, N. J., called the department to order at 2 30 p. m.\n:\n\nThe topic for the afternoon was \"Co-operation of Universities and Normal Schools\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5i8\n\nin the Training of Teachers.\"\nleaflets\n\n[Normal\n\nDr. F. M. McMurry opened the discussion and distributed\n\ncontaining his several theses on the division of the subject assigned him, viz.:\n\n\"With Respect to the Training of Elementary Teachers.\"\nDr. McMurry presented briefly each thesis. The statement of each thesis was followed by a very lively and interesting discussion, which proceeded so rapidly that the\nsecretary was unable to make a satisfactory report.\nA formal discussion of Professor McMurry's theses was read by Guy E. Maxwell,\npresident of the State Normal School, Winona, Minn.\nOn the second division of the topic, \"With Respect to the Training of Secondary\nTeachers,\" a paper was presented by E. N. Henderson, professor of education and\npsychology, Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nZ. X. Snyder, president of the State Normal School, Greeley, Colo., led the discussion\n\nof the paper.\n\nMr. Snyder closed the discussion by reading the preliminary report of the committee\nappointed to formulate a statement of the policy regarding the entrance preparation for\nstudents in normal schools, and the quaUfications of elementary and secondary teachers,\nas follows:\n\nTo Members of the Department of Normal Schools:\nIn accordance with the resolution adopted by this body yesterday the following\npreliminary report is presented to be further elaborated and presented next year:\n1.\nFor entrance to the state normal schools all candidates except those who have\ntaught shall have, at least, a high-school education or its equivalent.\n2. That the course for such persons shall not be less than two years for those who\nare preparing to become elementary teachers.\n3. That it is the function of the normal schools to equip themselves for the preparation of secondary teachers, and that the course of study for such teachers shall be four\nyears.\n4. That the high schools are the schools of the people, and not preparatory schools\nfor higher institutions, and that the higher institutions should accept the legitimate\nproduct of the high schools; this statement shall in no wise interfere with a division of the\nwork of the high schools, where it is feasible, into different lines of work.\n5. That the high-school work, where it is feasible, should be differentiated so as to\n\ngive an opportunity for the preparation of persons who wish to enter the normal school\nto become teachers, such preparation not to be normal-school work, but such work as\nwill best fit them for the special work of the normal schools.\n6. That the normal schools request that the colleges and the universities accept the\nwork of standard normal schools as a full equivalent for their work year for year.\nRespectfully submitted for the committee,\nZ. X. Snyder.\n(Signed)\n\nThis called forth a very lively discussion.\n\nMr. J. D. Burks moved that the report be accepted in its present form, and that the\ncommittee be continued to present a more extended report at the next meeting of the\ndepartment, the present report to be a basis for investigation only.\n\nThis was seconded.\n\nFjurther discussion followed, and finally a substitute for the above motion, presented\n\nby President W. S. Dearmont, of the State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo., was\nviz., that the report should be filed and the committee continued for further\n\nadopted,\n\ninvestigation.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented, as follows:\nTo the Department 0} Normal Schools:\nYour Committee on Nominations makes the following report:\n\n— —\n—\n\nFor President John R. Kirk, of Missouri.\nFor Vice-President D. B. Johnson, of South Carolina.\nFor Secretary Mary Alice Whitney, of Kansas.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ.\n\nN. Wilkinson,\n\nGuy E. Maxwell,\nMontana Hastings,\nCommittee.\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "ISSUES BEFORE THE DEPARTMENT\n\nDepartment]\n\n519\n\nThe report was accepted, and the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for the\nabove nominees, who were then declared elected as officers for the ensuing year.\n\nThe department then adjourned,\n(Signed)\n\nAgnes E. Howe, Acting Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nA STATEMENT OF THE ISSUES BEFORE THE DEPARTMENT\nCHARLES C. VAN LIEW, PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICO, CAL.\nIt\n\nwas the request of President Maxwell of the National Educational\n\nAssociation that each one of the department presidents should open his\n\nprogram with a summary of recent progress in the educational Une for which\nhis department stands.\nWe are not always good historians of the recent\npast, but the progress of a people or a cause may best be revealed, perhaps, in\nit has become conscious.\nThe present statement aims\nsummary of the issues which stand foremost in this business of\n\nthe issues of which\nat a brief\n\ntraining teachers.\n\nBut it would be idle for me to hint that any normal school man or woman\nis not at present clearly conscious of the great main issue involved in normal-\n\nschool work.\nIt is more than a century since the idea of training teachers\nwas first suggested in this country, and hard on to a century since the first\nefforts to train teachers were made.\nFor a century, then, the normal-school\nidea, which is the idea of a trained teaching service, has been growing.\nIt\nhas grown in definiteness of conception; it has grown in consistent practice.\nIt started out in many instances as what we would call today an expanded\ngrammar school, furnishing chiefly a more effective academic control of subjectmatter; and it has become, in most instances, professionally strong in both\ntheory and practice. In a word, the normal school has become the great\n\nexponent of a great profession, setting the pace, for the elementary schools at\nleast, not only in spirit, but in ideals and practice.\n\nNow, it is in this chief issue which the normal school has always had to\nmeet that it must find its stimulus to new endeavor; but at present the new\nissue can be made clear only\n\nby projecting past history to its logical climax.\n\nThe strength of the normal school lies in the fact that it has exploited a distinct and legitimate field, educationally, as yet practically untouched, except it\n\nEven the men and women\nwho enter the normal field after a university training have to find themselves\nin it before they can render real service.\nThe future of the normal school\nunquestionably lies in a still further emphasis of its own movement at special\nbe theoretically, by any other kind of institution.\n\npoints.\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n520\n\n[Normal\n\nAn analysis of the elements which should enter into the make-up of a\nteacher, as we are practically agreed today, are\n1.\n\nThat general knowledge and\n\nstock in trade of the average citizen;\n\nculture which constitute the\n\ncommon\n\nbut such knowledge and culture must\n\nbe Hberally, not meagerly, acquired.\n2.\n\nNative teaching personaHty.\n\n3.\n\nProfessional culture,\n\ni.\n\ne.,\n\nthe ideas which belong peculiarly to the\n\nteachers profession.\n4.\n\nSkill in teaching, as\n\ndemonstrated by actual practice, including skill\n\nin the ability to select, grasp, group, and arrange the materials of instruction\n\nwith respect to the goals to be reached.\n\nWhile we differ in the amount of emphasis we place upon each of these\nfour requirements and in our method of meeting them, it is safe to say that\n\nnormal schools are a unit in recognizing them as fundamental and inevitable.\n\nThey have grown into recognition thru the experience of normal schools.\nThey are, furthermore, the sources of present problems.\nTo begin with, we all desire a high standard of academic achievement;\nbut we vary very greatly in our methods of making for it. The issue is squarely\nbefore us\n\n:\n\nIs it the business of the normal school to deal with pure academic\n\ninstruction at all?\n\nIf so, to\n\nwhat extent?\n\nIn what lines?\n\nOr shall we\n\nrequire candidates for admission to dispose of general culture and training,\n\nbefore entering, by setting the entrance standard at, say, graduation from a\n\nhigh-grade secondary school?\n\nIf\n\nwe do, are our high schools giving such\n\ngeneral culture and training as make for a good, especially elementary, teach-\n\ning service ?\n\nApropos of entrance requirements to normal schools, I under-\n\nstand that Illinois has recently enacted a law establishing a system of free\nscholarships in\n\nits\n\nnormal schools for graduates of the eighth grade.\n\nWe\n\nshall look to our friends from Illinois, who are present, for some enlightenment\n\non the significance of this law and its probable reaction.\n\nIs it true that in a\n\nstate where so splendid a campaign in behalf of a trained teaching service has\n\nbeen carried on for years, the popular mind is still unable to grasp the normalschool idea,\n\nmuch less give it true support?\n\nstandards of the normal school be placed?\n\nWhere should the academic\n\nHow shall they be attained?\n\nThru high entrance requirements or normal academic work ?\n\nThese issues\n\nare still in a state of unrest.\nIt has become increasingly evident in recent years that secondary curricula\n\n•are\n\nshaped with reference\n\nto\n\ncollege-entrance requirements.\n\nsmall percentage of high-school graduates enter colleges.\n\nYet only a\n\nA large number of\n\nnormal-school teachers feel that the secondary curriculum is not doing what\nit should\n\ndo for its students in the way of general culture and effective training,\n\nespecially when the work of the teacher is in prospect.\n\nDoes this mean that\n\nin the near future the normal schools must attack the problem of secondary\n\neducation, especially of the secondary curriculum, from their point of view,\n\nand bring the normal-school spirit to bear practically upon this phase of\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "ISSUES BEFORE THE DEPARTMENT\n\nPepartmeut]\n\n521\n\nIt seems not to be so much the variations in equipment,\n\ngeneral education ?\n\nmethod, and achievement of the various high schools from which we receive\npupils, that trouble us, as the persistence of an unfit but dominant type in the\n\nThis high-school problem is likely to be the most interesting\n\ngeneral product.\nto\n\nnormal schools just now, as they are troubled about their own academic\n\nstandards.\n\nTurning now to the second-named requirement in the trained teacher,\nlet us\n\nask:\n\nIs there anything in normal-school experience to discredit or\n\ndisprove the old-time maxim that the good teacher, trained or untrained, is\nthe teacher\n\nwho possesses a native teaching personality?\n\nIf not,\n\nhas the\n\npossession of native fitness to teach been adequately recognized in normal-\n\nschool practice ?\n\nIs there any one of us not famihar with the practice, still too\n\ncommon in normal-school circles, of permitting students to serve time for a\ndiploma, to efface native unfitness, nominally, not really, by added years of\n\na grind that barely lifts them to the level of the poorest?\n\nAre we not all\n\nconscious, too, that the fruits of this practice, whenever we yield, return to\n\nhaunt us in our very defence of the training of teachers ? Intimately bound\nup with the policy of every normal school, then, is this issue: Some principles\nmust obtain by means of which the naturally fit may be carefully selected\nand the naturally unfit carefully rejected. As yet, no sufficiently radical\nmeasure obtains, altho such a measure, once inaugurated, would in effect\nbe the final step to the popular recognition of a trained teaching service.\n\nGiven the sufficient background of culture and the selected personality,\nhowever, the next issue seems to lie in the way in which professional culture\n(Point 3) and skill in teaching (Point 4) shall be effected, especially in their\nrelation to one another.\n\nOf professional culture we have been able in the\n\nThere seems to be\nan abundance of educational philosophies, pedagogies, psychologies, specu-\n\npast twenty years to develop a very considerable body.\n\nlative, descriptive,\n\nand genetic, special methods, and highly specialized aid\nBut have we been able to demonstrate that the liberal\n\nsciences of all kinds.\n\nstudy of general principles in the class-room has yielded proportionately\nincreased effectiveness in practical skill ?\n\nAre we, as is often claimed, in the\n\nwhose students pursued the study of\ngrammar with all diligence, but could do nothing in the art of written expres-\n\nposition of the old-time schoolmaster,\n\nsion?\n\nHow much value lies in the general principle, elaborately developed\n\nin the class-room, even imaged in concrete illustrations, that is yet unassociated\n\nwith the personal experience of the student in teaching ?\n\nIs it not experience\n\nwith things that work that underhes clear practical thinking and sound theory ?\n\nOne thing is certain: we have been turning a Httle from the attempt at a\nscientific statement of the business of education to a recognition of its artistic\n\nUnder what circumstances, now, does any artist profit best by a\nknowledge of principles scientifically established ? Is it by taking his brush\naspects.\n\nand setting to work, at first imitatively, perhaps unconscious of reasons, and\nthen gradauUy associating principles with his own practice ? Has the genesis\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n522\n\n[Normal\n\nof an artist, or the psychology of his development, any light to throw upon the\n\nproduction of the artist-teacher?\n\nShould professional culture follow or\n\nprecede or parallel professional experience, and which of these, professional\nculture, or professional experience, shall take the lead and give the movement\n\nWe are far from having reached a final solution of the issue.\nWe need to pool our experiences again and again, until every bit of pedagogy,\n\nto the other?\n\nchild study, or method we have to offer is\n\nmade to give a clear account of\n\nitself in the skill of the teacher.\n\nThe last group of issues to which I wish to call your attention is dependent\nupon the relations which normal schools and universities bear to one another\nThe first of these is suggested by the inadequate\nin the training of teachers.\nIn very many\nwho desire to pursue further studies, either before\n\nrecognition which normal schools receive at the universities.\ncases normal graduates\n\nor after service as teachers, are required to repeat work already familiar, or\nto meet formal requirements that have no vital part to play in their develop-\n\nment.\n\nThey represent ordinarily good, thoro culture and discipline, but the\nThe result is a very general handicap\n\nuniversities do not care to recognize it.\n\nin many sections to the post-graduate development of the great teaching body\nof the country.\n\nThe most serious problem, however, in which both normal schools and\nuniversities are alike to\n\nteachers.\nall\n\n—\n\nhave mutual interests, is the training of secondary\n\n—one might almost say practically\n\nAt present the vast majority\n\nof secondary teachers enter active service untrained, except on the aca-\n\ndemic side.\n\nIf these teachers are university graduates, as they are today in the\n\nmajority of cases, their\n\ncommand of the subject-matter of the secondary\n\ncurriculum is generally effective, except possibly in small high schools where\n\na single teacher is required to handle too many branches and specialization\nis\n\nimpossible.\n\nIf they\n\ncome out of the normal schools, as they do in a few\nand grasp of subject-matter. But\n\ninstances, they are deficient in breadth\n\nin the latter case they are much stronger in the arts of instruction, discipline,\n\nand school organization.\n\nFurthermore, there is not a college or university\n\nin the land which practically trains all of its candidates for secondary service,\n\nor is able to vouch rehably for their teaching personaHty, or their skill in the\n\nmanagement or instruction of a class.\n\nThe evil in the situation does not\n\nThere are as yet very few universities which exhibit any disposition\nto grapple with the problem at all, or to recognize the principle involved.\nstop here.\n\nThere are very many in which the average attitude of the faculty is not only\nindifferent and skeptical, but even hostile to the idea of practically training\n\nthe secondary teacher.\n\nYet almost every other department\n\nof university\n\ntraining is today recognizing the principle of practical efficiency in training\nfor other lines of service.\n\nThere are many reasons for this state of affairs.\n\nOne great difficulty,\n\neven in the few universities favorably disposed, seems to be to get support\nfor practical facilities.\n\nThe demands for mechanical, engineering, mining.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "ISSUES BEFORE THE DEPARTMENT\n\nDepartment]\n\n523\n\ncommercial, and agricultural equipment for practice is so great, and these\ncourses appeal so forcibly and directly to our modern commercial interests,\nthat none have been able to supply the candidate for secondary-teaching\nservice the needed equipment of training schools and training-school forces.\n\nAgain, therefore, the educational departments in our universities have been\n\nthrown back upon the purely theoretical work in methodology and pedagogics.\nThis, however,\n\nis\n\nnot the kind of work which will ever win in university\n\nquarters the final recognition of the necessity or benefits of training teachers;\n\nand it ought not to, because it is inadequate. Then, too, university departments of education feel called upon to cover a broader field than secondary\neducation; to initiate educational research and investigation; to treat fundamentally the entire field of educational goals, materials, and methods.\nConsequently they rarely present courses suited specifically and solely to\nthe practical needs of the secondary teacher.\n\nIn association with other\n\nteachers of all classes, they are cut off from any intensive study of their own\n\nproblems\n\n—and\n\nthis despite the well-estabhshed principle that the most effective\n\ntheoretic study for teachers is that of special methodology.\n\nFinally,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nhow the cause of a trained teaching service can ever thrive\nin an atmosphere where there is so little of teaching.\nThe university professor\nis too commonly not a teacher.\nHis interests tend to make him rather a\ndifficult to see\n\nlecturer,\n\nan experimenter, sometimes even a reader of dictation.\n\nEnough has been said to point this last issue to which I wish to call attention.\nThe situation with regard to the training of secondary teachers is one\nwhich stands practically in the way of a final popular recognition of the need\nof training teachers.\nWe are ready now to raise the question: Is it not for\nthe normal schools, the schools devoted to this one idea, the schools already\n\nequipped for such work, generally to undertake at least the practical training\nIf so, how shall it be accomplished?\nFor some years some normal schools, notably among those of the Mississippi\n\nof teachers for secondary schools?\n\nvalley,\n\nhave done some work also in the classics, and their graduates have\n\nthus been able to become high-school teachers, winning recognition for practical\nskill\n\nand efficiency.\n\nYpsilanti has recently begun the training of secondary\n\nteachers, both academically and professionally.\n\nThe San Francisco Normal\n\nSchool is just establishing a Training High School, in which it is proposed\nto train college graduates as teachers.\n\nShall the normal school, then, under-\n\ntake higher academic work as well as professional;\n\nor shall\n\nit\n\nco-operate\n\nwith the university and, while emphasizing the great cultural benefits of the\nuniversity career, seek to supply for college graduates that practical\n\nand\n\nprofessional training alone which universities are so far from realizing?\n\nCould not the situation be speedily and greatly improved in this way without\nserious additional expense ?\n\ntary in this\n\nMay not these institutions become complemen-\n\nwork thru co-operation?\n\nWould not such co-operation be a\n\nrelief and a benefit to the university ?\n\nThese are the issues which I have intended to bring before this department\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n524\n\n[Normal\n\nboth in this preliminary statement and particularly in the papers which are\nto follow.\n\nIn conclusion, I wish to suggest that the work of this department would\nif a committee were authorized to prepare a statement of policy and\nrecommendation touching many of these issues, especially that of training\n\nprofit\n\nsecondary teachers; and I so recommend.\n\nTHE MODERN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM AS PREPARATION FOR A TWO-YEAR NORMAL COURSE, AND THE\nSORT OF TRAINING WHICH MAKES FOR THE BEST\nNORMAL-SCHOOL PREPARATION\nDAVID FELMLEY, PRESIDENT OF ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY,\nNORMAL, ILL.\nIn discussing the question propounded by your committee, it has seemed\nbest to change the order of the sub-topics:\n\nto consider first the best sort of\n\npreparation for a two-year normal course, and then to compare the requirement\n\nwith the modern high-school curriculum.\nIt is now generally recognized that in the high-school period there should\n\nbe some differentiation of studies with reference to vocation. So, while we\nretain in all high-school programs the studies in history, government, and\neconomics that contribute to inteUigent citizenship, the studies in literature\n\nand art that refine the taste, and such studies in English grammar and composition as contribute to a good English style, there is a growing conviction\n\nthat secondary education should differentiate along five chief lines, all to\nreceive equal time\n\nand emphasis.\n\nWe are providing the traditional course\n\nwith its language, history, and literature for the speaking and writing professions;\n\nmathematics, physics, and manual training for useful and artistic\n\nconstruction; biology and chemistry for the physicians and farmers who are\nto deal with life and the conditions of life\n\n;\n\ncommercial geography, economics,\n\nand the theory of accounts for the world of trade; and the various arts and\nappHed sciences that relate to household economics for the mistresses of our\nhomes. These five forms of the high-school curriculum cover nearly all the\nleading lines of human activity. Preparation for teaching demands, however,\na generahzed curriculum; for the elementary teacher must deal with those\nfundamental knowledges and arts that are of universal value, while the special\nteacher in the fields of secondary and higher education needs surely as much\nbreadth of culture as a general high-school curriculum affords.\n\nIt\n\nseems,\n\ntherefore, at first thought, that the high-school curriculum of highest general\n\nculture value\n\nis\n\nthe best curriculum for the training of teachers.\n\nIf the\n\nmodern high-school curriculum is not good for the prospective teachers, it\n\nmay be questioned whether it is good for anybody.\nYet there are some of the knowledges and arts taught in the schools in\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "MODERN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nDepartment]\n\n525\n\nwhich we feel the candidate for teaching needs to be especially proficient. If\nIn the normal school\nthis be not true, there is no point to the present inquiry.\nitself\n\nthe student's time must be engrossed with pedagogical problems.\n\ninductive investigation of teaching, to discover\n\nits\n\nThe\n\nprinciples; studies in psy-\n\nchology, to afford an adequate deductive basis for the rules of general method;\n\nthe history and science of education;\n\nmanagement and practice in teaching\nof his program.\n\nIf to this is\n\nquestions of school organization and\n\n—these must constitute\n\nat least one-third\n\nadded a re-examination of the studies of the\n\nelementary and secondary curriculum, with an eye to the problems of teaching,\n\nand at least one study in literature or the social sciences, to nourish the student's deepening interest in social questions, we have little room in the two-year\nnormal course for acquiring the general knowledge, or the skill in the school\narts, that the\n\naccomplished teacher must possess.\n\nHence the normal school\n\nmust demand of the high school such preliminary training as will permit the\nnormal school to do its work.\nI shall venture to state some of these legitimate demands:\nThe prospective teacher should have a hving knowledge of all those fundamental forms and activities of nature that condition human life.\nlectual powers of the race have been developed thru\n\ndiscover the laws of nature,\n\nThe intel-\n\nman's long struggle to\n\nand to turn its energies toward his own ends.\n\nThis knowledge has been the chief component in the education of every\ngeneration of men.\n\nIn the past, when the few months spent in the elementary\n\nschool were given to acquiring the arts of computation\n\nand written com-\n\nmunication, when the higher schools were largely devoted to ancient languages,\nthis\n\nfundamental education was secured incidentally thru the spontaneous\n\nactivities of boyhood, or thru the necessities of industrial life.\n\nof nature thus obtained\n\nThe knowledge\n\nwas ill-organized, usually superficial, but with a\n\nfullness of information along practical lines usually denied to the youth of\n\nModern life has taken the boy out of the fields and woods, and shut\nhim up in the schoolroom, It has greatly abridged the apprentice system.\n\ntoday.\n\nThe technical school is taking the place of apprenticeship in preparing for\nindustrial life, and the elementary school in its lengthened terms must provide\nin a systematic\n\nway the knowledge once afforded by the free opportunities\n\nand employments of country life.\nHence the demand that the young woman come from the high school with\na living knowledge of the natural sciences that she shall have a fair acquaintance with the plant and animal life of the region; that she see with some\nclearness the relation of variety of form and function to the conditions of\n;\n\nexistence; that she be acquainted with the various biological laws that make\n\nup the theory of evolution, and be able to account for many observed phenomena by reference to these laws. The time will soon come, I trust, when we\nmay add to those requirements what the needs of children demand today;,\nthat she love flowers and know how to care for them.\nShe should have some acquaintance with the nature poets that reveal\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCAT^IONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n526\n\n[Normal\n\nthe spiritual significance of natural phenomena, and know something of the\n\nnames and works of the great writers that in the past half-century have revolutionized the thought of the world thru the revelations of natural science.\n\nShe may not have read extensively in these, but she certainly should read\ninterest and appreciation, and look forward with pleasurable\n\nthem with\n\nanticipation to those hours of leisure that will make their treasures her own\npossession.\n\nThere is needed, too, a thoro knowledge of physiology, both of temperance\nphysiology and of the other kind; not merely for the better care of her own\nhealth, but because it\n\nis vital\n\nto wise school administration.\n\nNo architect\n\nhas so far perfected his arrangements for heat, light, and ventilation, and the\nphysical comfort of the children, as to leave nothing for the intelligent teacher.\n\nMoreover, the problem of fatigue, of exercise and physical training, the\nof learning to physical growth in fact, nearly all the questions\n\n—\n\nrelation\n\nraised\n\nby modern pedagogy demand a good knowledge of physiology for\n\ntheir intelligent consideration.\n\nPhysics and the elements of chemistry are of equal importance;\n\nbut\n\nwhat is wanted especially is the ability to account for ordinary external phenomena; for dew and frost, cloud and rainbow, combustion and decay;\nand sufficient insight into the laws of mechanics and of the various forms of\nenergy to explain pumps and steam engines, telephones and trolley cars.\nI have known teachers to spend two weeks upon a model of Caesar's bridge\nwho could scarce name, much less explain, any of the great structures and\nmachines that play so great a part in modern civihzation.\nSimilarly there should be knowledge enough of earth science to appreciate\nthe forces that have formed soil and mountain and river valley, and have\nsculptured the landscape, to awaken intelligent interest when in the presence\nof these natural forms.\n\nOf no less importance than to know the laws of external nature is a knowledge of the ways and institutions of men. The fundamental study here is\ngeography, which deals with the way in which human Hfe is conditioned by\nlatitude, cUmate, soil, and other features of the material environment.\n\nWhile\n\nearning a living is not the most important human interest, it must in a way\nelse.\nHence those studies in commercial\ngeography that deal with the resources of this planet, with the tools and\nprocesses that man employs to render them available, and with his methods\n\ntake precedence of everything\n\nof transportation and exchange;\n\nthose studies in economics that unfold the\n\nlaws governing the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth, and\nthat afiford a rational basis for judgment upon the greater part of the social\nand political questions that confront the citizen, deserve a large place in the\n\npreparation of the teacher.\n\nThe interest in these studies deepens with mature\n\nyears; therefore they deserve a large place in the normal school itself.\n\nManual training should be included in these preparatory studies, not\nmerely because the use of tools has had a large share in developing the intel-\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "MODERN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\nDepartment]\n\n527\n\nlectual powers of the race, nor because certain brain tracts become atrophied\n\nunless developed thru the so-called hand- training, but quite as largely to put\n\nthe teacher into\n\nmore\n\nintelligent\n\nsympathy with the multitudes\n\nworkers whose children are to be taught.\nvice\n\nIt is said that every\n\nof hand-\n\nproblem of\n\nand poverty, of pauperism and crime, comes to the door of the school\nNo one should teach unless he knows something of the\n\nfor its solution.\n\nrelation of these problems to his own work.\n\nall\n\nThe story of our race, of the unfolding of its institutional life, is vital to\nwho wish to understand our institutions, to see their reason, or possibly\n\ntheir present unreasonableness.\n\nTo see the need of government and study\n\nmachinery and workings\n\nto foster the natural desire for active par-\n\nits\n\nis\n\nticipation in the duties of citizenship.\n\nHistory, civil government, and other\n\nstudies pertaining to citizenship must have a large place in the education of\n\na democracy.\n\nNow, the preparation of the candidate for teaching in all these lines need\nit must be intimate and vital.\nWe observe, in regard to men\nand women who have enjoyed a secondary or higher education, that they carry\nforth from college a live interest in some subjects, while to others they rarely\nreturn after leaving school. This difference is partly due to individual taste,\npartly to the environment in which they are thrown when out of school; but\nvery largely, we must agree, to the character of the instruction in these studies\n\nnot be extensive\n\nwhile in school.\n\n;\n\nIf subjects have been taught so as to establish a vital relation-\n\nship between them and the practical affairs of men\nis\n\nbasis for apperception\nif,\n\n;\n\nif the\n\nknowledge acquired\n\nso far connected with the extra-scholastic world as to form an adequate\n\nwhen the student comes in contact with this world;\n\nmoreover, the student leaves the subject in school knowing of books to be\n\nread and problems to be investigated, he is likely to keep up his study in later\nyears.\n\nThe prospective teacher needs knowledge, but he needs still more\n\nthat interest and outlook that are the guaranty of future growth.\n\nIn mathematics the requirement is a fair knowledge of arithmetic as\nappUed in useful construction and business affairs; so much of algebra as\nwill give some insight into general number-relations; geometry for its deductive\nreasoning, and, on the practical side, to develop definite ideas of symmetry\nand proportion, and afford a clear basis for the arithmetic of material\nconstruction.\n\nMathematical drawing should be included in the program of every prospective teacher.\nperiod.\n\nThe taste for such work develops in the early high-school\n\nIf the instinctive interest is properly nourished at that time, we\n\nmay\n\nlook for neatness, regularity, and order in all graphic work thruout the life\nof the teacher.\n\nNo one will question that the high-school graduate should bring to us\nacquaintance with\n\nmuch\n\nof\n\nour best\n\nliterature.\n\nAnyone with\n\nfiber\n\nfine\n\nenough to turn to teaching for any but the most mercenary consideration\nsurely will read and enjoy the great masterpieces in which the best men and\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n528\n\n[Normal\n\nwomen of our race have put their best thoughts into permanent and beautiful\nform.\n\nIf the school is to refine and lift up our national ideals, it must do so\n\nlargely thru biography\n\nand\n\nliterature.\n\nBut the mere acquaintance with\n\nliterature gained thru cursory reading is not enough.\n\nPassages, paragraphs,\n\nwhole poems must be read and re-read until they become an everlasting\nIf the practice of committing to memory is not well established\npossession.\nbefore the age of eighteen, it will rarely become so.\n\nEvery poem was written\nThe first step in teaching a poem is not to have the allusions\n\nEvery teacher should be a superior oral reader.\nto be read aloud.\n\nlooked up, the words defined, or the sentences parsed.\n\nIt is\n\nnot to discuss\n\nthe meter, the rhymes and alliteration, the figures of speech, useful as some\nof these are.\n\nIt is rather to read the poem to the pupils so well that its music\n\nshall be heard; its rhythm, its melody, its harmony of sound and sense, that\n\nThe teacher must understand\n\ngive charm to every great work of literary art.\n\nand feel the thought and spirit of the poem; but unless he has perfected\nhis voice as an instrument of expression, he can do Uttle to awaken an appreThe few teachers who can read well often\nciation of its beauty and power.\nseem afraid to read to their pupils.\n\nThe children enjoy it so much that it\n\nWe still hold to the opinion\n\nseems like wasting time, if not positively wicked.\nthat work is what you don't like to do.\n\nToo much time may be devoted to\n\nreading aloud mere books of information, which have no special literary merit.\nAfter the mechanics of reading are mastered in the first four or five years, all\n\nreading aloud should be of Hterature\n\n—\n\nliterature in the best sense.\n\nThere\n\nhas been in the past few years a lamentable decay in the art of oral expression,\nespecially in our high schools.\n\nThere is no possibility of relief until good\n\nreading is made an essential qualification of the teacher.\nAlong with reading we must place the other school arts.\n\nThe teacher\n\nshould sing; she should write well; she should be apt with crayon in illustration,\n\nready with drawing or diagram to portray the appearance or inner\n\nthought of things.\n\nThe teacher should know art and love it.\n\nAs stated by President Eliot\n\nin his recent Buffalo address:\n\nThe main object in every school should be, not to provide the children with means\nof earning a liveHhood, but to show them how to hve a happy and worthy life inspired by\nideals which exalt and dignify both labor and pleasure.\n\nTo see beauty and to love it is\n\nto possess large securities for such a life.\n\nWe are all aware that while a good work of art speaks to both prince and\npauper, still for an adequate appreciation of beauty in any art we need some\n\nacquaintance with the technique of expression.\n\nWe study drawing, not that\n\nwe may draw, but that we may appreciate drawings.\n\nIn all these fields the\n\nvitalizing spirit of the teacher is the chief factor in the growth of the pupil.\n\nNothing has been said\n\nof the quality of the student's English.\n\nnormal school may justly expect candidates\n\nfor admission to\n\nThe\n\nhave so far\n\nemancipated themselves from the slang of the early high-school period, and\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\n529\n\ncommonplace\nMost defects in language are defects in\n\nthe local provincialisms, as to be able to express ordinary\n\nthoughts in respectable English.\nthinking.\n\nMuddiness\n\ndue\n\nof expression is\n\nto turbidity of thought.\n\nThe\n\nfundamental need, therefore, is that during the grammar-school and high-school\n\n—that\n—and not\n\nperiod pupils be taught to study\n\npage or laboratory experiment\nclear.\n\nto get the thought out of printed\n\nis,\n\nrest satisfied until this\n\nthought is\n\nWhere discriminating thinking prevails, an adequate vocabulary soon\n\nappears.\nI have said little of mental discipline, because I believe that the alertness\n\nof mind, the power of concentration, the discriminating judgment, the strong\n\nand abiding interests that are needed in the professional school are best\ndeveloped thru self-forgetful devotion to the knowledges and the arts of\nhighest value in teaching.\nIt probably has\n\noccurred to some of you that this paper is sketching an\n\neducational Utopia, and that no high school ever has produced, or ever will\n\nproduce, graduates of the quality indicated within four years.\n\nThe writer\n\ndoes not propose to lengthen the course, but to eliminate useless subjects and\n\nimprove existing methods.\n\nThe chief obstacle is the study of Latin.\n\nIn the programs of most of the\n\nhigh-school graduates that seek the normal school, Latin has engrossed onefourth of the recitation periods, and from 40 to 60 per cent, of the time spent\n\nm study.\nThe limits of this paper forbid any detailed discussion of the value of\nLatin in the secondary school.\nits value is\n\nimpossible.\n\nA rigorous experimental demonstration of\n\nThe eminence attained in practical affairs by certain\n\ngraduates of the traditional classical course may be in spite of, not because of,\ntheir classical studies.\n\nOur school system selects and promotes to its higher\n\ncourses and to its diplomas the very people whose health, capacity, ambition,\n\nand wealth already mark them as the favored few of their generation.\n\nI\n\nbelieve that most of them in the general absence of higher education would\nattain a like prominence in their day.\n\nSince arguments on this question are mainly expressious of opinion based\nupon a priori considerations, I shall venture to say that Latin contributes\nlittle\n\nto the prospective teacher, unless indeed she proposes herself to become\n\na teacher of Latin.\n\nThe place of Latin in our schools is purely traditional.\n\nSince schools are no longer confined to the clergy, and Latin has ceased to be\nthe language, of scholars and diplomats, as in the days of Bacon and Milton,\n\nschoolmasters are put to it to invent arguments for the study, chief among\n\nwhich is the resulting mental discipline.\n\nBut modern pedagogy rejects the\n\ndogma of formal mental discipline.\n\nThe discipline acquired in studying a\nforeign language is helpful in the further study of foreign languages.\nThe\nknowledge of Latin helps little in the study of the Romance tongues. We\nusually recognize new words in those tongues from their similarity to English\ncognates,\n\nnot from their Latin derivation.\n\nWhatever aid the derivation\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n530\n\n[Normal\n\nof English words affords any one of us is due, not to his study of the sentences\nof Caesar or Cicero, but to his independent study of Latin roots.\n\nknowledge of Roman literature and life,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nTo gain a\n\nno more necessary to study\n\nLatin than to study Hebrew to understand and appreciate the Bible.\n\nLastly,\n\nthe constant translation of Latin into EngHsh as actually conducted does not\n\nwith one pupil out of ten contribute to the growth of a vigorous idiomatic\nEnglish style.\n\nWe hear almost everywhere, ''Caesar said himself not to be\n\nabout to be made more certain,\" or other absurdities scarcely less flagrant.\n\nWith Latin eliminated, there will be time for further study in arithmetic,\ngrammar, geography, and American history studies commonly\nrelegated to the grammar school, but needing in many of their vital aspects\nEnglish\n\n—\n\nthe maturer comprehension of the high-school period.\n\nRoom may be found,\n\ntoo, for the studies in reading, in hand-work, including art, for which now so\nlittle time is afforded.\n\nThe other chief defects in the high-school curriculum can be traced to the\ndominant influence of the college in determining, not only the curriculum,\nSince the report of the Committee of Ten in\n\nbut the methods of instruction.\n\n1893, high-school inspectors from school and college have insisted that second-\n\nary teachers shall be college graduates.\n\nYet the college student rarely hears\n\nany discussion of the ends and means of education, of the pecuHar problems\nThrown into the\nof the adolescent period, or of the method of instruction.\nhigh school with no resource except his own experience as a student, he must\nneeds imitate his own teachers.\n\nIn this way the method of the university\n\nhas been projected into the high school.\n\nPhysics has become quantitative,\n\nengrossing the time of the student with endless measurements.\n\nThe con-\n\nstruction of \"Stewart's curve\" or the verification of \"Joule's equivalent\" is\nto the\n\nnormal student of much less importance than to know the modes of\n\nutilizing exhaust steam, or why the housewife must frequently add cold water\n\nto the cream she is churning.\n\nIn biology the microscope has come into daily\n\nuse among children who have never learned to see a tithe of the interesting\n\nand important phenomena of plant-life that are visible to the unaided eye.\nInstruction in English is an admitted failure in almost every secondary\nschool.\n\nThe root of the difficulty is in the specialization of high-school\n\nteaching, which now treats language as a separate branch* under the name of\n\nEnglish, whereas habits of expression, good or bad, are inevitably formed in\n\nLanguage is not merely the vehicle of expression. It is\nTo write a clear, accurate, and orderly paragraph requires clear, accurate, and orderly thinking.\nInstruction in the principles of any kind of doing can only set up ideals of\n\nevery class-room.\n\nthe form of the thought itself.\n\nright conduct; habits of right action can usually be gained only thru persistent\n\nindividual effort supplemented by the example and\n\ndemand of our entire\n\nenvironment.\n\nWe grant that ideals should be clear, attractive, noble, determining conduct\nby their inherent beauty and reasonableness;\n\nyet is it not as reasonable to\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM\n\n531\n\nexpect to cure a bad case of round shoulders in the physiology class, as to\nsecure good EngHsh thru the unaided efforts of that department ?\n\nIn conclusion, I would say that the modern high-school curriculum is not\naffording proper preparation for a two-year normal course;\n\nthat the fault\n\nlies in the undue influence of the college, which has been permitted to convert\n\nthe people's high school into a fitting academy, to shape its curriculum with\nreference to the traditional ideals of the college rather than the needs of\n\nmodern life, and to furnish to the high school its complement of teachers\naccustomed to college methods, ill-informed as to the problems of secondary\neducation, and wholly untrained in teaching.\n\nAs a remedy for this state of things is suggested:\n1.\nState inspection of high schools by the state department of education;\nsaid inspection to be upon a liberal basis, without exclusive reference to the\nwishes of higher institutions, and to be accompanied by a state appropriation\nfor\n\napproved schools.\n2.\n\nA rigorous requirement of professional training for all high-school\n\nteachers.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nThe recent enrichment of our high-school courses demands\nThe addition of such subjects as botany, unknown in the high\n\nProfessor T. B. Pray.\nour heartiest approval.\n\nschool I attended, if it leads the pupils to a careful observation of plant-life, and to close\n\nacquaintance with the flora of his own neighborhood, and then to a knowledge of plantrelationship\n\nand conditions of plant-growth, should give the teacher greater power to\nand\nIt should give her greater power to teach, and above all, greater power to\n\nappreciate the natural interests of children, to enjoy and to direct their pleasures\nexcursions.\n\nstimulate their love of knowledge.\n\nTherefore the long courses in botany are not too long\n\nnor too broad; but they must be so planned and administered as to accomplish for the\nfuture teacher the great purpose of expanding her sympathy with the child's interest in\nnature, her appreciation of the exceeding beauty and fascination of the child's plant-world.\n\nDoubtless also the greatest future happiness of the student is to be gained as the child\ngains his acquaintance with plants, thru the eye rather than thru the compound microscope.\n\nBut whatever method be pursued in this and in other sciences, we shall agree that the\nand in logical thinking, the awakened\nimagination, are all most desirable results of such a course viewed as preparation for\ntrained observation, the discipline in accuracy\n\nteaching.\n\nSo the most hearty approval must be given of the increased attention to literature\nand to history. The best things that have been thought and said thru the ages are as\nefficient today as ever before in molding the minds and hearts of men.\nHere the purpose\nwill control method, and so inevitably select suitable matter.\nFor example, some Scriptures are valuable for reproof, and for moral instruction and guidance in all affairs of\neveryday life; other portions give wings to the spiritual imagination. It is of most serious\nconsequence whether our attention be focused upon the material gold, silver, or lead of\nwhich the caskets are made, or upon the precious treasures contained therein. Clearly,\nwe must distinguish sharply between a knowledge of literature that is, a loving appreciation of beautiful expression of inspiring thought\nand a knowledge of all the trappings\nand millinery that serve only to distract the mind from worthier objects of pursuit.\nWhether Hiawatha shall in the elementary school be a weariness to the flesh, or make\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n532\n\n[Normal\n\nthe pupil sorry to miss a single exercise, will depend upon the poetry and imagination in\nthe soul of the teacher.\n\nLong high -school courses in history, wisely managed, will give breadth of view;\ngenuine respect for those who differ from us; contempt for\nnarrowness, bigotry, provincialism; unbounded admiration for heroism, sacrifice, and all\nthose noble and ennobling qualities that make men great.\nAll these foundations for general culture found in the modern high-school course are\ntoleration of differences;\n\nwell adapted to prepare the student for teaching.\n\nBut, after all is said about the spirit\n\nof the teacher, her interest in nature and in life and the children under her care, her broad\n\nsympathies and general culture, certain fundamentals, the three R's if you please, the tools\nShe can teach effectively only what she knows\nof knowledge, must be completely hers.\ncertainly.\n\nIf she\n\nbecomes a student in the normal school, she can study profitably only\n\nmethods relating to, and illustrated by, subject-matter of which her knowledge is exact,\nPedagogy, Hke all other sciences, must find a concrete foundation in\ndefinite, usable.\nHow shall a teacher compare methods of reckoning interest, and adapt them\nexperience.\nto the need of the hour for her class, who cannot get the exact answer by any of them ?\n\nHow can she develop the new out of the unknown ? How shall a class get mastery of the\ntransitive verb from a teacher who cannot distinguish positively between the object and\n\nthe attribute complement ?\n\nFor profitable instruction in pedagogy of any mental process,\n\nthe process itself must be absolutely clear.\n\nMoreover, effective teaching demands such\n\nbreadth of knowledge as makes abundant illustration easy, ready at need. Do not misThere is no call upon the high school to give all its students such exhaustive knowtake.\nledge of number as would quahfy a professor of mathematics.\n\nBut teachers must have,\nand all students might have, on leaving the high school a more complete mastery of the\ncommon branches than can be had by children of twelve or thirteen years of age. When\n\npupils graduate from a four-year high-school course at sixteen or seventeen years of age,\n\nhaving given no definite study to the fundamental branches of arithmetic, geography, or\n.\n\ngrammar since leaving the seventh or eighth grade, it is not surprising, though very\nunfortunate, that teachers in the normal school must stop teaching pedagogy, and instruct\n\nWhen normal students in\non account of ignorance of the\nsubject, how can a two-year course give them such knowledge of pedagogy as to send them\nforth fairly equipped teachers ? May we not ask for the teachers what the business men\nare so loudly demanding for their interests, that somewhere, somehow, without sacrifice\nof any desirable attainable degree of culture, there be found, before the end of the highschool course, a little room for arithmetic, whose logical relations and sequences will be\nmore apparent and real to the student on account of the study of other branches of mathematics; for grammar, the universality and necessity of whose laws will be illumined by\nother Hterary and Hnguistic studies; and for geography, now at last relieved of its infinite\ndrudgery, and made many-fold more interesting and intelligible and human by a wider\nknowledge of history and other sciences than was possible for the thirteen-year-old child\nin arithmetic or grammar to make the pedagogy intelligible.\ntheir so-called \"practice teaching\" find failure very often\n\nin the eighth grade ?\nVerily, these things ought to be done, without leaving the others undone.\n\nThe normal schools are not seeking the privilege of instructing in the common\nbranches, but they dare not shirk the duty, glad as they would be to do so.\n\nFrank M. McMurry, of Teachers College, Columbia University, would omit much\nof the algebra as well as Latin in the high school in order to give more time for other\nstudies.\n\nHe emphasized the necessity of training in methods of study, not only in the\n\nhigh school, but also in the grades.\n\nThe elements that constitute good study should be\n\ndetermined, and then impressed upon the pupils.\n\nPresident John W. Cook, of the Northern Illinois Normal School, said that one\nfrom too early selection of work for life. Young people are not able at\n\ndifliculty arose\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENT TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY BRANCHES\n\nto determine\n\nfirst\n\nwhat they want.\n\nThe universities should recognize this.\n\n533\n\nThe fourth\n\nyear of the high school should be a special course for those who would teach, and should\ninclude a thoro review of the elementary branches.\n\nThis work should be rigorous and so\n\nthoro as to be truly cultural.\n\nCharles De Garmo, of Cornell University, said that the fundamental difference in\nthe quality of teaching demanded in the grades from that demanded in high schools started\nin the universities.\n\nThe people in the latter have the idea that some subtle essence\n\nemanates from them that acts like a ferment to produce good teachers. He also called\nattention to the present New York law which allows any university graduate to teach two\nyears, but he must pursue rather a rigorous course of reading and study if he elects to\n\npursue the calling.\n\nStuart H. Rowe, of the Brooklyn Training School, called attention to the fact that\nit is\n\nnow possible for normal schools to make something of a selection from high-school\n\ngraduates of those best fitted to undertake the normal training.\n\nHe considered it desir-\n\nsome system by which those students who desired to qualify for teachers\nshould have special work in high schools that should be received by the universities as the\nable to have\n\nequivalent of that now required.\n\nHOW CAN THE NORMAL SCHOOL BEST PRODUCE EFFICIENT TEACHERS OF THE ELEMENTARY BRANCHES\nAS REGARDS THE CONTROL OF BOTH SUBJECT MATTER AND METHOD?\nGRANT KARR, SUPERINTENDENT OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL\nAND TRAINING SCHOOL, OSWEGO, N. Y.\n\nThe question of how the normal school can best produce efficient teachers\nof the elementary branches\n\nis\n\nso broad that\n\nits\n\nadequate discussion would\n\ninvolve the consideration of a whole system of pedagogy, as well as of the\n\nadministrative system of a\n\ncommonwealth whereby it puts its educational\n\nIn the brief time allotted, one can do little\nmore than call attention to some of the chief principles involved, with little\npolicy into practical working.\n\nhope of reaching anything like a final solution of the question.\nit has\n\nAccordingly,\n\nseemed wise again to call attention to some factors in the normal school's\n\nproduction of efficient teachers, which, if not the most important in the whole\nprocess and system of the educational forces known as the normal school, are\nat least organically connected,\n\nnormal school.\n\nand are also essential to the very Ufe of the\n\nAmong these factors are (i) the central organization and\n\ngeneral policy of the normal school; (2) the course of study;\n\nand (3) the rela-\n\ntion of theory to practice, not only as it appears in the practice school, but as\nit appears in every other part of the\n\nwork of the school.\n\nThe following propositions are fundamental presuppositions,\n\nnecessary\n\nand should remain inviolate\nas the leading and predominating ideas in the whole organization and conduct\nof the normal school, if it is to produce efficient teachers:\nto the very existence of the normal-school idea,\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n534\n1.\n\n[Normal\n\nThe facts of education are capable of scientific formulation in accord-\n\ndance with social and physical laws which are immutable,\n\neternal, and\nand hence education has gone beyond the stage of mere empiricism.\n\ninexorable;\n2.\n\nThe school is a social institution which is the peer of the other social\n\ninstitutions\n\n—home, church,\n\nstate,\n\nand property;\n\nand which,\n\nlike\n\nthem,\n\nhas its own peculiar genius, laws, and principles, which must be discovered\n\nand observed, if the school is to accomplish its object in the best way. Each\nhas its field as well as its limits. They are all most intricately\nand intimately related, yet each is free and independent, and should under no\ncircumstances be used as the mere servant of any other. Thus the state\ncannot influence religious faith and domestic love as it will, and there are\nmany things which money cannot buy. The soul is a self-active entity which\ndevelops in accordance with its own laws, and the school has as its realm the\ndevelopmental phase of humanity as revealed, say, during the first twenty-five\ninstitution\n\nyears of\n\nlife.\n\nIt\n\nshould endeavor to discover the laws which control this\n\ndevelopment, and then give the best possible opportunity for realizing them.\n\nUnder no circumstances should its policy be shaped in accordance with the\ngenius\n\nof\n\nanother\n\ncommercial.\n\ninstitution,\n\nwhether\n\npolitical,\n\nreligious,\n\ndomestic,\n\nor\n\nTo this end\n\nThe authorities of the normal school should be those who have studied\nand understand education, and are devoted to the school for its own sake.\n3.\n\nIt should not be a means to something else, but be an end in itself worthy of\n\nthe best attention, efforts,\n\nand devotion of those who control it.\n\nPositions\n\non the faculty should be granted for educational efficiency chiefly, and graft,\nsectarianism, nepotism, commercialism, and charity should be given very\n\nminor and subsidiary influence, if they come in at all. Thus teaching will\nbecome a profession and cease to be a mere trade. It will become the life\nof the teacher, and not be a mere uncomfortable incident in that life, \"the\nnoblest profession\" and not ''the sorriest trade.\" In this way it will be\nmade evident that education is a science, and the school will gain the respect\nthat is due a great social institution such as it is.\n4.\n\nThe student body should be made up of those who are desirous of\n\nperfecting themselves in educational proficiency.\n\nunity of plan is unthinkable.\"\n\n\"Without unity of aim,\n\nTo use the normal school for other purposes\n\nthan the preparation of teachers is as unwise as it would be to use a theological\n\nseminary for the preparation of mechanical engineers.\n5.\n\nThe aim of the normal school is one, viz., the preparation of teachers\n\nfor efficient service in maintaining\nof the\n\nand promoting the educational welfare\n\ncommunities where they may be employed.\n\nTo this end it should\n\npropagate that which is good in present educational practice, discard that\n\nwhich has been \"weighed in the balance and found wanting,\" and put into\n\"current coin\" ideas which have been theoretically well-grounded by the\nreformers, but which have not yet been adopted in popular practice.\n\nStudents of education generally accept these facts as axiomatic.\n\nPopular\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEFFICIENT TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY BRANCHES\n\n535\n\nacceptance of them has grown, but there is still room for improvement in this\nline.\n\nIn the better understanding of these principles, and the practical\n\nadjustment of the affairs of the normal school to them, lies the chief hope of\nbest producing teachers of the elementary branches as regards the control\nof both subject-matter and method.\n\nFollowing this improvement, there will be greater hope for betterment\n\nAt present elemenupon as reading, writing,\n\nwith regard to the course of study in elementary schools.\ntary branches in the course of study are looked\narithmetic,\n\nand a few other more or less technical branches which as tools\nIt would be unwise and\n\nare indispensable to a participation in social life.\n\nrash to intimate that these branches should receive less attention.\n\nthey should have more.\nthe immediate needs\n\nIn fact,\n\nThis will be effected thru their better adaptation to\n\nand wants of the pupils.\n\nOne great trouble with the\n\nteaching of these subjects at present lies in their being regarded by the elementary teachers as subjects complete in themselves, rather than as technical\n\nportions of larger unities.\n\nThey are not ends in themselves.\n\nThey are only\n\nmeans to ends.\n\nThe elements of our life are found in certain fundamental impulses,\ninstincts,\n\nand interests, which are for the most part self-purposes, and which\n\ngive meaning to life.\n\nThey reveal a person's heart of hearts, his heart's core.\n\nA child is born a-doing things.\n\nThese impulses and interests are already\n\nAmong them are the nascent forms of adult interests\nand occupations; among others, those which are summed up and designated\n\nfunctioning within him.\n\nas home, government, religion, art, and the different forms of life which come\n\nunder the head of property, industry, commerce, trade, etc.\nEducation is the development of these native impulses into these permanent forms.\n\nThe course of this development is the course of study, in which\n\nthe mind, thru\n\nits\n\nsummarizing power, organizes its detailed and more or\n\nless isolated experiences into wholes which constitute the personality.\n\nThis process of organization marks out the course of a child's growth.\n\nFrom day to day, from week to week, from month to month, out into the\nyears he summarizes, generalizes, organizes.\n\nThis process\n\nfeature of his course of studying and thinking.\n\nIf we have a written record\n\nis\n\nthe central\n\nof what he has done, how he has gained in strength, broadened and deepened\nin comprehension and self-consciousness, like that which Preyer wrote about\nhis infant son, we have a biography, which is an elementary form of history.\n\nThe content of this personal history is the organization which has taken place\n\n—\n\nwithin the child his personality. Without memory, which is the psychical\nform of history, he never could have become anything. Thru this process\nof organization he is enabled to rise above the shifting scenes of the moment,\n\nand enter the universal and abiding.\ndivinity.\n\nIt is the ladder by which he climbs to\n\nHistory in this sense has a far deeper interest, value, and significance\n\nIt occupies an essential, central place in life, and\nwould seem to be of primary importance.\n\nthan a tale that is told.\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n536\n\nProfessor Droyson says:\n\nconscious of itself.\"\n\n''History\n\nis\n\n[Normal\n\nhumanity becoming and being\n\nIn this sense, education is merely a phase of history, a\n\nway the race has of perpetuating, possessing, and coming into a consciousness\nof itself.\nHerbart must have had some such intuition when he called attention\nand literature are the most important subjects in a\nFor history is given us not only by means of words,\nbut much valuable light is thrown on the past by a study of temples and\ntombs, monuments and money, art, language, utensils, seals, etc., etc., which\nto the fact that history\nchild's course of study.\n\nare treated in the so-called historical help-sciences.\n\nThus history is neither\n\nmere verbal relation of experiences nor mere experience. It is both of these\nand more. It is the synthesis of summarized experience with adequate expression.\n\nThus all things human are a contribution to history, and all we possess\n\nis a product of history\n\n—not only our government,\n\nreligion, art, and the things\n\nusually treated in history, but the means of transportation, the various arts\nof building, manufacturing, etc., and all the numerous activities and industries\n\nwith which man is occupied. In this way all hand-work and manual training\nbecome a part of historical instruction. Thus we are in deed and in truth\n''the heirs of all the ages;\" but if we would truly possess our heritage, we\nmust, as Goethe says, \"earn it.\" And right here, in this process of earning\nour heritage, is where education comes in.\nA full discussion of how the past is handed over to the present in the life\nof a child, of the place of literature and art in this transmission, and of numerous kindred subjects, would lead us too far at this time. Enough has been\nsaid to show that mental growth and organization constitute the internal\nphase of history, whose external phase is the multitudinous expressions of\nall that man has done, and which surround us on every hand.\nThis would\n\nmake history the primary elementary subject in the course of study, because\nonly thru its internal phase, organization of the mental powers,\n\nis\n\ngrowth\n\npossible at all, and thru its external phase all we possess is given us.\n\nBut in\n\nthis growth certain forms of externalization are necessary.\n\nAnd this is where\n\nLanguage, reading and\nmeans thru which this develop-\n\nthe so-called technical subjects find their place.\nwriting, arithmetic, drawing, etc., afford the\n\nment takes place, while the developing self, as manifested primarily in history, literature, manual training, etc., gives that which will fill these subjects\nwith meaning, thus making them secondary elementary subjects. They will\nbe the better taught from being given this secondary place, owing to the\ngreater meaning they will acquire.\nIn the very definition of these subjects we see that they have their raison\nd'tire in something else.\nLanguage is said to be the expression of thought\nby means of conventionalized symbols. It is a synthesis of external sign\nand internal significance, and the vitalizing part of it is surely the internal\nsignificance, the meaning.\n\nchief\n\nAll who try to teach reading properly place the\n\nemphasis on the thing read, first in getting the thought, and next in\n\nproperly awakening that thought thru oral expression, in the minds of others.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENT TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY BRANCHES\n\n537\n\nNow, the thought is a product of development, of organization, of growth, of\n\nWhen books are found to contain something\n\nthe internal phase of history.\n\nwhich is of value to a boy, the most powerful motive is furnished for his\nmastering the technique of reading.\n\nThis value comes as the result of thought\n\nand life.\n\nThe case is similar with arithmetic.\nthe measurement of things takes on.\n\nNumber is the mental form which\nIts value\n\ndepends upon the value of\n\nThe boy who is seriously interested in levers and other\n\nthe things measured.\n\nmechanical powers has no trouble with ratio and proportion.\n\nWe do not\n\nmeasure, as a general thing, merely to be measuring; but when some result,\nin itself valuable, will be improved by measuring, the measuring and calcu-\n\nAnd so it is also with writing, composition,\nWhen some valuable end is to be reached thru these modes\n\nlating will be forthcoming.\n\ndrawing, etc.\n\nof expression, then they will be much better done than when they are pursued\n\nas ends in themselves.\n\nIn the present practice of most elementary schools the chief emphasis\nis\n\nplaced on these secondary elementary branches.\n\nLanguage, reading and\n\nwriting, arithmetic, drawing, etc., are placed in the foreground, and history,\n\nstory (stories), nature, manual training, hand-work, and \"objects of interest\"\ngenerally, are used as means for giving a fuller understanding to these subjects,\n\nwhich have come to be known as essentials.\n\nTo see that this is true, one has\n\nonly to glance at the average elementary text-book, where almost the whole\nattention is devoted to the technique of the subjects, and almost none to that\nof\n\nwhich they are the technique.\n\nThe stories, objects, and problems are\n\nalways devoid of organic connection with each other and usually with the\nof the learner, rarely appropriate,\n\nlife\n\nand disgustingly trivial.\n\nand sometimes hopelessly superficial\n\nThis practice of placing the chief emphasis on the\n\nsecondary elementary branches has existed since long before the normal\nschool was established, and it is one of the greatest obstacles to its best pro-\n\nduction of teachers of the elementary branches.\nshift\n\nthis\n\nThe normal school should\n\nemphasis to the primary elementary branches, and thereby put\n\ngreater meaning into the secondary branches, while at the same time it could\n\ndevote its main efforts to the real development of the personalities which it\n\nhopes ultimately to influence.\n\nThis\n\nwill\n\nbring the normal-school course\n\ninto a higher state of organization, wherein the students will be brought to\n\ndo two things at once\n\n—give instruction that educates and teach technical\n\nbranches, and do them both much better because they are done together.\n\nThe relation of theory to practice is one of the most abstruse human\nhas appeared in every system of\n\nthought since Plato and\n\nproblems.\n\nIt\n\nAristotle.\n\nReligious sects have been formed upon their discussion, faith, or\n\nWO' ks.\n\nIn his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant gave a solution by stating that\n\nboth are necessary.\nexist\n\nwithout the\n\nThey are mutually complementary, and neither can\nother.\n\n**\n\nConceptions without perceptions are empty,\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n538\n\nperceptions without conceptions are blind.\"\n\n[Normal\n\nTheory has concrete existence\n\nonly in practice, and practice is steady and reliable only as it is the embodi-\n\nment of well-founded theory.\n\nOne must see the general in the particular, if\n\none is to proceed with confidence, and one must have the particular to be sure\nof the general.\n\nTheory lives only in practice.\n\nin the light of theory.\n\nPractice has meaning only\n\nThe two must grow together, each rectifying the\n\nshortcomings of the other, establishing and perfecting the unity of the pedagogical process, if well-balanced and conscious progress is to be made.\n\nThis vital relation of theory and practice has a bearing on all the work\nof the whole normal school.\nschool,\n\nPerhaps its most obvious effect is in the practice\n\nwhere the educational theory for which the school stands is being\n\nrealized in concrete form, where hypotheses are going over into theory bodied\n\nforth in practice,\npractice.\n\nand where new theories are being formulated from the\n\nThis work takes place in the form of preliminary plans, observation,\n\nconducting morning exercises, entertainments, conferences (individual and\n\nand summaries, as well as in\nmanagement, and training of a\nregular class.\nThe variety of the ways in which this relation of theory to\npractice will affect the practice-teacher is great, but the one main point of\ngeneral), practice lessons, criticisms, reviews,\n\nthe conduct of the instruction, discipline,\n\ntheir equal balance and importance should never be lost sight of.\n\nThis relation of theory and practice should be kept constantly in mind\n\nby all members of the normal-school faculty, and borne out in every detail\ntheoretically as well as practically.\n\nThus the teacher who promulgates a\n\ntheory should have the opportunity and responsibility of seeing to\nit is realized in practice.\n\nof pure theory.\n\nit\n\nthat\n\nThe normal school is no place for the promulgation\n\nThe universities can take care of that.\n\nIf the practice is\n\nnot to be handed over to an inferior person, then there is no person in the\n\nworld so well fitted to see a theory carried out in practice as the person who\npromulgates it. Theory which will not work out in practice is worthless,\nand the one who advocates a certain theory should make it work, explain\nits deficiencies, or as a last resort alter the theory.\nWith this sort of an arrangement the theoretical department will be as greatly benefited as the practice\ndepartment..\n\nThe importance of the relation of theory to practice, not only shows itself\nin the\nis\n\nwork of practice-teachers, teachers of methods, and supervisors, but\n\nequally evident and inevitable in the work of everyone else connected with\n\nthe normal school, from the president\n\nkindergarten.\n\ndown to the youngest child in the\n\nEverybody should be a theorist as well as a practician, and\n\nthe balance between the two should be kept as nearly perfect as possible.\n\nThen the idea for which manual training stands will have made a great stride\ntoward realization. The school will then be an arrangement to give those\nwho attend it the best of such experience as they are capable of, and at the\nsame time lead them into as deep an understanding of that experience as\npossible.\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nDepartment]\n\nEFFICIENT TEACHERS OF ELEMENTARY BRANCHES\n\n539\n\nIf those at the head of the normal school believe that education is a science\n\nthat the school is the peer of the other social institutions, church, state, family,\n\nand property; that the aim of the normal school is to prepare teachers and\npromote educational progress; and if the course of study is reorganized in\nsuch a way as to shift the main emphasis from the technical subjects to those\nof which they are the techniques, thus placing them in proper relation to\nsubjects which play the leading r61e in life, and hence in education, and then\nplace theory and practice on a parity so that they may mutually complement\neach other; then I believe that the normal school will be able best to produce\nteachers of the elementary branches as regards the control of both subject\n\nand method.\nSuch a central organization, and such a modification of the subject-matter\nand the method pursued, would soon make apparent that moral, social character, as the aim of education, is to be taken seriously in every phase and\nevery moment of school work, in instruction as well as in discipline, management, and training. Kant gives primacy to the practical will. Self-activity\nis the deepest principle in us.\n\nWe are always doing something, and, whether\n\nwe will or not, doing something for someone else.\ncenter of gravity is always in the outgoing self.\n\nOur lives are social. The\nThe deed and service are\n\n\"Do unto others as you would be done by,\" and,\n\"Act according to maxims that might become universal.\" This greatest\nof all truths must permeate every detail of the normal school's work, if it is\nto do its best in producing efficient teachers of elementary branches.\npresented on every hand.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—\n\nHerman T. Lukens, State Normal School, California, Pa. The usual plan is to\ndemand scholarship as a condition of entrance into the normal schools, and then expect\nto devote the two years of the normal course to what is called professional work.\n\nSchol-\n\nknowledge is thus sometimes regarded as quite irrelevant to method. Method is\nthen treated as an external attachment to knowledge, to be gained independently as\nprofessional preparation, and then applied.\nastic\n\nNow, scholarship and method are separable in the sense that a student may get\nscholarship with very slight attention to method, or he may get method or have a natural\ngift of\n\nway\n\n—\n\nteaching without much scholarship;\n\n—\n\n^indeed, the only successful way\n\nbut if he is to possess both, the most efficient\n\nis to acquire\n\nboth together.\n\nThe tendency to separate the two results is ignoring largely the professional preparation that comes from right scholarship.\n\nIt is assumed that scholarship is anterior to pro-\n\nfessional preparation, instead of being itself the most important part of it.\n\nThe profession\n\nof teaching is not analogous to the profession of law, medicine, or theology, in respect to\n\nthe general preparation required.\n\nTo get scholarship before method is about as wise as for the child first to get the forms\nof grammar, arithmetic, etc., and later put content into them.\n\nWe learn by using, and not\n\nbefore using, as a preparation for using.\n\nWe all know that our students teach as they have been taught far more than as they\nhave been told to teach in our methodology.\n\nIn fact, all our discussion of method with\n\nthem, all their study of psychology, and all their work in child study are possible only\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n540\ni\n\n.\n\n.\n\n[Normal\n\n,\n\non the basis of their own experience with method of being taught, self-knowledge by\nintrospection, and memory of their own childhood.\n\nWhen Holmes was asked when he would begin the education of a child, he is said to\n\"Begin with the grandmother.\" When would you begin a teacher's\n\nhave answered:\n\ntraining in right\n\nmethod and insight into soul growth ?\n\nWell, the grandmothers and\n\ngrandfathers in this case are the normal-school teachers of the elementary-school teachers.\n\nThe separation of academic from professional preparation implies that method is of\nminor consequence in the academic preparation, and leads to its neglect while the students\nare learning subject-matter.\nIn many normal schools the teachers of academic subjects\nbother themselves very little about the methods of teaching.\nThere is method in subject-matter itself natural method of the highest order; and\nIt is\nthis scientific method in the subject-matter is the method of the human mind itself.\nthe business of normal schools and collegiate schools of education to present subjectmatter in science, in language, in literature, and in the arts, in such a way that the student\nboth sees and feels that these studies are significant embodiments of mental operations,\nthat they simply express and illustrate in their concrete form what common, everyday\nmodes of thought-activity are capable of producing.\nScholarship per se may itself then be a most effective tool for training and turning\nout good teachers. Every normal-school teacher in every department should consider\nhimself a teacher of methods, should keep in the closest touch with the model school, and\nshould consider his own teaching as part of the demonstration of model or normal\n\n—\n\nmethods.\n\nThe teachers in the normal school should have advisory powers in the model school,\nand frequent conferences with the training teachers should be held.\n\nBut is this enough ?\n\nShould not the heads of departments in normal schools also have visitorial and advisory\n\npowers in all the elementary and high schools in their respective districts? Would not\nthis, on the one hand, tend to improve attention to good methods and stimulate professional\n\nimprovement in the schools, and, on the other hand, give the normal schools a\n\ncloser touch with their graduates at work, and enable them to see better what are the needs\n\nand difficulties that the normal schools should meet ?\n\nTHE CO-OPERATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND NORMAL\nSCHOOLS IN THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\n\nI.\n\nFRANK M. MCMURRY, PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING,\nTEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\n[THESES]\n1.\n\nBoth universities and normal schools should aim to prepare teachers for\n\n2.\n\nwork in elementary schools.\nDuplication of work in universities (in undergraduate departments) and\nnormal schools is justified in the following lines:\na)\n\nIn various academic subjects, such as literature, history, science, etc.\n\nb)\n\nIn professional courses for teachers, such as educational psychology,\nhistory of education, general and special method.\n\nc)\n\n3.\n\nIn attempts to apply and test educational theory in practice schools.\n\nCo-operation between undergraduate departments of universities and\n\nnormal schools should consist\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nTRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\n\nDepartment!\n\na)\n\n— —\n54I\n\nOf such comparison of views and practices in occasional discussions\non the part of the faculties, as these common interests suggest, the\nuniversity departments of education taking the lead,\n\nowing to their\n\nsuperior opportunities for study.\nh)\n\nOf ready acceptance in normal-school students in the universities\nwith full credit for equivalent work.\n\n4.\n\nIt is the peculiar\n\nmission of the graduate departments of education in\n\nuniversities, so far as elementary schools are concerned\n\na)\n\nTo advance knowledge of education in the elementary field by the\napplication of a scientific method to\n(i)\n\nLibrary research.\n\n(2)\n\nExperimentation, in the psychological laboratory and in the\nexperimental school.\n\nh)\n\n5.\n\nTo instruct students in the advanced study of elementary education,\n\npreparing them for the duties of superintendent, principal, supervisor,\nand professor of elementary education.\nCo-operation between the graduate departments of universities and normal\nschools should consist in such close relation as will\na)\n\nAllow the former to stimulate and instruct the latter thru both their\ninvestigation and their personal contact.\n\nh)\n\nEncourage the more successful students of the latter to undertake\nadvanced study of education in the former.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor McMurry, in introducing his first thesis, said that university faculties\nusually care very little for preparation for teaching.\nOne argument for a department of\neducation in a university is that faculties may learn something of the art and science of\nteaching.\n\nEdward Brooks, superintendent of schools, Philadelphia, Pa., would have the most\nand most scholarly men and women in the elementary schools, and\n\nhighly educated\n\nespecially in the kindergarten.\n\nPresident Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, 111., doubted the assertion that more\nrequired in primary work than in the intermediate and grammar grades. He\nthought that good work in the primary grades was often neutralized by poor teaching in\nthe grades following, and that the poor, weak teacher would do less harm in the first\n\nskill is\n\ngrade than elsewhere.\n\nMr. McMurry urged further in support of his first thesis the fact that attendance\nin both normal schools and universities is largely a geographic matter, the students going\nto the place most convenient,\n\nand this is often a university.\n\nfor superintendents and for secondary schools,\n\nit\n\nIf the university trains only\n\nneglects the greatest part of its field of\n\nwork.\n\nUnder the second thesis, it was recognized that a certain amount of duplication now\nand should rather be increased than diminished. It was urged that it is impossible\nfor the elementary or high school to give the immature mind the subject-m,atter required\nexists,\n\nfor good teachers.\n\nThere was much discussion on the question of practice schools for universities.\n\nAt\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n542\n\n[Normal\n\npresent most universities do not want them, but they are needed there for the same reason\nthat normal schools require them to order \"to keep down to earth,\" and first-hand know-\n\nledge can best be obtained by contact with young people.\n\ndepartments do as much harm as good.\n\nWithout practice schools these\n\nTheories should be tested by direct practice in\n\nthe schools.\nUniversities should come to the assistance of normal schools and work with them.\nThey should be leaders in the full sense, because their men have the time. Normal\n\nschools today are reaching\n\nmore healthy conclusions than are universities, because they\n\ntest their theories.\n\nOwing to the limit of time, Mr. McMurry commented but briefly on his remaining\ntheses (Nos. 3, 4, and 5), as follows:\n\nThe university professor has more time for study than has the normal-school teacher,\nand should therefore take the leadership in investigation. It is the function of advanced\ndepartments to lead in the whole field.\n\nMany of the larger questions regarding educa-\n\nThere is little scientific method, and, if we ever have\nit, it should come from the advanced departments of the universities, and the profession\ntion are not yet even formulated.\n\nshould be able to look to departments of education in universities for investigations.\n\nThe\n\nuniversity professor is more interested in his subject than in the relation of that subject to\n\npeople,\n\nand it follows that some adjustment is necessary in order to benefit the college\n\ngraduate who desires to teach.\n\nTHE CO-OPERATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND NORMAL\nSCHOOLS IN THE TRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\n11.\n\nGUY E. MAXWELL, PRESIDENT STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN.\n\nOne of the opportunities for the co-operation of universities and normal\nschools in the training of elementary teachers lies in a\n\nmore sympathetic\n\nattitude the one for the other; for heretofore there has been too great a tendency\n\non the part of the normal school to be jealous of the university, and to fail\nto admit the worth of its work; while the university, on the other hand, has\n\nfound many flaws in normal-school entrance requirements, courses of study,\n\nmethods of work, and in the product which the normal school has turned out.\n\nThe normal school, on the one hand, ought earnestly to reach after higher\nstandards of admission, to do keener work in the class-room, to insist upon\nlonger periods for training, and to employ better instructors.\n\nAgain,\n\nit\n\nwould appear that the normal school will avoid a cause for antipathy between\nthese schools if for the present it does not covet too earnestly the training of\n\nteachers for high schools, but is willing to leave the care of the secondary\n\nschool to the college\n\nand university.\n\nIf,\n\nhowever, the university will not\n\nestablish proper technical training for teachers, including\nof practice-teaching in high-school grades, the\nto\n\nan effective kind\n\nnormal school would seem\n\nbe justified in asking for funds to add one or two years to the present\n\ncourses, and to take up the training of teachers for high schools.\n\nMoreover,\n\nthe, normal school ought doubtless to keep pretty closely in the beaten path\nof professional and technical knowledge, rather than to attempt by original\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\nnew educational trails;\n\ninvestigation to blaze\n\nfor the university\n\n543\nis\n\nbetter\n\nequipped to do this work, and the task legitimately belongs to it.\n\nThe normal school ought to encourage its graduates to go to the univera period of grade-teaching in the common schools, arranging its\n\nsity, after\n\nprogram of studies, where possible, so that it will fit the university courses.\nThe university ought then to take these experienced and trained teachers, and\nto prepare them for supervision and leadership in\n\ncommon-school education.\n\nBut if, as was first suggested, the normal school is to urge its graduates to\nregard their formal education for teaching as incomplete until they have\n\nfound their way thru the university, this institution, in turn, must encourage\nand advance elementary education, and show its liberality toward the normal\nschool by offering full and fair advanced credit to a student for work done in\nthe normal school; especially so, if the student has followed his normal course\nby two or three years of successful experience in teaching. That is to say\nbeing a straight road from the kindergarten thru the graduate\nand professional schools of the university, the normal school ought to be\nthat, there\n\nregarded as a part of this road, or, at least, to be regarded as a road lying\nnearly parallel to the main line, so that little, if any, time would be lost by a\nstudent's switching off the main road temporarily in his preparation to teach\nin the elementary schools.\nIt\n\nhas not been until very recently in Minnesota that normal graduates\n\nof two years' work above the high school could secure even one year's advanced\ncredit in the university of that state.\n\nI understand that, while universities\n\nand colleges in some other western states offer nominally two years of advanced\ncredit in certain courses,\n\nit\n\nis\n\nwith some difficulty in actual practice that\n\ngraduates of the normal school secure such recognition; while in the East\nthe normal graduate\n\nis\n\noften put\n\nupon the same footing with high-school\n\ngraduates, and required to pass his entrance examination for the freshman\nyear.\nIf the\n\nnormal school gathers in from villages and rural districts many\n\nbright young people of sterling worth and starts them upon an educational\ncareer,\n\nbut fails to point the way with sufficient directness and enthusiasm\n\nto a higher education;\n\nor if, with proper effort on the part of the normal\n\nschool to send such students to the university, a fair and just inducement is\n\nnot held out by the university,\n\nmany of these young people, the bone and\n\nsinew of society, will never be saved for higher education and completer service.\n\nMoreover, such a\n\nfair\n\nand\n\njust inducement,\n\noffering the opportunity for\n\nfuture growth, would bring into the grades of the elementary school, thru the\n\nnormal school, that factor whose absence we all deplore, viz., the man teacher.\n\nBut how can a man at present be urged to go temporarily into elementary\nschools, if his preparation therefor yields no advantage in advanced credit\nwhen he takes up his university work later ?\nIt is safe to say, I believe, that two years of work above the high school,\ncarried on under the influences of a good normal school, together with two\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n544\n\n[Normal\n\nyears of successful teaching, the usual time required for the indorsement of\n\na normal diploma as a Hfe-certificate, is a sufficient guarantee of the quality\nof tlie student, so that two more years at the university will justify the granting\n\nof the bachelor's degree.\n\nThe maturity of such a student, his grasp of the\n\nseriousness of life and the development of a real purpose, his ability to think,\nhis\n\nmastery of the fundamental branches of the common school, as well as\n\nhis study of literature, psychology, the history of education, etc., with\n\ntwo\n\nyears of university training, would turn out the normal-school graduate far\n\nahead of the average of his class.\nUniversities and colleges make the mistake, which is often made by pros-\n\npective normal students, of supposing that when arithmetic or United States\nhistory appears in the course of study at a normal school, a review of the old\n\nseventh- or eighth-grade\n\nwork is indicated, not understanding that there is\n\nmeant, rather, a new view and a constructive view of the subject, and one of\nas much cultural, discipHnary, and practical worth as is given by the ordinary\n\nAs Com-\n\nlinguistic and mathematical subjects of the first two college years.\n\nmissioner Harris has pointed out, these common branches in a normal school\nare re-examined in their relations to the higher branches from which they\nderive their principles;\n\nthat, for\n\nexample, arithmetic is studied in the light\n\nand geometry, principles are discovered, rules are demonstrated,\nand the subject takes on new and far-reaching phases. Again, the eighthgrade study of arithmetic, history, or grammar was given principally to memory,\nof algebra\n\nwhile it is only in the later pursuit of these subjects at the normal-school age\nthat they receive the reflection they require,\n\nby which their inner relations\n\nappear and their significance is really felt.\n\nLet no one, therefore, despise\n\nthe common branches, or suppose that freshman algebra will equal geography\nin difficulty, in the training to be secured, in the content of the subject, or in\nits\n\nnearness to\n\nlife;\n\nand that a constructive study of English grammar or\n\nUnited States history is any less enlightening or culture-giving than freshman\nLatin.\n\nOn the part of the university, again, a greater co-operation would result\nif there could be developed a belief on the part of the average college instructor\n\nthat the technically trained teacher, other things being equal, will far outstrip\nhis untrained neighbor;\n\nfor there is almost a universal tendency on the part\n\nof college teachers to believe that teachers are born, or, if made at all, are made\n\nby being filled to overflowing with enthusiasm for their subjects.\n\nExperience\n\nshows that it is not sufficient to be simply filled with one's subject.\n\nIn this\n\nconnection it is well to remember that, while the first normal school in America\n\nopened its doors but sixty-six years ago, and the first president of the first\n\nnormal school west of the Mississippi is still living, so vital was -the service\nfor which the new institution was organized that in less than sixty years the\n\nnumber of pubHc normal schools increased to 126, exclusive of city training\nschools and private schools for teachers.\nAll this came about thru the interest\nof the common people in the movement and their appreciation of the value\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS\n\n545\n\nof professional training, and in spite of the slings and arrows of ridicule and\n\nwhich came from persons who ought to have had clearer vision.\nMore recently the call of the common people thru the common school has\ncriticism\n\ncome up to the university saying: \"Ye call yourselves the salt of the earth.\nWherewith do ye salt our lives?\" And the demand for trained teachers\nhas become so great that nearly every university of prominence has heard\nit and has founded its chair of education or its teachers college.\nEven so\nthe weakest place in American education is found in the lack of trained teachers, and the time is upon us when the doctors of philosophy, the masters of\narts, and the professors of learning should come into close sympathy with\nthe needs of the people in this direction.\n\n**The university, supported by society for the service it can render thru\nscholarship, has heretofore directed\n\nthree older learned professions.\"\nof scholarship\n\nis\n\nits\n\nefforts primarily in\n\nsupport of the\n\nThere is, however, no field where the service\n\nmore needed than in elementary education, nor is there\n\nany where scholarship will find more difficult problems to engage its attention,\nnor problems whose solution will more fully minister to the welfare of society.\n\nFor example, there are lessons being taught day by day in the elementary\nschools which have no value, cultural, practical, or disciplinary;\n\nthere are\n\nother subjects included in the program of studies which on the whole are\nvaluable, but contain\n\nmany useless topics, or those of too great difficulty;\n\nwhile, again, valuable\n\nand well-adapted material is very badly presented.\n\nFrom all these sources comes a waste to society which the university can best\nhelp to save. The determining of a program of studies for the elementary\nschool of a twentieth-century democracy would have far greater value for the\n\npeople than most other university research.\n\nAgain, the university ought to help the elementary school to see the purpose\nfor which it is supported, for the average grade teacher cannot give an adequate\n\nstatement of the things which he seeks for his boys and girls; he does not know\n\nwhat kind of knowledge is of most worth, nor whether knowledge, development, character, or something else is the primary purpose.\n\nEven if he has\n\na fairly definite grasp of what he aims at, he will scarcely know the best means\nfor securing the\n\nend sought.\n\nHe and all the rest of us await the mature\n\nscholarship of the university to discover and state those definite and helpful\nprinciples upon which the practice of the elementary school is based.\n\nOur American education is not very fully systematized, and the lack of\nuniformity and system may be a thing not to be regretted.\n\nNevertheless, the\n\ngetting together of universities and normal schools in the training of elementary\n\nteachers would doubtless be one of the great\nAmerican education at the present time.\n\nbenefits that could\n\ncome to\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n546\n\n[Normal\n\nTHE CO-OPERATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND NORMAL\n/.\nSCHOOLS IN THE TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\nE.\n\nN.\n\nHENDERSON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY, ADELPHI\nCOLLEGE, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\n\nThe normal school sprang up in America in order to train elementaryIt was a product of that demand for universal popular education\nby which, according to Horace Mann, the democracy was to be saved; a\ndemand which meant far more and far better common schools than any of\nteachers.\n\nwhich our forefathers conceived.\nfree schools, the\n\nIn the creation of our system of elementary\n\nnormal school has done magnificent\n\nservice,\n\nand one is\n\nperfectly safe in saying that it will continue indefinitely to be the foundation\n\nupon which those institutions rest. Beginning with the object of giving a\nsomewhat more advanced and far more thoro training in subject-matter\nthan the common schools were providing, it has rapidly been growing into\n\nThe time is past in which the normal school\n\na purely professional school.\n\ncan be looked upon as a substitute for high school or college\n\n—as a finishing\n\nThere must always remain in its program\n\nschool for a liberal education.\n\na considerable amount of liberal study, but that is because there can be no\nadequate preparation for the profession of teaching without such culture.\n\nOn the other hand, the normal school has come to devote itself almost, if not\nquite, exclusively to the furtherance of a platform\n\nand a policy that in our\n\n—namely, that teaching\n\ncountry were originated by itself\n\nis\n\na profession for\n\nwhich there should be specific professional preparation.\nIn the beginning the quality and training of secondary teachers in our\ncountry were, as a rule, far superior to those of teachers in the common schools.\n\nThe college graduate has always played an important part in such work,\nand before many years the high schools will doubtless be provided with faculties every member of which possesses at least a bachelor's degree.\nThe part\nthat the normal schools have played in the training of secondary teachers has\n\nbeen inconsiderable.\n\nSave in the case of a few more advanced normal schools,\n\nthey have not contemplated such work for their graduates.\nthe secondary-school teacher needed a\n\nIn the first place,\n\ncommand of subject-matter far in\n\nadvance of that required in elementary work.\n\nBecause of the extent of this\n\nmethod had little chance to grow into a demand. The\ncollege, which knew much of subject-matter, was in consequence, altho it\nknew nothing of method, deemed the appropriate fitting place for the highneed, training in\n\nschool teacher.\n\nMoreover, the high school has always been to a great extent\n\na preparatory school for the college.\n\nAs such, the college has assumed the\n\nright to determine its program, to fix its standards, and, of course, to train\nits\n\nteachers.\n\nBut the conception that the teacher may and should be professionally\ntrained has been extended to apply not merely to elementary teachers, but\nto secondary ones as well.\n\nUniversities have established departments of\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n\neducation, so that training equivalent to that furnished\n\n547\n\nby normal schools\n\nmay be given to those who expect to teach.\ncases grown into teachers' colleges.\n\nThese departments have in several\nAs compared with the normal schools,\n\nthe university departments of education have suffered because they have\n\nusually been unable to furnish their students adequate opportunity to observe\n\nIn the evolution of the normal school\n\nmodel teaching, or to practice their art.\n\ninto a purely professional institution, this observation and practice work has\n\ncome to be the nucleus about which all the program is arranged. It would\nnot be extravagant to say that, if in any field the maxim that \"learning should\nbe by doing \" applies, it is in that of the teacher. Hence, I think, one might\nvery properly declare that the future of university departments of education\n\ndepends very largely on the development by them of model and practice\nIn short, they should become teachers' colleges.\nHere we encounter certain difficulties. The rooted antagonism of the\nolder departments in our colleges to the department of education, the conschools.\n\n—a questionof a decided ignorance— the\n\nviction that practice- teaching means \"normal-school methods\"\n\nbegging epithet that covers the hostility\n\nfeeling\n\nthat method in teaching is \"humbug\" anyhow, the lack of money and enterprise to\n\npush such developments, have all prevented the natural evolution\n\nof teachers' colleges side by side with colleges of law, medicine, engineering,\n\nThe normal schools had a clear field for growth in the demand for\nThe teachers' college has to fight its\nway against the university tradition that to know your subject thoroly is the\netc.\n\nbetter-trained elementary teachers.\n\nindispensable and only condition for teaching it successfully\n\n—\n\nunless, indeed,\n\nwe add that other quality, the inborn instinct to teach.\nIn this emergency, what solution would seem more natural than that the\nnormal schools should set up practice and model schools for secondary teachers ?\n\nThey have no conservatism to overcome, they have the plant already\n\nin some cases, and in any event could easily add to their practice and model\n\nThe normal school\nwould then become the professional school for teachers, and the evolution\nelementary schools a high school of the same character.\nof such an institution would be complete.\n\nTo this plan the following objections may be urged:\n\nIn the first place,\n\nthe high-school teacher should be possessed of his bachelor's degree.\nleast\n\nsuch extended knowledge of subject-matter as\n\ncoming to be indispensable for him.\n\nB-ut, as\n\nis\n\ninvolved in this\n\nmatters are\n\nAt\nis\n\nnow turning in\n\nour leading colleges, a large part, if not all, of the senior year can be given up\n\nHence there should be a college attached to the univerwhich the prospective teacher may repair for this work, just as the\n\nto professional study.\nsity to\n\nprospective lawyer finds his affiliated institution near at hand.\n\nThis gradual\n\ntransition from the liberal to the vocational, in which we lead to the second\n\nwithout losing sight of the first or ever giving it up, is, to my mind, an eminently\ndesirable arrangement.\n\nthe business of life,\n\nWe should endeavor to make all culture react on\n\nand so ultimately on the vocation.\n\nBut, above all, we\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n548\n\nshould liberalize the vocation\n\n;\n\n[Normal\n\nand if any profession needs to keep this impor-\n\ntant truth in mind, it is that of teaching.\n\nTo separate the teachers' college\n\nso entirely from the university as the handing over of its practice and model\n\nwork to the normal school requires, would mean, I think, a deplorable chasm\nbetween the liberal and the professional. These two sides of education need\nto be brought together.\nTo increase their isolation would be to sterilize the\none and commercialize the other.\nIn the second place, a fully equipped teachers' college is an important\nadjunct of a university, because there is need of an institution to train, not\nmerely secondary teachers, but also college instructors and superintendents\nas well.\nSuch a school must needs be in a large center, near the best available\nlibraries and schools, and provide opportunity for all kinds of observation,\nresearch, and experiment.\nThe training of the secondary teacher may better\ngo on in such an environment than in a normal school devoted primarily to\nthe training of elementary teachers, whose preliminary training will riot, as a\nrule, fit them to demand such advantages.\nFinally, every reason that would place the professional schools of law,\nmedicine, engineering, etc., in the university would situate the teachers'\ncollege there also, and the time is coming when mere departments of education\nthat are not teachers' colleges will be in far less repute than they are even\n\ntoday.\n\nit\n\nBut if the university training of teachers is ever to take its proper position,\nmust become more than a mere incident in a four-year liberal-culture\n\ncourse.\n\nThe ancient contention that to know a subject is the one condition\n\nfor teaching\n\nit\n\ndoes not find an impressive refutation at the hands of the\n\nWhat is needed is a course extended enough\nand rich enough to offer at least an excuse for a comparison with the threeand four-year courses in law and medicine. The very least that one can\naverage department of education.\n\npropose is one year beyond the taking of the baccalaureate degree.\n\nThis,\n\ncombined with the senior undergraduate year, which in many institutions\n\nmay already be devoted entirely to professional work, will make a two-year\ncourse, the successful completion of\n\nwhich would, in my judgment, entitle\n\na student to attempt high-school teaching.\n\nThe time is going by when we\n\nshould discriminate against the other professions so much as to allow a student\nfresh from the college to teach a class, when we will not allow him to plead\n\nbefore a court or administer nostrums for pay.\n\nYoung men are, under\n\npresent conditions, not easy to convince that teaching may not be regarded as\n\n—a means\n\na mere stepping-stone to something more worthy\n\nof making money\n\nquickly, of tiding over financial embarrassments until they can get a fresh\nstart to\n\ndo the thing they like.\n\nOne of the first things to be done to make\n\nteaching a profession is to get people to take it seriously, and a good training\nin a teachers' college is, to my mind, the only adequate way of bringing about\nthis result.\n\nThe teachers' college advocated above would become, in the nature of\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n549\n\nthings, the only institution thru which one could prepare for secondary teaching.\n\nOn the other hand, the normal school would remain the only institution\n\nto prepare the elementary teacher.\n\nShould these two branches of the pro-\n\nSuch\nsympathy between the elementary\nand secondary schools, with a corresponding lack of harmony and system.\nIt would discourage ambitious men and women from preparing for elementary\nteaching, because this would be time lost, if one wishes ever to enter upon\nmore advanced work. It would necessitate from the beginning a choice on\nthe part of the prospective teacher of the specific sort of work he or she shall\nprobably do permanently. These results may already be found to have come\nto pass in large measure.\nNormal schools and elementary schools are deserted\nby men. They tend to be avoided by those whose means and ambitions\nfession remain distinct, each under the control of a separate influence ?\n\na condition could result only in lack of\n\nand the inclination to make at once for the remoter\nThere is much lack of harmony between elementary\nand secondary schools, between normal schools and colleges. All of this\ngive them the courage\n\nbut more attractive goal.\n\nis\n\ngreatly to be deplored.\n\nIt is of the greatest\n\nimportance that in teaching,\n\nas in every other profession or business, progress should be from below upward.\n\nThose teachers who enter the elementary schools should feel that by so doing\nthey have not blocked the advance to secondary work, if they seem fitted for\nthis.\n\nIndeed, common-school work should constitute the natural and proper\n\nstepping-stone to secondary work, or to principalships and superintendencies,\nor to normal-school\n\nand\n\ncollege positions.\n\nThe apprenticeship in schools\n\nwhere salvation depends not so much upon knowledge of subject-matter as\n\nupon abihty to teach will vastly improve the quality of our higher-grade\nteachers.\nlittle\n\nIndeed, I have heard it said by many a young man, who had paid\n\nor no attention to the question of professional training for teachers, that\n\nhe was nowhere so poorly taught as in college.\nif\n\nThere can be no doubt that,\n\nteaching is to be one's main business in life, he would better begin at the\n\nbottom and learn his trade.\n\nIt is true that a taste for the knowledge of subject-\n\nmatter that fits one for high-school or college teaching cannot be acquired\nwhile one is young.\n\nBut an apprenticeship in elementary teaching need not\n\nextend beyond the plastic period.\n\nMoreover, the methods of teaching learners\n\nof different grades do not differ so radically that we may not expect to gain\n\nthe most valuable experience thru handling the children.\n\nThe power of\n\ngetting the point of view of the class, so necessary to every successful lesson,\nis\n\nnowhere so much in demand as with elementary teachers.\n\nof taking the\n\nNor is the danger\ncommon-school attitude when dealing with more advanced\n\nstudents one to be feared, provided the methods of the lower grades be not\n\nmade reflex by too many years of practice.\nFinally,\n\nif it is\n\ncontended that the spirit of the university teacher should\n\nbe that of research, quite as much as, if not more than, that of teaching, I\nreply that,\n\ngranting this somewhat questionable assumption, there\n\nis\n\nno\n\nevidence to prove that one who has served an apprenticeship in teaching of\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n5 so\n\n[Normal\n\na lower grade is by that fact to any considerable degree disqualified for research.\n\nRather does it seem likely that, when his tastes for research have appeared\nand his capacities therefor have developed, he will be found far more practical,\n*'.\n\nc, far more effective in his investigations because of having learned a useful\n\nMoreover,\n\nart.\n\nif\n\nhis normal-school training has\n\nbeen of the proper sort,\n\nthe elementary teacher will be alive to the importance of originality\ninvestigation at every turn.\n\nand\n\nHis practice will be liberal, and this will go a\n\ngreat way toward making any later liberal study or research practical.\nIf\n\nmy contention that all teachers should serve an apprenticeship in elemen-\n\ntary teaching be granted, then the natural career of the profession would pass\n\nthru the stages of graduation from high school, and from normal school, a\nyear or so in elementary teaching, then the liberal college, and finally the\nteachers' college course.\n\nBut it would be manifestly unfair to compel a student\n\nwho has taken the normal-school course to work for five years on the same\nfooting as any high-school graduate before acquiring the diploma in secondary\nteaching.\n\nyears;\n\nHe should, in all justice, be allowed to complete this work in three\n\notherwise the student who goes directly to the college will have such\n\nan advantage that the route of the normal school will be unpopular.\n\nIt will\n\nbe chosen only by those whose ambitions are satisfied at the thought of elementary teaching as a permanency/ plus those who wish soon to be placed in a\nposition to make a fair income.\n\nIt would be likely that very few of that class\n\nwho wish to undertake higher work would go to the normal school at all.\nHence the proper continuity of work in the teaching profession would not\nexist.\n\nHow should the three years that are thus allotted to the liberal and teachers'\nIt is my judgment that the normal-\n\ncolleges be apportioned between them ?\n\nschool graduate should in his college course have at least one year of purely\nprofessional training.\n\nThe problems of the new kind of work to which he\n\naspires need special treatment.\n\nabundant\n\nobservation\n\nand\n\nHe should get critical study of them with\n\npractice\n\nMoreover,\n\nwork.\n\nyears,\n\nadvanced\n\nattainments, and especially practical experience all fit the student for far more\neffective study of his profession\n\ngraduate.\n\nthan was possible to a mere high-school\n\nIt would be folly to count the normal-school work as the equivalent\n\nThe objection to such a plan on the part\nmen would be that it allows the normal-school graduate\nto complete the liberal-culture course in two years, whereas the student who\nof that of the teachers' college.\nof Uberal-coUege\n\nfrom the high school requires three.\n\nProfessional education will be\n\ndeclared to be getting more than its share.\n\nThe criticism may be met by\n\nenters\n\ntwo conditions, one of which is to some extent reahzed today.\n\nIt is that the\n\nnormal schools sliould have in their courses some work designed, not to meet\ncertain supposedly indispensable needs of the\n\ncommon-school teacher, but\n\nrather to broaden the outlook along lines not strictly professional.\n\nThere\n\nmay not be anything that the elementary teacher ought not to know, but there\nare many things that he can manage to get along without.\nAmong these let\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n\nDepartment]\n\nthe normal-school student choose\nelective\n\n—in which he\n\nsome subjects\n\n551\n\n—and they would better be\n\nshall decide especially to interest himself for the sake\n\nof their broadening effect.\n\nSecondly,\n\nlet\n\nhim pursue these\n\nsubjects after\n\ngraduation from the normal school while he is engaged in teaching.\n\nSuch\n\nwork could be organized under the direction of the college authorities, and its\nThe completion of\nresults could be tested by the various methods in vogue.\nan amount that could easily be done by any intelligent candidate for a college\n.\n\nduring one or two years' teaching would, taken with the liberal work of the\n\nnormal course, easily cover the credit of a year in liberal-college work.\nIt will\n\nbe no inconsiderable gain if the students in our teachers' colleges\n\ncome with some practical experience.\n\nWhen that experience has been a\n\nthoughtful one, as it may be expected to be with normal-school graduates, it\nwill furnish to the teachers' college a high order of preparation for its investiga-\n\ntions and discussions.\n\nIt is the lack of a living set of problems that\n\nmakes\n\nstudents in the educational work of our colleges so frequently uninterested.\n\nWhat is presented to them seems either a platitude or meaningless, because\ntheir experience, which has been that of learners with minds directed toward\n\nsubject-matter, does not furnish them with preparation to grip the problems\nof one who is trying to develop this knowledge effectively in others.\n\nIn short,\n\nour college educational courses are excellent examples of a violation of the\n\ncommonplace principle of apperception.\nThe scheme thus outlined seems to me the one toward which we are\ndrifting.\nI do not think that I have in the entire course of this paper offered\nan original suggestion. This is all in simplest prose the logic of events\na logic that will bring harmony out of confusion, and will substitute\nco-operation instead of discord in that work in which you as normal-school\nmen are especially interested, namely, the development of a sound and thoro\nprofessional training for all classes of teachers.\n\nTHE CO-OPERATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND NORMAL\nSCHOOLS IN THE TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n//.\n\nZ.\n\nI.\n\nX.\n\nSNYDER, PRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GREELEY, COLO.\nAll public schools are established for the benefit of the people.\n\nThis important fact is sometimes lost sight of when the function of an\ninstitution is made to serve some other end.\n\nSometimes the institution becomes\n\nthe end, and all effort is directed toward its growth in some line remote from\nits\n\nintended use, that of serving the people.\n\nTeachers frequently grow to\n\nthink that the institution with which they are connected is in existence and is\n\nmaintained for them.\nis far\n\nTeachers are specialists.\n\nThe subject of the specialist\n\nmore important to him than the child, or pupil.\n\nif there is to\n\nUnder such conditions,\n\nbe a sacrifice of subject or child, it is the child that is placed upon\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n552\n\n[Normal\n\nA public educational institution tends to lose its proper relation\n\nthe altar.\n\nto the people just in proportion as it becomes a machine.\n\nPrograms, courses\n\nof study, laudation of subjects, standards of preparation, ownership of the\n\nschool by teachers, examinations, periodic promotion, ignorance of children,\n\npercentages attained, text-books, are all elements that enter into a first-class\n\nmachine which becomes a sacrifical altar on which the children are offered\nand the people suffer. The sentiment for educational progress is usually in\nadvance of the teacher. Great educational movements have had their origin\n\namong the laity.\n\nThe reason of this is that the conception that the school\nis not appreciated.\nThe lack of the fullness of this\n\nbelongs to the people\n\nconception is because the teacher is not professionally trained in the widest\nsense.\n\nThat this democratic idea of the function of the school may prevail,\n\nthe teacher must be professionally trained both theoretically and practically.\nII.\n\nThe public-school system should be a unified organization embracing\n\nall grades,\n\nfrom the first to the university, inclusive.\n\nIn such a school system, from the kindergarten to the university, inclusive,\nthe grade or school above should accept the product from the grade or school\n\nbelow.\n\nThis would eliminate the estrangement that now exists in passing\n\nfrom the kindergarten to the primary school, from the grammar school to the\nhigh school, and from the high school to the college or university.\n\nIn the latter\n\ntwo of these transitions is where we find the falling off in attendance.\n\nThe\n\ngreatest slaughter of the children occurs in the entrance years of the high\n\nschool and of the college.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nbecause of the extreme estrangement.\n\nFrom one department to another should be as gradual as from one grade to\nanother.\nA mutual understanding should be among those having charge\nof these different departments, so that when a child goes from one to the\nother he goes with as much joy and ease as he does from grade to grade. The\nconception that the school is of the people for the children should always\nprevail.\n\nNo school should be a preparatory school for the one above; the\n\none above should be a receiving school for the one below.\n\nThis sort of organi-\n\nzation will not prevail until teachers are trained to know and feel the true\n\nfunction of the school system as an organized unit for the education of the\n\nwhole people, or until education fits into life in its industrial, aesthetic, social,\n\nand spiritual aspects.\nIII.\nThat a teacher may understand the grade or school in which he\nworks, it is necessary to understand the organization in which he is working\nand its relation to the people.\n\nA surgeon, that he may know all about a certain part of the human body,\nmust know much about the structure and function of all parts of the entire\norganization.\nHe must see each part in the unified organization doing its\nwork toward the building and maintaining the whole. So must a teacher\nas fully understand the different grades or schools of the entire system, that\n\nhe may understand the grade in which he is working.\n\nNot only must the\n\nphysician know the relation of each part of the human body to the whole, but\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n553\n\nhe must know the relation of the individual to the entire social body.\nis for the wholesome development of the entire people.\n\nThis\n\nSo with the teacher.\n\nHe should not only know the relation of the department in which he teaches\nto the entire system, but\n\nhe should know the relation of the system to the\n\nentire people, that the social mind and heart may be refined and enlarged.\n\nThe secondary-school teacher should have academic and professional\n\nIV.\ntraining.\n\nHis academic training should, as a rule, be in a school of higher grade\nthan the school in which he teaches.\nin the subject he teaches;\n\nHe should have a broad, vital outlook\n\nbroad in that he sees the subject as a whole in its\n\nrelations to all other subjects; vital in that he sees its relations to the real life\nof the pupil as a part of the people, that is, to his acquired experiences and to\nhis vital functioning natures at the present time.\n\nshould be both theoretical and practical.\n\nHis professional training\n\nHis theoretical professional training\n\nshould be the study of a human being in all aspects, physical, mental, moral,\n\nThe data derived from this study, together with a study\n\nsocial, and spiritual.\n\nof educational systems,\n\nthe conceptions underlying them, their evolution,\n\ntheir founders, their success, their failures, a study of the great educators,\ntheir influence\n\non the social problems of the times and on civilization, the\n\ninfluence of the doctrine of evolution on pedagogy, on moral and social prob-\n\nlems, and life in general\n\n—\n\nall this, together with\n\na practical study of children,\n\nhe should organize into a science and art of education.\n\nHis practical work\n\nshould consist in a study and in an understanding of, and in actual teaching\nin, all the grades, from the first to the last, inclusive.\n\nNot that he is to be an\n\nexpert in any other department than his own, but he should understand the\nentire organization so that\n\ngrade or school in it.\n\nhe would know the part and function of each\n\nHe would then be in sympathy with child-life, and\n\nwould never sacrifice the child for the subject or the machine.\n\nAll this study\n\nand preparation forbid that an atom, an amoeba, a mathematical proposition,\nor a school machine should ever become more important than a human soul.\nV.\n\nThe\n\nschool\n\nor\n\ninstitution\n\nthat\n\nundertakes to prepare secondary\n\nteachers should have a training school including all the grades from the\n\nkindergarten to the high-school, inclusive.\n\nHowever important it is\n\nthat the secondary teacher should\n\nknow the\n\nsubject which he teaches, the teaching profession has not yet risen to the point\n\nwhere it feels that a thoro professional training is just as necessary.\n\nThere is\n\na strong feeling that the teacher should be prepared in subject-matter, but\n\nno abiding feeling for his professional equipment.\nit\n\nIf there is such a feeling,\nseems to be satisfied if the teacher has had a few theoretical lectures in some\n\npseudo-pedagogical department of a university.\n\nWhen one sees the average grammar, secondary, college, or university\nteacher teach, he feels that he would like to have him come in touch with a\nreal\n\nmodern kindergarten, where he could get an inspiration of child-life at\nand that he might be filled with the spirit of the Great Teacher and\n\nfirst hand,\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n554\nsay:\n\n[Normal\n\n\"Suffer little children to come unto me, for of such is the Kingdom\n\nof Heaven.\"\n\nThere is no place, except in a sufficiently organized and equipped practice\nschool,\n\nwhere the secondary-school teacher can get\n\nhis preparation.\n\nHe\n\nshould study the school as an educational unit, and in its parts from kindergarten to high school, inclusive, teach in the different grades, see its relation\nto civilization, and then make a very special study of the natures, motives, and\ninterests of high-school children.\n\nNormal\n\nVI.\n\nschools\n\nand\n\nuniversities\n\nshould be equipped to prepare\n\nsecondary-school teachers.\n\nNormal schools, with but few exceptions, are not equipped to train secondNearly all of them lack the high school of the training department. Many of them lack laboratory equipment. Some of them lack even\n\nary teachers.\n\na good elementary school.\n\nThese deficiencies may all be overcome without\n\nany very great difficulty.\n\nA person who is preparing himself for a secondary-\n\nschool teacher should have an opportunity to observe, teach, and study in all\ngrades, from the kindergarten to the high school, inclusive.\n\n^\n\nWhen the high\n\nschool is once added to the training department, the normal school is in very\nfair shape to train secondary teachers.\nits\n\nIf the normal school should strengthen\n\nfaculty and enlarge its equipment, and require from four to five years for\n\nhigh-school graduates to complete the course,\ntrained\n\nit\n\nwould send out very well-\n\nmen and women for the secondary schools.\n\nUniversities and colleges are not, as a rule, prepared to train secondary\nteachers.\n\nThey have no practice school.\n\nThere are only two or three in\n\nthe country that are equipped for such work.\n\nMany of them are not well\n\nequipped in laboratories and apparatus; some of them are not equipped at\nall.\n\nHere the most radical changes in faculties would have to occur, that they\n\nmight be prepared for such work.\n\nLaboratories, apparatus, training school,\n\nresearch work, scholarship, and\n\ncombined, are not sufficient to train a\n\nall\n\nsecondary-school teacher, if the institution lacks the professional spirit in the\n\nnormal sense.\n\nThis professional spirit grows out of the attitude of the faculty\n\ntoward the whole problem of public education.\n\nThe great and radical change\n\nwould have to occur in the college and university faculties before they could\never claim to train teachers.\n\nGranting, for the sake of argument, that all these appropriate equipments\n\nbe acquired, a co-operation of work might be carried on in which a study of\neducation thru the elementary stages be acquired at the normal schools, and\na further study of secondary education be got at the colleges and universities;\nall this\n\nbased upon some system of credits that would be satisfactory.\n\nThis\n\nplan is in a way in operation at Teachers College and the School of Education\nat Chicago.\n\nWhen the field is viewed from the broadest and most detailed standpoints,\none is inclined to think that the normal school's function should be extended\nto the thoro training of secondary-school teachers, both as to scholarship and\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS\n\n555\n\nThe normal schools would not have to undergo as\nmuch change and enlargement as the colleges and universities; it is a function\n\nprofessional training.\n\nthat seems natural for them to assume ;\n\ndoing;\n\nit is\n\nin a large measure what they are\n\nthe spirit of the institution is in the pedagogical direction.\n\nlegiate training in a\n\nA col-\n\nnormal school prepared to do the work would certainly\n\nbe the ideal place and training for a secondary teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL TRAINING\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Tuesday, July 4, 1905\nThe department met in Young People's Temple, Ocean Grove, and was called to\norder at 10:15 ^y the president, Arthur H. Chamberlain, Throop Polytechnic Institute,\n\nPasadena, Cal., who gave an address on the topic \"The Problems That Perplex.\"\n\nFrank M. McMurry,\n\nof Teachers College,\n\nColumbia University, New York city,\n\naddressed the meeting on \"How Can Class Teachers b.e Educated to the Value of Manual\n\nTraining?\"\n\nThe paper was discus.sed by W. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public schools,\nHaney of New York; Jesse D. Burks, Albany, N. Y.; John F.\n\nAugusta, Me.; James P.\nReigart, of New York;\n\nHenry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; and others.\n\nCharles F. Warner, principal of the Technical Arts High School, Springfield, Mass.,\npresented a paper on \"Industrial Training in Public Evening Schools.\"\n\nThe chair then appointed the following as a Nominating Committee:\nClifford B. Connelley, Allegheny, Pa.\n\nAnnie L. Jessup, New York, N. Y.\n\nOscar L. McMurry, Chicago, 111.\n\nE. B. Kent, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nW. L. Richardson, Toronto, Ont.\n\nA Committee on Resolutions was also appointed by the chair, as follows:\nW. F. Vroom, New York, N. Y.\nMrs. Ida Hood Clark, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFrank M. Leavitt, Boston, Mass.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5\nThe department met in the Young People's Temple, in joint session with the Department\n\nof\n\nSecondary Education, and was called to order by President Chamberlain.\n\nWilliam Schuyler, the president of the Department of Secondary Education, was introduced, and made a brief introductory address.\n\nCharles H. Keyes, superintendent of schools, South District, Hartford, Conn., then\n\n\"The Necessity for Special Manual-Training High\nThe paper was discussed by Jesse D. Burks, principal of Teachers Training\nSchool, Albany, N. Y.; Charles D. Larkins, principal of Manual Training High School,\nBrooklyn, N. Y.; Edward J. Goodwin, Paul Kreuzpointner, Walter S. Goodnough, and\npresented a paper on the subject\nSchools.\"\n\nHenry Turner Bailey.\nMiss Katherine E. Dopp, Extension Division, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.,\npresented a paper on\nSchool.\"\n\n\"Forms and Limitations for Hand-Work for Girls in the High\nAnna C. Hedges, director of\n\nDiscussion of the paper was opened by Miss\n\ndepartment of domestic arts, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Walter S. Goodnough,\n\nwas continued by Mrs. Annie L. Jessup, director of domestic art, PubUc Schools, New\nYork city, and William Noyes, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Frank M. Leavitt, Boston, Mass.\nFor Vice-President Charles R. Bates, Port Deposit, Md.\nFor Secretary Oscar L. McMurry, Chicago, 111.\n557\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n558\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe ballot\nIt was voted to instruct the secretary to cast one ballot for the nominees.\nwas cast, and the candidates were declared elected.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following, which was adopted and\nreferred to the president:\n\nWhereas, The problems which confront us in the manual-training field, as outlined\nby the president of this department and the searching criticisms so ably presented by Dr.\nFrank M. McMurry, suggest the need of careful study and co-operative action on the part\nof all teachers of this and kindred subjects; therefore\nResolved, That the president of this department be requested to invite the co-operation\nof the Departments of Elementary Education, Art Education, and Child Study in the\ndevelopment of a course of study in elementary schools which shall recognize the true\nbody of thought for which the term \"manual training\" stands, and shall assign it to its\nproper place in the curriculum.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nTHIRD SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nJoint session with the Department of Art Education.\n\nFor program, see minutes of\n\nthe Department of Art Education.\n\nFrank 'M. Leavitt, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTHE PROBLEMS THAT PERPLEX\nARTHUR HENRY CHAMBERLAIN, DEAN AND PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION,\nTHROOP POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, PASADENA, CAL.\n\nMy topic may be construed to cover a somewhat general discussion of\ncertain of the issues before the department, or to consider other problems\n\nthat are pressing upon us at this time.\n\nthe problems,\n\nThe past few years have multiplied\n\nand many perplexing questions are now before the manual-\n\ntraining teachers, as they are before teachers in all other Unes of school work.\n\nFrom its position as a special subject given in a few localities only, manual\ntraining\n\nis\n\nbecoming so general thruout certain districts that teachers and\n\npatrons the country over are discussing its many phases.\n\nOnly a few days ago\n\nthere came to my desk a copy of a paper sent out by a prominent publishing-\n\nhouse, headed \"To the Teachers and Educators of America:\n\n$400 in Cash\n\nPrizes;\" and then followed a list of subjects on which essays might be sub-\n\nmitted in competition, the subject for one of these being ''The Educational\nInfluence and Value of Manual Training.\"\nI\n\nhave no desire to encroach upon the territory to be covered by those\n\nwho are to follow me, nor do I care to forecast the discussions to which we\nare to listen.\n\nPermit me to suggest, however, some of the problems that are\n\nto my mind, the real issues to be faced.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE PROBLEMS THAT PERPLEX\n\nDepartment]\n\nIs\n\n559\n\nmanual training to be taught as a regular subject, as is arithmetic or\n\ngeography, or is it to become an illustrative or expressive element in each of\nthe school subjects ?\nteachers,\n\nIf the former, is the instructing to\n\nand are they being adequately trained?\n\nbe done by special\n\nIf the latter, are\n\nwe to\n\nhave special teachers, or shall the grade teachers instruct in the arts ? How\nmay the grade teacher acquire a technical knowledge of processes and a\nrealizing sense of the necessity for such\n\nwork?\n\nWill the teaching then be\n\nconducted in the regular class-rooms with special equipments?\n\nShall older\n\nboys and girls engage in like occupations, and if not, where shall differentiation\nfor work between boys and girls begin, and what forms shall be given each ?\nIf the regular teacher carries the manual training as well, shall we insist upon\n\nmen for the upper grades, or if, as under the present system, it is taught by\nspecial instructors, are\n\nwe to increase the force of male teachers?\n\nAnd, in\n\nany event, how can we obtain them at the present salary rate ? At present,\nin most towns and cities where boys in the grades have from two to three\nyears of instruction dealing chiefly with wood,\n\nis\n\ntheir interest in\n\nworking\n\nwith this material so weakened as to render them half-hearted in the wood-\n\nwork courses of the high school? Is too much stress laid upon technique\nand finish in the work accomplished, without sufficient attention to the thoughtside ?\n\nIs there a false standard underlying our idea of the term \"educational\"\n\nas applied to the arts, -and should the processes touch more closely the actual\n\ndemands of\n\nreal life\n\n—that which we are pleased\n\nopposed to the educational view?\n\nto\n\nterm the utilitarian as\n\nShould individual or communal work\n\ncharacterize the spirit of the grades or of the high school ?\n\nHow is the beau-\n\ntiful in form, in construction, and in decoration to become a part of the work ?\n\nIs a fairly well-defined or clearly thought-out course to be followed, or is the\n\npupil to be allowed to do largely as he will; or, again, can a middle ground\n\nHow may the equipments provided for work along\nmanual lines find a more complete use thru evening or Saturday classes?\nAnd, finally, do all these questions become subordinate to that of the character,\nthe spirit, the ideals, of the teacher who is to guide and counsel ? These are\n\nbe taken in this matter ?\n\na few of the problems that perplex not only the manual- training teachers,\n\nbut those who are studying education in its broadest sense as well.\n\nWith this mere mention of certain of the perplexing problems with which\nwe as teachers are surrounded, I shall consider at this time one main issue\nonly; namely, what may be called the purely manual side, as distinguished\nfrom the industrial phases, of our problem, together with such attendant\nissues as technique versus thought-values, and the constant as opposed to\nthe variable course of study.\n\nTradition and habit are stubborn enemies,\n\nauthor of a recent bit of fiction:\n\n'*It is\n\nif\n\nmisdirected.\n\nSays the\n\nwonderful what a fund of useless\n\ninformation some people assimilate and cling to with a persistent determination\n\nworthy of a better cause.\"\n\nThis might well furnish a text for what I may\n\nsay regarding the industrial phases of the subject.\n\nIt is\n\nnot an extravagant\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n56o\n\n[Manual Training\n\nstatement to make, that many of the principles supposed to be at the foundation of our\n\nat all;\n\n—principles borrowed in a sense from Sweden,\n—have never been considered by these peoples as principles\n\nmanual courses\n\nRussia, or France\nor, to\n\nput it in another way, while wdth Europeans, who furnish us\n\nwith certain of our ideas in manual training, the application of principles\n\nhave been changing, we have kept strictly to the traditional lines. Moreover,\nmany of the ideas put forward by the Europeans as fundamental in years\npast have been discarded by them for more rAodern and rational ones, while\n\nwe who copy from our neighbors have not informed ourselves of their advance\nand still continue to worship the old.\nAs an example of this, take the well-known course of study idea as exemplified in the so-called sloyd, now fallen into disrepute with many.\nTo make\nplant-labels, and flower-sticks, and hammer-handles is not, they say, necesIt is, to be sure, manual, and tradition forces\nsarily educational or industrial.\n\nmany to adhere to the practices of course work. Many of those who think\nthey are following the principles as laid down by Herr Salomon himself are\nas far from the reality as they could well be, and many others by far the\n\n—\n\n—\n\nnumber of nianual-training teachers in our country today are not\naware that Salomon does not, for his own country even, advocate the same\nCould he see\nprinciples and methods to which he adhered in an earlier day.\nthe work as carried on by many of those who insist they are teaching sloyd,\nhe would cry out against the practices as being narrow and mean and spiritless.\nWe have as teachers of manual training failed, as have our European friends,\nto grasp the meaning and significance of our subject, and we continue to\nmisinterpret and misapply educational principles.\nMost of those, too, who have abandoned the term sloyd and attached\nlarger\n\nanother horse to their cart,\n\nwill, if\n\nthey analyze fully their work, find it is\n\nas far from the industrial and actual as is the product of the old school.\n\nI\n\nknow schoolmen of the broadest education, open-minded and scholarly, who\nstill refuse\n\nto believe that the manual training of\n\ntance in the school.\n\ntoday has a place of impor-\n\nFor these men I have no word of criticism.\n\nThey are,\n\nI believe, justified in their attitude, their belief being based upon their knowl-\n\nedge of manual training as they see it in the cities and towns with which they\nare familiar.\n\nWhat they have seen is work in wood\n\n—\n\narticles\n\nproduced by\n\ncertain tool manipulations and, indeed, articles supposed to be of actual use.\n\nThe results, however, even tho of superior technical quahty and produced\nunder the guidance of a teacher of mechanical attainments, are not educational.\n\nThey do not touch deeply and thoroly the interests and needs and environments\nThey have to do, not with life, but with lessons.\nof the people.\nThis matter of the real as opposed to the artificial in manual training\nwas brought home to me most forcibly at the St. Louis Exposition in two\nways. It was remarkable that, while in high-school work some little attention\nwas given to what might be considered the thought-processes, in almost every\nelementary-school course shown a traditional sameness was apparent, the\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE PROBLEMS THAT PERPLEX\n\n561\n\nand plant-labels being always in evidence.\n\nWhat a welcome\n\nDepartment]\n\nflower-sticks\n\nchange, however, when one visited the exhibits from the country of the marvel-\n\nous little Filipino\n\n!\n\nThose of you who saw this exhibit will recall what a vast\n\narray of native hand-work was shown\nutensils for\n\n—rugs, baskets,\n\narticles of furniture,\n\nhousehold use, tools, decorative materials; these and a host of\nall work calling for constructive abihty and\nwas with a feeling of delight that I observed\n\nother things were exhibited,\n\nappreciation of design.\n\nIt\n\nsome of the specimens of handicraft of the children of these islands, so simple,\nso free, so honest, so useful, so beautiful, and made from materials that were\nAs I examined these\nat hand and with which the makers were surrounded.\nproducts, a young man, an American teacher in the islands, asked if he might\nnow show me the best work in manual training done by the school children\nsomething that would point clearly to the fact that they were being educated.\nI was dragged to a sacred part of the exhibit and shown a glass case with a\n\n''Do not handle\" sign containing some of the most uselessly useful objects,\n\nThere were\nand more of\nlike character made from wood (much of it being American wood), by American tools, under American teachers, and containing elements neither of\nutility nor of beauty; and even tho they had, whether made in China, Kamtfrom the standpoint of the makers, that could be conceived.\npin-bowls, flower-sticks again, corner shelves for bric-a-brac,\n\nchatka, or the Philippines, with\n\nlittle\n\neducational value, since under the\n\nscheme of work the pupil is not allowed to put himself into his occupation,\nthe thinking having been religiously done for him beforehand, and the whole\n\ncooked and predigested before being given out; a veritable \"you press the\nbutton and we do the rest\" course of study.\n\nLeaving the exhibits, I was more saddened than disgusted.\n\nInstead of\n\nand natural artistic tendencies of the pupils\nalong the channels making for thought-power, and such as would assist them\nto advance mentally, commercially, and industrially, which to this people\nis the real education, we are trying to cast them in a mold that has been fashioned to fit a race decades in advance, and withal a mold that is man-made,\nand too often containing flaws, from the standpoint of utility and beauty.\ndirecting the native abilities\n\nHave I made the case too strong? I am simply putting the matter at\nmore clearly the great principle under discussion.\nThere are many intermediate stations, I grant you but you who are familiar\n\nits utmost point to illustrate\n\n;\n\nonly with the work in your immediate neighborhood, or with the teaching and\n\nmethods employed in the school you yourself attended, would marvel at some\nof the\n\nwonders to be seen in the manual-training world.\n\nIt is\n\nremarkable\n\nhow slight consideration is given locality and environment in the make-up of\na course of study.\n\nAs I stood the other day beside some rude dwellings of a\n\nsimple people in a western desert, and watched the natives as they worked\nat rug-weaving or in fashioning the basket, I recalled the question put to one\n\nby an eastern woman. \"Isn't it too bad,\" said she, \"that\nyou live so far away ? \" And the native woman returned a wondering glance\nof these people\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n562\nas she replied:\n\n\"I don't live far away, I live right here.\"\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHow much more\n\nimportant that the child in any given locality should learn to make the best\npossible use of the materials which nature has provided at hand, than that\n\nhe should deal with the product of the distant place and follow the work laid\n\ndown for his foreign brother in order that at a given moment every pupil in the\nmay be working upon exactly the same thing. And even tho utility\n\nuniverse\n\nbe a consideration, one generally finds that no mental energy in construction\nis\n\ndemanded.\nLet us have a real, live, industrial form of work in this day, when the one\n\ntopic\n\nwhich overshadows in public\n\ninterest,\n\naccording to the convocation\n\ncouncil in the state of New York,\nis\n\nthe industrial\n\nand commercial development of this country, and the training which\n\nshould be given our youth in the public schools, colleges, universities, and special schools,\nto best\n\nfit\n\nthem for the changing conditions which the twentieth century is bringing to\n\nthem.\n\nTechnique? Yes. No one within the hearing of my voice appreciates\nmore fully than do I the value of technique, of accuracy, of producing an\narticle exact in every detail.\nTo me there is something grand, almost humanly\nmoral, in a piece of work perfect in construction. But is technique the end\nand aim of a course in manual training? Is it the end of life? Seek ye\nI see\nfirst the kingdom of heaven, and technique shall be added unto you.\ngreater technique in the petals of a flower, no two of which are counterparts\nin size, form, or color, than in twenty-seven match-brackets, each made from\nfourth-inch stock, the backs regular in outline, and of exact and unchanging\ndimensions. Is there no technique in the coloring of the bird, and are\nthey all alike ?\n\nMust one have uniformity to get technique, even tho there\n\nare no two Japanese prints precisely similar?\n\nI\n\nwould have technique;\n\nbut if it had to be gained at the expense of producing boys with individuality\ngone, with independence dwarfed, and power of leadership undeveloped, I\n\nwould bury technique and look for soul.\nBut, you say, individuality\n\nchoose at first.\n\nlater.\n\nThe child must not be allowed to\n\nHe must learn his alphabet, his multiplication table, his notes\n\nin music, and thus lay a foundation.\n\nTechnique and the tools of knowledge\nmust be had in the beginning. Whatever grain of truth there may be in this\nphilosophy, the husks will come soon enough in life at the best.\nGive the\nchild the fruit.\nGive him work that will make him happy and contented\nand willing to remain in school, not discontented and impatient, remembering,\nwith Eugene Field, that\nIt's the songs ye sing and the smiles ye wear,\n\nThat's a makin' the sun shine everywhere.\n\nTo summarize, then, we must strive for results that are more than manual;\nand to do this the work must be actual and humanizing. Technique must\nbe had, but only as it comes in connection with the thought-side; and greater\nindividuality is to be allowed in opposition to set and traditional courses of\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depariracnt]\n\nEDUCATED TO VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING\n\n563\n\nI stood some months ago upon a mountain-top and saw far below into the\n\nwonderful valley where spire and stream and tree stood out silent and beauti-\n\nA companion turned to me, after some moments of silence, and said:\n\"Man works upon a grand scale. See this valley, once barren and dreary\n\nful.\n\nand unpeopled, now a garden-spot of peace with its thousands of happy\nhomes and its prosperous towns.\" \"Yes,\" I replied, \"man does work upon\na grand scale, but God works upon a grander. See what nature has done.\"\n\nAnd there, stretching away as far as the eye could pierce, range upon range,\n\n—\n\nand peak upon peak arose, one beyond another canyon, and scarred mountain-side, and snow-covered crest, without which no peaceful valley would\nhave been possible.\n\nMan-made courses of study are frequently of less value\n\nthan those which the child would naturally follow.\n\nHOW CAN CLASS TEACHERS BE EDUCATED TO THE VALUE\nOF MANUAL TRAINING?\nF. M.\n\nMCMURRY, PROFESSOR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING, TEACHERS\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY\n\npressing need in establishing manual training\nI. Probably the most\nmore firmly is fuller evidence that the subject contains a body of thought\n\ncomparable in importance to that in literature, history, geography, or nature\nstudy.\n\nThe very fact that manual training is named as it is directs attention\naway from the subject-matter to the instrument used the hand. Until\nthis name is modified, people will feel inclined to disregard the subject-matter\n\n—\n\nin the field as\n\nsomething of minor importance.\n\nAt any rate, there\n\nis\n\na\n\ntendency in this direction.\n\nThe observation of the average recitation in manual training likewise\nsuggests a lack of rich thought in this field.\n\nIt is almost the rule that students\n\nwho accompany me in observing such recitations are impressed with the want\nof ideas during the recitation period.\n\nThe customary discussions of manual training in teachers' journals and\nconferences emphasize the utiUty of skill developed by manual training, and\nthe value of the discipline secured thru the exercise of the hand\n\nnot usually direct\n\n;\n\nbut they do\n\nmuch attention to the richness of the field of thought\n\nconcerned.\n\nThe printed curricula that are circulated similarly call attention to the\nmaterials used, such as wood, bent iron, clay, raffia, etc., but give an impression\nthat the field is\n\ncomposed of individual and little topics.\n\nThey suggest an\n\nabsence of large principles, and great thoughts intimately related to social life.\nAll these facts tend to belittle the subject of manual training as a separate\n\nstudy.\n\nThey indicate that, iust as some studies, like literature, are allowed\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n564\n\n[Manual '1 raining\n\nto consist mainly of theory, it is allowable for other studies, like manual training,\nto consist mainly of doing, construction, practice.\n\nBut the dignity and worth of a study find their center in the ideas it conA study is only a field of thought, and when a so-called study lacks\n\ntains.\n\na rich field of thought, it is weak.\nnecessary subject, but\nis a necessary field,\n\nit\n\nSpelling, for instance,\n\nlacks dignity, because\n\nit\n\nis\n\nregarded as a\n\nlacks ideas.\n\nArithmetic\n\nbut it is relatively dry and lacking in stimulation, because\n\nSo long as history consisted largely of names\nand dates, it was a poor subject of study; so is geography, as long as it was\nmade up of the location of places. These latter two subjects, however, have\nincreased in richness and dignity as they have dealt with political principles\nand physical principles respectively. Engineering is a study that commands\nIt involves the two factors, thinking and doing,\nrespect of people in general.\nbut the thinking required is prominent enough to subordinate all doing to\nof a lack of interesting ideas.\n\nitself.\n\nManual training will always be lacking in respect for itself, so long\n\nas the motor activity required fails to be entirely subordinated to the ideas\nin that field.\n\nTheory must always control practice and direct it in order to\n\nmake a subject of study healthful.\n\nThe study is otherwise mechanical and\n\nunworthy.\n2,\n\nA second need is a real conviction that expression normally accompanies\n\nimpression in the educational process.\nIt was recently stated in the newspapers that the music department of\nColumbia University might properly deal with the theory of music and the\nhistory of the subject, but the art of actually producing music was unworthy\nThe dean of a woman's college once remarked\nof attention in the university.\nto me that she would readily give credit toward a college degree for whatever\n\nstudying called for active thinking, but the\n\nmoment that doing began to\n\nconstitute a part of the subject, as in domestic science and domestic art, she\n\nwould raise an objection to giving credit.\nis\n\nThe idea in both of these cases\n\nthat an educated man is one who knows and who can think, but he is not\n\nnecessarily\n\nan actor.\n\nThe application of theory in any study weakens the\nThis is a very common idea,\n\nsubject from the educational point of view.\n\nand is practiced in most of the studies, as, for instance, in literature, geography,\nand fine arts. It is the rule that instructors in these subjects feel that their\nresponsibility has ceased\n\nwhen students have been brought to appreciate\n\nthe thoughts.\n\nPeople who represent this conviction have often heard, no doubt, of the\nprinciple,\n\nthe whole.\n\n\"No impression without expression;\"\n\nbut they disbeheve\n\nManual training, however, stands for this principle very plainly.\ntional value of the subject\n\nmaterials.\n\nit\n\non\n\nTo them the end point in each study is knowledge and not action.\nis\n\nThe educa-\n\nnot reached until plans are fully reaHzed in\n\nThus manual training stands in opposition to most other studies\n\ntaught in the public schools, and if it is right in principle, in combining practice\n\nwith theory, the other studies are wrong in their attitude toward this point.\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATED TO VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING\n\n565\n\nHere is an issue that must be fought out before manual training can become\nfully established.\n3.\n\nThe first of\n\nthese needs can be perhaps\n\nmost\n\neffectively satisfied\n\nby describing the curriculum in terms of prominent phases of industrial\nlife, rather than by naming merely the individual objects of construction;\n(a)\n\nby regarding each object of construction as only the concrete approach,\n(c) by allowing ideas\n\n{b)\n\nthe introduction to some prominent phase of industry;\n\nmore plainly to dominate all construction.\nA curriculum for the seventh and eighth grades in one of our prominent\ncities gives the following objects of construction for the seventh and eighth\nyears of school: match-scratcher, octagonal mat, easel, whisk-broom holder,\nbook-rack, bracket-shelf, footstool, inkstand and pen-tray, knife-box and\nblacking-case.\n\nThese objects were probably chosen from two points of view. One was\nthat the children could do the work necessary, and the other that the materials\nfor the articles could be secured.\n\nThese are always necessary considerations;\n\nbut, on the whole, there is a much broader point of view, and one to my mind\nfar more fundamental.\n\nBasketry, for instance, is a kind of work commonly\n\nundertaken in the schools, and in some places it occupies very much time;\nbut, from my point of view, it should receive much or little attention according\n\nas it is a prominent or insignificant industry in social life.\nfruit in\n\nThe canning of\n\ndomestic science might or might not be allowed to receive attention\n\nas part of a course of study according as it is relatively prominent in adult\n\nWeaving is certainly worthy of much attention, because the manufacture\nan industry of enormous importance. Book-making\nand hat-making are likewise prominent lines of work, and considerable attention should be given to these topics in the schools.\nEach proposed topic,\ntherefore, is important as it may afford an introduction to a prominent phase\nIt is to be regarded as an introduction to such industrial\nof our industrial life.\nlife, and is not an end in itself.\nThe construction of a book may well be undertaken with much care and occupy much time, but not mainly because of the\nlife.\n\nof cloth, rugs, etc., is\n\nutility in\n\na narrow sense of such work, or because of the mental discipline\n\nreceived, but because good work on that topic will bring one into close touch\n\nwith a very extensive occupation.\n\nA regular part of the study of this topic\n\nwould be an excursion to a place where books were actually manufactured,\n\nThus manual training becomes a study\nand approaching it in the most concrete, and\ntherefore excellent, manner by actual making.\nBut the end point is not\n\nif\n\nsuch an excursion were possible.\n\ndealing with industrial hfe,\n\n—\n\nmerely making, it is the actual contact with social life.\n\nThe objection that I would raise to the above-named list of articles to\nbe made in the seventh and eighth grades is that they end in themselves; that\nis, in\n\nmere making, not in a large field of thought.\n\nIf some of them, as possibly\n\nthe match-scratcher, are regarded as introduction to large topics, my objections\nfall\n\naway; but, as I have read the announcement of this course, I feel that\n\nthat is not the intention.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n566\n\n[Manual Training\n\nIn regard to (c) of the above thesis, there is a tendency in manual training\nto neglect\n\neven the thought that is plainly called for, just as in arithmetic.\n\nWe all know how children in the latter study feel that arithmetic consists\nlargely of figuring and not of thinking.\n\nboth children and teachers to\n\nSo there is a tendency on the part of\n\nfeel that construction consists\n\nof motor activity, instead of head-work.\n\nalmost solely\n\nThe result is that recitations rather\n\nseldom begin with review of thought previously presented, and call for summaries, recapitulations,\n\nand drills on the\n\nfacts learned.\n\nThe teacher too\n\noften at the very beginning of the recitation tells the class to \"go on,\" while,\nif it\n\nwere some other study that was concerned, like history, geography, or\n\nliterature, there\n\nsional\n4.\n\nwould probably be a review at the beginning and an occa-\n\nsummary later on.\nThe second of these needs can be perhaps most effectively satisfied\n\nby considering the relation of practice to theory {a) from the point of view\nof evolution; {h) from the point of view of the present child life and adult Hfe;\n(c) from the point of view of the assimilation of ideas, and consequently from\nthe point of view of general efficiency.\n\nAccording to the biological theory and the theory of evolution, the purpose\nof\n\nknowledge and intelligence is found in adaptation\n\nto environment.\n\nbear, for instance, needs intelligence for the sake of protection\n\nA\n\nand food.\n\nThus brain-development, as well as knowledge, find their purpose in action.\nAction is the end point of life.\n\nAs to children, it is a matter of common observation that, while they\nthink and plan, the execution of their plans must immediately follow the\n\nWith them, theory and practice are inseparable.\nThe immense\nmajority of adults are engaged in active emplojonent of some sort; for example,\nconception of the same.\n\nThe same holds substantially with reference to adult life.\n\nabout a third of all the inhabitants of the United States are engaged in agriculture.\n\nCertainly a farmer needs to know how to farm, otherwise he does\n\nnot make a living.\n\nBut he does not spend most of his time in reflection.\n\nis spent, on the contrary, in carrying out the plans that he has conceived ;\nis,\n\nIt\n\nthat\n\nin action.\n\nI happened to be sitting near a five-year-old girl recently, who was attempt-\n\nmake a doll dress.\n\ning to\n\nShe set out enthusiastically, but, after laboring\n\nfor some ten minutes without much success, she remarked suddenly, \"I guess\n\nwant to make a doll dress;\" and she threw her material aside and\nShe had a plan in mind, but it had failed to work, and it\nwas the practice in this case that too severely tested the theory. Adults meet\nwith the same kind of experience constantly. They conceive plans which\nseem good, but it is practice, and practice only, that can fully test their soundI don^t\n\nwent off to play.\n\nness.\n\nIt is only\n\nwhen one has experienced the shock of the misfit between\n\nwhat he has thought will hold, on the one hand, and what he finally finds to\nbe true, on the other it is only then that one is really sharpened to the point\nof developing good judgment.\nLeave out the test of practice, and people\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATED TO VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING\n\ncan think all sorts of things, and be entirely wrong.\n\nWe need headers, such\n\nas practice brings, in order to develop sanity or efficiency.\n\nbecause\n\nit\n\nprovides this\n\ntest, is\n\n567\n\nManual training,\n\nsuperior to fnany other subjects.\n\nA well-\n\neducated man is one, therefore, who can do as well as know, and efl&ciency\nis\n\na good term for the statement of the aim of education, because it includes\n\nthese\n5.\n\ntwo factors.\n\nBut the difficulties of instruction in manual training are unusually great,\n\nand its teachers must show an ability much above that of the ^-verage before\nthis study will command general respect.\n\nOne of the difficulties with manual training is that there is one body\nof thought to\n\nbe taught touching the handling of tools; a second body of\n\nthought touching the nature of materials; and still a third touching the plan\nof the object to be constructed.\n\nSo here are three kinds of theory that have\n\nto be offered where ordinary studies only contain one.\n\nIn the second place, while most studies end simply with theory, as above\nsuggested, each of these bodies of thought\n\nmust find actual application in\n\npractice, which enormously increases the teacher's difficulties.\n\nThe fact that this practice is present allows for unusual confusion also\nin regard to the main aim that one is trying to accompHsh.\n\nThere is already\n\nfrequent confusion in other studies as to whether one\n\naiming primarily\n\nis\n\non\nmanual\nBut in the case of\ntraining an excellent finished product in the trade sense is also urged by\nmany, which greatly increases the difficulty.\nat useful knowledge or mental discipline, or a certain favorable attitude\n\nthe part of the student toward the whole field.\n\nFurther still, the kind of discipline that may be called good is reasonably\nwell established in the ordinary subjects, but the\n\nno means fully established in the manual art.\n\nmost desirable kind is by\n\nWe scarcely know the kind\n\nthat is desirable there.\n\nThese facts altogether are certainly sufficient to show that the man who\nhas been a successful carpenter, or the woman who has proved a competent\n\nhousemaid and nothing more,\n\nwill\n\nprove absolutely unfit to teach manual\n\ntraining or domestic science or domestic art respectively.\n\nTeachers who\n\nreally succeed in the manual arts must possess good native ability and receive\n\nan unusually good training in preparation for such work.\n\nmust be correspondingly high.\n\nOf course, salaries\n\nTeachers who succeed reasonably well in\n\nthe other fields are not sure to succeed in these, owing to the unusual difficulties\nto be encountered.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. W. Stetson, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me.\n\n—The Acadians\n\nMaine lived in practical isolation until within the past decade. They\nexhibited unusual facility in the language arts, the use of tools, and the observance of conof northeastern\n\nventional forms.\n\nBefore the schools of this section were of standard grade, the pupils made\n\nminiature duplicates of the utensils found in the home and the implements used on the\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n568\nfarm.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nA majority of the teaching force in the school had attended the rural schools and\n\nthe Madawaska Training School.\n\nNone of them ever saw a manual-training school.\n\nAt\n\nthe end of the second year of work in this branch the pupils presented for exhibition a\nlarge number of specimens, including all of the machinery necessary for the manufacture\nof cloth from wool, a complete set of blacksmith's tools, a buggy, and numberless articles\n\nof simpler construction.\n\nThis experiment indicated that the teachers in our rural schools\n\ncan train their pupils to decorate schoolrooms, provide needed apparatus, improve school\ngrounds, if they are interested in these matters and are willing to work with the children.\n\nA somewhat careful study of this experiment and the work done in some of the modern\nmanual-training schools has suggested the thought that it is possible for experts to be so\nseverely technical that they are led to use language which has no meaning for the child,\n\nor multiply their directions to such an extent that the student is\n\nleft\n\nno opportunity to\n\nwork independently and learn thru experience the principles underlying his task.\nIt seems to me that we have made two serious blunders in our work in industrial\ntraining: first, we have waited for the expert to give us the last and minutest detail before\nwe started, and, second, we have so overdone the directive part of the work that the child\nhas been lost in the haze which has been manufactured by the instruction.\n\nWe have devoted so much effort to constructing and installing school machinery that\nwe have no time left for the boy for whose benefit it is installed and kept in motion. We\nhave been more anxious to develop skill than we have been concerned to cultivate the\ntaste or train the thought.\nThe conventional and mechanical phases of the work have\nreceived the major part of our time and effort.\n\nWe have directed, managed, and held the boy in place, until he can neither go afoot\nnor alone, and he has neither the desire nor the capacity to take the initiative.\n\nHe is want-\n\ning in moral fiber, intellectual power, and physical vigor, because he has come to feel that\n\nhe is a cog, while he knows he has the fitness to be a wheel.\n\nToo much of the work only\n\nhelps him to do his little part in his little place, if he is called upon to do it at the regular\n\ntime and in the routine way; but you belt him on to a new shaft, and he either will not\nturn or will wreck the whole plant.\n\nWe have labored so long on the artistic mortise, and we have been so occupied with\nthe mechanical details, that the interest and joy of the student have been killed.\n\nHe has\n\nnone of the pleasure of learning how to do things by making mistakes in doing them.\nHe has been directed and instructed in his doing, until he can go thru his work as correctly\nas a piece of machinery would do the same thing; but he has lost the power of thought and\nthe impulse to feel.\nHe is incapable of that exercise of the imagination which makes such\nwork a means of grace. He can whittle and plane and drill and bore and produce a combination that has all the correctness and all the poverty of the worker who has been drilled\nand bored and stupefied by exalting things to a place of supreme importance that should be\n\nknown without a consciousness of the knowledge.\nIn a word, the mechanics of training have been erected into an altar.\n\nThose who\n\nhave worshipped at this shrine have all the littleness that comes to those who worship\ngraven images. It is not strange that the victim becomes as wooden as the material on\n\nwhich he toils.\nStill\n\nwe are told in pious phrase that manual training is the supreme agency in moral\n\ndevelopment.\n\nIs there\n\nany worthy work, or thought, or question that is not, in its last\n\nanalysis, distinctively moral in its essence ?\n\nThe boy on the farm learns many lessons in lines, angles, squares, cubes, and all sorts\nand kinds of figures, without the benumbing processes so often found in this work in the\nschoolroom.\n\nIt is true,\n\nhe stumbles for a long time, in the twilight of his own ignorance;\n\nbut he breeds the discernment which leads him to discover where daylight is, and his\nstruggle gives him strength to walk toward it and into it.\n\nHe cannot use many technical\n\nterms, and he can give but few scientific definitions, but he can do the thing that needs to\n\nbe done.\n\nWhen a tongue pulls out of a sled in the woods, he can repair or replace it.\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nEDUCATED TO VALUE OF MANUAL TRAINING\n\n569\n\nWhen the emergency comes, he is there, and he not only rises to, but above, the occasion.\nThese experiences have made these same boys captains of industry, noted lawyers, famous\nclergymen, distinguished teachers, skillful physicians, honest statesmen. It was in farm\nhomes and among primitive but stimulating surroundings that they gained the power\nThey did things and developed thinking\nwhich won them their positions of honor.\nThey were not swamped in technique, but were taught by\ncapacity in their doing.\nservice.\nI\n\nhave two pleas to offer this morning:\n\neyes and hand a fair chance to be educated.\n\n(i)\n\nGive the boy who must learn thru his\n\nMake it possible for him not only to do\n\nmake him a master in the field he\nand thus aid him in doing his work better than anyone else of equal capacity has\ndone it. (2) Squeeze out the whey, and let the instructor and pupils be companions,\nworking together to produce results and develop power, each being an investigator,\nthings, but to get the intellectual training which will\nenters,\n\ninventor, doer.\n\nFrank M. Leavitt, principal of Manual Training Schools, Boston, Mass.—May I\nor two of the mere surface\n\n—perhaps should to one\n—indications of the question. Someone has said that nothing\n\neducates but hard work.\n\nIf this be true, to be educative any subject must afford oppor-\n\nbe permitted to call attention to some of the more obvious\n\nI\n\nsay,\n\nand must also possess the interest which will incite the\nDoes manual training possess these characteristics ? You\n\ntunity for hard, initiative work,\n\npupil to perform this work.\nwill, I believe,\n\nagree with me that it does; yet this is not quite the question assigned; but,\n\n\"How can class teachers be educated to the value of manual training ?\"\n\nI would answer,\n\nwe must take the unconverted teacher, if one yet remains, by the hand, and lead him to\nthe manual-training room where the boys and girls are having their lesson, and ask him\nif there is any time during the week when his pupils apply themselves as they do during\nthis period.\nIt is said that imitation is the sincerest flattery.\n\nThere is another form of flattery\n\nwhich I have sometimes observed, and that is when the grade teacher complains to the\nprincipal that his boys pay too much attention to their manual training; that they are\nspending too much of their out-of-school time in the manual-training room. The unprejudiced outsider does not see it in the same light. He says: \"When you have found any\nkind of work that boys like better than play, you have found a thing which is too good to\npart with.\"\n\nBut to return to the teacher whom we are trying to educate; according to the program,\nWe should embrace every opportunity for correlating his\nwork with that of the manual-training teacher. We should give him every chance to\nobserve manual-training methods, and every opportunity to help in the work and to share\nin the pleasures of it.\nUnder these circumstances he will certainly be convinced.\nto the value of manual training:\n\nJames P. Haney, director of manual training, New York city.\n\n— not the proposition\nIs\n\nadvanced by the author of the paper one which recommends the abandoning of manual\ntraining as a subject in which motor work commonly appears, and the substitution therefor of a new subject in the curriculum\n\n— \"the study of industries\" —in which motor training\n\nwill play but a modest part ?\n\nMr. McMurry.\n\n—To some extent would say yes\nI\n\nto this question.\n\nI should prefer\n\nto name the subject differently from the name manual training, calHng it possibly the study\n\nof industries, for reasons above suggested.\n\nMotor activity also seems to me at present too\n\nprominent, just, as above suggested, figuring is relatively too prominent in arithmetic.\n\nshould not want to spend all of the time in actual construction.\n\nI\n\nOn the other hand, the\n\nmotor activity might well be prominent. Articles should be carefully planned and caremade, and since the work of actual construction is to be the introduction to some\nphase of social life, special emphasis must fall upon it. There would be no tendency, therefore, to slight construction; but construction should not be the chief aim in the work.\n\nfully\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n5 70\n\nMr. Haney.\n\n[Manual Training\n\n—Manual training as a form of expression has a valuable part\n\nto play\n\nin the curriculum in giving concrete shape to various ideas, in relating itself directly to\n\nmany other subjects which require constructive work for their proper presentation. The\npresent proposition is one which recommends that the relationship now present be\ndestroyed,\n\nand that a new subject be developed segregated from the other subjects of\n\nthe curriculum.\n\nMr. McMurry.\n\n—In reply\n\nI\n\nwould say that I believe heartily in correlation, but I\n\nshould not want to make manual training something which merely illustrates or clarifies\nthoughts contained in other studies.\n\nThe moment any study fails to have a controlling\n\nidea of its own, according to which subject-matter is included in it or rejected, it utterly\n\nThat is the very definition of the term \"study\" as applied to\nAs I understand Mr. Haney's statement, he would not have a\nseparate study called manual training, with a content distinguished from that of other\nbranches. In that case, why have a separate name called \"manual training.\" The\nsubject-matter offered would be merely a continuation of geography, or history, etc.\nThe method alone, even tho it be different from that of some other study, cannot conAny- study, to the extent that it is a study, must have its own content\nstitute a study.\notherwise it has no reason for a separate place on the program or a separate name.\nceases to be a study.\n\nbranches of knowledge.\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN PUBLIC EVENING SCHOOLS\nCHARLES F. WARNER, PRINCIPAL OF THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL AND OF\nTHE EVENING SCHOOL OF TRADES, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe topic assigned to me suggests a somewhat limited application of a\nvery broad and very important question that has in recent years impressed\nitself\n\nupon the educational thought of the country.\n\nThis is not the\n\nfirst\n\ntime that industrial training has played a part in the discussions of the Depart-\n\nment of Manual Training, In fact, when this department was first organized\nwas known as the \"Manual and Industrial Department.\" At the Los\nAngeles meeting in 1899, it was voted to ask the Board of Directors to change\nthe name to the \" Department of Manual Training; \" and this recommendation\nwas carried into effect. It would seem from this, that manual- training teachers, like the general public, have not always drawn the distinction so sharply\nas they do now between educational manual training and that kind of training\n\nit\n\nwhich may be described as distinctly industrial, approaching closely to, if\nnot actually becoming, the teaching of trades.\n\nEverybody now recongizes\n\nthat teaching all the pupils of a school, in a practical way, the technical principles underlying the\n\nmost important mechanical trades, with the training\n\nof the hand, the eye,\n\nand the mechanical judgment that are incidental to\n\nsuch a process, is quite a different thing from giving one class in a school\nthoro instruction in the principles of one of these trades, enabling them thru\n\nmuch practice and repetition to acquire considerable skill in the operations\nThe one is the function of the manual-training school, the\n\nof that trade.\n\nother is the business of the trade school.\n\nProbably no country in the world has done more than our own to advance\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN EVENING SCHOOLS\n\n571.\n\nmanual training as a feature of general education.\n\nManual\n\nthe cause of\n\ntraining has entered into and modified the whole field of school work\n\nthe kindergarten to the college.\nis\n\nfjom\n\nThe more strictly educational phase of it\n\nnaturally found in the elementary schools.\n\nIn the secondary schools,\n\nwhile the educational side is by no means lost sight of, the distinctly practical\n\nelement is properly emphasized to a certain extent.\ntraining work\n\nschools as\n\nis\n\ndistinctively American.\n\nwe know them are not found abroad.\n\nfor example, manual training as such is found\n\ntary schools.\n\nThis grade of manual-\n\nManual-training or technical high\nIn France and Germany,\n\nalmost entirely in the elemen-\n\nThere is extensive practical education besides this, but it is\n\nfound in trades schools in which the youth of both sexes are trained for\nIn Germany, the system\n\nspecial industries.\nis\n\nis\n\nthoroly scientific and there\n\nno confusion of thought about the purposes of the several kinds of schools.\n\nBut the manual- training high schools with all their problems, their splendid\n\nThey\nand yet they owe their existence, in part, to\nthe popular demand for a more practical kind of secondary education than\nthat which was furnished by all the high schools of ten or fifteen years ago\nachievements, and their promising future are distinctively American.\nare in no sense trades schools;\n\nand by many of the present day.\n\nNor is it probable that our manual-training\n\nhigh schools will be converted into trades schools, because the American\npeople as a rule, though intensely practical and conscious of the dAiands of\n\nan industrial and scientific age, wish their children to have a broad training,\nwith as much of culture as possible, at the same time that they acquire a knowl-\n\nedge of fundamental scientific principles and some appreciation of industrial\n\nWith this end in view, they have already built and equipped a con-\n\nmethods.\n\nsiderable number of manual-training high schools, and they will probably go\n\non building and equipping them.\n\nBut these schools are costly and they will be\n\nrequired to give the greatest possible return on the investment.\n\nIt is a fair ques-\n\ntion to ask whether these expensive equipments in buildings, apparatus, and\n\nteaching force cannot be made to yield good returns along the line of strictly\nvocational training or trades teaching as well as in the way of general education.\n\nThat there is a demand for the teaching of the mechanical trades there\n\nThe question has been discussed for several years past\n\ncan be no doubt.\n\nin the meetings of this department\n\nand need not be enlarged upon here.\n\nManufacturing interests are constantly impressing upon educational authorities thruout the country the fact that our mechanical industries and our\n\ncommerce are suffering from the lack of trades schools.\n\nOur great wealth\n\nof natural resources, the importation of skilled laborers\n\nfrom abroad, and\n\nartificial\n\ntrade conditions have thus far succeeded in keeping this need in\n\nthe background;\nitself.\n\nIt\n\nbut the need\n\nis real\n\ncould not be otherwise.\n\nand it has already begun to\n\nassert\n\nCensus reports show us that one-fourth\n\nof the whole number of people engaged in wage-earning occupations in the\n\nUnited States are employed in those industries which are based upon the\nmechanical trades.\n\nFrom the same reports we also learn that the value\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n572\n\nof the products of our mechanical industries is\n\naverage value of all our products.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmore than half of the total\n\nIt follows as\n\na matter of course that in\n\ncertain so-called manufacturing centers a much larger proportion than one-\n\nfourth of the people are employed in shops and factories, and the relative value\nof the\n\nmanufactured products rises to a still higher figure.\n\ntural nation, we\n\nhave become a nation of manufacturers.\n\nOnce an agriculBrought about\n\nas the change has been by exploiting great natural resources, without much\nregard, to\n\neconomy and by shutting off foreign competition by means of a\n\nprotective tariff, we have neglected to make provision for the proper training\nof the great army of artisans necessary to maintain our position in the front\n\nrank among manufacturing nations.\nSt.\n\nThe German representatives at the\n\nLouis Exposition, in their reports which were widely circulated in the\n\nGerman manufacturers had nothing\nAmerican competition, because our methods of production are\n\nforeign press on their return, said that\nto fear from\n\nwasteful, we have no skilled artisans to speak of, and we have no means of\n\nproducing them.\n\nFor the Germans there is no American peril.\n\nWhen we compare our almost total lack of distinct training for the trades\nwith the extensive and scientific trades-school system of Germany, we wonder\n\nhow we have accomplished\n\nso\n\nmuch\n\nindustrially,\n\nand we can but\n\nfeel\n\nthe ultimate folly of neglecting to provide better industrial training in the\n\nSuch trained workers as we have had— and we have always had a\n—survived the revolutionary conditions which destroyed the older indus-\n\nfuture.\n\nfew\n\ntrial methods of their generation, including, for the most part, the apprentice-\n\nships.\n\nBut even these men must soon pass off the stage and give place to a\n\nnew generation of workers less fortunate in their training than their predecessors.\nMeantime the need for special training has greatly increased.\nModern methods of intensified production, the manufacture of interchangeable\nparts, the complicated processes to be followed, the highly specialized machines\n\nto be kept in repair\n\n—machines that do everything\n\nand operated efficiently\n\n—\n\nbut think and seem even to do that\n\nall\n\nthese\n\ndemand a controlling hand\n\nwhich shall have at command accuracy and skill and knowledge of a higher\norder than was necessary in the less specialized trades of the past.\n\nThe rising\n\ngeneration must be trained to meet this demand, if our manufacturing com-\n\nmunities are to hold their own in the competition of the world's markets.\n\nIn\n\nhis inaugural message, the present governor of Massachusetts called attention\nto the commonwealth's need of trades schools, and the legislature has responded\nby authorizing the appointment of an industrial educational commission.\nThat commission has been appointed and will soon begin its work.\nThe wisdom of laying the best possible educational foundations for industrial development, already abundantly proved by the example of Germany,\nis generally admitted by those who have given the question any thought.\nIt means economic advantage and social progress.\nWhy, then, are we as\na people so slow to act in this matter ? Here and there thruout the country,\n\nforeseeing philanthropists have created funds for the promotion of industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN EVENING SCHOOLS\n\nDepartmentl\n\n573\n\neducation but, speaking in a general way, very little has as yet been accom;\n\n—\n\nThere are not more than a half dozen schools hardly\nthink— that are worthy to be called trades schools, altho there are\nIt is\nseveral endowments to be invested in such schools in the near future.\nsurprising that more has not been done for trades education either thru private\nendowments or at the public expense. Those who should most fully appreciate\nthe economic value of trades schools seem often to doubt the immediate necessity for them.\nOur industries have prospered without them and we still seem\nOur industrial leaders are more\nto be getting our work done after a fashion.\nplished in this line.\nthat, I\n\ninclined to make the most of present opportunities of profit to themselves than\nto protect the future interests of any industry or any class of workmen.\nEven the workmen themselves are too well satisfied with their own limited\nknowledge and skill. Low standards gf industrial efficiency, a quick market\nfor comparatively unskilled labor, protection against foreign competition, and\n\nthe exclusion of many manufactured articles requiring expert knowledge\nand refined skill, the assumed, but by no means proved, hostility of unions,\ntogether with our present commercial prosperity under conditions as they are,\nall combine to turn public attention away from the economic arguments for\ntrades schools.\nAnd then, there are the problems of organization, which seem\n\nappalling to those who have given some attention to the question of establishing\n\nsuch schools.\n\nWhat among the almost countless processes of the trades\nHow many trades are to be\n\nare suited to school methods of instruction?\n\nWhat, in fact, constitutes a trade in the modern sense of the term ?\nmust be confessed that these are puzzling questions. But year by year\n\ntaught ?\nIt\n\nthe need for trades schools has become more and more apparent.\n\nmen of public spirit recognize it.\nof the industrial army,\n\nForeseeing\n\nNot only the leaders, but the rank and file\n\nsome of whom have experienced the benefits of such\n\ntrades instruction as we have, are asking for it.\n\nThe well-equipped manual-\n\ntraining schools thruout the country suggest a natural connection between\n\noccupational training and the work of the schools, and they constantly call\nattention to the propriety of making trades teaching a part of the educational\n\nsystem of every industrial community.\n\nPerhaps these manual-training schools,\n\nthru their own suggestive influence as day high schools and, more especially,\n\nthru their direct exemplification of the benefits of trade training as evening\n\nday in shops and factories, may be\nmore instrumental than any other force in bringing about a general system\nschools for those employed during the\n\nof instruction in the mechanical trades.\n\nFor several years the City of Springfield has carried on an evening school\n\nmaking use of the shops, equipment, and some of\nIt had a small beginning in 1898,\nwith classes in machine-shop practice and plumbing only. These classes\nwere chosen because the principal demand in that city was thought to be for\nof the mechanical trades,\n\nthe teachers of the technical high school.\n\ninstruction in these trades.\n\nThe school now has classes in machine-shop\n\npractice, in plumbing, in pattern making and other wood-work, in mechanical\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "^^ TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n5 74\n\ndrawing, in shop mathematics, and in electricity.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThe courses laid out for\n\nthese several departments are as thoro and complete as it is thought possible\n\nmake them in an evening school. The attendance upon this school is\nnow over three hundred and is remarkably constant. The per cent, of attend-\n\nto\n\nance is 84.4, which is far better than that in most night schools.\n\nIt\n\ncomes\n\nnearer to that of the regular day high school than it does to that of the average\n\nevening school.\n\nThe object of this school, as stated in a recent report of the school comis \"mainly to give men already employed in the trades, who know,\n\nmittee,\n\ntherefore, at least a part of the trade in which they are employed, an oppor-\n\ntunity to broaden their mechanical training\nefl&cient\n\nworkmen.\n\nand make themselves more\n\nIt is not the function of this school to train apprentices\n\nas such, but to supplement the imperfect and highly specialized training of\n\nmodern shops by giving machine hands, helpers, and apprentices, so far as\nthere are any apprentices, an opportunity to gain practice in a greater variety\nof work than would ever be open to\nof machine production.\n\nany one man under the modern system\n\nThe aim of the school is to enable a mechanic to\n\nacquire a wider range of practical knowledge and to improve the quality of\nhis work,\n\nand thus reach a higher classification in his trade with increased\n\nThis is a great advantage to the individual workman; but it does\n\nwages.\n\nnot materially affect the condition of the labor market in general.\"\nIt is a public school.\nTuition is free, but a fee of five dollars is charged\nwhich defrays the expense for materials used and serves as a guarantee of\n\ngood faith on the part of those who enroll.\n\nThe per capita expense was, in\n\n1904, $15.21, allowance being made for the incidental fees.\n\nIt is a popular\n\nschool and the various city governments, since its organization in 1898, have\n\npromptly voted the necessary, tho moderate, appropriations for its maintenance.\n\nWhile its existence is due almost wholly to the fact that the equipment of\nthe technical high school was easily available, it has returned to that school\n\nan equivalent, probably much more than an equivalent, in helping to attract\npublic attention to the value of practical training for high-school boys, in\njustifying the cost of thoro technical training and the expense of its develop-\n\nment along modern lines, and in actually saving several hundred dollars\nannually thru the value of the tools and machines made for use in the day\nschool.\n\nIt\n\nmay not have been necessary thus to justify the maintenance of\n\ntechnical education in the city's high-school system;\n\nbut the influence of\n\nthe evening trade school has certainly been helpful in this direction.\n\nIn\n\nfact, both schools have felt the advantage of mutual support.\n\nIt\n\nmay be said that such a school as I have described is, after all, not a\n\ntrades school in the most complete sense of the term\n\n—that\n\nit\n\nfalls far\n\nshort\n\nof answering the need for thoro\n\nand comprehensive industrial training for\n\nthe youth of our country.\n\na kind of shop continuation school.\n\nIt is\n\nIts\n\npupils are largely men already employed in the trades who wish to improve\ntheir knowledge of the trade they follow or, perhaps, fit themselves to take up\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN EVENING SCHOOLS\n\na more profitable one.\n\n575\n\nIts office is to supplement and facilitate shop training\n\nand to enable mechanics to do a high grade of work. For this reason it\nreceives the support of employers of labor, who welcome any means whereby\ntheir men may be trained to do a better quality of work.\n\nIt\n\nappeals to the\n\nmen themselves, whose shop training has, for the most part, been limited to\nnarrow lines, because it opens the door to a wider range of practice, to a\nbroader knowledge of their trade, and, consequently, to promotion with\nhigher wages.\n\nIt is not\n\nopposed by labor unions, because, while manifestly\n\nadvantageous to individual workmen,\n\nit\n\ncannot, however\n\nmuch it may be\n\nnumber of men employed in the trades\ntaught and thus tend toward a reduction of wages. But while it may accomplish all this, is it to be considered an answer to the demand for systematic\nextended, operate to increase the\n\ninstruction in the trades?\nIt is probably not the final answer to this great need;\n\nthe circumstances,\n\nit\n\nbut, in view of all\n\ncertainly offers a very practical, tho perhaps partial,\n\nsolution to the problem.\n\nWhat, in a word, are the conditions to be met?\n\nThere are carpenters enough, but very few who can make a clean joint or\nlay a good floor.\nAdvertise for a machinist, a tool-maker, a plumber, and\ntho a hundred may come where one good workman is wanted, not one of the\n\nhundred will prove to be a good workman. All our industries are embarrassed\nby inefficiency and lack of skill among the workmen, not, generally speaking,\n\nWhat we most need is enlarged opportunities for\n\nby a scarcity of workmen.\n\ntraining to be offered to those who are already employed in the narrow lines\n\nAnd this is the one thing that\n\nrequired by the specialized trades of the day.\n\nevery manual- training school in the country, within the limits of its equipment,\n\ncan offer and should be willing to offer.\nshops, their laboratories,\n\nand\n\nThese schools should open all their\nscience, mathematics, and\n\ntheir courses in\n\nmechanical drawing to those who have the greatest need for the instruction\n\nTo most of those engaged in\n\nwhich these facilities are designed to give.\nindustrial occupations,\n\nwho have experienced the lack of opportunity in the\n\nmodern shop, such instruction as the manual-training schools of the country\n\nTo every earnest workman it means\n\ncould give would be a liberal education.\n\nit means increased power,\nand to those dependent upon\n\na certain degree of breadth in place of narrowness;\ngreater self respect, greater value to himself\n\nhim;\nat the\n\nmeans that the young man, who has been stationed for five years\nsame machine and might otherwise remain there ten years longer is\n\nit\n\nset free to range among a large number of machines and become familiar with\n\nthem all; it means the freedom that education always gives.\nLet me give a few instances that have come under my observation in the\nSpringfield\n\nEvening School of Trades.\n\nTwo years ago a man twenty-six\n\nyears of age, employed in a machine shop at $1 10 per day, entered our evening\n.\n\nclass in mechanical drawing.\n\nAfter a little more than one year he was recom-\n\nmended to the position of assistant foreman of the Densmore Typewriter Co.,\nand secured the place at $3 per day.\n\nHe has been advanced rapidly and is\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n576\n\nnow holding a very responsible position at $21 per week.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHe gives the school\n\ncredit for making his success possible.\n\nAnother young man, twenty-one years of age, who went to the school the\nsame year, having had some experience as a subordinate in the drafting room,\nis\n\nnow, as the result of evening-school training, in charge of the designing of\n\ntools and fixtures for a large automobile company at a salary of $25 per week.\nIt was only yesterday that a\n\nman came to my office bringing his son, who\n\nhas just finished the grammar-school course.\n\nAs a foreman in the United\n\nStates Armory, he had known of a number of men who had been advanced\n\nHe spoke of one whose\nhad been nearly doubled after a brief course in our machine shop.\n\nbecause of their attendance at the evening school.\nrating\n\nSchool work beyond the elementary grades had hitherto seemed to him to\n\nhave little practical value.\n\nHe is no longer skeptical.\n\nHe believes heartily\n\nin the evening school and he wishes his boy to take a full technical course in\n\nthe day school.\nIt is not necessary to multiply examples of this kind.\n\nof seven years the\n\nIn its brief history\n\nEvening School of Trades has numbered nearly eight\n\nhundred different men.\n\nI can recall no less than fifty instances of advancement\n\nhave come under my personal observation. One\nwould expect improvement, of course; but the surprising thing about it is\n\ndue\n\nto the school that\n\nthe degree of advancement secured\n\nby so many in so short a time as the\n\nresult of work in this evening school in connection with practical work at the\n\ntrades during the day.\n\nCompared with the varied and extensive trades-school system found abroad,\nindustrial training in public evening schools may seem very incomplete; but\n\nsuch as it is or may be, let us make the most of it.\n\nIt will, at least, be a clear\n\ngain to the cause of industrial education and a great advantage to those workers\nin the industries who are fortunate enough to be able to attend such schools.\n\nTHE NECESSITY FOR SPECIAL MANUAL-TRAINING HIGH\nSCHOOLS\nCHARLES H. KEYES, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH DISTRICT,\nHARTFORD, CONN.\nFor the city large enough to support two high schools, good pedagogy\nand sound public policy demand that one of them should be a manual-training\nhigh school. This is the proposition which it is my purpose to establish. It\nis a position into which I have been driven by the convincing logic of condiIt by no means implies that some manual training shall not be made\ntions.\navailable for all the pupils of all our high schools.\n\nFor the city able to support\n\nbut one, high school, a manual- training course, side by side with classical\ncourses, business courses, scientific courses, English courses, etc., is the best\n\nprovision that can be made.\n\nBut, for a city large enough to support two or\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "SPECIAL MANUAL-TRAINING HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n577\n\nmore high schools, it is unwise to duplicate institutions. Better teaching of\nless cost will accrue from a division of endeavor\nbetween two institutions, differing in organization and equipment, appeaUng\nto different clientages, and having different subordinate and specific aims.\nThe high school supported by all the people should make attractive prowho desire and are able to do\nvision for all the children of all the people\nwork in advance of that done in the grammar schools. A division giving\na larger student body at\n\n—\n\nto the manual-training high school the business courses,\n\npermitting\n\nit\n\nto\n\nemphasize physical sciences, mathematics and modern languages, and preparing especially well those who desire to go to scientific and technical schools,\n\nand giving to the other the classical, Kterary and traditional college preparatory\nwork, permitting it to emphasize Latin and Greek, literature and biological\nscience, will attract\n\nthese opportunities.\n\nand hold more pupils than two schools duplicating all\nThe cosmopolitan high school in this country is, and\n\nbound to be, dominated by the college preparatory idea. Its principal\nand best teachers are devoted to the college ideal. Its leading pupils have\ntraditional college preparation prominently in mind.\nUnder these influences,\nmanual training, business, and other semi-technical courses are undervalued.\nIt becomes good form for pupils to select college preparatory or literary\ncourses, regardless of their own aptitudes, limitations, and aims. Gradually\nthe manual-training and other semi-technical courses come to be looked upon\nas weak-minded courses, or courses for those condemned to spend their\nafter-life in shops and factories.\nIt soon comes about that many pupils,\nnot seeking what are falsely called pure culture courses or college preparation,\ndo not enter the high school at all. Then, again a large number of those\nwho, under the influence of the traditions, have unwisely chosen other than the\nsemi-technical courses, which alone could command their interest and highest\nendeavor, soon show their loss of interest and drop out of school.\nPupils who have every reason for choosing manual- training courses,\nwho have enjoyed their manual-training work in grammar school, who have\nis\n\ndeplored every loss of a manual-training lesson, go into the other atmosphere\nand, under its pressure,\n\nmake the unwise choice of a course, which omits\n\nthe manual-training work, for which they are especially fitted\n\nand which,\n\nbecause of their previous interest, would have the largest educational value\nfor\n\nthem.\n\nWhen they discover their mistake they drop out of school.\n\nEspecially is this true of boys.\ncities in\n\nschool longer and give\n\nfor the serviceful\n\nlife,\n\nIf\n\nwe desire to keep the boys of our larger\n\nthem more of the education which equips\n\nwe must provide manual-training high schools.\n\nThe\n\ncost of the plant requisite for a good manual-training course is another argu-\n\nment against duplication and in favor of the special manual-training school.\nThis is particularly true of the equipment for the last three years of a good\nmanual-training high-school course.\ntories of\n\nThe manual-training shops and labora-\n\neach of two general high schools will, as experience has repeatedly\n\nshown, be run on full expense for half the capacity of either.\n\nThe separate\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n578\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmanual-training schools avoid one half the heavy initial expense of equipment\n\nand divides the per capita cost of maintenance by two.\nAgain, the difficulty of co-ordinating economically the time schedules\nof shops\n\nand laboratories for the manual-training classes, in the general or\n\nclassical high school,\n\nwith the recitation periods for the academic branches\n\nWhere manual training\n\nis\n\nanother argument in favor of the separate school.\n\nis\n\nsimply one of the options of the high school curriculum, we find needless\n\nduplications of shop sections of ten to fifteen pupils instead of the desirable\nfull section\n\nmaking complete use of the full equipment ordinarily provided\n\nfor from 25 to 30 pupils.\n\nDr. Wooden says:\n\nThe weekly program for a manual-training school cannot be made to fit, or co-operate\nadvantageously with, the program of a classical school. The manual contingent of classes\n\n—\n\nand they should go with full ranks, or there will be lack\neconomy in teachers; hence they cannot combine with other students in academic\nstudies.\nAgain, they study different subjects, and they generally take the studies they\nhave in common a different number of times per week. When book drawing and shopwork are required of every pupil, the boy recites three academic lessons daily, and his\nmathematics, science, and foreign language or history come four times each per week;\nhis English, three times a week for four years.\nThe classical pupil generally has four\nrecitations daily, and each five times a week.\nhave double periods in the shop\nof\n\nA class in Latin or history may range from ten to forty pupils. A shop class under\none teacher should never exceed twenty-four, and when a tool laboratory is fitted for\ntwenty -four boys, the twenty-fifth boy drifts idly about without bench, lathe or anvil, and\n\nman who boards a sleeper at midnight and finds all the berths\nHence the few shop boys out of a large classical section are generally sent to\nshop by themselves. Whenever I visit the shops of a manual-training high school, I find\nevery place occupied and the teacher's services fully utilized; while in the high school in\nwhich rnanual training is optional, I generally find the shop divisions small and the\nteacher's time partly wasted.\nNo two musical notes were ever more discordant than the\nweekly program of a classical and of a regular manual-training school.\nfeels as forlorn as does the\n\noccupied.\n\nThe independent manual- training\n\nschool,\n\nbetter teaching thru constant correlation of the\nlaboratories, and class-rooms.\n\ntoo,\n\noffers\n\nopportunity\n\nfor\n\nwork of the various shops,\n\nOne teacher can reinforce another, one branch\n\nillumine and strengthen another in a way that is not possible where manual\ntraining is simply an elective for pupils taking little of the remainder of their\n\nwork in common. On this point, Mr. Charles F. Warner of the Mechanics\nArts High School of Springfield, Mass., writes me as follows:\nIn an independent manual-training high school there can be systematic correlation\n\nbetween the work of the various departments, each deriving support, illustration, application, etc.,\n\nfrom one or more of the others.\n\nFor example, there is constant application\n\nof certain principles of physics, chemistry, and mechanics, as well as general mathematics,\nin the forge shop, machine shop, pattern making shop, etc.\n\nThe work in plane and solid\n\ngeometry and all the work of the drawing room support each other constantly.\n\nIt is\n\neasy to enforce these correlative reasons upon students having some interest in the correlations; but to a class of mixed pupils reference to the experiences of the shop or drawing\nroom would be entirely meaningless. It is not true, however, in my opinion, as some\nhave stated, that classical and literary references fall flat upon the ears of manual training\nschool students.\nI find them ready to take up with literary work involving the study of\n\nthe classics through translation.\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSPECIAL MANUAL-TRAINING HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n579\n\nThis judgment tallies exactly with that expressed by Dr. Woodward of\nSt. Louis, in discussing this question a year ago.\n\nMany of you will remember\n\nthat he said that too much stress could not be laid on the more efficient correlation possible between the teachers and subjects of the independent manual-\n\ntraining school.\n\nFor example all the processes of our forging shop, our brazing and soldering shops\nOur geometry, plane and\nsolid, gets uncounted illustrations and applications from \"projection,\" \"intersection,\"\nand \"shadow\" drawing. The exercises of the machine shop serve to illustrate the principles of friction, moments, the development of heat, electricity, the action of steam,\ncompressed air, etc. All these illustrations would fall flat and weak upon the ears and\neyes of pupils studying Greek instead of shopwork and drawing.\nOn the other hand, before a class of manual boys whose acquaintance with the traditional fields of study is of necessity limited, all reference to mythology, Greek and Roman\nare used to illustrate the principles of physics and chemistry.\n\nand the writings of Homer, Virgil, and Cicero, generally\nand application. I recall a scholarly and venerable teacher of ethics and\npolitical economy who always found engineering students \"woefully ignorant of matters\nwhich every well-educated person ought to know.\" Had he gone into their technical\nlectures and into their engineering laboratories, and been put on the rack himself, he in\nturn would have been found \"woefully ignorant of matters which every well-educated\nperson ought to know.\" When manual and classical students mix in classes, profitable\nhistory,\n\nclassical biography,\n\nlacks force\n\ncorrelation is well-nigh impossible.\n\nThe larger high-school attendance in communities supporting the two\nkinds of high school is another argument for the independent manual-training\nschool.\n\nCompare,\n\nif\n\nyou\n\nplease, the attendance\n\non two traditional high\n\nschools in any city supporting such, with the attendance in any similar city\n\nsupporting both kinds of schools.\ndifferent in\n\nWherever the populations are widely\n\nnumber, compute the number of students for every thousand\n\ninhabitants and you will find that, where you have the independent manualtraining high school, the attendance runs from 10 to 20 per cent, greater and\n\nThe fact is, that the\n\nthe attendance of boys from 15 to 30 per cent, greater.\n\nmanual-training high school attracts and holds a large number of pupils who\n\ndo not go to the traditional high school offering excellent manual training as\n\nan elective or optive.\n\nDISCUSSION\nCharles D. Larkins, principal of Manual Training High School, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nManual\ntraining, as a means of expression, should form a part of the curriculum of every high\nschool, and every elementary school, too.\nManual training in the high school stands\nI\n\nwish to register my protest against separate manual-training high schools.\n\nfor general education.\n\nEither the training derived is essential or it is not.\n\nIf\n\nit is,\n\nit\n\nshould be accessible to all, and if it is not, it should be discontinued altogether.\n\nWilliam Schu-^ler, assistant principal of William McKinley High School, St. Louis,\n\nMo.\n\n—In the Middle West, the influence of the college course\n\nsmall percentage of the pupils take it.\n\nis\n\nalmost nothing, only a\n\nThe manual-training course is as important as\n\nThe matter of program can be arranged if one will take extra trouble. It has\nbeen successfully managed in the McKinley High School. It is a good thing for a pupil\n\nany.\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n58o\n\nin the classical course to have\n\nhands.\n\n[Manual Training\n\nan opportunity to learn to express his thought with his\n\nIt makes him a better all-round man.\n\nThey do not as yet exist in the schools of the Middle West.\n\nAs for class distinctions.\n\nGirls of well-to-do families are fond of cooking and laundry work and boys of carpentry\nskill.\n\nDemocratic ideals prevail.\n\nSons of street-car conductors and daughters of police-\n\nmen hold high positions in the schools if they win merit.\n\nI\n\nhope that class distinctions\n\nwill never enter our schools.\n\nHenry Turner Bailey, educational editor, Worcester, Mass.\n\n—\n\nAre we not wasting\nThe fact is that manual training, if it is taught\n\ntime in opposing theory with theory ?\n\nat all in towns and small cities, will have to form a part of the general course.\n\nIn larger\n\ncities, it will\n\nhave to be considered as a part of one or more courses offered by the one\n\nhigh school.\n\nIn still larger cities, there will be a separate manual-arts high school estab-\n\nlished, when the first building is outgrown and courses become more clearly differentiated.\n\nAnd when our cities get large enough, we shall have still further differentiated schools,\nlike the professional schools of Paris\n\n—schools for furniture makers, for\n\nprinters,\n\nfor\n\ndesigners, for potters, for housekeepers, for dressmakers and milliners, all for pupils of\n\nsixteen years old\n\n—commercial high schools, agricultural high schools, and\n\nand upward\n\nwhatever else we need.\n\nFORMS AND LIMITATIONS OF HANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL\nKATHARINE E. DOPP, EXTENSION DIVISION, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO\n\nHandwork for girls in the high school is a subject concerning which there\nis\n\na great diversity of opinion.\n\nThis diversity, however, is not a matter of\n\nmere opinion, but an expression of the various forces involved in social progress.\nInstitutions are not fixed, but are constantly subject to change.\ntherefore, is not a matter\n\nEducation,\n\nwhich can be adjusted once for all times.\n\nNo\n\ncourse of study, no system of training, however excellent it may be, can be\n\nguaranteed to meet the needs of any future age.\n\nCertain social demands are\n\npermanent, to be sure, but their forms change from age to age.\n\nOthers,\n\ntho transient, linger long after social changes have rendered them obsolete.\n\nTo evaluate the different demands, therefore, it is necessary to place them in\ntheir proper perspective and learn their social significance.\n\nTo many people, the demand for handwork for girls in the high school\nmeans that girls should be provided with an opportunity to learn a few fragments of industrial processes which still survive in many homes, in spite of\nthe inroads which are continually being made by the modern industrial\nsystem. To learn in an amateur way how to cook and serve a few articles\nof food, how to cut, fit, and make a few garments, and, possibly, how to make\na few kinds of fancy work is assumed by many people to be proper work for\ngirls and the only forms of handwork which it is worth the while to provide\nfor them.\n\nThis demand is not a demand of the present, it comes from a remote\npast.\n\nIt originated not in the period of house industries, when women were\n\nthe pioneers, the captains of industry, in all those arts which are now com-\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN'^THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n581\n\nprised in the industrial system; but from a period intervening between that\n\ntime and the present.\n\nIt\n\nwas when the majority of men were compelled to\n\ngive up the violent work of the hunter and the warrior and take up a large\n\npart of the work of women that the latter ceased to carry on the entire process\n\nand confined themselves to those phases which could be carried on most\nhome. The habits of Hfe formed during the Middle Ages\nare thus the basis of the theory that the chief aim in woman's education is\nWithout questioning the value of these arts,\nto teach her to cook and to sew.\nas a small part of the education of both boys and girls, let us pass to another\nstage in the evolution of the idea that woman's sole work is within the home.\neasily within the\n\nThe department of household administration in our universities is a direct\nresponse to the changes which have been wrought by the factory system.\n\nThe organization of labor,\n\nthe establishment of world markets,\n\nand the\n\ntendency to sacrifice human welfare to commercial gain are a few of many\n\nmodern conditions which place upon woman in the home social responsibilities\nof the greatest importance.\nAs manager of the processes of consumption,\nwoman in the home comes into vital contact with industrial and social processes\nat many points.\n\nThe welfare of the home is so closely associated with that\n\nof society as a whole, that it is no longer possible to administer the activities\nof the home in an effective way, without a trained mind, a breadth of view, a\n\nwealth of information, and a rational insight into industrial and social conditions.\n\nHence the demand for training in household administration comes,\n\nnot for girls of the high school, but for college women who combine maturity\nof mind with a liberal culture.\n\nThe demand that girls shall be taught a little music, painting, fancy\nneedlework, and fragments of other kindred arts, which seldom have an\n\neconomic value, is a survival of ancient theories of woman which survive in\ncertain portions of the leisure class, and, in a modified form, affect the position\nof woman in all classes.\nThe root idea back of this demand is the fact that\nwoman, even in primitive times, was slightly inferior to man in the activities\nwhich depended upon the exercise of violence and extreme muscular force.\nThis inferior fighting capacity, which at an early date was one of the factors\nwhich led to woman's subjection, by no means freed her from the necessity\n\nof carrying on a great variety of industrial processes, which called for a large\n\nexpenditure of muscular strength combined with continuity of effort.\n\nBut\n\nwith the increase of wealth and power, which resulted in the formation of a\nleisure class, the women of this privileged class under the social pressure of\n\nthe age, refrained more and more from useful occupations and devoted themselves to those superficial arts which enabled them to exercise influence over\n\nmen in indirect ways.\n\nAnd since men of the leisure class esteemed women\n\nmore for their power to please than for real social service, and since they\nneeded to justify this preference to themselves as well as to the world, they\ninvented the idea that woman is a feeble creature, unfitted for work, and that\nshe must, consequently, be kept under man's tutelage.\n\nUnder such condi-\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n582\n\n[Manual Training\n\ntions, the idea that was prevalent during the Middle Ages, regarding\n\nwoman\n\nas a symbol of the sensual element in life and the tempter of man, is a natural\n\nconsequence.\n\nThe evil effects of the abnormal relation thus established is\n\nevident to one who is able to judge social questions impartially.\n\nThat this\n\nabnormal relation persists in respectable society is partly due to the fact that\nit is\n\nclosely associated with the idea that\n\n—an object\n—and thus has\n\nwoman is an angel\n\nbe worshiped, a being whose function it is to inspire man\n\nto\n\nit\n\nbecome so closely bound up with our deepest emotions that it tends to escape\nrational control.\nBut we have reason to hope that, with the advance in\npopular intelligence, which is bound to result from the growth of the scientific\nspirit, all classes will\n\nbe able to perceive the social degradation involved in\n\ndemands which find expression in a system of education which tends to enslave\nboth man and woman.\nThat young women shall take upon themselves the duties of motherhood\nis a permanent social demand, the importance of which has led not a few to\nconceive motherhood as the one function of woman. And so blind are many\nof the adherents of this idea to all but the immediate physiological fact that,\n\nas yet, no provision has been made by educational institutions to prepare\nyoung women for the responsibihties of this important function. So little\n\nhas this social demand affected education, except in a negative way, that it\n\nwould not be necessary to refer to it at this time were it not for the fact that\nthe wise fulfilment of this function is largely dependent upon the character\nof the education \\v^hich girls receive during the period of growth.\n\nThe needs\n\nof young people thruout the period of adolescence, as well as during infancy\n\nand childhood, together with the necessity for a community of interests between\nhusband and wife, in large as well as in small matters, unite in creating a\ndemand for the largest and wisest education possible as a basis for training\nin motherhood.\n\nThe professional, the special training, however, is not for\n\nthe high school period, but rather for maturer years of later adolescence.\n\nThe best spirit of modern times recognizes woman as an individual before\nit\n\nrecognizes woman as a mother.\n\nThis is no detraction from the high place\n\nunanimously given to motherhood, but rather, the means for still further\nexalting one of the noblest functions of life.\n\nBy recognizing woman as an\n\nindividual, we recognize human needs, we make provision for normal growth,\n\nwe insure a high quality of social service in any department of life.\nThe enlarged conception of motherhood, and the change taking place\nin regard to household duties are manifestations of the spirit of the age and\n\nexpressions of a new social ethics.\nright\n\nis\n\nby no means obsolete;\n\nThe primitive principle that mighi makes\n\nyet this principle, together with that of the\n\nMiddle Ages which substituted generosity for forcCj within narrow limits, is\ngradually giving way to the higher standard involved in the idea of justice.\n\nThe idea that an individual is born, to a fixed social position is no longer\naccepted in our own land. ''Freedom of opportunity,\" \"freedom to rise,\"\nare famiUar expressions of the spirit of the age.\nTo be sure, many who voice\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\nDepartment]\n\nHANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nMeanwhile, women are\n\nthese sentiments do not appreciate their full force.\nfinding a place in the larger world.\n\n583\n\nIn this larger world their case will be\n\ntried, and all must abide by the facts.\n\nThose most vitally interested in human welfare today should desire to\nsee all girls educated to be able to be economically independent.\n\nTheoretically,\n\nwomen marry and depend upon their husbands.\n\nBut in actual\n\nto be sure,\n\nhusbands frequently take sick and die and leave their wives with children\nThe frequency of divorce is another factor with which we shall\nto support.\nlife,\n\nhave to reckon, and when we add to this Hst the number of women who have\nworthless husbands and are obliged to take the full responsibility of supporting\nthe family, to say nothing of the number of women who for various reasons\n\ndo not marry, it is evident that the woman who is not trained to be economically\nindependent will be crushed in the machinery of modern life.\n\nUnder such\n\nconditions, what sane woman would not seek to be economically independent ?\n\nUnder such conditions, what mental aberration could lead man to call her\n\"a greedy money- taker ?\nIn order to determine the character of the education to be provided for\na given stage of development, we must reckon not merely with social demands,\nbut with individual interests, aptitudes, and needs.\n\nIf the specialists\n\nwho\n\nhave given most attention to early adolescence are correct, there is no place\n\nany kind. The physical basis for\nThe \"switch-board\" connection of\n\nin the high school for specialization of\nsafe\n\nspecialization\n\nis\n\nnot yet made.\n\nnerve fibers, upon which basis alone speciaHzation can be carried on without\ndanger, is not yet completed.\nfor carrying on activities\n\nThe high-school period is, therefore, a period\n\nwhich will foster the growth of the nervous system\n\nand not a time for activity which arrests development by premature specialiOn purely physiological grounds, there is no place in the high school\nfor the study of cooking as mere cooking, or for a special study of any of the\nPhysical, intellectual, and moral\narts which belong to the vocations of life.\nneeds are more pressing, at this time, than the arts which belong to mature\n\nzation.\n\nyears.\n\nBut, when instead of one art or craft, we consider the place of many typical\narts and crafts, the situation assumes a different aspect.\n\nThe exercise afforded\n\nin acquiring skill in any art or craft is the very exercise which is necessary to\n\nsecure the growth of certain nerves and muscles.\n\nAnd if, while this skill is\n\nbeing acquired, attention is given to developing other physical co-ordinations,\nthru the exercise of other crafts, a more complete development of the nervous\n\nsystem will be insured than could come from less varied activity.\n\nBut the\nand crafts must meet other needs, if they are to have a large place in\neducation. It is clear that they embody specific interests which are appropriate to childhood, but do they embody or lead up to the large interests, the\ncomprehensive truths formulated in literature, history, ajid science? These\nquestions are fundamental ones, for the intellectual demands of the period\nrequire the presentation of large subjects embodying fundamental truths,\narts\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n584\n\n[Manual Training\n\nwhich, tho dimly apprehended at first, have the power to set the mind in\nquest of particular facts necessary to illumine them.\n\nThe emotions, too,\n\nwhich tend to become morbid when introspection occupies a large part of\nneed the tonic of objective interests\n\nlife,\n\nto direct\n\nthem\n\ninto\n\nwholesome\n\nchannels.\n\nFormal education, by divorcing the symbols of knowledge from the vital\nexperiences of life, has become an instrument very poorly adapted to meet\nthe needs of the age.\n\nThe arts and crafts are needed in education in order\nThe great subjects of study in the schools\n\nto maintain the integrity of life.\n\nare merely generalized statements of what has been taking place in the world.\n\nWhen we understand this, and when we understand that the typical forms\nof handwork are means of giving young people a first-hand experience, which\nwill enable them to translate the abstract statements of textbooks into terms\n\nof real life, we shall be in a position to grapple more effectively, than at present,\n\nwith all educational problems.\n\nHandwork may be classified in as many ways as there are interests in\nhuman life. Differences to be found among such great departments of human\nknowledge as industry, science, and art are not differences in materials, but\n\nWhere the arts and crafts are introduced\n\ndifferences in purpose and method.\n\ninto the schools for their educational rather than for their narrow utilitarian\n\nvalue, the lines of demarkation between industry, science,\n\nexceedingly faint.\n\nand art, become\n\nFor present purposes, then, we may treat the occupations\n\nunderlying the three great departments of knowledge with reference to the\ninterests which become well differentiated during the high-school period.\n\ninterest in tangible products requires that place be given to occupations\nallied to the industrial processes of life.\n\nSuch occupations serve to establish\n\nconnections between the school and the industrial life of the community, and\n\nthey present the opportunity for a valuable study of typical industries and\nindustrial and social conditions in the larger world.\n\nBut, if these occupations\n\nare treated as ends in themselves, if they are not related to the fundamental\ntruths embodied in such subjects as industrial and social history, commercial\n\ngeography, and elementary treatises on economics, the value of the experiences\n\ngained will be limited to personal and local affairs.\n\nAs interest in the discovery and formulation of general truths becomes\nmore and more manifest, those phases of occupations which are capable of\nyielding an experience rich in scientific content should receive especial attention.\n\nUnder such circumstances,\n\nthere\n\nis\n\na tendency to conceive certain\n\nphases of occupations as experiments for the ascertainment of scientific truth.\n\nAnd as interests become differentiated, it is desirable to have occupations\nclassified with reference to such subjects as mechanics, physics, physiography,\n\nbiology,\n\nand chemistry.\n\nThe laboratory work, now given in the high schools, is a great advance\nupon the study of mere books.\n\nBut it falls far short of a kind of work it\nAt present, it partakes too much\n\nought to be possible to substitute for it.\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nof the nature of sets of dictation exercises.\n\n585\n\nAnd, altho these exercises serve\n\nto exemplify scientific truths, in a majority of cases, the student is left without\n\nany appreciation of their real meaning. Could great scientists, who combine\nknowledge and skill with broad sympathies and a liberal culture,\nselect and present those phases of typical industrial processes which best\nspecial\n\nillustrate\n\nfundamental\n\nscientific truths,\n\nthey would render a social service,\n\nof inestimable value.\n\nGirls as well as boys need the physical development as well as the insight\n\nwhich comes from the use of tools and simple machines. The mechanical\nprinciples, since they are of such wide appHcation as to be essential ideas\nin the construction of all modes of shelter, all machinery, all vehicles of transportation, and bridges, to say nothing of the products of the lesser constructive\narts, are of too great\n\nimportance to be treated as lightly as they are in our\n\ntextbooks and courses of study.\n\nA course in mechanics, accompanied by labo-\n\nratory work of a nature to illustrate mechanical principles as used in simple\n\nmachines, in architecture, and bridge-building, would be of genuine interest\n\nand value to both boys and girls.\nInterest in process, interest in technique\n\nmay require the treatment of\n\noccupations, from time to time, from the standpoint of materials.\n\nSuch\n\nmaterials as food-stuffs, textiles, wood, metal, clay, crayons, and paints may\n\neach require special consideration for a time in order that the student may\nacquire an understanding of the possibilities and limitations of each, and\nsufficient skill to make a satisfactory use of each in the study of larger subjects.\n\nWhen a student learns from actual experience that each material imposes\nits\n\nown style of treatment, whether it be a vegetable to be cooked as an article\n\nof food, wool to be manufactured into clothing, wood to be constructed into\n\na house, clay to be modeled into a cup, or paper and crayons to be used in\n\ndrawing a landscape, he has become familiar with a principle which is essential\nto good taste as well as good workmanship.\n\nThe manifestation of the tendency to idealize life requires that occupations\nbe conceived as fine arts.\nfine arts are\n\none\n\n;\n\nIn their origin the constructive activities and the\n\nthey begin to differentiate with the dawning consciousness\n\nof the difference between the real and the ideal.\n\nin early childhood, but\n\nThis differentiation begins\n\nno rigid separation is made, except when the indi-\n\nvidual is compelled to carry on the struggle for existence under hard conditions.\n\nIn so far as the constructive activities afford an adequate expression for the\nemotions as well as for the intellect, in so far as they relate themselves to the\nlarger interests of life, they ally themselves with the fine arts.\n\nform, the constructive and the fine arts belong together.\n\nOn the side of\nOn the side of\n\ncontent, they tend to differentiate, the content of the fine arts being\nidealized,\n\nmore permanent, more\n\nuniversal.\n\nIt is\n\nmore\n\nnot the work, but the\n\nattitude of the worker, which determines whether an activity is artistic.\n\nThe\n\nmaking of a loaf of bread can lend itself to artistic treatment as well as the\npainting of a landscape. But if the pleasure be merely in the finished product,\nin neither case is the worker an artist.\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n586\n\n[Manual Training\n\nTo isolate the fine arts from the fundamental subjects which embody\nthe life of the people, is to divorce them from the sources from which they\n\ndraw their life.\n\nWe shall seek in vain for large subjects for art, if we ignore\n\nthese lowly relations.\n\nTho the freest of arts, its freedom is secured only by\n\na subordination of itself to conditions imposed by the constructive arts.\n\nFrom the point of view of individual interests, aptitudes, and needs, there\nis no\n\nground, during the high-school period, for making a distinction between\n\nthe educational work of boys and girls.\n\nSuch slight differences as are due\n\nto natural causes find ample recognition in elective courses and in a certain\n\nmargin of optional work within required courses.\nIn the consideration of social demands, we have already noticed obsolete\nideas which tend to limit the education of girls.\nis\n\nThe social pressure, which\n\nbrought to bear upon girls from babyhood onward, is responsible for by\n\nfar the greater number of differences between boys and girls.\n\nAnd when we\n\nconsider the serious consequences of maintaining conditions which deprive\n\nany portion of the race from an opportunity for full development, we shall\ncertainly refuse to lend assistance to retrogressive movements.\n\nA social limitation, which applies equally to boys and girls, is the fact\nthat our educational practice is still closely allied to an obsolete psychology.\n\nEven in our great educational institutions there is not a sufficient recognition\nof the fact that technical skill should be organically related to the elements\n\nof a liberal culture.\n\nAs long as teachers of history, literature, and science are\n\nallowed to* make use of formal methods, as long as teachers of the manual\narts are permitted to confine their attention to purely technical matters, so\n\nfrom opportunities of development, so\n\nlong will the individual be cut\n\noff\n\nlong will the individual\n\nbe equipped for the highest social service.\n\nfail to\n\nAs long as the\" manual arts are divorced from the achievements of mankind,\nso long will education fail to connect with the forces which make for progress.\n\nAn education which gives one class a conceit of knowledge and a distaste for\nhonest work, and an education which gives another class mere skill without\nthe enlightenment of ideas will tend to widen the\nhostility\n\nbetween social classes.\n\nchasm and increase the\n\nAnd, while it may be too much to expect\n\nany immediate result from a more organic education, the influence of every\non good ground, and\nsprang up, and bare fruit an hundredfold.\"\n\neffort in this direction is that of the seed which' 'fell\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Anna C. Hedges,\nBrooklyn, N. Y.\n\ndirector of department of domestic art, Pratt Institute,\n\n— Fortunately for the purpose of\n\nthis\n\npaper discussion,\n\nlike criticism,\n\nmay endorse the matter under consideration. I shall attempt to sustain the argument\npresented by Miss Dopp by recalling and expanding a selection from her topics\nI.\n\nThat woman's position as an individual, and as a social factor, is progressing from\n\nthe traditionally dependent state toward one encouraging economic independence.\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n587\n\nThat the high-school period is not favorable to specialization in studies, because of\nstill made by human nature, for a co-ordinated development, physically,\n\n2.\n\nthe claim,\n\nmentally, morally.\n\nThat handwork as studies, embodying many arts and crafts, and representing the\n\n3.\n\nfundamental truths of man's achievement in developing and controlling himself and\nnature, preserves the integrity of hfe, and is thus a means of organizing and unifying each\none's thought of the world.\n4.\n\nThat a Uberal education is one which will ally its methods with the coexisting pro-\n\ngressive forces and direct the individual toward that highest social service which is reached\n\nthrough an understanding of the social significance of one's life and work.\n\nThe first topic selected presents the tendency toward greater justice in considering\n\nwoman as a self-respecting and worthy-to-be-respected factor in the economic, as well\nThis tendency calls for recognition and furtherance in education.\nEven in this naturally resourceful country, wheie a few centuries built up a leisure-class\nidea about and among women, untoward circumstances and general progress interfere\nas in the social, world.\n\nwith the continuance in fact of the dependent idea.\n\nThe harmful affect of an unfitting\n\ntoward life-responsibilities is everywhere apparent in discontent and maladjustments. Each one creates a demand for necessities and a margin of luxuries. These\nare supplied by labor.\nThe welfare of all depends on an adequate supply of these neces-\n\nattitude\n\nsities\n\nand luxuries.\n\nHence,\n\nthis\n\ncommunity of interests should make productive labor\n\na matter for general participation, according to individual ability, choice, and preparation.\n\nTo lead high-school students into this attitude of social helpfulness, thru a more complete\nself-realization, is the\n\naim of handwork.\n\nWe believe this attitude is more reasonably\n\nfurthered by studying the arts and crafts as factors in civilization, than by studying present detached and purely technical occupations.\n\nThe student who follows the evolution\n\nof art and industry, actually realizing and solving the then-existing problems, feels and\n\nunderstands the contribution of manual labor to progress.\n\nThe truths of science, art,\n\nand not mere book statements. Present processes\nand products will be a systematic growth from roots in past conditions of development.\nThis social background to industry will tend to vitalize, with helpful appreciation, the\ndesire and necessity for woman's economic independence for individual responsibility.\n\nindustry, are thus experienced facts,\n\nThe contribution of the high school, to such a consistent educational foundation,\nmust be planned in accordance with the student's stage of development. It is the period\nwhen large masses of light and shade in the world picture ought to be blocked out. Later\neducation in school or life has the opportunity of more completely comprehending and\nrefining these masses with details.\n\nIf these details are brought in before the masses are\n\nand relationship are lost, and the mental, moral, or physical\nhuman beings gets out of drawing. Much valuable time and many mishaps are spared\nthe individual whose high-school period gives a picture of civilization correctly drawn\nand with proper values. Then follows the period for special enrichment.\nThe third topic claims that many arts and crafts, illustrating man's achievement\nwell placed, proportion\n\ndown the ages, have a justifiable place in the high school in preserving the unity of life.\nIf experience in these arts and crafts is\n\ngained in connection with other contemporaneous\n\naspects of Hfe of the period being studied, a consistent thought of life is made possible.\n\nDisregard, in courses of study, for historic grouping plays havoc with the students' grasp\n\nand consequences, and a patchwork, fragmentary knowledge of\nBut when the arts and crafts are studied as woven into the warp and woof\nof social life, the inherent corelation of all human endeavor will require no external forcing in the curriculum. The continuity of life and thought will be demonstrated by the\n\nof causes, conditions,\nlife results.\n\nexistence of the past in the present, the forms having changed, but the content of truth\neverlasting.\n\nIsolation of studies is attributable to the faculty psychology, which justified\n\nstudies for their power of sectionally disciplining the mind.\n\nThe mind is now conceived\n\nto act as a unit in response to training, but methods still partake of the old formalism.\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n588\n\n[Manual Training\n\nHandwork shows this isolation in its utiUtarian aspect, which trains for immediate ends,\nManual arts are unquestionably educational only when they reveal, preserve, and actualize the relations between\nman and progressive forces, when they convert human energy into capacity, then into\nor in its educational aspect, which deals with abstracted processes.\n\npower for understanding and controlUng man and his environment. High-school educawhich so incorporates the great events of civiHzation as to enable the student to\nhave an organized and available review of the past thoroly related to the present, will\ntion,\n\ngive a mental flexibility necessary to adequately share this world's work.\n\nThe educator's problem is the proper upbuilding of these thought masses, from\nthe range of human achievement in art, science, industry.\n\nIn this selection, another\n\"committee of ten\" or more great artists, scientists, and craftsmen might profitably be\nasked to contribute the Hght of their special investigation. The body of fundamental\ntruths thus obtained, when classified and arranged in historic periods by educators, would\nfurnish organically related material to be worked thru by students.\nThe comparison\nof these ideals and standards of achievement, transmitted by institutions from age to\nage, should beget humble-mindedness as our debt to the past is appreciated.\nThe selfcentering of high-school students will be turned to objective interests in thus viewing\n\nArts and\n\nworld movements and comprehending the interworking of all forces in hfe.\n\ncrafts will then take their rightful place in an education which aims to Hberate the indi-\n\nvidual from fettering restrictions of custom and tradition into a service in which men\nand women are mutual helpmates, where freedom and equality means economic and\nsocial interdependence.\n\n—\n\nMrs. Annie L. Jessup, director of domestic art, New York city. Handwork in\nand vocational. From the view-point of\nindividual interests and aptitudes, there is a ground for a division in the education of\ngirls and boys.\nThis difference may be made, I think, without retarding progressive\neducation; and I shall argue this afternoon for the behef in some of the obsolete ideas\nthe high school should be, I beUeve, specific\n\nthat are said to Umit the education of girls.\n\nWhat is education but a training for life ?\nduties\n\n—\n\nIs there not sufficient dignity in the home\n\nduties which have in the past, and I hope will still in the future form a large part\n\n— warrant a training especially\n\nwoman's place in the world\n\nto\n\nfor domestic art and science ?\n\nThe child in the elementary school has had from seven to eight years of manual\ntraining.\nThe principles of construction have been taught progressively from the kindergarten thru the grammar grades. In an all-absorbing process, the child has gained\na mastery over his movements, and with the development of thought comes the acquisition\nof skill in the use of his tools.\n\nIf the thought-value of this\n\nwork has been realized, if\n\nthe work has been enriched by the social needs and conditions, there has now come a\n\ntime for a specialization that will mean greater efl&ciency.\n\nIn this motor education the emphasis has been largely upon the educational value\nhandwork. Manual training is in no sense technical training, but it certainly\n\nof the\n\nforms a valuable preparation for work in the secondary school\n\n—work which,\n\nI think,\n\nshould be largely utiHtarian, a word that seems in such disfavor that I hesitate to use it.\n\nBut why should this utiUtarian point of view divorce the subject from thought value ?\nThere appears to be a fear that in the development of the brain, so as to give the hand\nthe skill to do, there should be a possibiUty of the boy or girl gaining a power which will\ncontribute to the world's needs; a fear that some skill should be acquired which will\naid in the struggle for bread and butter.\n\nThe knowledge gained by girls that should be specific and technical has the advanDo we realize, in these days of\n\ntage of being of immense practical value in after-life.\n\neducational advancement, that the danger to ci%T[Uzation in this generation\n\nis\n\nthe fact\n\nand domestic duties are threatening to become things of the past. Do\nwe not know that more and more is expected from the schools in ethical training training which, in the early days of our country, was the result of the influence in the home.\nthat home hfe\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHANDWORK FOR GIRLS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\n589\n\nI make an earnest plea for the teaching of domestic art and science in the high schools,\nIf girls were better equipped\nknowledge of industrial processes, household arts and science^ equipped so as\nthere would be fewer women whose ideal\nto grapple with the economic problems of life\nLet us give the\nof life is to undertake work which leads them away from the home.\n\nnot only in the technical high schools but in all high schools.\n\n—\n\nin the\n\n—\n\nhigh-school girls dressmaking, millinery, embroidery, and cooking!\n\nOne of the strong arguments in favor of hand training is the respect it inspires for\nIs this reasoning justified by the constant effort made to endow the sub-\n\nmanual labor.\n\nject with a dignity\n\nborrowed from other subjects ?\n\nIs there not sufficient richness of\n\ncontent in the courses in domestic arts and sciences to render them of sufficient value in\n\nthemselves ?\n\nThe study of food stuffs and applied chemistry in cooking;\n\nthe study of\n\nmechanics involving the use of the sewing machine and the loom; the study of textiles\nwith its great field of research; the great question of household economics; and the\nnecessary correlation with art work in the various principles of design, as applied to the\nparticular handicraft, all form a firm background of mental development.\n\nIn limiting the work for girls in the high schools to the household arts I am in no\n\nway under-rating the value of hand training in the use of metals, wood, and other materials;\n\nbut, with the amount of academic work required in the curriculum, is it not neces-\n\nsary to choose subjects which will best fit the boy or girl for the environments of future\n\nThere is sufficient space in a high-school course of study, if wisely planned, to\n\nlife ?\n\ngive a comparatively thoro knowledge of certain industrial processes, providing the time\nis not\n\ndissipated in gaining a superficial knowledge of many.\n\nIn making this plea for household art in the high schools I am in no way conflicting\n\nSuch a school would mean a purely technical\nOther countries recognize the need for training girls in handicrafts which are especially adapted for a woman's\nwith the curriculum of the trade school.\n\ncourse with the aim in view of a commercial value for the work.\n\nneeds.\n\nThe professional schools in Paris, the Girls' Technical School in Naples, under\n\nthe patronage of\n\nQueen Margherita, continue the academic work from the grades thru\n\na high-school course, and also train the students in feminine handicrafts.\n\n—\n\nWilliam Noyes, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city. I wish to\nsay a word in emphasis of the point made by Miss Dopp, that our courses in manual\ntraining should not serve a false purpose, by emphasizing what may be merely a reaction-\n\nary movement.\n\nBecause, since mediaeval and colonial times, our women have been prin-\n\ncipally engaged in those forms of domestic work which are known as cooking and sewing,\nit\n\ndoes not follow that those are educationally the best forms of activity for them.\n\nThe\n\nfact is, that these forms of activity are merely the remnants of a much wider field of activ-\n\nOne by one we men have taken these industries out of the home\nand put them into the factory, until now there only remain a few relics; but there is no\nintrinsic reason why these and these alone should occupy women's attention, and the attempt\nto confine our teaching in handwork to them alone may be utterly reactionary.\nThis point\nmay be illustrated by our present attitude toward the arts and crafts movement. The\narts and crafts, as they existed in the mediaeval age, combined the attention of the artistEvery great artistic period has been\nartisans both on the side of design and execution.\none of great control of material, yet our period, which is characterized by greater mastery\nity which they once filled.\n\nof material than any preceding age, is not an artistic period.\nis,\n\nThe reason for this paradox\n\nthat our ability in design has not kept pace mth our power of execution.\n\nWe have\n\narms of steel far stronger than the human arm, and mechanical fingers far more delicate\nthan the human finger, and yet we are not able to produce, from an artistic point of view,\nThe simple reason is, that our power of execution has outthe great works of the past.\nstripped our powers of design.\nJust so in women's work. We are treating women's\nwork as if what were left of her former activities were the sum of her activities. The fact\nis,\n\nwe are passing thru a transition period in industry.\n\nOur women at present are divided,\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\neven more definitely than men, into a leisure and a busy class. Many women have little\nor nothing important to do, and many women are overworked in factory and other employments.\n\nBut the fact that we are passing thru this transition period should not blind us\n\nto the fact that women, as well as men, need to be educated in the whole field of industry.\nIt is not enough to teach this or that disconnected or belated industry.\n\nof industry should be the subject matter of study.\n\nThe whole field\n\nWe are living in a mechanical age and\n\nwhat we teach in our handwork in school should be according to modern mechanical\nNot merely handwork or simple tool-work can satisfy the requirements of\nmodem demands. Our boys and girls must be taught to do things according to modern\nmechanical processes and with the aid of all our modem resources.\nmethods.\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5, 1905\nThe first session of the Department of Art Education was held on Wednesday, July\nIn the absence of\n5, 1905, at 9:30 A, M., in the Young Peoples' Temple, Ocean Grove.\nThe program was\nthe president, the vice-president, Mr. Frank H. ColUns, presided.\nas follows\n\nVice-President's Address, Frank H. ColHns, director of drawing and manual training,\nBoroughs of Queens and Richmond, New York city.\n\"Educational Aspects of Art Education,\" F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis.\n\n\"Lessons to be Drawn From the International Drawing Teachers' Congress at\nBerne,\" by Chas. M. Carter, art director in public schools, Denver, Colo.\n\nThe vice-president then announced the following committees:\nON NOMINATIONS\nWalter S. Goodnough, Chairman, New York city. Miss Helen E. Lucas, Rochester, N. Y.\nMiss Emma M. Church, Chicago, 111.\nWilliam M. Mason, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMrs. Mary E. Van Wagoner, Pittsburg, Pa.\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\nH. T. Bailey, Worcester, Mass.\nLangdon S. Thompson, Chairman, Jersey City, N. J.\nJames Hall, New York city.\n\nA round-table conference was then held. The general topic was, \"The Aims of\nDrawing as a Subject of Public School Instruction.\" Leader, Henry T. Bailey, of\nMassachusetts.\n\nThe program was as follows:\na) \"In the Primary Grades,\" by Miss Emma M. Church, director of normal, general\nand design classes, Academy of Fine Arts, Chicago, 111.\nb) \"In the Grammar Grades,\" by James Hall, director of art department, Ethical\nCulture School, New York city.\nc) \"In High Schools,\" by Frank H. Collins, director of drawing and manual training,\npublic schools. Boroughs of Queens and Richmond, New York city.\nd) A summary of the foregoing papers, by Henry T. Bailey.\n\nart,\n\nThe meeting adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nJoint session with the Department of Manual Training.\n\nThe second session was held on Thursday, July 6, at 2 30 p. m., at the Young Peoples'\nThe vice-president, Frank H. CoUins, presided. The program\n:\n\nTemple, Ocean Grove.\n\nwas as follows:\n\n\"Drawing and Constructive Work in PubUc Schools as Shown at the St. Louis\nExposition,\" by Robert Ashton Kissack, instructor in manual training, Yeatman High\nSchool, St. Louis, Mo.\n\"The Teaching of Applied Design,\" by James P. Haney, director of drawing and\nmanual training, public schools. Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, New York city.\n591\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n592\n\n[Art\n\nDiscussions followed by Mrs. Ida Hood Clark, director of manual training, public\nschools, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\n;\n\nJames Hall, director of art department, Ethical Culture School,\n\nNew York city.\nAt the completion of this program, business was taken up.\n\nThe committee on\n\nnominations reported the following nominees:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Eugene C. Colby, Albany, N. Y.\nFor Vice-President Miss Clara A. Wilson, Davenport, Iowa.\nFor Secretary Miss Helen E. Lucas, Rochester, N. Y.\nExecidive Committee in addition to the officers named:\n\n—Mrs. Matilda E.\nLouis, Mo.\nJames Frederick Hopkins, Boston, Mass.\n—\n—Miss Katherine A.\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nFor the term expiring July, 1908\nFor the term expiring July, 1907\nFor the term expiring July, 1906\n\nRiley, St.\nBall,\n\nThe secretary was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the department for the\nThe vote being so cast, the nominees were declared elected as\naforesaid nominees.\nofficers for the\n\nensuing year.\n\nA resolution was then passed expressing the sympathy of the members of the department with the president of the department, Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley in her illness,\nwhich prevented her attending and presiding at the meetings, and also thanks to Mrs.\nRiley for her efficient work in preparing so excellent a program for the meeting.\nThere being no other business, the department adjourned sine die.\nRobert A. Kissack, Secretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nTHE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF DRAWING\nF.\n\nLOUIS SOLDAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThe evolution of the teaching of drawing in the common schools is one of\nthe most interesting problems for the student of practical education.\n\nWhile\n\nthe study has always been under the direction of experts, the teaching itself\n\nhas largely been done by grade teachers who, as a rule, knew little about\nthe subject beyond\n\nwhat they needed from day to day.\n\nAnd yet, on the\n\nwhole, the results have been good.\n\nThe leaders in the study at the beginning were artists who looked at the\nThere has been an evolution\nan important and essential part\n\ntechnique to be mastered as the chief aim.\nsince those days, not only of the study as\n\nof popular education, but also of a highly efficient body of supervisors\nleaders.\n\nand\n\nThey are now teachers as well as artists, and the needs and interests\n\nof childhood receive the consideration today which they did not find to the\n\nsame extent at the beginning.\n\nThe aim has changed from teaching art to\nThe ideals, purposes, and methods of\n\nthat of educating the child thru art.\n\nhave changed. When Clovis, the Frank, had been converted,\nand was being baptized, the priest said to him, ''Rise, O king! Burn the\ngods to whom you have prayed and pray to the God whom you have burned.\"\ninstruction,\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF DRAWING\n\n593\n\nA similarly radical change has gradually taken place in the ideals of instruction\nin drawing.\n\nThose among us who are old enough to remember ho*v we taught drawing\nago will recall how instruction began with making the child\nattempt the drawing of straight lines a thing which no artist can do or cares\nThe course of instruction\nto do as long as he has a straight edge within reach.\nwas largely copying from outline, drawings representing objects and ornaments,\nwith shading gradually introduced. At a later stage in the evolution of drawing, stress was laid on drawing from the objects themselves, on the drawing\nHistoric ornament, too, became\nof geometric solids with light and shade.\nthirty years\n\n—\n\nAgain, still later, the study of objects of life, of the\n\nthe center of attention.\n\nhuman figure and animals, occupied the foreground, and stress was laid on\nnature study in drawing. More recently the use of color had become prominent, and the study of pictures by famous painters and works of art in general\nwas introduced. Just now it looks as if instruction in \"Design\" and the\nmaking of artistically-planned objects of utility were in culmination.\nOne would imagine that, with a study so shifting and changing in plans\nand methods, distrust and doubt as to its proper place in a system of public\ninstruction would be engendered.\nJust the opposite is the case. The study\nis more firmly established in public opinion than ever, and it has won more\nand more, especially in recent years, the confidence and good-will of the\nteaching profession. It is evident that the changes have brought instruction\nin drawing into closer touch with general education.\nThe mode of evolution\nwas one of enrichment and shifting of stress, rather than one of elimination\nand discontinuance. That is to say, the new topics were taken up not as\nsubstitutes for, but as additions to the preceding methods and subjects.\n\nThe general trend of the evolutionary movement has been in the direction\nfrom merely technical\n\nto pedagogical aims.\n\nIn\n\nall\n\nteaching, the teaching\n\nof drawing included, the most important element is not so much the require-\n\nments of the subject-matter and the ability of the teacher to present it: the\ndepends on the response on the part of the pupil,\n\nreal value of instruction\n\nwhich the subject and the skill of the teacher can arouse.-\n\nNot the teacher's\n\naction, but the reaction on the part of the pupil, is the test of the value of all\ninstruction.\n\nThis conception of education, which makes its chief aim to eUcit a response\n\non the part of the pupils, deserves full consideration.\n\nnumber of important problems.\n\nIt\n\nIt throws Hght on a\nshows how individual training is being\n\ngiven all the time thru class instruction.\n\nThe response or reaction on the\n\npart of the pupil to skillfuUy-tonducted instruction, depends on the individuality of the child.\n\nEach reacts in his own way.\n\nWhen class instruction is\n\nso conducted that it designedly calls out the educational reaction and response\n\non the part of the child, it is a better means of developing individuaUty than\nprivate instruction can ever be.\n\nIndividuality is never developed except thru\n\ntouch and contact with other individuals.\n\nGoethe truly said, that a talent\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n594\n\n[Art\n\nmay grow in silent solitude, but that a character can be formed in no other\nway except thru touch and intercourse with the world.\nJudged by this st^dard, the evolution of drawing has been very wonderful.\none plan after the other until it has found those subjects which\nhave taken hold of child nature and interests. Its present methods call\nIt has tried\n\nforth from childhood a vigorous response.\n\nThe lines along which the experi-\n\nments in the teaching of drawing of the last twenty years have proceeded\nhave led to the discovery of the subjects and methods to which the response\nof childhood could most surely and most strongly be obtained.\n\nThe stress\n\nwhich instruction in drawing now lays on \"Design\" is full of fine educational\nIn \"Design\" there is more individual freedom of the pupil,\npossibilities.\nthere is greater scope for the exercise of choice and aesthetic judgment, than\nthere is in the copying of objects, in the rendering of light and shade,\n\nand\n\ncolor values, because in these, imitation must necessarily prevail.\n\nHe\nHe selects the motive for his design, and according\n\nIn design, on the contrary, the pupil's individuality is displayed.\nis largely self-determined.\n\nto his\n\nown taste and according to his judgment as to the nature and shape\n\nHe selects and studies his unit\nand composes a harmonious whole. His own ideas and feeling enter largely\nIt is true that he takes his motive from the forms\ninto the work of his hand.\nof Nature and life, but he expresses, thru his selection and thru the form\nwhich he gives to it, his own ideas and his spiritual self. The child's work\nin \"Design\" is most closely akin to the general purpose of art, in which the\npurely spiritual idea is presented thru and to the world of sense.\nWhen we speak of drawing in connection with art, it is proper to remember\nnot only their kinship, but also their differences. There is an element in\ndrawing closely related to art. Architecture, sculpture, and painting, rest\nBut drawing\nultimately upon drawing as their condition and beginning.\nserves other purposes as well, that lie outside of the domain of art.\nWhen\nthe engineer sketches part of an engine, his purpose is not at all to produce\na form of beauty to be enjoyed by the beholder. Drawing of this kind lies\noutside of art. When the artisan draws the cupboard he is going to put into\nof the object on which he wishes to place it.\n\nyour pantry, such drawing does not serve an\n\naesthetic but a\n\ncommercial or\n\npractical purpose.\n\nstudy of drawing has practical as well as artistic\nand that the training, which the study gives, is of life-value to the\nchild.\nNo one will doubt the value which the knowledge of writing has.\nIts place in the curriculum is safe and undoubted, because it gives to the child\nthe power of recording and communicating his thought. Yet, there is a\nwhole range of ideas which cannot be recorded or communicated as clearly\nand fully in words, as thru means of drawing. Let anyone try to describe\nthe pattern of a carpet or of a wall paper in words, and compare the idea\nconveyed thru an elaborate essay on such a subject with the idea that can\nbe expressed thru the simplest drawing. Who would build a house on the\nIt is evident that the\n\nutility,\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF DRAWING\n\nDepartment]\n\nbasis of a description in\n\nwords?\n\n595\n\nInvaluable as a knowledge of writing is\n\nas a means of conveying thought, there are things which cannot be expressed\n\nIn some respects and for some occupations,\n\nclearly except thru drawing.\n\ndrawing as a common-school study ranks, in importance, next to writing\nitself.\n\nIn a recent public discussion of the merits of vertical writing, the very\n\ncommon objection was raised, that the average business man did not want\nvertical writing, because the entries in his books had been made in the past\nin slant, and furthermore, that vertical writing would take too much space.\nThe reply made was, the total number of persons in the United States who\nfollow some vocation was about twenty-nine millions; that out of this number,\nthe largest number required,\n\nby their occupation, to make entries in business\n\nor mercantile books was about six-hundred thousand; and that it was not a\n\nproper demand that the twenty-nine million people should forego the advantages of clearness, ease and legibility, which vertical writing secures, because\nof the alleged advantages of slant writing to the six hundred thousand book-\n\nkeepers and accountants.\nIf the table of occupations of persons in the United States were examined,\n\nin regard to the question of the number of vocations in which a knowledge\nof drawing is of value, such inquiry would result in supporting the proposition\n\nmade before; namely, that, for a surprisingly large number of callings, drawing is of an importance that is second only to writing.\n\nPhilosophers claim that language underHes the growth of the mind, which\n\nexpands in the measure in which it finds means to express itself.\nas\n\nit\n\nis\n\nDrawing,\n\ntaught in our schools at present, has become a means for self-\n\nexpression, since in\n\nits\n\nlatest\n\nphases\n\nit\n\ninvites the child to\n\nembody in the\n\nwork of his hands, his own ideas and individuahty. In fact, for some kinds\nof ideas, drawing forms the only adequate means of expression. Instruction in\ndrawing gives to the child a new language. There is connected with the\nproperly conducted work in drawing a growth of the child soul comparable\nonly to the growth which is experienced thru the work with language and\nliterature.\n\nThere is no need of limiting th» educational usefulness of drawing to the\nfact that it finds application in numerous practical pursuits of life.\n\nInstruction\n\nin drawing gives to every child, no matter what his specific Hfe-work is to be,\n\na better sense of form, of proportion and symmetry, of the harmonious grouping\n\nand of neatness and cleanliness. It gives deftness and dexterity\nIt trains hand, eye, and mind, in those habits of co-ordinated\nactivity which are a constant advantage to the individual, whether his life\nof things,\n\nto the fingers.\n\nis a battle\n\nor a pleasure trip.\n\nIt is also evident that\n\nchildren.\n\ndrawing has an influence on the mental habits of\n\nWhen the child draws a flower, an effort at close observation is\n\nrequired which no other process of inspection involves.\n\nBid a class of children\n\nlook at a flower, then put it away and ask how many petals it has, and you\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n596\n\n[Art\n\nLet the children draw the flower\n\nwill be surprised at the variety of opinions.\n\nand the number of pet^-ls will be fixed in their recollections by the very act\nof drawing.\n\nThe artist who paints a landscape does not present a copy of all the details\nA photograph does that. The artist does not aim at\nthe mere imitation of nature. What he presents to us is his own idea, embodied\nof the landscape.\n\nHe gives us the impresHe paints the image of his mind\n\nin the semblance of nature which he places before us.\n\nsion which the landscape made on him.\n\nrather than the object of nature.\n\nIt is the artist's province and characteristic\n\nthat he spiritualizes the sensuous and\n\nlifts\n\nus, thru the presentation of life\n\nor nature, to ideas of truth and grandeur and beauty.\n\nThere is just a trace of this process in the drawings made by childhood.\nThey are more than mere imitation. They generalize and express, in no\nsmall degree, the child's own thought and his own self.\nLimited as the field of drawing is when compared with literary studies,\nthere is a certain fullness of psychological movement in it which is of educaIn many other studies, there is but one educational\ntional significance.\nmovement; the world of facts flows into the mind of the child, enriches it\n\nand builds it up. There is little opportunity for the second educational movement, which is more important even than the first; namely, the self-assertion\nof the soul, in which it responds to the knowledge acquired, by some activity,\nand in which the current is not inward but outward: the soul from within\nacting upon the world without. In drawing, there is this constant play of the\ntwo educational movements, of receptivity and spontaneity, of learning and\ndoing, which gives fullness and completeness to educational processes.\nThru instruction in drawing, the mind obtains a more complete mastery\nover the body. Eye and hand are pressed into the service of will and thought\nand they learn to give outward expression to the idea which the mind has conThis may sound abstract, but it is nevertheless the sum and subceived.\nAs drawing is taught today, it has become\nstance of man's education for life.\nmind\nthru\nthe\nwork\nof the hand.\nIt is a substitute for manual\nthe\na training of\nand\npreparation\nlower\ngrades\nthe\nbest\nfor it in the higher.\nin\nthe\ntraining\nsaid\nof\ndrawing\nto\non\nthe\nside\nremains\nbe\nof art.\nword\nThe study of\nA\nInstruction\nart has the two phases, that of appreciation and production.\nmay aim at leading to an appreciation of the work of art, or may try to develop\nthe practical skill which may lead to the production of a work of art. As a\n\nmatter of course, when we speak of art-teaching in the common school, we\nuse it in the former sense only;\n\nwe propose to open to the child the possibility\n\nof enjo)Tiient and profit thru the contemplation of the\n\nwork of art.\n\nWhen\n\nwe give a lesson on Milton's ''II Penseroso\" in literature, its purpose is appreciation and it has nothing to do with the idea of leading the pupils to write\n\npoetry.\n\nSimilarly, art instruction in the common schools has for its purpose\n\nto lead to an appreciation of some great works of art.\n\nThe world has slowly accumulated knowledge and culture: each generation\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nINTERNATIONAL DRAWING TEACHERS' CONGRESS\n\nhas left its life-work as a gift to its successors.\npast ages has done for mankind\ntions and science;\n\nis\n\n597\n\nThe noblest work which\n\nto be found not only in literature, inven-\n\nthe best fruits of human genius, the highest thought, the\n\ndeepest feeHng of the race, are embodied in art as well.\ninto direct touch with\n\nTo bring our children\n\nsome of the noblest products of art, to make them\n\nrecognize and appreciate a half a dozen masterpieces in painting, architecture,\nsculpture,\n\nand music, is to give them for the journey of life, a noble and\nand a source of refined and perpetual pleasure.\n\nelevating experience\n\nLESSONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THE INTERNATIONAL DRAWING TEACHERS' CONGRESS AT BERNE\nCHARLES M. CARTER, ART DIRECTOR IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLORADO,\nMEMBER OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR THE NEXT\nCONGRESS, LONDON, 1908\nBefore mentioning the detailed work of the congress, an explanation\n\nshould be made of the preliminary preparations, the most important of which\n\nwas a document of 480 pages containing papers from experts on the various\nquestions which were to occupy the attention of the congress. These questions\nwere considered by two sections. The first embraced general instruction,\nthe second, special instruction.\nMost of the papers ended with brief statements of the wishes of the writer which he desired adopted by the congress\nin the form of resolutions.\nIt will be seen that considerable study of different\nquestions was preliminary to the meetings, as a consequence the time of the\nmeetings was spent in condensed statements by the authors of papers, and\nin the discussion of matter already known by the members of the congress.\nAs a result of the consideration of the papers relating to drawing in general\ninstruction, the congress adopted these conclusions:\n1. That the instruction should follow the law of natural development in the child.\nThat drawing should be a means of expression of thought and impression; the child should\n\nexpress itself.\n2.\n\nThat the teaching of drawing be included in every course of study, as obhgatory,\n\nin the same way as other general subjects of study.\n3.\n\nThat in all schools drawing be taught not only for its own sake, but that it be\n\ntaken in connection with all other subjects of the curriculum where it can be of aid.\n4.\n\nThat in all technical or professional schools, drawing be one of the entrance\n\nexamination subjects.\n5.\n\nThat\n\nthe schoolrooms be\n\ntastefully\n\ndecorated so as to influence the pupils\n\naesthetically.\n6.\n\nThat a widespread propaganda of art teaching be undertaken in all nations with\n\na view of aiding reform, by extending the study of drawing in all classes of society.\n\nTEACHING DRAWING IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL\n\nAs discussed, this question referred to what we understand by primary\nand grammar schools. The general report was presented by Monsieur\nGuebin, principal inspector of drawing in the schools of Paris, and constituted\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n598\n\na very scholarly and exhaustive presentation.\n\n[Art\n\nIn his introduction he said,\n\n\"Found and recognized as a language of univesral\ncomprehension, the greatest efforts are now attempted in favor of its diffusion.\"\n\nin speaking of drawing,\n\nThese points he thinks of great importance:\n1.\n\nThat drawing relate as far as possible to the reality, that the drawings represent\n\na natural object, a thing that the pupils reproduce with interest.\n2. That flat copies be used less, and that they be replaced by drawing from nature\n\nand exercise in composition. (Designing.)\n3. That drawing be put as much as possible en rapport with the rest of the teaching.\n4. That drawing on the blackboard be employed as much as possible by the teacher\nduring the lessons.\n\nThe resolution finally adopted was as follows:\nAll rational instruction is based on the evolution of the child.\n\nThe pupil's drawing\n\nought to be influenced by and related to the world in which he lives. Drawing has for its\nimmediate ends the comprehension of the language of drawing as related to form and\n\nand the ability to use this language as a mode of expression. It has all the chara living language. Its use should be fluent and natural, the hand swiftly\nobeying the thought. Drawing ought ultimately to lead to an understanding and an\nappreciation of the beautiful in nature and art.\ncolor,\n\nacteristics of\n\nSNAPSHOT DRAWING\nIn connection with the\n\nfirst\n\nsection of the congress,\n\nwe should notice\n\n\"Progressive Snapshot Drawing\" as presented by T. R. Ablett, art director\nof the Royal Drawing Society, London.\n\nThis society has given special atten-\n\ntion to \"The Art of Childhood\" and to\n\nThe development in children, whether at home or in school, of the spontaneous\ninstinct, which is to be found even in the youngest, of giving pictorial expression, in their\n\nown way, to whatever may have been exciting their nascent interest in the object world\naround them.\n\nAs to the method this information was given.\nBy a dumb show or similar scenic machinery, a number of children are given, for\nsome brief time never exceeding one or two minutes, a tableau for their rapid observation,\nwhich is then suddenly withdrawn. They are at once called upon to pictorialize what\nthey saw by an effort of memory (reproductive imagination), together with an)rthing\nsuggested by the scene to the creative imagination.\nFull information regarding the method is lacking, but in a personal interview\n\nMr. Ablett stated his belief that spontaneity could be retained in the higher\ngrades, and that one of the great secrets of progress was to concentrate the\npupil's attention on one point at a time.\n\nDRAWING IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nThe fourth question related to the teaching of drawing in secondary\nschools, that is to say teaching which would naturally follow and be an out-\n\ngrowth of that of our primary and grammar schools.\nIn the several reports presented, there were peculiarities as to methods.\n\nOne report laid special stress on the study of plaster casts of the head, the\nsame being systemized so as to consider different views, as the profile, three-\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nINTERNATIONAL DRAWING TEACHERS' CONGRESS\n\nfourths, etc., in progressive order.\n\n599\n\nAnother professor thought it very important\n\nthat teachers should always give pupils, when commencing to draw a plaster\ncast, ideas relating to its artistic\nit\n\nand historic character.\n\nIn this connection\n\nshould be said that another professor was of the opinion that the history\n\nof art should be taught by the professor of drawing.\n\nMonsieur Steck and other reporters attached great importance to memory\ndrawing.\nThis kind of exercise causes a methodical observation of the model, at first at least,\nIt is very useful in varied applications, and\nmemory.\" At first the exercises should not occupy more\nthan five minutes at the end of the lesson, and should never be forgotten. Later the\nmemory drawing may be made at the commencement of the next lesson, or it may be\nassigned as a \"duty\" between two lessons. In this connection attention is called to the\n\none cannot retain a form badly analyzed.\ncultivates the \"picturesque\n\ngreat value of tracing in space, with a point, the contours of the model.\n\nThe reporters agreed that modeling should have a place in secondary\ninstruction, but had various opinions as to its application.\n\nMr. W. Egerton Hine of England said,\nThat each lesson in drawing shall be also a lesson in art.\n\nThe correlation of drawing\n\nin the secondary schools and manual training received some attention.\n\nIt was thought\nby some members of the congress that when considering this question the correlation of\ndrawing with other studies should also be considered, that the various branches should\nassist each other, while \"each should preserve its autonomy, its independent doctrine, its\n\ndistinct pedagogy, its appropriate vocabulary.\n\nWith the foregoing ideas in mind the congress adopted these resolutions:\nDrawing in the secondary schools should be conducted on the same lines as in primary\nschools, and should aim at cultivating taste.\n\nThat for u§e in the next congress it be the duty of each nation to study the correlation\nwhich can be established between the teaching of drawing, modeling, and manual work\nin all stages of instruction.\n\nDRAWING IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\nIt is generally\n\nunderstood that drawing\n\nimportance in superior education.\n\nis\n\nnot regarded of very great\n\nMonsieur Steck in a masterly presentation\n\nshowed in detail the great advantages of drawing in connection with letters,\nsciences, medicine,\n\npharmacy, and law.\n\nPresident Eliot of Harvard might\n\nbe quoted as having said,\nThat he had examined all the courses offered by the university, and could find but one\n(the course in theology) in which a knowledge of drawing would not be of immediate\nvalue.\n\nThe congress resolved\n1.\n\n2.\n\nThat drawing may form a part of a university course.\nThat in examinations, in which demonstrations or graphic explanation is necessary,\n\ndrawing may be takan into account.\n\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF DRAWING\n\nThe consideration of this subject revealed the fact that there is a wide\ndifference in time devoted to such training, varying\n\nfrom the incomplete\n\ninstruction of a summer school to a course extending over four or five years.\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6oo\n\n[Art\n\nThe importance of a thoro training was insisted on, in order to satisfy\nthe pupils as they become more critical.\n\nOne reporter made this very pertinent suggestion in regard to the professional teacher at work, viz.:\nIt is of the greatest importance that the teacher have sufficient leisure to permit him\n\nto continue his studies in painting, sculpture, architecture, or decoration.\n\nHe will then\n\nconsecrate himself with a joyful heart to his pupils, who from their side will have more\n\nconfidence in the man of whom they can appreciate the skill and admire his productions.\nIt is precisely this confidence and this veneration which forms the true base for the success\n\nof the teaching.\n\nThink of the respect the professional art students have for their masters, who\nare always men who have attained eminence by their productions in the art\nworld, and who continue to practice what they teach, never allowing themselves\nto give up altogether the practice of art, as is too often the case with supervisors\nof drawing.\n\nIndeed, a supervisor might be defined as a person who at one\n\ntime was an art worker, but who\n\nnow devotes his entire time to teaching\n\nothers how to do something with which he is becoming less in touch by lack\nof practice.\n\nSPECIAL INSTRUCTION\n\nThe second section of the congress was devoted to special instruction\nand in connection therewith were brought out some very interesting and\nimportant facts in connection with apprentices and schools for their instruction.\nProfessor Genoud, president of the congress, had made a very exhaustive\nstudy of the subject.\n\nHe gave the laws of various countries, and called atten-\n\ntion to the fact that several noted for their progress oblige young people to\n\nattend the professional schools.\nHe said that Germany was the first in\nmodern times to make obligatory the attendance of courses of instruction.\n\nOne of the laws is as follows:\nThe chiefs of industry must give to their workmen of less than eighteen years the\ntime to attend professional schools.\n\nInstruction if given on Sunday must be so arranged\n\nas not to interfere with the principal church service or the confessional.\n\nIn Hungary we find that the apprentice is obliged to receive instruction\nduring the entire time of his apprenticeship.\n\nGeneral instruction four hours\n\nper week, and three hours each Sunday for drawing.\n\nIt is stipulated that\n\none hour of Sunday be devoted to religion.\nJapan's laws relating to similar instruction is more poetically expressed\nin this way.\n\nThe instruction is given in the season of snows or at the time when the work of the\ncountry is suspended.\n\nFurther it is stated that in the industrial school drawing must be the principal\nsubject.\n\nThe international congress of technical instruction Paris,\n\n1889, passed\n\nthis resolution:\n\nThe congress expresses the wish that courses of professional instruction for day, even-\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINTERNATIONAL DRAWING TEACHERS' CONGRESS\n\n6oi\n\ning or Sunday be created in as great number as possible by specialties to complete the\ntechnical instruction of workmen.\n\nAt the congress at Bordeaux, 1895, a resolution stated that,\nThe courses of instruction for adults are more and more indispensable, and that the results\nalready obtained encourage the increase of their number.\n\nMr. Genoud summing up the situation says,\n\nWe have seen that Austria, Hungary, and in most of the states of Germany the\nattendance of the professional schools for adults is obligatory during the entire time of\napprenticeship.\n\nHe calls attention to the book of Georges Blondel entitled France and the\nMarket of the World, in which he attributes the immense progress of German\nindustry, which battles today with American industry, to the obHgatory\nattendance of professional instruction which exists in the above countries.\n\nThe congress adopted these resolutions:\nThat the law make obligatory under the control of the state, the written contract of\napprenticeship, the frequentation of professional courses during the apprenticeship, and\nthe examination at the end of the apprenticeship.\n\nFurther,\n\nThat the corporations of patrons and workmen, and the councils establish with the\nhelp of the state, and according to their local needs, professional courses and professional\nschools, essentially practical.\n\nHow different all these matters in this country!\n\nProfessional or trade\n\nschools exist in very limited numbers in only a few of our largest cities.\n\nwe have manual training in our schools,\n\nTrue,\n\nspecial manual-training schools,\n\nand technical schools, but they have not the direct bearing on local industries\n\nThen we have the very unsatisfactory attitude\n\nof the trade schools abroad.\n\nof labor organizations toward apprentices, the existence of these organizations,\n\nseemingly, being fundamentally for the regulation of their financial interests,\n\nwith no consideration of educational\n\nfeatures\n\nwhich would advance the\n\nexcellence of their work, or assist young men in learning trades.\n\nIndeed, it\n\nhas been pointed out that in at least one of our states, that the only trade\nschool existing is a reform school, and that attendance is limited to those boys\n\nwho have committed a crime\n\n!\n\nWhile the boy of exemplary habits is absolutely\n\ndebarred from attending a trade school.\n\nEuropean nations have shown for many years great consideration of all\npertaining\n\nto\n\nindustrial-art\n\neducation.\n\nNot only have they\n\nestablished\n\nnumerous schools, but as well have appointed commissioners who at public\nexpense have studied and reported on the schools, and art museums of other\ncountries.\n\nSuch a commission has never been appointed by this country,\n\naltho an attempt was made last summer to have such a commission appointed\nto make investigations at the expense of the National Educational Association.\n\nAs yet this attempt has riot been successful.\nSeveral years ago the author of this paper made a special tour of investigation,\n\na report of which was published by the Massachusetts State Board of\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6o2\n\n[Art\n\nEducation under the title ''Some European Industrial Art Schools.\"\n\nSub-\n\nsequently limited accounts have been published by Mr. Miller, of Philadelphia and Mr. Bailey, of Boston.\n\nIn that period, however, European reports\n\nhave been published which might truly be termed monumental\ntional authorities at\n\n—notably the\n\nReally, it would seem that the educa-\n\nelaborate works of Monsieur Verchon.\n\nWashington should do something in this direction, so\n\nthat the educators and manufacturers of this country might better understand\n\nthose educational features which make some of our strongest competitors in\nthe markets of the world.\n\nTHE BERNE EXHIBITS\nThey were of two kinds, first, of various schools and second, of the dealers\nin materials.\n\nThe Paris Congress did not have any exhibition, relying on what could\nThe Berne Congress therefore was the first to\n\nbe seen at the Exposition.\n\nactually unite an exhibition with its sessions.\n\nGenerally speaking, the exhibits\n\nwere incomplete and not truly representative of the countries from which\nthey came.\n\nAs for students' works, some schools of no great importance\n\nwere enterprising enough to send exhibits, while other and much more impor-\n\nAs usual, the cranky speciaUst was\nAs a whole, however, the exhibits were interesting and undoubtedly caused the representatives of various nations to realize that there is more\nthan one way to develop drawing. System, however, was lacking, particularly\nin the individual exhibits, making it difl&cult to understand what the works\nHappily the Americans showed superiority in this direction,\nrepresented.\nproper labeling making it possible to understand details.\nSome of the exhibits were meager, some extended. Undoubtedly this\ntant schools were not represented at all.\n\nin evidence.\n\n\"\n\ndepartment of the next congress will be greatly improved.\n\nThe American exhibits attracted much attention, the largest of which\nwas a very complete representation of public-school work from Springfield,\nMassachusetts. Both English and German reporters have made full reports\nconcerning it, and generally praise the work. In no country has cultivating\nthe spontaneous drawings of young children been more fully developed.\nThis kind of work greatly interested our foreign friends. They say, however,\nthat we do not gradually develop it in the higher grades, that the work of the\nlatter is about as crude as in the lower grades, but as Monsieur Guebin of\nParis says, it is regarded as a movement in '' the right direction.\"\nAn English reporter makes this criticism of the American exhibit:\nToo much is expected to follow with practice in the matter of accurate drawing.\nThey say, \"We know, but\nThere are other things of more importance. The detail will\nfollow.\nAs a matter of fact it does not follow. In the more advanced studies, where\nthe totU ensemble is excellent, errors in drawing are common.\n\nThe circle is perspective, for instance, is often badly done.\nplace little value on that.\n\n,\n\nCONCLUSIONS, LESSONS\nBriefly stated the following are\n\nmay derive from the Berne congress:\n\namong the most important lessons we\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\n1.\n\n2.\n\nAIMS OF DRAWING IN PRIMARY GRADES\n\n603\n\nThe value of previously printed papers.\nLaws of natural development should be followed.\n\n3.\n\nDrawing should be en rapport with other teaching.\n\n4.\n\nThe blackboard should be used as much as possible.\n\n5.\n\nDrawings should be \"fluent and natural,\" and correlated with other studies.\n\n6.\n\nMemory drawing should be more fully cultivated.\n\n7.\n\nIn presenting subjects of study, information should be given regarding their\n\nartistic character.\n8.\n\nDrawing should have a definite connection with colleges and universities.\n\n9.\n\nTeachers should be allowed time for personal art work.\n\n10.\n\nExhibits should be condensed, systematic, and explanatory.\n\n11.\n\nSpecial art instruction with direct reference to industries\n\nis\n\nof the greatest\n\nimportance, and should be developed.\n12.\n\nIn the United States more attention should be given to accurate drawing.\n\nThe Berne congress showed a distinct advance over that of Paris. We\ncan reasonably expect that the next congress in London in 1908 will show\ngreater advancement.\n\nstill\n\n»\n\nThis Congress is so far in the distance that no definite announcements\ncan be made at the present time, except to state that the American members\nof the international committee are quite agreed that the exhibits and speakers\n\nfrom this side of the water should be as representative as possible of the varied\ndirections in which drawing is taught in this country.\n\nProbably matters will\n\nbe definitely shaped at the meeting of the international committee which\nwill take place in 1906, two years before the next congress.\n\nThe international committee confidently hope that the drawing teachers\nof the United States will give it their hearty co-operation.\n\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCE\nAIMS OF DRAWING AS A SUBJECT OF INSTRUCTION IN THE\nPRIMARY GRADES\nMISS EMMA M. CHURCH, DIRECTOR OF NORMAL ART DEPARTMENT, CHICAGO ACADEMY OF\n\nFINE ARTS\nIn reflecting upon the aims of drawing as a subject of instruction in the primary\ngrades and, incidentally, drifting to the seeming aimlessness of much of the work, the\nconclusion seems inevitable that much of this aimlessness comes about by reason of the\n\nthinking and directing being done by one class of educators, while the actual contact with\nthe children and the application of their theories is left to the teacher, who, too often,\n\naccepts them blindly and unthinkingly, as they do also the venerated traditions of a former\ntime,\n\nsome system or method of work, or anything that comes in the name of help and\n\nnovelty and administers them, without any adaptation to conditions peculiar to her particular work, as so many mental doses, trusting to some mysterious alchemy to transform\n\nthem into mind, heart, and noble life.\n\nThe drawing teacher or supervisor, who does not bring to her professional work a\nthoro knowledge of the purposes and aims of education in general, and who has not the\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6o4\n\n[Art\n\nwho does not know how to\nmake her special subject subserve these aims and purposes, who does not know much\nmore about education than merely how to draw and to criticise drawings, would better\nexecutive ability to make practical use of this knowledge;\n\nseek another work, for she will always be a dead weight and heavy detriment to the cause\nshe has entered.\n\nThe efficient drawing teacher must know children, and know how to\nHer best apprenticeship will be experience in the general\n\nlearn from them how to teach.\n\nteaching of the grades in which she teaches drawing or supervises.\n\nThe normal schools should do just as much to prepare the grade teacher to teach\ndrawing as they do to prepare her to teach any of the other subjects in the curriculum.\n\nDrawing has long been too narrow a term for the work done in that name, because\nit\n\nnot only gives another means of expression, but it also cultivates and develops a love\n\nof beauty and inspires cheating it thru the fancy.\nIt\n\nstrive\n\nshould not be the aim of drawing in the pubhc schools to develop artists or to\n\nmuch in the direction of technique.\n\nIts largest\n\npurposes should be to counter-\n\nbalance the strong intellectual tendencies of the education that is just now being revolutionized, and so to train the taste of the children that the coming generation of all classes\n\nof people shall so love beauty, that it will demand something far lovlier than the cheap\n\ntawdrinesythat characterizes so many homes and so much of the dress of the present time;\nthat it will stifle the voracious commercialism that persists in offending good taste and in\n\nmaking hideous our streets with its noisy posters, and that desecrates our most beautiful\nnatural scenery with its barbarously ugly signboards.\nIts other\n\nand narrower aim, like that of any subject of instruction at any period\namount of development to\n\nof the school hfe, should be that of giving just the right\n\nsome bodily, mental, moral, or spiritual tendency at just the time that tendency is of\nparamount Interest to the child. Interest is the great digestive and assimilative force that\nmakes knowledge over into the fiber and tissue of life and character. Anything that is\nforced upon the child without his interest is worse than useless.\nIf he is interested in merely copying form, in drawing from the object, it is probably\nan interest derived from his teacher. He would naturally prefer to draw from his mental\nimages and a characteristic symbol, especially in the first two grades, would please him\nmore than the most perfect representation. Apollo's Chariot of the Sun may be either\na milk wagon or horse car to the city child. Its rolling across the sky will give him more\npleasure than the most perfectly drawn chariot and steeds.\nAll thru the primary grades, the child is intensely interested in action, in human and\nanimal life. Calm, placid repose interests him no more than going to bed does. Drawing from the posed figure will bore him generally, whereas, he will put his whole soul\ninto drawing children at play, grown people at their work, and birds, animals, and insects\ndoing something. The landscape per se does not appeal to him until much later. When\nhe uses it, it is in a very crude symbolic way as a setting for his drama of action. It is\nfar too wide for his comprehension.\nThe center of interest is still deep within his consciousness, and his narrow personal experiences.\nWe may call his attention to it and\nand we\nenlist his observation, but we should never insist upon his seeing it as we do,\nshould always direct his observation only after he has seen where he has failed, not before\nhe has failed. The games that he plays will be a source of a new delight, when he is\nasked to draw them, because they afford him a chance to live them. He will love nature\nthe more for having been introduced to it thru nature myths and fairy tales, because he\nthus approaches her with a human interest.\n\nIf they are\n\nfor they are made his very own by living them.\n\ndramatized, so much the better\n\nHe will revel in symbolic nature stories\n\nand pictures. Stories of home life,\nand the industries among which he lives, treated in the same way often become new\npoetry in his hands, if we can but get far enough away from our conventionality to see\nthem as he does.\n\nof his own, told first in words, then in song, drama,\n\nBy the time the child has entered the third grade, probably he has discovered for\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS OF DRAWING IN GRAMMAR GRADES\n\n605\n\nhimself that he cannot draw, and when that discovery has been made, and when the desire\nit is time to make the work more objective, to train\nand the hand in execution. Notwithstanding all the inconveniences of clay, and the numerous arguments in its disfavor, it seems a retrogressive step\n\nto draw better has come naturally,\n\nthe eye in observation\n\nto relegate it to the past.\nit\n\nIt is the child's\n\nown medium for representing form, because\n\npermits him to experience and express it by means of the two senses of touch and sight,\n\nthe latter being so dependent on the former for its appreciation of distance and the third\n\ndimension.\n\nModeling is much less abstract than drawing, for the reason that modehng permits\nreproducing form in three dimensions as it really is in space, while drawing represents\n\nThe smaller the child, the larger the work\nHe will naturally work large enough to use his whole arm instead of his\n\nsuch. form on a surface of two dimensions.\n\nshould be.\n\nfingers, unless he has been taught to write too early, in which case he will pinch his brush\n\nas he does his pencil, close to the point and fairly write his pictures.\n\nWho has not seen\n\nthe painful tongue-chewing accompanying some cutting or pencil exercises in the lower\n\ngrades ?\n\nAll because of the\n\ntremendous effort required to use an unnatural medium,\nThe brush, and color,\n\nthat demands the use of a set of muscles not yet under control.\n\nas well as charcoal, used in tones instead of lines, are plastic enough for this early period.\n\nThe selection of mediums and just how much improvement in execution to demand\nand development progress, are among the teacher's most serious problems.\nPrecocity is always to be avoided, but best effort must be always striven for. The teacher\nas growth\n\nmust measure her efl&ciency by the result in child development and not by results in the\nchild's work.\n\nSo much of the primary drawing and industrial work, in our exhibitions, as well as\nand arithmetic and other studies in these grades, is pitifully the work of the\nteacher done more for the sake of result, than for the sake of the child, and done at the\nexpense of overwrought nerves and body.\nIn the primary grades, there should be much less instruction, much more and better\nwriting\n\n—\n\nstimulus to live this precious period of life in a natural, simple way, and to see and express\nit\n\nin a manner that is truly childish.\n\nTo summarize briefly; the aim of drawing in the primary grades should be to take\nthe initial step in artistic creation, to foster the love of beauty, that may grow into an\n\nabiding good taste, to train the senses to a nice perception of form and color, to give the\npower of expressing one's self in another way, and to accomplish all this in accordance\nwith the laws and sequence of natural development.\n\nTHE AIMS OF DRAWING AS A SUBJECT OF PUBLIC SCHOOL\nINSTRUCTION IN GRAMMAR GRADES\nJAMES HALL, DIRECTOR OF ART DEPARTMENT, ETHICAL CULTURE SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY\n\nOur subject is not new.\n\nThe aims of drawing in the public schools have many\n\ntimes been considered in American educational gatherings during the last three decades,\n\nand yet today, the subject demands consideration no less than in times past, lest we teachers and supervisors of drawing forget our chief aims in our zealous pursuit of subjectmatter, of methods and devices.\nIt is well, at the end of a busy year's teaching, to remove\nour thoughts from the details of the schoolroom, to rise above all petty failures and limitations, and to clear our vision.\nIt is only with the larger view of the aims of our teaching\nbefore us, that we should plan for another year.\nMethods must and should vary, according to the individuahty of the instructor, and with the special conditions of the school.\n\nThe larger aims should be common to all.\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6o6\n\n[Art\n\nConsideration of the aims of drawing instruction in the grammar grades involves a\nconsideration of the problem of public-school drawing instruction as a whole.\n\nImportant\n\nas is the work of the primary grades, it must be regarded chiefly as the foundation for work\nin later years.\n\nOn the other hand, the vast majority of the pupils of grammar schools\n\ndo not enter high schools at all, while of those who do, by no means all continue drawing.\nThe central field, the great opportunity for instruction in drawing in the public school,\nlies in\n\nthe grammar grades.\n\nHence, if we aim to give the American people a common understanding of drawing,\n\nwe do a common understanding of the so-called regular branches of education, we\nmust plan to do it in the grammar school. Grammar-school drawing cannot be considered\nas\n\nchiefly as a preparation for high-school drawing.\n\nBefore attempting to set forth the aims of drawing in the grammar grades, as I see\n\nthem today, permit me to take a brief survey of the various arguments for school art\ninstruction that have been advanced since its serious beginning in America.\n\nThe argument of the pioneers of industrial drawing was the utilitarian argument.\nDrawing is the language of the arts, and so must be understood by intelligent workmen. Those trained in foreign countries have a knowledge of drawing that our workmen do not possess. Therefore we must teach drawing to keep up in the industrial\nprocession.\n\nSuch was the practical argument which served as the entering wedge for public-school\nTho of a mechanical and lifeless character, the beginning was made.\nLater, as a factor in spreading the work, came powerful arguments from the educators.\nDrawing as an added language was urged as a useful stimulant of observation,\nand as a valuable means of expression especially in connection with science studies. To\nlearn to draw, one must learn to see to see straight and to record in graphic terms,\ncame to be regarded as the most important function of drawing in the school curriculum.\nBut, as this utilitarian view of the subject became an old story, a plea was heard from\nthe artists.\nThen the mechanical and copied pencil work in the drawing books of the\nApplied\nearlier days gave way to work from nature and from objects in all mediums.\ndesign advanced its claims. Mechanical drawing, where not forgotten, was taught with\nthe constructive work.\nWith this incoming of new mediums, the greatest possible variety\nDemands from the educators for correlation and the influence\nof work is now attempted.\n\nart instruction.\n\n—\n\nof the\n\n—\n\nnew education are constantly leading to experiments.\n\nests of the child lead sometimes into blind alleys,\n\nEfforts to follow the inter-\n\nand sometimes, under wiser guidance,\n\ninto flowering fields of genuine child art.\n\nFleeting fads of the art world invert their dim reflections in our children's art, like\n\nstrange flowers in a\n\nmurky lake, whose mirrorings are further distorted by misguided\n\npilgrims from widely separated parts.\n\nIt is easy to mistake\n\nthat we pause and ask:\n\nWork\nAnd so it is well\n\nchange for progress.\n\nthat proves popular does not invite too serious questions as to its aim\n\nWhat should be our ultimate aim ?\n\nIs it not, firstly, the cultivation of the sense of beauty, the power for the wise enjoy-\n\nment of nature and of such master works of man as a fine building, a beautiful picture,\na vase, a textile, or any noble piece of craftsmanship ? With this should be placed the\npower to express, to create beauty, if not in pencil or paint at least in the arrangement\nA few pupils of special ability should discover it in the grammar school.\nof the home.\n\nWork here should be a sound beginning for their future professional study.\n\nSome others\n\nbecoming intelligent and tasteful amateur pracBut the result with the vast majority should be the gaining\ntitioners of the artistic crafts.\nof a sincere respect for the work of the artist and the craftsman, a respect that can only\nbe born of serious personal effort toward excellence of expression, stimulated thru contact\nwith fine examples of the arts.\nThese two great aims of art instruction can be shown, I believe, to include all claims\nthat have been urged, or that may be urged, whether industrial or educational, howbeit\nshould here take the\n\nfirst\n\nstep toward\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS OF DRAWING IN GRAMMAR GRADES\n\n607\n\nthe industrial and educational drawing, urged in the past, has fallen far short of including\nthe greater purpose of opening the world of art.\n\nSome Americans are at last beginning to awaken to the fact that good taste and art\nappreciation are part of the equipment of the most effective and prosperous nations.\n\nAs a nation of manufacturers, as we now are, it is not suflScient to be able to make things.\nWe must be able to make things of beauty, if we are to market them in competition with\nGermany and France, England and Japan. Realizing that there is money in art, Americans\nare beginning to want it.\nBut their children, in gaining art appreciation, must inevitably\nget something better than money; namely, a point of view that sees things in better relation\nand that values good taste above great wealth.\n\nThe words of President Eliot, in his recent speech at the dedication of the Albright\nGallery at Buffalo, ought to ring in every schoolman's ears, until he is forced to hear, if not\nin every case to understand.\n\nThe main object in every school should be to show children how to live a happy and\nworthy life inspired by ideals which exalt and dignify both labor and pleasure. To see\nbeauty and love it, is to possess large securities for such a life. It is monstrous that the\ncommon school should give much time to compound numbers, bank discount and stenography, and Httle to drawing. It is monstrous that the school which prepares for college\nshould give four of five hours a week for two years to Greek and no time to drawing.\nEvidently, President Eliot was speaking of drawing as the language of art and of the\n\nstudy of drawing, as the best if not the only means of gaining an appreciation of art.\nInstruction in drawing is worthy of the name of art instruction only if from first to\n\naims for the creation of order and beauty.\n\nlast it\nIt\n\nnow remains for me\n\nto consider the specific\n\naims of a well-rounded course in\n\ndrawing, and to show how all the reasonable demands of the business man and of the\n\neducator must be met in order to accomplish the larger aims which I have said should\nguide the drawing course.\n\nDeveloping the ability to sketch characteristically any simple object is a necessary\npart of art study.\n\nThe things that are given the children to draw in the art periods should\nThey should be things fine in themselves, including\n\nin every case be worth drawing.\n\nleaves, flowers, fruits, birds, butterflies,\n\nand other natural objects.\n\nBesides these there\n\nare the simple vases, some household utensils of today, and many of other times and lands\nthat history and geography lessons suggest.\n\nA knowledge of how to sketch well never comes without the frank study of good\nexamples.\n\nCopying has been too long discarded.\n\nCopying and even tracing excellent\n\nexamples, such as the characteristic brush outlines of the Japanese, or the simpler of the\npencil and charcoal sketches of western masters, should form a part of the work.\nartistic qualities of\n\nThe\n\na drawing are convincingly shown in the effort of copying it, if the\n\nteacher presents the lesson aright.\n\nLessons should follow calUng for similar original\n\nefforts.\n\nThe difficult distinction between vital and needless lines is best demonstrated by the\nThe aim should not be accuracy for its own sake,\nbut the careful expression of the most important truths in a manner unmistakably clear.\nThe ability, for example, to see and to express the distinctive character of shape, edge,\n\nteacher's drawing before the class.\n\nveins, stem, and color that distinguishes an elm leaf from every other kind, makes drawing\n\na language.\n\nThis language should be turned to other uses than purely artistic ones.\nBecause of this, however, our aim as teachers of drawing is not changed. There is hardly\na Japanese drawing but has artistic character, and yet the use of drawing for purely utili-\n\ntarian purposes the Japanese thoroly understand.\n\nLieut. J. A. Baer,i U. S. A., tells of the\n\nexactness of questioning, and the careful observation that the Japanese officers displayed\nin Pekin, in going about among the camps of the nations.\n\ngreatly interested in the American cavalry,\n'\n\nAmong other things, they were\n\nand they noted and sketched our method of\n\n\" Why Japan Wins, \"^Har/>cr'i Weekly, June 3, 1005.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6o8\n\nshoeing the horses.\n\npurpose better.\n\n[Art\n\nSketches were used rather than words whenever they served the\n\nWe may be sure that they were true in a way to be absolutely adequate.\n\nHave we not here a hint for the use of drawing in all school work ?\nnot.\n\nBut shall the art lesson serve as a crutch for teaching the other subjects ? Decidedly\nThe drawing lesson on the other hand should always be one in which the result\n\nThe teacher who cannot arouse interest in the art lesson\n\nis artistically complete in itself.\n\nwithout fastening\n\nit\n\nto\n\nsome other subject is missing the distinctively artistic interest\n\naltogether.\n\nThe subjects for the art lessons, in the upper grammar grades, should include enough\nIs not much of the beauty of nature\n\nvariety to involve the great perspective principles.\n\nand of art dependent upon the rhythmic gradations of size and of value resulting from\nthe phenomena of perspective.\nThe beauty of an avenue of trees of forest or of city, of\nclassic colonades and of cathedral interiors is largely a beauty of perspective.\nEven the\nugUest city street seen in perspective gains interest. By the study of pictures and by\npresenting subjects that obviously gain their beauty thru the effects of perspective, is it\n\nnot possible to teach foreshortening and convergence without the drudgery that has\nPossibly something of the ardor and enthusiasm\n\nattached to the ghastly type solids ?\n\nof old Paolo Ucello for perspective might be aroused in some pupils, if we did not station\n\nthe grim sentinels, cube\n\nand cylinder, at the entrance to the study, to allay all possible\n\nWhy not teach the pupils, by showing examples of early Italian art, how\n\nenthusiasm.\n\nartists enthusiastically struggled with, and finally overcame, problems of perspective,\nand how much easier the problem has grown thru their efforts.\nIt is unreasonable to expect accompHshed draughtsmen as a product of grammargrade teaching. Our aim is but a modest one. The pupils should become able to draw\nsimple subjects adequately and freely, perhaps not accurately, but with character. Thus\nI have tried to show how representation, rightly taught, not only gives a graphic language,\n.\n\nbut an artistic language.\n\nEqual in importance, however,\n\nis\n\nit\n\nan understanding of the\n\nto give the children\n\nsimple laws of arrangement, of form and color and to teach habits of working according\nto these laws, without which order and beauty are impossible.\n\nThru the study of beauti-\n\nful examples and thru practice under wise guidance, pupils should learn to work according\n\nto the laws of composition, long before these laws are presented abstractly.\n\nFamiUarity with the methods of the leading teachers of design is to be found on\nevery hand, but few supervisors of drawing have yet begun to carry out the aims of these\nteachers.\n\nThe methods themselves are not always adapted to the instruction of children.\n\nDoubtless, the most effective means of teaching design to children is to connect it with\n\nsome school or home interest.\n\nDo not believe, however, that it is necessary or desirable\n\nthat every design be applied, especially in the upper grades.\n\nThis wastes time that\n\nmight be made valuable in giving a broader view.\n\nThe exercise has its place.\n\nAn arrangement of form and color that is beautiful\n\nin itself, not beautiful because it is to be added to something else, is thoroly worth while.\n\nTo teach the pupils that \"beauty is its own excuse for being,\" is part of our duty.\nAt present, there is too little use made of the fine examples of the past.\n\nThe reaction\n\nagainst the dry-as-dust teaching of the different schools of historic ornament has resulted,\nin many places, in throwing out all study of classic examples.\nof their spirit\n\nof design.\n\nStudies of fine examples\n\nmore than of their literal forms, must return, as a vital part of the study\n\nThe right kind of correlation is here often possible.\n\nFor example, the fine\n\ndecorative heraldic devices may be studied and\n\nmediaeval history and literature.\n\ndrawn in connection with the study of\nThe beautiful designs of the manuscripts of the same\n\nperiod may serve as an inspiration for design applied to school booklets.\n\nThe study of\n\nthe making of a simple booklet has served in one city as the problem for ten weeks' work\nin design in all the\n\nUpon this problem was focused all the interest\nand artistic, but the aim of excellence was placed paramount.\n\ngrammar grades.\n\npossible, historic, literary,\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "AIMS OF DRAWING IN GRAMMAR GRADES\n\nDepartment]\n\n609\n\nA simple typical problem may thus often be worth more as a study, than a superficial\ndash at many problems.\nColor teaching should aim to give as much pleasure in harmonious combinations as\n\nA color discord should come to be as quickly felt as a musical\nA logical and comprehensive course of color teaching, suited to the grades and not\n\ndoes musical harmony.\none.\n\ninvolving too much time devoted to scaling, has yet to be proven.\n\nNevertheless, progress\n\nbeing rapidly made.\n\nTo cultivate the color sense necessarily involves a grasp of the\n\nlaws of color harmony.\n\nThe best color examples available for general school use are the\n\nis\n\nrecent re-productions in color in magazines like Harpers, Century, Scribners, and the Studio.\n\nGood Japanese prints are not always too expensive.\n\nStudy of beautiful examples, repro-\n\nducing color schemes from them, and applying these color schemes to original designs,\nis\n\nan effective way of developing the color sense.\n\nScaling of color, too, has its place.\n\nMoreover, acquiring a taste for good magazine pictures may be made a step toward an\ninterest in the masterpieces.\n\nTeaching structural beauty involves the teaching of geometrical lines and figures,\nand how to combine them for beauty's sake. This phase of the work is directly related\nto manual training.\nIt is also related closely to the study of arrangement as last discussed.\nIt is of no less importance than the other subjects.\nIt is, however, more difficult\nof realization than the others.\n\nTo lead children to understand the beauty of proportion\n\nin a simple rectangular box, or to realize the fitness in the paneling of a door, or in a mold-\n\nmost careful guidance by a teacher who herself understands the value of\nMost attempts at teaching structural design are aiming for originality and\nhave not depended enough upon the careful study of good examples, with consideration\n\ning, requires\nrestraint.\n\nof why they are good.\n\nThe aim' in structural design should not be to stimulate pupils to make different\nforms for originality's sake, but rather, to induce ability to think out independently a\ngood form for the simple constructions they attempt, regardless of how original it may\nbe.\n\nGood taste based on study of good examples is better than originality.\nThe use of the compasses and ruler in working drawings should follow the free-hand\n\nsketches by\n\nmeans of which proportions are thought out.\n\nA knowledge of working\n\ndrawings is a part of the language of construction.\nIt is but a step, if the teacher will take it, to leading the interests of the pupils beyond\n\nthe petty individual school problems to an interest in the architecture and street structures\nof their city.\n\nInterest in these matters will hasten the\n\ncoming of more beautiful civic\n\nThe study of fine examples of furniture and architecture, in the light of\nthe basal principles of structural designs, is quite within the province of grammar\nsurroundings.\n\ngrades.\n\nTo sum up\n\n:\n\nVital drawing instruction in the grammar grades, as elsewhere, is depen-\n\ndent upon the teacher's earnest and constant endeavor to realize the highest aims, in truth,\na single aim; namely, to unlock for the pupils the gateways to the world of art.\n\nThe accomplishment of this purpose is dependent upon teaching representation,\ndesign,\n\nand structural beauty.\n\nSuch teaching includes sympathetic study of nature and\n\nof the master examples of art, proven by time \"the winnowing of the ages.\"\n\nThe true bonds of union between art and the other subjects should be recognized,\nthat all the teaching may be strengthened thereby.\n\nBut the teacher should be watchful, and guard herself against influences tending to\naim of drawing instruction the study of the beautiful. Of\nthese influences, two are especially noticeable at present.\nOne is the urgings of some\neducators, resulting in ill-advised \"correlation,\" that makes a pack-horse of the art study.\nThe other is effort to force unnatural unions of art and manual training, resulting in misapplied designs, and tortured contours in objects lacking restraint or beauty. These are\ngoing as germs of spurious art into myriad homes to breed bad taste.\nthe subversion of the true\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6io\n\nThe work of the true art teacher is needed sorely in the land.\n\n[Art\n\nAmerica needs to learn\nLet\n\nthe lessons of poise and the power for refined enjoyment that art alone can teach.\n\nus remember the words of Browning:\nIf you get simple beauty and naught else,\n\nYou get about the best thing God invents.\n\nTHE AIMS OF DRAWING AS A SUBJECT OF HIGH-SCHOOL\nINSTRUCTION\nFRANK H. COLLINS, DIRECTOR OF DRAWING AND MANUAL TRAINING, BOROUGHS OF QUEENS\nAND RICHMOND, NEW YORK CITY\n\nThe aims of drawing as a subject of high-school instruction should not, it seems\nto me, differ from the aims of drawing as a subject of instruction in the elementary schools.\n\nTrue, the conditions which prevail in these two departments of pubUc education\ncompel the use of exercises and methods of instruction which differ greatly, yet, unless\nthe study of drawing is to be considered as a complement, rather than a supplement, to\nthe general course of study, I fail to see how the aim should differ save in degree.\nIt should be remembered, that the main object of the pubUc school should be to\ndevelop habits of right living. This is no vague objective point. It is not enough to\nprovide the pupils with a means of earning a liveUhood; not enough so to instruct them\nthat they will, when leaving school, be in the closest possible touch vnih. their environment;\n\nnor even is it enough to develop their mental faculties to the greatest degree\n\n—\n\nto\n\nmake\n\nof the pupils, as it were, highly developed machines for clear thinking.\nIf we, as teachers, having particular interest in but one of the many studies which\nform the general curriculum, are united on what should be the object of the public schools,\nhow can our aims differ ? How can the end in view of instruction be other than to assist\nin a general endeavor to develop power to provide for immediate physical needs, and to\n\nfoster the desire to live worthily.\n\nSurely drawing, with all that it impHes, should not be taught with the end in view of\n\nimparting knowledge only, however valuable such knowledge may be.\n\nOur instruction in drawing, which study includes the graphic expression of ideas,\ndesigning, painting, the study of pictures and other works of art and making\n\n—which\n\nis\n\nbut another medium of expression, since practice alone in the use of tools cannot be the\nbeginning and end of our work in construction\n\n—should be given primarily for the purpose\n\nof cultivating a love and appreciation for the beautiful in form and color.\n\nWith music and literature, drawing forms a triad, which, as a factor in the scheme\nmakes for culture and refinement, as opposed to coarseness and\nvulgarity, greed, and selfishness.\nIt should be Unked to a higher purpose than mental\nfor public instruction,\n\ndevelopment alone.\nstudy;\n\nCorrelate it never so well with the other branches in the course of\n\nmake of it, as far as it is possible to do so, a co-ordinate part of as highly a scientific\n\nscheme of education as you will, yet I beg that it be not forgotten that this study, with\nmusic and Hterature, are the only links which connect public-school education with that\npart of our existence which transcends mortality.\nI know that art happens, that it cannot be taught, for it is but the expression of the\n\nindividual.\n\nHowever, we have in our power the influencing of the individual and we\n\ncan teach, at least, what art is and what it means; that it is the inheritance of all, be he\nprince or pauper; and that no dwelUng-place is too lowly to give it welcome.\nIf we agree that behind the instruction in mathematics, English,\n\nbookkeeping, type-\n\nwriting, etc., should be a force that makes for the creation of a desire to live worthily,\n\ninspired by aims which elevate and dignify;\n\nif\n\nwe beHeve that, besides the instruction in\n\nthose subjects which make for power to earn a livelihood, to make money, to take part\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAIMS OF DRAWING OF HIGH-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION\n\n6il\n\nin the every-day affairs of our time, instruction should be given to develop a faith in the\n\nglory of the world and existence; that honesty, decency, generosity, and charity, coupled\n\nwith the belief in immortality and love are essentials to right living, then, as teachers,\n\nwe cannot be satisfied with instruction in art, which makes for intellectual development\nWhat becomes of the nobility of our office, if we forget that the heart as well as\nthe mind needs attention ?\nAs a nation, we are today under the curse of a detestable spirit of haste a haste which\nthrows to the winds ideals and puts a check on conscience. The standard of success\nappears to be wealth. The dollar seems to be the one desirable thing to struggle for.\nTo prove this, we have but to scan the pages of the daily press, for the spirit of the people\nonly.\n\n—\n\nis reflected in its news.\n\nHaste, with its lure of gold, crushes from the heart of the nation\n\nmake for the glory of American manhood and womanhood.\nAs teachers, we should remember that we are in the service of the State and, therefore, of society.\nAs teachers of drawing, of the arts, we should not forget that a knowlall ideals which\n\nedge of art, a love of and participation in art, makes for the blessings of existence and\nteaches that wealth will not satisfy every desire.\n\nTherefore, I plead that art in its broadest sense be recognized in the course of study,\nat least in the high schools,\n\nwhere pupils of mature years are to receive instruction, and\nmake for art, for beauty of expression in any form, drawing,\n\nI urge that the subjects which\n\npainting, designing, making, music, and literature be classed together.\n\nI plead that the\n\naim of our instruction be to foster the pupil's inherent love of and appreciation of the\nbeautiful in form and color, believing that such instruction will aid materially in developing the most effecl^ve and desirable human qualities.\nIt matters not what the details are in our outlines of instruction, it matters not what\n\nmediums of expression we may employ, but it does matter that our outlook, as teachers,\nbe broad enough to see the true significance of drawing as a part of the public-school\ncurriculum, and that we be concerned with how and for what purpose our instruction\nis\n\ngiven.\n\nDISCUSSION\nHenry Turner Bailey, editor of the School Arts Book, Worcester, Mass.\n\n—\n\nBoth\nMiss Church and Mr. Hall have used expressions which indicate that we have to consider two distinct phases of this topic; first, the ultimate aims of instruction in drawing,\nand second, the immediate aims.\n\nNow, the first ultimate aim is to open the mind of the pupil to an appreciation of the\nbeauty and significance of nature and the great space arts, that he may be enriched in\nhis spiritual heritage, and inspired to a larger life.\n\nThat he should be so inspired becomes\nAmerica every year. The narrower the daily Ufe becomes\nthru slavery to machines and corporations and trusts, the less leisure the workman has,\nthe greater becomes the necessity for a vision of the finer things of life to save the soul\nalive.\nThe \"essentials\" in American education are fast becoming the \"fads\" themselves.\nThe second ultimate aim is skill. Skill implies two elements an invisible something with ideals and powers of command, and a visible something trained to obey. No\nbody of thought furnishes more inviting and inspiring ideals than that of the space arts,\nand none furnishes more happy opportunities for securing muscular efficiency of the finer\nsort.\nHere drawing, as Dr. Soldan said, takes first place, always first, and manual\n\nincreasingly important in\n\n—\n\ntraining, second.\n\nThe third ultimate aim is creativeness.\n\nWe do not want one generation merely to\n\nimitate and reproduce the excellence of the previous one;\n\n— push the bounds of knowledge\n\nof its own\n\nto\n\nmore perfectly human hopes and feelings\n\nwe want each to add excellences\n\nfarther, to raise the ideals higher, to embody\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6l2\n\n[Art\n\nThese ultimate aims were all suggested in these three papers, and in the compreThey have been stated for us in poetic form\nby Emerson:\nhensive and admirable paper of Dr. Soldan.\n\nCan rules or tutors educate\nThe semi-god whom we await ?\n\nHe must be musical, tremulous, impressional,\nAlive to gentle influences of landscape and of sky,\nAnd tender to the spirit touch of man's or maiden's eye\nBut to his native center fast\nShall into future fuse the past\nAnd the world's flowing fates\nIn his own mold recast.\n\nIn the light of these ultimate aims, we must determine the immediate aims, the aims\n\nThis is a most important topic,\nworthy the consideration of the department for an entire session. But for this topic we\n\nof the regular teacher in each grade of the pulic schools.\n\nhave no time today.\n\nI merely suggest that the sooner we determine the relative impor-\n\ntance of color, clay modeling, paper cutting, nature drawing, picture making, picture\n\nand the various kinds of handicraft so called, in the\nand the sooner we can tell the regular teachers when, for example, in\npictorial drawing, their immediate aim should be free expression, when guided expression,\nwhen the truthful rendering of the exact appearance of a particular object, and when the\nexpression of an effect of color or light; the sooner we shall win their hearty support and\nstudy, design, geometric drawing,\ndifferent grades;\n\nthe sooner we shall justify our assumptions as teachers of teachers of art.\n\nThe three speakers this morning have made some suggestions as to the immediate\naims in certain topics which are nothing less than revolutionary;\n\nvizf, no pose drawing\nno landscape in primary grades; clay modeling for representations\nof life; perspective principles taught from pictures showing their historic evolution, not\nfrom models; color chords and schemes from copies, not from theories; magazine pictures as preparation for the study of the masterpieces; drawing in high school for its\ninfluence on the immediate life of the student.\nAll these suggestions are significant and\nneed free discussion at the next meeting of this department. Meanwhile, let us hold the\nultimate aims in mind and scrutinize our own immediate aims and individual practices\nmore sharply than ever.\n\nin primary grades;\n\nDRAWING AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nAS SHOWN BY EXHIBITS A T THE ST. LOUIS EXPOSITION\nROBERT ASHTON KISSACK, INSTRUCTOR IN MANUAL TRAINING, YEATMAN\nHIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS\nIt is hoped that no offense will be taken that a St.\n\nabout the late exposition.\n\nLouisian is still talking\n\nThe educational exhibit marked such a decided\n\nadvance in certain lines of education, that no apology is necessary, even at\nthis late 'day.\n\nIn no branch of work was this advance more strongly marked\n\nthan in constructive work.\n\nNo exhibit, however small, or from any country\n\nshowing of constructive work and drawing.\nThere was one feature, however, that must have struck everyone who examined\n\nhowever remote, but had\n\nits\n\nDrawing and design were related to all forms of conHere it stopped;\nto continue again in some instances in the higher educational institutions.\nThere were a few notable exceptions, but even these were generally exhibits\nthe various exhibits.\n\nstruction thru all grades until the high school was reached.\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nDRAWING AND CONSTRUCTIVE WORK\n\n613\n\nof special work, and not what may be called the regular class-work,\nit\n\nSo that\n\nmay be said in almost every instance, where the course of study of the manual-\n\ntraining school, or manual-training high school\n\nwas shown, the correlation\n\nbetween design and construction carried out in the grade schools was omitted.\nThere must have been a reason for this apparent discrepancy, and it is this\nphase of the subject with which this paper will deal.\n\nWhatever the practical\n\nadvantages of such correlation (and there are many) the educational value\nis\n\nso apparent that it needs no comment here.\n\nBack in the sixteenth century one of the world's greatest craftsmen,\nBenvenuto Cellini, refused to work from any designs but his own, even tho\nRaphael made them. This, the artist-craftsman's view, has been accepted\nas the best educationally.\n\nDoes it not seem reasonable then that, if in the\n\nlower grades this idea of the union of design and construction can be successfully carried out, in the higher grades,\n\nwhere a much greater degree of skill\n\ncan be expected, much better results should also be obtained ?\n\n—\n\nBut as stated, we come now to the break in the chain or, rather, the end\nA slight inquiry as to the aim of the manual-training school may help\n\nof it.\n\nto locate the cause of the trouble.\n\nschool is not a trade school.\n\nIn the first place, the manual- training\n\nNot because that idea may be bad pedagogically,\n\nbut because, as the school is now constituted, it is an impossibility from lack\n\nSo the aim has been to teach processes, the use of tools, the solution\n\nof time.\n\nof the simpler mechanical problems and to secure good workmanship.\n\nThe\n\neducational value of these aims upon the formation of character has not been\nover estimated, and the mechanical side has been well taught.\n\nThe results,\n\naesthetically, have been practically nothing.\n\nThe reason is that the shop instructor usually has claimed that two things\ncannot be taught at the same time.\n\nHe has such decided and definite problems\nHe\n\nto solve that the larger aspects of the subject are often lost sight of.\n\nThat as an artist will always prefer a small\n\nmight put forth this argument:\n\nsketch or fragment that has painter-like qualities to a vast \"subject\" picture\nof mediocre execution, so the craftsman will look at a small fragment well\n\nexecuted and will pass by larger pieces of only passable construction, no\n\nmatter how good the design.\n\nThe divergence from the right path begins when it is taken for granted\nthat\n\nart\n\nand mechanics are\n\nnecessarily\n\nantagonistic.\n\nNo more striking\n\ninstance to disprove such an idea could be found than in the recent achieve-\n\nments of the Japanese.\nIt is\n\nAll art is closely connected with mechanics.\n\nsometimes forgotten that the great artists, like Michael Angelo and\n\nLeonardo da Vinci, were the greatest engineers of their day. The works\nwhich we admire today are great because their producers were great in other\nways.\n\nDesign and construction are so interwoven, that it seems strange they\n\nshould ever have been separated.\nmanual-training shop.\n\nStrange, that is, unless one has taught in the\n\nThere the difficulties to be solved, and the short time\n\nin which to solve them have usually driven all other ideas out of consideration.\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6i4\n\n[Art\n\nA simple remedy is to put a Benvenuto Cellini in each shop, a man who\nThe supply of Cellinis\nmay be limited, however, so perhaps some other plan may be more feasible;\n\nis\n\na craftsman to the finger tips; an artist always.\n\nand one fortunate phase of the subject is that, to introduce the aesthetic element,\nthere is no need of any change in apparatus or tools which constitute the\nequipment of the manual-training school.\nIn the first place, it is hardly practical for the first year or so, to have\nthe pupils do constructive designing. By this is meant, it is not practical to\nhave the entire class do it. For while no two pupils are alike, and less so in\nshop-work than in any other study, still all the pupils should have the same\nopportunity.\n\nThey will each make different use of it.\n\nBut without a definite\n\ncourse of study in any .branch of knowledge, thoro instruction is impossible\n\nwith the number of pupils constituting a class.\n\nThis by no means eliminates\n\nindividuality of treatment.\n\nThere should then be a series of models devised that will embody certain\nThey should be good in form, line and\n\nadvanced problems in construction.\n\nproportion, so that the mere handling of such objects\nof\n\ngood results in the appreciation of beauty.\n\nmay be productive\n\nThese models should lend\n\nthemselves to some form of decoration, such as carving or inlaying in the first\nyear.\n\nIn the second year, where turning, pattern-making, and molding are\n\nsome degree may be introduced. For\nand various other small articles of\nbuilding hardware can be cast, as well as the usual forms of machine patterns.\nThe forge shop has always had more freedom in its work than any other\n\ntaught,\n\nconstructive designing \\xi\n\ninstance, push-button plates, door-plates\n\nshop, but the artistic result has usually been very slight.\n\nBecause\n\niron can\n\nbe bent and twisted is no reason why it should be drawn into the entanglement\n\nHere is the\nand construction within the\nThe processes are few and quickly\n\nof curves that usually characterize the products of this shop.\n\nbest opportunity for the correlation of design\n\nscope of the manual-training school.\n\nlearned, but the variety of results can be made very great.\n\nIn the machine shop, there can be no design in the usual meaning of the\nword.\n\nMathematical law is the ruling factor, but there is no manner of\n\ndoubt that the pupil whose faculties have been aroused and improved by the\nvarious forms of designing he has undertaken will do better machine work\n\nthan the pupil who has had no such training.\nincompatible.\n\nThe two faculties are not\n\nFor the one who can originate a design for wall-paper, fur-\n\nniture or machinery, there can always be found the\n\nhundred who can carry\n\nwho can and do copy it.\n\nOriginality cannot be\n\nit\n\nout and the thousand\n\ntaught, but it is because no opportunity is given for the development of it\n\nwhen it lies dormant that the average manual-training school must plead\nguilty.\n\nHowever, the easiest thing to do is to criticise, and this is unpardonable\nunless\n\nsome remedy, however slight, is suggested.\n\ncertain ideas is the best way of presenting the remedy.\n\nA visible reaUzation of\nIn one of the manual-\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\nDepartment]\n\n615\n\ntraining high schools of St. Louis has been tried for the first year the experiment\nof uniting the\n\nwork in drawing and\n\nconstruction.\n\nUpon request I have\n\nbrought some of the more portable objects, and will be greatly honored if\n\nany who are interested will inspect them. The forms shown are by no\nmeans regarded as final. They are simply the first attempt at the solution\nIn\nIt may be well to say a word in explanation of them.\nof a problem.\nthe first place, they represent a definite course of study which all pupils accomplish.\n\nSecondly, there is a variety and individuality that is limited only by\n\nthe number of the pupils, and last, and not least, the workmanship is exceptionally good.\n\nTHE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\nJAMES PARTON HANEY, DIRECTOR OF DRAWING AND MANUAL TRAINING, PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS, BOROUGHS OF MANHATTAN AND THE BRONX, NEW YORK CITY\nIn any attempt to describe the practice of an art, the briefest demonstration is of more value than the most elaborate statement.\n\nThe demonstration\n\nmay be made concrete and specific, the statement must often be general.\nWithout objective illustration there is a great temptation to elaborate explanation,\n\nhence it is that writers, who bravely start to treat of performance, not\n\ninfrequently stray from the straight road of practice and lose themselves and\ntheir readers in the mazes of theory.\n\nEffort will be made to confine the following discussion to the limitations\nof the title\n\n—\n\nto the teaching of design.\n\nNo time will be given to the definition\n\nof elementary principles and it will be assumed that the reader is familiar with\n\nthe subject's terminology.\nEssentials to successful practice.\nof elementary\n\nand high schools.\n\ndifficulties in its\n\n—Design\nIt is\n\nis\n\nnow taught in a large number\n\na technical subject and some of the\n\ndevelopment rise from its technique.\n\nborn of poor teaching\n\n— a\nof\n\nMany, however, are\n\nfailure on the teacher's part to recognize the factors\n\nwhich in any specific problem determine the steps necessary to its comprehension and solution by the pupil.\n\nA design which is to be applied, must primarily consider both the purpose\nand the nature of the form it is to decorate. The first\nIs the problem a proper one ?\nShould this form\nbe decorated and if it should, what shall be the nature of the decoration ?\nAn adequate form of decoration decided upon, one must make the problem\nplain to the pupil, and set for him the limits within which he is to display\nhis invention and individuality.\nThe greater part of the difficulty experienced\nby the average teacher rises from her failure to define and definitely limit\nthe problem which the pupil is to undertake.\nSuccess lies in such limitation\nand precise definition.\nof its appHcation\n\nquestion must always be\n\n:\n\n;\n\nAbility to design depends in no small measure upon a store of impressions\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6i6\n\nof decorations seen or made.\n\n[Art\n\nThe young designer has but a scanty fund of\n\nsuch pictures in his mental exchecquer, and of the few he has, the greater\npart are derived from bad examples which everywhere surround him.\nif\n\nHence\n\nhe is to do good work, he must be offered many and good illustrations,\n\nthat these may serve to illuminate the problems he is to undertake.\nLastly,\n\nit\n\nmay be said that she is a wise teacher who carefully divides\n\nthe steps of procedure, and insists that each be developed in turn.\n\nProceeding\n\nin such fashion, she has it in her hands to control progress and to enforce\ncritical consideration of each step by each pupil.\n\nNothing is more conducive\n\nto success in class-work.\n\nIncluded in the above are the four essentials to success in the teaching of\ndesign in the elementary schools; summarizing them it may be said that:\n1.\n\nThe problem to be developed must be a proper one, i. e., one in which applied\n\ndesign is appropriate.\n2. The limitations of the problem must be clearly seen by the teacher, and there\nmust be a precise and definite statement of the work to be done by the pupil.\n3. Abundant illustrative material must be presented to the child.\n4. Every problem must be developed in progressive steps and the pupil must be\ncalled upon critically to consider his work at each stage.\n\nThe propriety of the problem.\n\n—When designs are applied to constructed\n\nforms, the question of the propriety of the problem will be determined by\nthe purpose for which the form is to be used.\ndesigns;\n\nmany\n\ndecision in\n\nconstructed\n\nobjects\n\nare\n\nSimple forms require simple\n\nbetter\n\nwithout decoration.\n\nThe\n\nany special case must rest with the teacher and not with the\n\nchild.\n\nThe question of the material used in the form to be decorated, also condiThe elaborate ornament which might serve satisfactorily\n\ntions the problem.\n\nas a stamp on a printed page is ill adapted as a problem for leather work\nand totally unsuited as a decoration for a wooden model; the delicate pattern,\npleasing when produced on some smooth surface, is often inadequate when\nduplicated on a coarse canvas or a heavy burlap.\nThe definition of the problem. The problem decided upon, the teacher\nmust define it for the child. As a problem, it should be stated with the precision of a problem in geometry.\nMuch depends on this. The child is not\nto be simply told to make a design, but must be informed exactly as to its\nnature and purpose. He must be prepared to understand both its necessity\nand fitness. As presented to him, the problem should be the development\nand refinement of certain space relations. He should, in other words, be\ndefinitely limited in his work, and only within the limits stated, should he\n\n—\n\nbe expected or permitted to make personal variation; unless so advised\n\nand restrained, he will not be prepared comprehendingly to undertake individual modification. The greater the opportunity afforded him for specific\ncriticism, the greater the likelihood of his success.\nBeauty in line is a subtle\nthing and the beginner will have work enough to secure it in two or three main\nlines of his pattern.\nIf he attempt this and no more, the teacher can aid\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\nDepartment]\n\nhim.\n\n617\n\nShould he assay anything savoring of elaboration, he is foredoomed\n\nto failure.\n\nThe illustration oj the problem.\nas an essential to success.\n\n—Adequate\n\nillustrative\n\nmatter was noted\n\nThis is not to be offered to be copied, but to assist\n\nNot\n\nin clarifying the problem, in making plain just what is to be attempted.\n\nonly should designs illustrating general principles be offered in the form of\n\ngood prints or patterns, but others should be presented, directly illustrative\nof the problem which the pupil is to solve.\nIt is\n\nnot sufficient that the pupil merely observe these illustrations.\n\nHe\n\nshould be skilfully led to make an analysis of them, that he may understand\njust what principles are shown and what steps have been taken by the maker\n\nof the illustration.\n\nDesign is largely a matter of recombination.\n\nAn original\n\none in which old forms have been used in new and personal\n\npattern\n\nis only\n\nways.\n\nThe most successful designer is one whose brain is stored with many\n\nelements and who is ingenious in their reproduction in novel form.\n\nFor the\n\nchild, good examples are necessary that he may see how varied a design may\n\nbe made within given Hmitations, but the examples offered should not be\n\nhung where they will serve as copies. It is better that they be analyzed\nand studied, then removed, that, from the immediate background, the child\nmay draw inspiration for personal practice. Thus, good examples are necessary, but more essential still, is the orderly development of the steps or phases\nthru which every design must pass in its proper evolution. That these steps\n\nmay be understood, it will be well briefly to consider the nature of design\nand what makes for its successful application.\nDesign\nDesign ^' pure^' and ^^ applied.''^\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmaintain between associated masses.\n\ndefines\n\nthe relations which\n\nThe moment any space is divided\n\n—\n\nby a line, or has introduced into it a spot, masses are formed within it that\nmoment it becomes a design. The relations of the Hues and masses used\nare expressed in terms of balance, and rhythm, variety, and unity.\nPure\ndesign, so called, concerns itself with these terms and their illustration.\nAs\nprinciples, they should be taught to elementary pupils thru practice.\n\nshould be presented not as abstractions\n\n—as\n\nThey\n\n—but as\n\nillustrations of theory\n\nthe grammatical parts of speech of design to be practically learned thru the\nnecessity for their employment.\n\nDefinition oj applied design.\n\n—Apphed design concerns\n\nitself\n\nwith a given\n\nThe term defines the relations\nwhich are developed between the masses so formed. The more harmonious\nspace which has been divided into masses.\n\nthe relation the better the design.\n\nPure design deals with the abstract;\n\napplied design involves reality.\n\noffers\n\nform.\n\nIt\n\nabstract principles in concrete\n\nIt is objective, and teaches beauty in use.\n\nIt may, indeed, should be\n\nused in beautifying things of service in the daily life of the pupil.\nit\n\nSo used,\n\nrelates itself naturally to the teaching of other subjects of the school cur-\n\nriculum\n\n—construction, color, and mechanical drawing—giving to their instruc-\n\ntion point\n\nand interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6i8\n\n[Art\n\n—The most important element in applied design structure.\n—the shape and boundaries of the space which the pattern\nto be developed— the nature of a design depends.\nIn every applied design\nStructure.\n\nis\n\nUpon structure\nis\n\nin\n\nwe look to see the structural elements of the space supported by the decorative.\nNo matter how ingenious the use of conventional forms, no matter how\nstriking\n\nthe lines\n\nand smooth the rhythms, no applied design which is\n\nstructurally weak can be satisfactory.\n\nLine in design.\n\n—The structure of a design\n\nis\n\nprimarily dependent upon\n\nthe number and movement of the lines which determine the masses.\nlines control the observer's eyes.\n\nbeing directed by them in one way or another.\n\nAll lines condition movement\n\nand, where they parallel one another, they strengthen and hasten it.\nadditional line assists the eye to look in the direction indicated.\n\nthe designer to make, at will,\n\nThese\n\nOne cannot help looking along them and\n\nmovements fast or slow.\n\nEach\n\nThis enables\n\nNo line may be\n\nignored, nor may one be added, without careful consideration of its part in\n\ndeveloping rhythmic relations between itself and other lines or spots.\n\nThe designer thus has it in his power to make the observer look where\nhe will.\n\nHe can lead the eye from one line to another; can give strength\n\nand simplicity by emphasizing elements that bind together and support the\nform and interest by felicitious rhythms and smooth transitions. Conversely,\nhe can cause discomfort by forcing the eye to make abrupt changes, and positive\ndissatisfaction, by leaving it to wander aimlessly in a mass of unrelated forms.\nNature of applied design. Applied design concerns itself with the development of masses on a given surface. No mass can be introduced in a space\nwithout creating other masses more or less related, yet distinct. The simplest\nIn\nof applied designs consists of a single mass introduced within a space.\npractice, this mass may take the form of a bit of printing upon a card or page\nIn familiar language, such\nor an ornamental unit placed within a border.\nThe\nunit is spoken of as \"the design,\" but in itself it has no claim to the title.\ndesign is the relation maintained by all the masses of the. pattern.\nEach separate mass exerts more or less attraction depending upon its\nsize and nature, and upon the number and variety of the subordinate masses\nwhich it creates. Every design, therefore, has one or more centers of interest\nUnity requires\nto which the eye is led by the rhythms among the masses.\n\n—\n\nthat there be but one principal center, tho sub-centers\n\nmay be developed.\n\nIn practice, multiple centers are to be avoided as they tend to distract attention,\nto weaken structure and to destroy repose.\n\nIn the primary division of a space, the masses to be developed will depend\n\nupon the nature or use for which the design is planned. If a single spot is\nintroduced in a space and the eye grasps easily all the masses formed by the\nunit, then\n\nbut one center of interest is necessary.\n\nIf,\n\nhowever, one of the\n\nempty and\nThat it may be adequately filled and the interests of the pattern\nbalanced it then becomes necessary that a second spot be used.\nrelated masses appears disproportionately large, the eye finds it\ndispleasing.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\nDepartment]\n\nSteps in development of problem.\n\n—The\n\nfirst step,\n\n619\n\nin the practical develop-\n\nment of any problem, is the creation of the. main masses of the pattern.\n\nThe\n\npupil should be led to see the necessity for this, thru the examination of\n\nexamples based on simple space relationships.\n\nSimple book covers and pro-\n\ngrams will serve excellently for the purpose, while more elaborate patterns\nshould be analyzed to make plain the fact that, at base, they are mass\narrangements.\n\nIn some very simple designs, no elaboration of the primary mass arrange-\n\nment is necessary, but, in most cases, the masses which are introduced to\ndecorate a given space will require further division into spaces, which may\n\nThe second and third steps,\ndivision of the decorating\nthe\ndesign\nmust\nbe\nmaking\ntherefore, in the\nof a\nelements\nso formed, while the\nrefinement\nthe\nmass or masses and the\nof\nbe filled by conventionalized natural elements.\n\nfourth step should be the introduction of conventionalized forms,\n\nif\n\nsuch\n\nare to be used, on the basis of the division already planned.\n\nThese four steps are to be developed in the order named.\nbeing required\n\n:\n\nfirst, to plan the masses of his design\n\nrelated elements those\n\n;\n\nwhich are to serve decoratively;\n\nthe relations thru the creating of subtle rhythms;\n\nthird, to refine all\n\nand fourth, to adapt and\n\nintroduce the material elements it may be desired to present.\nwill learn to think as he should think\n\npracticed designer works\n\n—\n\nThe pupil\n\nsecond, to divide into\n\nSo taught, he\n\nin masses, he will learn to work as the\n\n— constructively. His eye\n\nwill\n\nbecome critical of\n\nHe will develop what may be termed the decorative vision, the\npower to see all forms about him as elements of design. When this sense\ndawns, both nature and art will appear to him in a new light. He will see\n\nrelated forms.\n\ndesign where he has never seen it before; the world will be revealed in pattern.\n\nSTEPS IN CLASS-ROOM PRACTICE\n\n—The\nstep in any design— the planning\n—should be prefaced by a word of explanation the\nThey\n\nThe development of masses.\nof masses\n\nfirst\n\nto\n\npupils.\n\nshould be made to understand that this is essential and that in itself, by cutting\n\nup the original spaces into forms of v^-rious shapes and sizes, it adds interest\nand results in space relationships. Emphasis is to be laid upon the fact\nthat no matter what the resulting design, it must be characterized by structural\nqualities which will aid in maintaining the strength of the inclosing form.\n\nSequence of problems.\n\n—The\n\nfirst\n\ntype of problem should be the simple\n\ndivision of any oblong which fills a given space (as the cover of a small card\ncase), and the next, the introduction of a rectangular mass into a larger oblong\n(as a book cover) in which, tho much smaller than the inclosing form, it still\n\nforms a center of sufficient interest to make necessary no other element to\nattract the eye.\n\nThe third problem may properly be one which requires a balance of\ninterests, to be secured by the introduction of two or more masses of different\n\nsizes and shape.\n\nThis may be followed by one in which the decorating unit\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n620\nis\n\n[Art\n\nno longer a simple mass, but takes the form of a strap-like element which\n\nextends about the edges of the inclosing form and creates a panel within.\nAfter the pupil has had practice in making designs of the foregoing nature,\n\nhe will be prepared to solve problems involving varied masses and panels.\n\nEach of the problems presented should be illustrated by two or three typical\nsolutions and, if more than one arrangement is satisfactory, those to which\nthe choice is to be limited should be indicated, and the pupils further apprised\nas to the limitations beyond which they should not proceed in making individual variations. All the emphasis will thus fall upon such variation. This\nIt is proper that the beginner in design should have the problem\n\nis intentional.\n\npresented to him in a very simple and concrete way, and that he be brought\nto realize that his critical attention must be focused upon one or two important\n\nquestions in it.\nStructural questions.\n\n—In designs\n\nin which there are two or more masses,\n\ncare should be taken to secure the rhythmic relations of these masses.\n\nTo\n\ninsure comprehension of this idea, it will be found helpful to have the pupils\nillustrate their\n\nunderstanding of rhythm by arranging on the blackboard\n\nor in at their seats small rectangular blanks of paper within outlines of different\nsize.\nit is\n\nIt is to be noted in this connection, that the constructed forms to which\n\n—as binding and\n— which enter into the pattern and must be included in any\n\nat times desired to apply designs may include elements\n\ncorner pieces\n\nscheme of decoration.\nIn general, it may be said that simplicity and strength will be secured\nby planning but few masses, by emphasizing rhythmic elements, by avoiding\nweak and uncertain curves, by limiting the size of the decorating units in all\nThrularge spaces, and contrasting such units with large and simple masses.\nout, the pupil should constantly be made to understand that it is the relation\n\nof the masses which constitutes the design.\n\nHe must learn to think in masses\n\nand must learn to work with an eye intent on securing structural beauty as\nthe first element in his pattern.\n\nIn the case of advanced pupils, practice should be given in determining\nthe masses which appear in patterns made\n\nby professional designers.\n\nThese\n\npatterns in the form of posters or prints may be presented to the class, and\nthe pupils led to see the\n\nmass relationships by closing their eyes until the\n\nsmaller details are obscured and the basic elements of the design appear.\n\nThruout the first step in the problem, emphasis should be laid on the\nThe chief errors made by\nthe pupils will be in arrangements which violate these principals and show\ndesigns crowded or empty, monotonous or scattered. All possible errors\ncannot here be named, but by referring the pupils to good examples and by\nprinciples of balance, rhythm, variety, and unity.\n\ncausing them to analyze their own problems in the light of such suggestions,\nthey may be led to detect their own shortcomings.\n\nDivision oj the mass into decorating elements.\nof the decorating mass has\n\n— Once the\n\nsize and placing\n\nbeen decided upon, there arises the question of\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\nDepartment]\n\nits division into elements.\n\n621\n\nThe purpose of this is to be explained as the giving\n\nof additional interest to the mass, the attracting of the eye by pleasing lines\n\nand varied spaces.\n\nA rhythmic relation of the elements created within the decorating mass\nis only next in importance to the relation of the\n\nof the design.\n\nIt\n\nmass itself to the other masses\n\nmust be understood that any movement within the mass\n\nshould serve to relate the elements so created to one another and to the space\n\nwhich the mass fills; such movements in other words, must make for rhythm\n\nand for the structural character of the design as a whole.\nIn the practical development of minor elements, it will be necessary to\nillustrate to the pupil the desirabiUty of working on constructive and connected\n\nthe\n\nlines,\n\nfirst\n\nsupporting the edges of the outline, and the second\n\ncarrying the eye between opposite elements.\n\nshould plan as tentative divisions.\n\nupon the mass.\n\nLines of this nature the pupils\n\nThey should appear as mere threads\n\nIn the more elaborate patterns of the higher grades they\n\nmay cross one another in various directions and so form what may be called\n\"the net.\"\n\nThis is analogous to the square underlay offered by some teachers\n\nas a device to suggest possible divisions of the mass.\nIt will be necessary in this connection to illustrate the principles of growth,\n\nor the rising of one mass out of another.\n\nThis in the form of radiation may\n\nshown in single units or spots and later in more complicated elements.\nGrowth within a pattern assists in securing both rhythm and unity.\nAfter the mass has been tentatively divided, it should be searched carefully\n\nfirst be\n\nto determine\n\nwhich of the elements that now present themselves are to be\n\nThese decided upon, the lines which bound them should\nstrengthened and the unused lines of the net erased.\nretained.\n\nbe\n\nIf carefully followed, the foregoing steps will leave the pupil with decorative\n\nelements rhythmically related and exactly occupying the space of the original\n\nmass.\n\nTo lend variety to the problem, it will, as a rule, be better to separate\nThis may be done by doubUng the lines\n\nthe elements one from another.\n\nwhich divide them.\ndivisions\n\nCare should be taken in so doing that the spaces or\n\nformed are so narrow that no element, which is a part of a mass\n\nis left isolated.\n\nIn the division noted above, opportunity will offer for refining the lines\n\nwhich bound the elements.\n\nSuch refinement is to be secured by emphasizing\n\nthe relations which exist between the separate masses and by here and there\naltering boundary lines so that more subtle rhythms may\n\nout this procedure, the necessity of securing both\n\nmovement must be kept in mind.\n\nbe secured.\n\nThru-\n\nharmony and variety of\n\nOne of the most frequent errors is a sacrifice\n\nof unity on the pupil's part, that he may gain variety; instead of one characteristic line\n\nor movement appearing both in major and minor forms,\n\nis it\n\nnot\n\nunusual to find in the latter movements quite unrelated to the general nature\nof the design.\n\nThis is to be corrected by causing both large and small elements\n\nof the design to reflect the spirit common to the whole pattern.\n\nmixture of styles in the good design.\n\nThere is no\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n622\n\nIntroduction\n\nof\n\nsubject\n\nmatter.\n\n[Art\n\n—The introduction into the elements\n\nplanned of conventional forms or \"subject-matter\" is the final step to be\ntaken in the development of the more advanced problem.\nadaptation rather than of conventionalization.\n\na matter of\n\nIt is\n\nFew natural forms can be\n\ngiven to pupils to conventionalize and it is quite sufficient to the purpose that\nthe latter become skilful in the adaptation of those which are presented in\ncharts, already\n\nmuch simplified.\n\nSeed vessels, bud, stem,\n\nleaf\n\nand flower\n\nelements are all useful for this purpose; insect and animal forms may also\n\nbe employed.\n\nThe adaptation of any of these requires that the specific form to be used,\nbe introduced into the spaces which offer in the design, without alteration of the\ngeneral relations of such spaces to the pattern; that is, the mass arrangement\n\nmay have the conventional elements introduced into it, but such introduction\nmust not interfere to any considerable degree with such arrangement.\n\nIt is\n\nto be noted in this connection that it is possible to introduce subject-matter\n\ninto a mass arrangement which has not had the elements separate one from\n\nthe other.\n\nWhen this is done, the design will appear as a solid form, made\n\nup of subject-matter, or with such matter superimposed upon the general mass\nbelow.\nColor.\n\n—General considerations of color cannot be here undertaken.\n\nIt\n\nmay be stated, however, that success in the use of color in design will depend\nas much upon a nice sense of color values as upon the laws of color harmony.\nApplied designs, for the most part, must partake of a mural character, that\nis,\n\nthey must appear to be part of the surface on which they are found.\n\nThis\n\nthey can do only when the colors of the different parts of the pattern approxi-\n\nmate one another in value.\n\nIf all are identical in value, the\n\nmost intense\n\nwill attract attention; intensity alone will scarcely serve to distinguish the\n\ndesign, unless a strong outline\n\nis used\n\nto separate the decorating mass from\n\nthe background.\n\nAs a rule, the colors of the decorating unit must be approximately of the\nsame value, while as a whole they are higher or lower than the background.\nIf\n\nsuch relation\n\nis\n\nnot maintained, the design will not appear\n\nflat,\n\nthose\n\nparts highest in value standing out in contrast to neighboring elements.\npractice, a design\n\nIn\nwhich lacks harmony thru differences in value, may be\n\nbettered by glazing down the highest elements.\n\nA skilful designer will some-\n\ntimes intentionally lay in all parts of his design in intense colors and subse-\n\nquently glaze them down with repeated washes.\n\nThis gives a tonal quality\n\nto the design, not to be obtained otherwise.\n\n—\n\nThe development of critical power. Taste, it was noted, is the development\nof a critical judgment thru repeated discrimination.\nAs one of the principal\nends to be secured in the teaching of design is the development of this power,\nit\n\nshould be the practice thruout the solution of every problem to require\n\ncriticism at the completion of each step.\n\nThis criticism is to be secured from\n\nthe class by hanging up before it the best and poorest results secured.\n\nThese\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\nDepartment]\n\n623\n\nshould be reviewed in the light of the principles which have been presented\n\nand the pupils should be required to criticise them in terms of such principles.\nSpecific effort should be made to develop power to judge according to definite\nstandards.\n\nIt is not sufficient for a pupil to say that a design is bad or that\n\nhe does not like it; he should be called upon to state why it is good or bad,\nand,\n\nif\n\nunsatisfactory,\n\nnature, in ''balance,\"\n\nhow it is to be remedied by alteration in structural\n\"rhythm,\" \"variety,\" or \"unity.\"\n\nThese terms the\n\npupils should learn to use comprehendingly.\n\nSUMMARY\n\nTo summarize briefly, one may say that the foregoing is a plea for the\nteaching of definite principles and for their definite application.\n\nIt is\n\nnot\n\nrecommended that many problems be solved during the school term. In\nmany cases, all that is possible is the making of one or perhaps two designs.\nThese should if possible be for application to some article of use in the school,\nfor there can be no more significant factor in a lesson in design than a knowledge that such lesson is making for the beauty of a thing which is to form a\n\nThe problem once decided upon, the four\nnamed should be taken in order, the masses introduced, broken up,\n\npart of our everyday surroundings.\nsteps\n\nrefined,\n\nand filled with subject matter.\n\nThese steps will take several les-\n\nsons, and the development and application of a color scheme as many more.\n\nFar better, however, that one good design be made, than many patterns\nleading to no specific power of execution or of criticism.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMrs. Ida Hood Clark, director of manual training, public schools, Milwaukee,\nWis,\n\n—In the midst of our present wealth of educational\n\ntheories, the need seems not so\n\nmuch for any addition to them or of any restatement of them as for a little genuine wholesome action in carrying them into effect, and yet, this problem of the education of little\nchildren, tho so very old, and so very much discussed is always new and never exhausted.\nSince I have been in charge of manual training for a number of years, it would be\nquite natural to think I might regard manual training and art instruction, for they are\none and the same thing, as the salvation of childhood. This is far from the truth, for I\nthink we should only defeat our efforts by advocating any special subject, however commendable in itself. What we are after is culture and the power and perfection that\ncomes thru culture. It is not a new motive, but one that underUes all that the new\nmovements in education, of which art and manual training and the kindergarten form so\nprominent a part.\n\nWe must, then, get this culture by surrounding the child with those influences that\nmake for culture.\n\nWhat we must do, then, in educating our children, is to give full and\n\nwe must consciously and deUberately encourage feeling\nand sentiment, and create the greatest possible ntmaber of wholesome desires, and this is\nvery easy, because all we have to do is not to suppress it. We should value this emotional\nside because it all leads to action, and to the very sort of action that is educationally most\nvaluable to that which is self-prompted.\nThe children themselves suggest the right method in education. What they want\nmost is to be employed, and with something that interests them. Why do the children\n\nfree play to their emotional life;\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n624\n\nprefer a country farmhouse to the city home ?\n\n[Art\n\nBecause there is more to do there.\n\nThis\n\nnew education has seized upon. It attempts to make knowledge\nAnd to do this, it enhsts the\nreal to the children by making it a part of their experience.\n\nis the great fact that the\n\nlife\n\nforces on its side, instead of arraying them against it.\n\nWe ought to use our skill as\nWe\n\nteachers in directing the wonderful self-activity, that in children is already a reality.\n\nand decide, in a large measure, what shape it\nBut we ought always to do this with a sympathy and co-operation of the child,\nand never against his protest. It is a bad practice, in education to attempt to control the\noccupations and activities of children and neglect the motive power back of it all. It is a\ngood practice to accept the desires of children and allow them wholesome expression. A\nare to provide the place for its exercise,\n\nis to take.\n\nlarge part of childish instinct is the desire to make things, to construct something;\n\nit is\n\nonly by such experience that the child comes to know the great outer world and finds himself in it.\n\nThe work of education consists in directing the activities of the children into\n\nthose channels which will yield the most helpful reactions, by concentrating the wander-\n\ning attention, by increasing the delicacy of touch, by cultivating the finer and finer discrimination, by training the observation, by developing, as far as may be, each and all\nof the faculties,\n\nwe make possible that unfolding and perfecting of the human spirit,\n\nthat evolution of human nature, which is in the end\n\n—education.\n\nOur schools have an economic, an educational, and an ethical purpose;\n\nwhile we\n\nseek to develop the mind, and thereby give it knowledge and skill that enables one to be\nself-supporting, we must at the same time, develop the moral sense as well.\n\neducational scheme, what is the function of handicraft ?\n\nSo, in this\n\nWe have shown its value in\n\neconomic results; business men, educators, far and wide, all admit the influence of art\ninstruction on the industrial world.\n\nAnd now we are striving to use art and manual training as a means of expression,\nthat shall have a still larger influence in the educational world, as the means of developing\n\nthought, and of expressing this thought in connection with any subject in the curriculum.\n\nSo we must use this handicraft as we now use language, as a means of developing and\nThen, if it serves this purpose, no matter\nas a medium of expression.\nwhat its technical deficiencies are, it has an educational value.\n\n—\n\nimparting ideas\n\nSo this is the ideal in modern education; the practical question remains, \"Who shall\ncarry it out?\"\nIt would be unfortunate to intrust this most important interest of society to any but\n\nthe best men and, women; not those who know the most, but those who are the strongest,\n\nthe most beautiful, the most lovable, the most cultured, as well as the most skilful and\nbest informed.\n\nIn this newer education, the need for wise and beautiful teachers is especially great;\n\n—\n\nit is diflrcult to find men and women\nThe artisan habit of thought does not\nmake for the unfolding and perfecting of a human spirit. His thought is directed solely\ntoward the product, and his skill is in handUng the dead material. What we want is a\n\nfor observe the teaching material that is available\n\nof broad culture who can also use their hands.\n\nteacher whose thought\nmaterial\n\nis\n\non the process, whose cunning is the handling of the living\n\n—the children—that the proper agents\n\nfor carrying out this method and gaining\n\nthis end, are the best men and women that society has produced\n\nrace\n\n—men and women of large experience and broad\n\nculture,\n\n—the very flower of the\n\nmen and women to whom\n\nin general has been kind, those who have caught sight of the complete life, and those\nwho would have this vision of Hfe prevail.\n\nlife\n\nJames Hall, director of art department. Ethical Culture School, New York city.\nIn saying that a problem in design may be stated with the precision of a problem in\ngeometry. Dr. Haney is obviously regarding design as a science. In taking this view\nhe agrees with the other recent authorities upon the subject, but we are immensely indebted\nto Dr. Haney for the clear and convincing statement that he has given us of his methods\n\nof teaching the principles of applied design.\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE TEACHING OF APPLIED DESIGN\n\n625\n\nThe discovery that these principles can be exactly and scientifically stated is, without doubt, of the greatest value to art education.\n\nMoreover, it makes it possible to teach\n\nby and to those who may have no great capacity for\nIt may enlist interest in design and lead later to a feeling for good art.\n\ncorrectness of artistic expression\nartistic feehng.\n\nBut does not the science of design bear a similar relation to artistic expression that\nThat it is desirable to teach correct\nThat formal grammar has its place is generally admitted.\nspeech, no one would gainsay.\nBut, of course, the teaching of English means far more. It means bringing the children\ninto contact with the classics of the language as an inspiration in themselves, and as a means\nof developing the ability for forceful and vivid expression on the part of the children.\nI know there is danger in reasoning by analogy; but I believe this analogy will hold\ngood in the matter of teaching design. Dr. Haney has said that good illustrative matter must\nbe presented to pupils if they are to evolve good designs. He further tells us, that example\ncounts for much in such practice, and that the illustrations offered should relate specifiThese statements may be interpreted so that they cover the point\ncally to the problems.\nIn practice, however, the examples offered pupils in modern\nI am attempting to make.\nschool-teaching of design, fall far short of being classic examples. They are much more\napt to be examples worked out to order by the staff of supervisors. Let us be thankful\nThat these are not frequently of unusual merit I\nthat they can make as good designs.\ndo not wish to imply, but would the local teacher of English offer his own productions for\nthe sole study of his pupils ? Does he not rely largely on those things that time has proved ?\nIn truth, the study of the classics is fundamental, is it not ? So it seems to me in the\nteaching of design, the rich heritage of the past should be made to yield up its wealth\nThe reaction against copying lifeless and unrelated\nof suggestion and inspiration.\nscraps of historic ornament has almost swept away any study of the classics of design in\npubhc schools. There is need of a revival of the teaching of the master examples of\nThis teaching, however, should be vitalized by considering the ornament in reladesign.\ntion to its environment, and to the material in which it appears, and by leading the pupils\nthe science of language does to literary expression ?\n\nto see how beautifully the past artists solved their problems of applied design.\n\ngive\n\nthem insight into the creative impulse.\n\nIt\n\nIt should\n\nshould be our aim, in design teaching,\n\nto lead the pupils to appreciate a beautiful style in design.\n\nThis style is the art and is\n\nlargely outside the pale of the science of design.\n\nThere are, then, two things to teach\n\n—the one which Dr. Haney has so admirably\n\nelucidated, the making of a correct design, the other, the appreciation of the real beauty\n\nof design, which requires study of the finest examples.\n\nkept in mind thruout the teaching.\n\nThese two thoughts must be\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday Morning, July 5, 1905\nThe department was called to order in the First M. E. Church, Asbury Park, N. J.,\nby President W. A. Wetzell, who announced that he would not read his\naddress as announced on the program. The program was then presented as follows:\nat 9:30 A. M.,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\norgan solo by Mrs. Bruce S. Keator, Asbury Park, N. J.\n''The Mission of Public-School Music,\" by A. E. Winship, editor of Journal of\nEducation, Boston, Mass.\nMusic vocal solo by Miss Laura Minturn, supervisor of music, Asbury Park, N. J.\n\" Some Questions Involved in Making Music a Major Study in Pubhc Education,\"\nby W. Scott, secretary, N. E. E. League, Boston, Mass.\n\nMusic\n\nAt the conclusion of Mr. Scott's paper, the president announced that there would\nbe two sessions on Thursday, the first one to be devoted to the topic of \" Children's Songs;\"\nand that Miss Eleanor Smith, Mrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, and Mrs. Marie Burt Parr would give\n\non the subject, illustrating them by singing some typical songs for children. He\nannounced that in the afternoon of Thursday a class of children from New York\ncity to illustrate the paper read by Dr. Frank R. Rix would be present, and that certain\nphases of rhythm work would be presented by Philip C. Hay den, Keokuk, Iowa. The\ncompletion of the program followed the announcements:\ntalks\n\nalso\n\nMusic\n\n—organ\n\n—by Mrs. Bruce\n\nsolo\n\nS.\n\nKeator.\n\n\"The Correlation of Music With Other Branches of the School Curriculum,\" by\nMrs. EHzabeth Casterton, supervisor of music. Bay City, Mich.\nDiscussion led by W. A. Putt, supervisor of music, Cleveland, Ohio.\nMusic\n\n—vocal\n\nsolo\n\n—by Miss Laura Minturn, Asbury Park, N.\n\nJ.\n\nPresident Wetzell appointed as a nominating committee Dr. Frank R. Rix, supervisor of music in Greater New York;\n\nMrs. Constance B. Smith, of IlHnois University;\n\nand A. J. Gantvoort, of the Cincinnati College of Music.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Wednesday Afternoon, July 5\nThe second session was opened at 2 30 p. m. with a song by Mrs. Mabel Shank, who\nrendered in a deUghtful manner Barratt's \"The Scent of an EngHsh Rose,\" and in response\nLater in the program she sang \"My\nto an encore, gave \"They Say,\" by Randegger.\n:\n\nBairnie,\" by Vannah, and the \" Carmenia Waltz,\" by Wilson, which were Ustened to with\nthe greatest pleasure.\n\nThe program was then given, as follows:\n\n\"Music as a Factor in Culture,\" by Charles Edward Locke, D. D., Brooklyn, N. Y.\nMusic vocal solo by Mrs. Mabel Shank.\n\"Relation of the Grade Teacher to Music Instruction in the Public Schools,\" by\nC. A. Fulmer, superintendent of city schools, Beatrice, Neb.\nDiscussion was led by Miss JuHa E. Crane, director of Normal School of Music,\nPotsdam, N. Y.\nMusic vocal solo: \" My Love Nell,\" Fox; \" Auf Wiedersehen,\" Bendix by Anthony\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nE. Carlson, Boston, Mass.\n\n627\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n628\n\n[Music\n\nROUND TABLE.—Thursday Morning, July 6\nA called meeting of the Department of Music Education was held at 9:30 Thursday\nmorning, for a symposium on children's songs.\n\nThe session was opened by Miss Eleanor\n\nSmith, of Chicago, who gave an extended talk on the value of a high class of music associated with words of Hterary excellence in forming the character of a child.\n\nThe address\n\nwas scholarly, musical, and thoroly convincing to the large audience present. Miss\nSmith then illustrated her address by singing a number of beautiful child's songs.\nShe was followed by Mrs. Jessie L. Gaynor, the well-known composer of children's\nIn opening her address, Mrs. Gaynor referred most gracefully\nsongs, St. Joseph, Mo.\nto the work of Miss Smith, calling attention to some of her most effective compositions\nfor children.\n\nMrs. Gaynor was followed by Mrs. Fanny Snow Knowlton, Cleveland, Ohio. After\nan introductory talk, Mrs. Knowlton sang several beautiful songs from her own collection,\nNature Songs for Children, the songs and the singing being full of charm.\nThe last exercise of the morning was given by Mrs. Marie Burt Parr, supervisor in\nMrs. Parr gave a most excellent talk on the subthe primary grades, Cleveland, Ohio.\nject of children's songs, and illustrated them by singing several by Mrs. Anna Goedhart.\nThis session was one of the most inspiring and instructive of the series held by the\ndepartment.\n\nROUND TABLE.—Thursday Afternoon, July 6\nA second called meeting of the department was held at 2 o'clock in the afternoon\nto hear demonstration\n\nwork by a class of children from Flushing, Borough of Queens,\n\nL. I., under the direction of Dr. Frank R. Rix, director of music, public schools, Boroughs\nof Queens and Richmond, New York city, and Miss Bowman, special teacher;\n\nand by a\n\nclass of eight children from the schools of Paterson, N. J., under the direction of \\V. Seymour\n\nA demonstration on the subject of ear-training and rhythm form was given\n\nTwichell.\n\nby Mr. Philip C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa, by one pupil, whom he had brought with him\nfor that purpose.\n\nAt the conclusion of the exercises the following resolution was offered by Mr. Philip\nC. Hayden, and was passed by unanimous vote:\nResolved, That the exhibition of excellent tone, and the splendid sight-reading of\nmusic, made by the class from New York, deserve the hearty commendation of this\n\ndepartment.\n\nThat the company here assembled thank Mr. Rix and Miss Bowman for the convincing demonstration, and heartily congratulate them; and be it further\nResolved, That we extend a cordial vote of thanks to the children who gave the\ndemonstration.\nMr. Hayden' s demonstration of ear-training and rhythm work consisted of an informal\ntalk in which he illustrated the principles of pedagogy as applied to music teaching.\nto the late\n\nOwing\n\nhour at which the ptogram was finished, there was no discussion of this\n\ndemonstration work.\n\nTHIRD SESSION.— Friday Morning, July 7\nThe program was opened at 9 30 A. m. by a violin solo played by Miss Olive Whitely,\nof Boston, who very beautifully rendered \"Adoration\" by Borowski.\nThe program as\n:\n\nprinted followed:\n\n\"Some Type Studies That Have Been Found Helpful in the Teaching of Music in\nthe Schools,\" by Walter H. Aiken, supervisor of music, public schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nDiscussion led by W. A. Putt, supervisor of music, Cleveland, Ohio.\nReport of the Committee on the Proper Literary and Musical Training of the Music\nSupervisor: His Examination and Certification, by the chairman, Thomas Tapper,\neditor of Musician, Boston, Mass.\nMusic \"Allah,\" Chadwick; and \"Sweet is Tipperary,\" Fisher by Miss Margaret\nM. Leverick, of Brookljoi, N. Y.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\n\nDepartment]\n\n629\n\nReport of Committee on What Results Should Be Obtained in the Various Grades\nof the Public Schools, by the chairman, Philip C. Hayden, editor of School Music Monthly,\n\nKeokuk, Iowa.\n\nMr. Leo R. Lewis, of Tufts College, offered the following resolution, which was\nseconded by Mrs. Constance B. Smith, and passed without dissent:\nResolved, That it is the sense of this meeting that, in all future sessions of the Department of Music Education, all papers and discussions should have direct bearing on the\nequipment and the problems of the supervisor and the grade teacher; and\nThat the presiding officer, by careful assignment of time to the principal speakers,\nand by definite restriction of time for others, see to it that there be ample time for discussion.\n\nOn motion, the report presented by Thomas Tapper, of Boston, chairman of the committee, was adopted, and the committee was directed to publish the report, adding some\n\nsupplementary material, and to circulate it among the music supervisors of the country.\n\nOn account of lack of time to consider the report repesented by Chairman Philip C.\nHayden, the committee was continued for another year, with instruction to send out its\nreport at least one month before the next annual meeting, so that supervisors may become\nfamiliar with its contents previous to the meeting.\nIt was moved by A. J.\n\nGantvoort, of Ohio, and .passed unanimously, that at the next\n\nannual meeting an entire session be given to the discussion of this report.\nThe following resolution was presented by Dr. F. R. Rix, seconded by Mrs. D.\n\nRichardson Lyeth, and unanimously passed by the department:\nResolved, That the thanks of the Department of Music Education be extended to\nSecretary Hayden for his devotion to the interest of the Department of Music Education,\nand for his most excellent demonstration on the subject of ear-training and rhythm form\ngiven Thursday afternoon.\n\nMrs. Frances E. Clark presented the following resolution, which was also unanimously\nadopted:\n\nWhereas, Our honored president, Mr. Wetzell, by his untiring labors in our behalf,\nhas brought to our hearing a larger number of the most eminent and accomplished people\nin various lines of musical activity;\nResolved, That this Department of Music Education of the National Educational\nAssociation tender to Mr. Wetzell our most sincere and hearty thanks for this delightful,\ncomprehensive, and instructive series of programs, which have been successfully carried\nout in the meeting of 1905.\nA.\n\nJ.\n\nGantvoort moved a vote of thanks to all those who had contributed to the\n\npleasure and instruction of the department by taking part in\n\nits\n\nprogram, by reading\n\npapers, playing, singing, or lending their assistance in other capacities.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by the chairman, Frank\nR. Rix, as follows:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Hamlin E. Cogswell, Mansfield, Pa.\nFor Vice-President Mrs. Frances E. Clark, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFor Secretary Philip C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa.\n\nOn motion, the secretary was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the department for the nominees. The ballot was so cast, and they were declared duly elected.\nMiss Lucy Cole having presented a memorial in commemoration of the departed\nMrs. Emma A. Thomas, it was read by Mr. Gantvoort and unanimously adopted:\nWhereas, Providence in its wisdom has removed from our midst one of the most\nand loyal members of this section, one who, in her own personal life, stood for\nthe highest ideals of womanhood, and who was also a devotee to her chosen Ufe-work\nfaithful\n\nschool music;\nResolved, That we, the Department of Music Education of the National Educational\nAssociation, hereby express our regret at the great loss we have sustained in the death\nof Mrs.\nA. Thomas, of Detroit, and that a copy of this resolution be sent to the\nmembers of her family.\n\nEmma\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n630\n\n[Music\n\nThe motion was made by Mrs. Casterton, and seconded by Mr. Putt, that a committee\nbe appointed by the incoming president to formulate a course of music material to be used\nin correlating music with other studies in the course, and was unanimously passed.\n\nOn motion of Mr. Gantvoort, the department then adjourned.\nPhilip C. Hayden, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE MISSION OF MUSIC IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nWINSHIP, EDITOR OF THE \"JOURNAL OF EDUCATION,\" BOSTON, MASS.\n\nA. E.\n\nIf the mission of the school is to teach the three\n\nR's then music has no\n\nmission in the pubUc schools. . With all due regard to the eminent personal\nsuccess that stands behind\n\nsome very clever words already spoken in this\n\nconvention, I hesitate not to say that few arguments are as vague and vicious,\ntrite\n\nand tricky, as a spectacular plea for the three R's.\n\nIt is delightfully\n\nrefreshing to have at the head of this noble organization at such a time as\nthis a\n\nman with the convictions and courage that prompted the notable presiAnd in making a plea for music\n\ndential utterance of the opening meeting.\n\nI appeal from a great mayor to a greater educator.\nIf the chief mission of the public school is to teach children how to read,\n\nwrite, and cipher, then it can all be done in two years when the child is eleven\n\nand twelve years of age, and the country can reduce its 400,000 teachers to\nless than 100,000, and turn over three-fourths of the school money to the\npoliticians in the sewer, street, and police departments; but if it is expected\n\nand\nwords correctly, perform all examples accurately, and\n\nthat the schools can in eight years teach all children to read fluently\nfeelingly, to spell all\n\nsolve all problems promptly for the rest of life, then I beg to submit that it\nwill never be\n\ndone in eight or in eighteen years, unless the Lord repents of\n\nthe way he has made man and breathes a new human nature into the children\nof men.\n\nA Uttle time every day for twelve years is indispensable to the formation\nof the habit of accuracy\n\nand rapidity in the practice of the fundamentals.\n\nWithout such practice, a little every day, it is impossible for most children\nto keep step for life in the essentials of learning.\n\nA stupid person will spell his own name, however compHcated it may be,\nbecause he writes it frequently; but I was once called upon to witness a will\n\nwhen the maker asked me to spell her name because she had not written it\nfor years.\n\nToo much time at fundamentals is almost as bad as none at all to practice\nin school or out.\nOne never drills on a piano,\n;\n\nis all right, to drill is to bore\n\n—\n\nbut practices; one ought never to drill in the fundamentals, but rather practice.\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "MISSION OF MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n631\n\nThey will be learned ten times as well if half of the school day is made bright\nand cheery, appetizing and relishing.\n\nThe senseless magnifying of the three R's makes schools that can hold\nchildren only\n\nby means of a compulsory school law!\n\nThat expression is\n\nan indictment of a school system that drills all life and spirit out of many\n\nOne mission of pubhc-school music is to wipe that word \"comBe careful that you don't drill in music. Have\nyou never seen a teacher who could make music as dry as the multiplication\nchildren.\n\npulsory\" off the school laws.\n\ntable ?\n\nYou can never get music into school, nor anything else that is aglow with\nuntil educators talk of education as a fountain and not as a foundation.\nThat word \"foundation\" has charged to it more pedagogical crimes than\nany other one word. Education places one in touch with sources, and is\nnot seeking a place where movement is impossible. In the eighteenth century\nthere was some excuse for it.\nOne hundred years ago things would petrify\nand make good foundations, but now they putrify. The school must be a\nlife,\n\nfountain of power, of life, of joy.\nIs music a fad or has it a mission ?\n\nWhat is the real, vital mission of the public school ?\n\nIs it not to do for\n\nthe children as a whole what they will find, all in all, beneficial thru life, not\n\nsimply in business, not simply in the earning of a living, but at work and at\nplay, in the home and in society, in the using of money as well as in the getting\nof it, in enjoying life as well as in being able to live, in getting genuine pleasure\n\nout of others, in giving pleasure to others, and in keeping youths and adults\n\nfrom going wrong physically, intellectually, and morally ?\n\nMusic does much for the disposition and for the character. It provides\nand utilizes leisure; it may be a limitless blessing to the home;\n\nrecreation\n\nthe church could hardly exist without it.\n\nThe child taught to discriminate\n\nbetween music and vulgar noise will not be tempted by the trashy shows that\nare, perhaps, the worst curse that afflicts the city life of the poor and the weak.\n\nIn one city in the West a cheap show settled down in the town.\n\nChildren's\n\nmatinee tickets were sold to the stores for two and a half cents, to be given as\n\npremiums.\n\nThe demoralization of the school threatened.\n\nThe wise and\n\nenergetic superintendent forced the teaching of school music, introduced\n\nchorus work and started an orchestra in every school, openly attacked the\n\ncheap music, and\n\nliterally\n\ndrove the show out of business.\n\nThe public\n\nschools can revolutionize the entertainments of most cities if they really appreciate the possibilities in good music.\n\nIsn't this a mission worth while ?\n\nSchool music must be devotional, patriotic, intellectual, and inspirational.\n\nThere is no more perfect mechanism than the mechanics of music, but\nthere is no music in that which is merely mechanical.\ninspirational as music, but there\n\nis\n\nThere is nothing so\n\nno worthy music in anything\n\nmerely\n\ninspirational.\n\n—\n\nThe school music must be devotional\n\nwill\n\nbe this under any reasonable\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n632\nconditions.\n\nIt will inevitably\n\nbreathe a religious spirit into the day.\n\n[Music\n\nIt is\n\nthe one phase of religious activity that does not tend to be dogmatic, denominational, or sectarian.\n\nIt is religious naturally as\n\na breath from heaven, as\n\npure as the flake of wafted snow ere it touches the earth, as tonic to the souls\nas a breath from the Wasatch range.\n\nIn the present skeptical state of the\n\nmind toward dogmatism, and its almost reverential attitude toward\nthe public school, it is worth all the teaching of music costs and more to breathe\ninto the hfe of childhood and youth a reverence that need not be dogmatic,\npublic\n\na religion that need not be sectarian.\nPatriotism\ndeifies, one's\n\ndevotion with a\n\nhuman christening.\n\nIt idealizes,\n\nIt enkindles the worshipful side of\n\nalmost\n\nour being human-\n\nThe only thing that will keep Canada from joining the United States\n\nward.\nis\n\nis\n\ncountry.\n\nthe fact that every child has sung \"God Save the Queen (or King) \" each\n\nschool day of his life.\ndian.\n\nIt has closed every school day ever known by a Cana-\n\nThis will make \"America\" impossible to them, even tho the tune be\n\nWe do not sing \"America,\" \"The Star-Spangled Banner,\" \"Dixie,\"\nand the state hymns as much as we ought, but every child learns them in the\nSometime he will do this\nschools and sings them on every star occasion.\nthe same.\n\nThe schools of Canada make any anti-British sentiment impossible;\n\"America\" in the schools makes any anti- American sentiment impossible.\nNo teaching of history will do for patriotic sentiment what a daily school song\ndaily.\n\ncan do.\n\nMusic has an intellectual mission. It makes intellectual activity graceful\nand refreshing. The old idea was that nothing was intellectual that did tiot\ncome hard. Friction was an indication of power. The squeak of the mind\nwas supposed to voice activity. Grinding was the characterization of conDrill, a simpler word for boring, was deified.\nquest.\nAll that is in the past.\nNothing that tires or can tire is power today.\nTireless -steam, frictionless electricity, even wireless telegraphy are symbolic\nof mental action.\n\nWhen a mind snaps, when the nerves are prostrate, when\n\nthe brain fags, there has been a wrong use.\n\nRhythm is the best mental action.\n\nGenius is the power to be carried to\n\nlimitless height, depth, or breadth without friction in the flight or leap.\n\nMusic is one rhythmic art.\n\nIts\n\nmathematics are more exact than loga-\n\nrithms, its science keener than chemistry, its art richer than that of the sculptor\n\nand painter, and yet the mind obeys the laws of mathematics, chemistry, and\nart in music as easily as sound flies above the ocean more readily than the\nheavy cable drags it beneath the sea.\nMusic, rightly taught, does more for mental development than the mystic\n\nsymbols of algebra or the planting of Greek roots in brain soil.\nIt must know what it sings, why\nMusic is the most exact science, the most nearly fathomless philosophy, the most exhaustless psychology, the most brilliant art.\n\nIt is not enough that the school sings.\n\nand how.\n\nThe public school has as a phase of its mission to teach the possibilities\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "MAKING MUSIC A MAJOR STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n633\n\nof music, to teach the Psalms of Israel, of the masters, and the masterpieces.\nIt is\n\na crime against heaven and earth to teach of the warriors and the tri-\n\numphs thru courage, and not to teach of men like Handel and Haydn, Mendelssohn and Beethoven, Mozart and Wagner, the story of whose lives\n\nis\n\nmore fascinating than that of Xenophon or Caesar.\nMusic is the noblest inspiration. It comes nearest crossing the threshold\nFor music the very gate of heaven stands ajar.\nof eternity.\nThere is no occasion to be less accurate or rapid in number work, to read\nless intelligently or write less distinctly in\n\norder for public-school music to\n\nmake us more devout, more patriotic, more intellectual, more inspired in our\nlove for man and our adoration of Jehovah.\n\nSOME QUESTIONS INVOLVED IN MAKING MUSIC A MAJOR\nSTUDY\nW. SCOTT, SECRETARY, NEW ENGLAND EDUCATIONAL LEAGUE, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThe conference, whose report on a high-school music course (elective)\nwas adopted by this body at St. Louis in 1904, held frequent meetings during\nabout two years. The report has been extensively printed in the daily and\nperiodical press, in the proceedings of this body, and in separate form.\nIt\nhas received the approval of many institutions and leaders in education.\nThe publication of the report led to an investigation into the status of music\nin the schools of Massachusetts, and a music teacher's institute, both under\nthe auspices of the state board.\n\nImportant action of the College Entrance\n\nExamination Board for the New England and Middle States (includ'ng Maryland)\nlist\n\nis\n\nunder consideration, by which music may this year be added to its\n\nof subjects for examination.\n\nAn arrangement has recently been made\n\nby the New England Advisory Board in Music whereby any community may,\nif\n\ndesired, credit proper musical instruction, whether in public schools or by\n\nprivate teachers, on a basis somewhat similar to other studies.\n\nare explained in print and are easily accessible.\n\nThese matters\n\nWe need not at this time\n\ndo more than refer to them.\nIn this campaign to secure for music, when pursued with a serious purpose,\nin the group of major studies, various questions have arisen\nThese have special interest for teachers of music, and are worthy of con-\n\nits proper rank\n\nsideration, also,\n\nattention\nFirst,\n\nis\n\nby friends of popular education.\n\nTo some of these your\n\ninvited.\n\na word as to the attitude of teachers of music toward their own\n\nsubject.\n\nNot infrequently the teacher of music thinks less of music than he ought.\n\nHe may take a lower or narrower view of the study than its character requires,\nand, therefore, fail to gain for it the high place it justly claims. The argument\nfor music as one of the\n\nmajor electives is believed to be a strong one, and,\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n634\n\nI think, it is generally conceded when properly presented.\n\n[Music\n\nMusic has value\n\non the physical, intellectual, and moral sides, if, for convenience of statement,\n\nwe may speak of these aspects of life as separate.\nrelated or interpenetrative.\n\nIt\n\nThey are in reality cor-\n\nhas value also as a cultural and vocational\n\nstudy, altho here again the distinction cannot be as sharply drawn as has been\n\nsupposed possible.\nlife,\n\nMusic touches personal,\n\nfamily,\n\nsocial,\n\nand natural\n\nand probably no other single study has a broader appeal for recognition\n\nThe relation of music to hterature\n\namong the leading educational subjects.\n\nin prose and verse, and the necessity of a closed union of these two great arts\n\nhave both been pointed\n\nin education,\n\nout.\n\nThe teacher of music should\n\nbear in mind that his subject is related to life in a profound and many-sided\n\nThe songs of home and friendship, of religion and patriotism, have\n\nfashion.\n\nno small place in the higher life of humanity.\n\nTo cite one example\n\n:\n\nI have\n\nbeen present at a Phi Beta Kappa dinner at Harvard when, at the close, the\n\ncompany of scholars joined hands and sang together Burns' song of ''Auld\nLang Syne.\" I have heard the same song at a company of ministers at a\ntheological seminary reunion.\n\nAfter the battle of Manila Bay, where the\n\nBritish and American marines fraternized, as the British men-of-war left the\n\nharbor, the marines of both nations sang the same song.\n\nIt was the\n\nmusic\n\nof the plowman-poet that best fitted as a parting-song of friendship for the\n\nscholar, the theologian, and the marines of two great modern nations.\n\nRead\n\nthe tributes to music of noted men of letters like Carlyle and Newman.\n\nSee\n\nhow the have been impressed by this art, which opens into the world of the\n•\n\n—a world which has\n\nits artists and poets, its historians and\nand builders, as the world of letters or of space.\nMusic teachers, however, are not alone in an undervaluation of their subject.\n\near or sound\ndramatists,\n\nits\n\narchitects\n\nTeachers in other fields of education often go much farther in their low estimate\nof music as an educational subject.\n\nAt one of the American colleges a few\n\nyears ago, the introductory question to the prospective student was:\n\n\"Do\n\nyou come to study or to take music ? \" In another college of high rank, the\nprofessor of pedagogy hesitated to accept a thesis on music, offered for a\ndegree, on the ground that the subject had too slight an educational status;\nbut he was finally convinced of his error.\nacter and scope of music instruction,\n\nIn the advancement in the char-\n\nmuch rests on the attitude of teachers\n\nof music to their own subject.\n\nAgain, the recognition of music as a major elective involves the question\nof educational relief.\n\nIt is said that the progress of legislation is not so much\n\na development of great principles of equity and wise pubHc poHcy as an effort\nto secure relief from grievances.\n\nThe governmental shoe pinches somewhere,\n\nand there is complaint which grows into agitation and ultimately leads to\nIn the educational world a similar method\nlegislative measures of relief.\nA large number of youths suffer unjustly and needlessly, as things\nobtains.\nare, because, while to them music is an important study, as shown by personal\naptitude and preference, and the judgment of parents and advisors, the\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "MAKING MUSIC A MAJOR STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n63$\n\nschool system is such that they cannot adequately pursue the study.\n\nEveryone\n\nwho has had to do with education has probably met some, perhaps many,\n\nA leading high-school man in New England declared that all\n\nsuch cases.\n\npupils of marked musical ability whom he has known in many years' experience\n\ndropped out of the high school, because unable to carry high-school studies\n\nand outside music at the same time.\n\nDoubtless the country over,\n\nmany\n\nthousands of pupils have a grievance at this point, and should have immediate\nrelief.\n\nIt\n\nhas been shown that such\n\nrelief is\n\nnot necessarily complicated\n\nwith questions of public cost, increased taxation, or school appliances, but\nis a\n\nsimple matter of relief from a grievance.\n\nAll items involved are capable\n\nSuch adjustment will bring benefit both to the\n\nof adjustment everywhere.\n\npupil and the school system.\n\nAnother question connected with the proper recognition of music in\neducation\n\nis\n\nthat of educational freedom.\n\nIt is\n\nconceded that education\n\nhas been unduly controlled by what are called the governing classes.\n\nThe\n\nscope and kind of training have been largely shaped by their will.\n\nWith\n\nthe growth of the democratic idea and the rise of the people, the necessity\n\nand wisdom of placing an educational opportunity within everybody's reach\nare apparent.\ncational\n\nTo fit that opportunity to the training of a people, the edu-\n\nscheme must be comprehensive and adaptive; that is, it must not\n\nonly teach everybody, but it must teach everything in reason.\nof public instruction, therefore,\nuniversity, ''a place\n\nThe system\n\napproached Dr. Johnson's definition of a\n\nwhere everything may be learned.\"\n\nWhile there must\n\nbe certain studies common to all, in order that the school as a social force\n\nmay hold men together in intelligent bonds, splendid provisions are required\nThe\nmechanic, the engineer, the farmer, the teacher, the man of letters, the artist,\nthe musician, all great pursuits may thus render their due share to the development and enrichment of human society, and the individual may grow in\nhappiness and power. The claim set up in behalf of music is also a claim\nwhereby every man may come to know and develop his special power.\n\nfor educational freedom.\n\nneglected subject.\n\nIt affects the\n\ntreatment of every unrecognized or\n\nLet the youth be free to follow what for him is the best\n\neducational path, along which he may develop according to the law of his\nis, at some points, unwisely\nand self-condemnatory, and strangely out of tune with the great\ndoctrine of personal and intellectual freedom.\n\nnature.\n\nOtherwise, the system of education\n\nrepressive\n\nThe idea of educational valuation is also implied in this connection.\nMr. Lowell, at the 250th anniversary of Harvard, said: \"I would found a\nuniversity where nothing useful is taught.\"\nThat is probably the extreme\nstatement of the cultural type of education, a reaction against the ultrapractical.\n*'I\n\nMr. Coudert,\n\nat the\n\n150th anniversary of Columbia, replied:\n\nwould found a university where nothing is taught which is not useful.\"\n\nHere is a hint that every study has its use.\nUniversity,\n\nsaid:\n\n''I\n\nwill\n\nMr. Cornell, founder of Cornell\n\nfound a university where a\n\nman may learn\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\neverything.\"\n\nThese eminent men are not necessarily in\n\n[Music\n\nconflict.\n\nstudy may be taught so that it shall be both liberal and useful.\nHall says that, when he was entered at a\n\nGerman university, he was set\n\nto work for six months on the study of a frog's leg.\n\ninsignificant at the start, but, as he proceeded,\n\nplace.\n\nProblems of animal nutrition,\n\nEvery\n\nPresident\n\nit\n\nHe thought the subject\n\nled him forth into a large\n\ncirculation,\n\norganism\n\n—questions of\n\nnervous, muscular, and mechanical energy, of creation and Creator, the\n\nmystery of life and death\n\n— confronted him in his research. That humble\n\nobject paved the way to the study of planetary and cosmical life!\n\nThe true\n\nvaluation of studies will adjust the differences which have divided the schools,\njust as a true valuation of things will tend to harmony in all human affairs.\n\nThe proper treatment of music in education is part of a still larger idea, which\nwill recognize that every subject may be put in pedagogic form, and, if rightly\n\nThe history of education\nnew\nsubjects\nto\nfind\ntheir\nplace and to achieve\nreveals the ceaseless struggle of\na true valuation. The effort to lift music to its proper rank cannot fail to\ntaught, invested with dignity, interest, and value.\n\nadvance the cause of education both in the musical area and as a whole.\nHow the organization of music teachers may best promote the improve-\n\nment and diffusion of musical instruction is also a question worthy of consideration.\n\nIt is impossible to discuss the question adequately in this paper;\n\nthe aim is simply to suggest the importance and necessity of effective organization.\n\nDr.\n\nWaldo S. Pratt, at the recent meeting of the Music Teachers'\n\nNational Association (as reported in the press), emphasized state musical\nassociations, and spoke also of the kind of work to be done by such associations.\nI\n\nassume the conduct of associations formed may be left to the wisdom of\n\nthe membership, but urge that the unit of organization receive more attention\n\nthan has been given to it.\n\nThere is a relation between the physical area\n\nand population and the unit of educational organization which is favorable\nA manager of a Boston steamship\nto the best results, as in other enterprises.\nagency said to his clerk in my hearing:\n\n\"Remember our field is the New\n\nEngland states and the maritime provinces.\" Since then the center of that\nThe United States\nparticular business has changed to New York city.\nCommissioner of Education starts with the North Atlantic Division of states\nin his reports, which comprises the states from Maine to Pennsylvania inclusive.\n\nThe National Educational Association\n\nuses the\n\nsame\n\nunit.\n\nThe\n\nCollege Entrance Examination Board adds Delaware and Maryland to the\n\nabove, and operates from Maine to Maryland inclusive.\ners' associations use\n\nA number of teach-\n\nNew England as a unit, as the teachers of science, modern\n\nlanguages, history, etc.\n\nReligious bodies follow a similar line of organization,\n\nand trade associations likewise. In musical organization local, county, state,\nand national units have been used. It is suggested that between the state\nand national associations a state group may be found effective and advantageous; for example, a state group like New England (the ''maritime provinces\"\nmay be added), an area of which Boston is the metropolitan center; or a\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION OF MUSIC WITH OTHER BRANCHES\n\nlarger group\ncenter.\n\n637\n\nembracing the above, of which New York might be the chief\n\nSuch a unit might be suitable for the northwest Atlantic region.\n\nTime does\n\nSimilar organizations might apply thruout the entire country.\n\nnot allow us even to name certain arguments for such areas of organization\nintermediate between the state and the nation, each containing a metropoUs,\nor city of the first rank of half a million population or more.\n\nAn international\n\nassociation of music might serve as another unit beyond the national association.\n\nLet the state and state groups meet annually, the national group once\n\nin two or three years, and the international group once in five years.\n\nIn conclusion, the usefulness of a fund, limited in amount, might readily\n\nFor example, the New England Advisory Board in Music\n\nbe demonstrated.\nis,\n\nat this moment, facing the question of the cost of introduction of a high-\n\nschool music course (elective) into public education.\n\nThe inquiry necessitates\n\ninvestigation, collation of opinions, conference, correspondence, and printing,\n\nand seems requisite to complete the work already done. For this object\nsome funds are indispensable. Other items may be suggested as likely to\narise in the progress of an effective musical campaign, for which limited\nfunds under competent supervision are necessary.\n\nThese are some of the questions which have arisen during the conduct\nof the music conference and supplementary work referred to in the beginning\nof this paper.\n\nOther issues are discussed in the report\n\nitself.\n\nThey are\n\nplaced before this body in the hope that they may receive wise consideration\n\nand treatment.\n\nCORRELATION OF MUSIC WITH OTHER BRANCHES OF THE\nSCHOOL CURRICULUM\nMRS. ELIZABETH CASTERTON, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, BAY CITY, MICH.\nIt has come to be generally accepted that the purpose of the pubhc school\nis\n\nto create a universal citizenship\n\n—not only\n\nthat present themselves in the schoolroom,\nfor the sake of a contented\n\nto take all the\n\nhuman units\n\nand make the most out of them\n\nand useful society, but to develop the individual\n\nsouls according to their many interests, for the sake of the units themselves.\n\nTo attain this double purpose, there is nothing that touches humanity\non as many sides\n\n—\n\nto develop, to intensify,\n\nand to modify\n\n—as music.\n\nIt is\n\none of the greatest means toward the transformation into a beautiful life.\nIt\n\nsometimes seems to me that it is the one means, to which all the others\n\nMusic is the thing that, deeper far than all others, sinks\nand touches it yes, touches it and molds it as\nnothing else can. Hidden deep, it finds the flower germs and stimulates\nthem to grow, to bud, and to unfold into a beautiful blossom, whose fragrance\nand beauty enrich the child's life forever.\nare subservient.\n\ninto the heart of the child\n\n—\n\nNo one denies the influence of music for good.\n\nA teacher told me of a\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nboy, an incorrigible little fellow,\n\n[Music\n\nwho was almost entirely cured of his bad\n\ntraits by a violet song.\n\nDown in a green and mossy bed\n\nA modest violet grew;\nIts stalk was bent; it hung its head,\n\nAs if to hide from view.\n\nAnd tho' it was a lovely flower,\nIts colors bright and fair.\nIt might have graced a rosy bower,\n\nInstead of hiding there.\n\nHe sang the violet song at home, on the street, on the playground, and in school.\nHe loved and beheved it; and its tender thought has helped him to become\na noble young man.\n\nBy demanding and preserving a perfect equilibrium and harmony in body\nand mind, and filling the heart with tender sentiments, music subdues, purifies,\nand ennobles even the most rebellious natures.\nThe ancient philosophers taught that music was the essence of all that was\ngood, just, and beautiful; that it was the very foundation of all moral and\nrehgious culture. It is not only the handmaid of morality and religion, but\nof history, poetry, biography, philosophy, science, and ethics.\nMartin Luther wished the youth to become accustomed to music, for he\nclaimed that it made good and virtuous citizens.\nIf our two propositions are true\nfirst, that the purpose of a public school\nis to equip the youth to face Hfe in any direction; and, second, that music\nis the most universal element in such education\ndoes it not follow that a\n\n—\n\n—\n\nproper adjustment of the school curriculum\n\ncalls for\n\na recognition of the\n\nand interests that music has in common with other branches,\nwhether we call such adjustment by the term ''correlation,\" or some other?\nNot, indeed, that music can be related to another subject in the same way\nspirit, purposes,\n\nthat language can be correlated with history, so that a child can profit at the\n\nsame time, both in historical knowledge and in language, by preparing a\ncomposition on some historical theme; but, because music and another subject\n\nmay have a common interest, one can be made to stimulate the other.\n\nMusic does not correlate with the other branches in the sense of reinforcing\na knowledge of the elements that go to make them up, and it would be a\ngreat mistake to force a relationship.\nexists in the very nature of the subjects.\n\nThe relation should be only such as\nMusic has its own province and its\n\nown mission, which are essentially artistic.\nAnd yet, fellow-teachers, is the pupil getting all the benefit that might\nbe obtained from music, relegated as it is to a separate class period, with the\npoetry and melody as far removed from the other school subjects, that are\n\noccupying his attention, as one study can be from another?\n\nWhile our\n\nmusic course is good in itself, and the course in each of the other branches is\ngood, would not each be enhanced and rendered more fascinating if they were\nmore intimately associated with each other ?\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nCORRELATION OF MUSIC WITH OTHER BRANCHES\n\n639\n\nEducation consists, not in learning facts, but in understanding the relations\nbetween them. The discovery and application of this truth are the most\ncharacteristic element of the\n\nnew education.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nespecially apparent\n\nwhen we consider the evolution in public-school music. Formerly, the first,\nand about the only, questions were, how best to teach note reading, and\nwhether the pupils were expert sight-readers. Not until recently has the\nvalue of the artistic song, artistically rendered, and filled with child-interests,\n\nbeen recognized.\nI cannot do better than to use the language of another who says\n\nThe wise teacher has learned that a beautiful song, when related to a lesson in history, ethics, or nature, will often clinch a point most effectively, the beautiful and artistic\n\nsetting of the words and melody illuminating a dry fact and arousing interest and enthu-\n\nsiasm.\n\nIn like way, music itself will gain, because of its correlation with other branches.\n\nPupils will doubly enjoy a song which touches upon a subject of recent research or discussion,\n\nand the teacher will see a twofold gain\n\n—gain\n\nto music and gain by music.\n\nTime limitations forbid the consideration here of all the school subjects\nwith which a teacher can profitably associate her music.\n\nI will, therefore,\n\nspeak in a general way of those subjects which I deem most important for\nour purpose, and those which offer the most immediate opportunity for\ncorrelation with music;\n\nnamely, nature study, geography, history (including\n\nbiography), and literature.\n\nNature study and music should be started hand in hand in the kindergarten,\nand continued thruout the school course. As new subjects are introduced\ninto the grades, the music may relate to them, but never to the utter exclusion\n\nof the nature songs.\n\nThe rustling leaf, the bursting of bud and blossom, the\n\nfragrant breath of the flower, the song of the bird, the babbling brook, the\nsighing breeze, the roaring storm, snow and rain and sunshine, all have their\n\nmessages for the child.\n\nThey should touch and sweeten his heart with the\n\nlove and care of the Great Creator, until it bursts into glad and glorious song.\n\nThe songs should be planned as the nature work is planned, according\nThe fall songs and nature work should relate to the harvest\nand its completion, autumn and its colorings, preparation for winter, and\nto the season.\n\nso on.\nstory,\n\nIn winter the songs of the snow and the bells. Jack Frost, the Christmas\nand the like, can be obtained with nature work. In the spring and\n\nearly summer we have the songs of the return of the birds, spring flowers, the\nleafing trees, rain, and sunshine.\n\nIn the intermediate grammar grades there is a vast chance for correlation\nin geography.\n\nIn connection with the study of various peoples, an almost\n\ninexhaustible mine of music can be opened up by the use of the folk-song,\n\nwhich furnishes a splendid opportunity for the study of good music.\n\nWe can find no better source for good educational material for songs;\nfor phrases for the study and writing of melody and rhythm ; for development\n\nAnd there is such an abundance of material, when one begins to look about, that one need never take\n\nof poetical, musical, and \"musicianly\" singing.\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n640\n\n[Music\n\na poor folk-song simply because he feels that he would like a song to use in\nconnection with the subject under treatment.\n\nI\n\nwas surprised to find in a\n\nreference book some forty compilers of folk-songs, each publishing from one\nto thirteen books of the same.\n\nFranz Abt has a collection of thirty folk-songs\n\nand Brahms, who enters more deeply into the heart of the\nfolk-song than any other composer, has six books of German folk-songs;\nwhile Heinrich Reimann has thirteen books. This makes twenty collections\nfor children;\n\nrelating to the\n\nsame country.\n\nOther countries contribute liberally.\n\nThere are, so far as I know, three\n\nEven the Isle of Man has an entire collection\nThere is a book of\nof folk-songs, prefaced by an article on Manx music.\nsongs of Scandinavia and northern Europe, containing popular and national\nsongs of Russia, Poland, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Holland;\nand still another, called One Hundred Folk Songs, containing French, English,\nRussian, and Welsh songs. So you see we need not lack for material.\nWhat could be more interesting in geography or history than a few folksongs of the countries being studied? Each country has its own style of\nfolk and national music, which serves as a reflex of the manners of the people\nand their mode of thought. Side by side with the political history of a country\ncollections of English folk songs.\n\nruns collateral music, dealing with the home-life, science, ethics, literature,\nhistory, or some one of the many things that go to make up its general civilization.\n\nSo, a song\n\nproperly studied should give to the child interest and\n\ninformation in regard to some one of the many features of a nation's Hfe.\nScotland takes the front rank in characteristic folk-music, which\n\nis\n\nso\n\npronounced that it ha^ exerted a wider influence upon composers than the\n\nHer poetry is remarkably tender and\nHer music sounds every note in the gamut of human emotion,\n\nfolk-music of any other country.\nexpressive.\n\nfrom the deepest gloom to the wildest merriment.\n\nMendelssohn's tender little\n\nWert Thou in the Cauld, Cauld Blast!\" with its faUing cadences,\nindicative of its tender pathos and sorrow, stands out in direct contrast to\nthe song, \"My Heart's in the Highlands,\" and the two are equally fascinating\nto the pupil.\nThe words of both are by Robert Burns, and the child's liking\nfor them prompts a desire to know more of the author's life, and so lays a\nproper foundation for biography and composition work.\nThe songs of Switzerland are beautiful, presenting exquisite rhythm, and\nrequiring light singing-tones in the medium and upper voice. The Swiss\nvalleys are ever so much more vivid to the child after he has sung a Swiss\nduet, ''O\n\nshepherd song.\nRussia presents an almost unbounded wealth of material in folk-music,\nand some have predicted that she will yet wrest the scepter of musical\nsupremacy from Germany.\n\nThe pecuHar flavor of the French songs not only appeals to the child musically, but presents tonality and rhythm in a way entirely individual and unique.\n\nMusic at all times and in all countries bears the seal of independence or\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\nDepartment]\n\nCORRELATION OF MUSIC WITH OTHER BRANCHES\n\n641\n\nservitude, joy or sorrow, according to the experience of the people that pro-\n\nduce it;\n\nso, it is not strange to find\n\namong the Poles, Hungarians, and Bohe-\n\nmians a music which seems to have escaped from throbbing hearts and breasts\nembittered by misfortune and grief. Here, then, would be a good opportunity\nto weave in bits of history along with music.\n\nIn fact, history is so closely interwoven with music, both national and\notherwise, that it is hard to separate the two,\nin the study of national music.\n\nand it should never be done\n\nHow little does the \"Marseillaise\" hymn\n\nmean to a pupil, if he knows nothing of the pohtical history of France and the\ncircumstances surrounding the composition of this famous song, which in less\n\nthan six months had been adopted by the people, the army, the legislature,\n\nand the whole land.\n\nIts\n\nappeal to liberty and glory voiced the hunger of a\n\npopular heart at that time, and never did song so charm and enrapture an\nentire people.\n\nIts title,\n\nromantic story, and fervor will touch the heart of\n\na pupil, and inspire in him a respect and admiration for France and her\npeople, which I doubt could be secured without the close association of history\n\nand song.\n\nHow closely our own history and our songs are connected\n\n!\n\nOne cannot\n\nproperly teach our \"Star-Spangled Banner\" without going quite into detail\n\nand telling the thrilling incidents surrounding its creation. No wedding of\npoetry and music has ever been made under more inspiring circumstances.\ncaught up in the camps, sung around the bivouac fires, and whistled\n\nIt was\n\nin the streets.\n\nWhen peace was declared and the soldiers went back to their\n\nhomes, they carried this song in their hearts, as the most precious souvenir\nof the War of 181 2.\nhistory.\nzest.\n\nThen there are other patriotic songs, all one with our\n\nBoys, as a rule, prefer these songs, and will sing them with a hearty\n\nI think they must appreciate the feeling of the young major in a Con-\n\nfederate uniform, who said:\n\nyou out of your boots!\n\n\"Boys, if we'd had your songs, we'd have Hcked\n\nWho couldn't have marched and fought with such\n\nsongs ?\n\nWhat has been said of history applies as well to biography, bearing always\nin mind that it is not for the sake of the biographical knowledge or the practice\nin\n\nlanguage that may be incident, good as these may be in themselves, but\n\nfor the interest and inspiration which stimulate and make alive.\n\nThe story of the little Handel, who made orchestras of toy drums and horns\nand violins, and who practiced in the attic while the rest of the family slept,\nis\n\nthe basis of much language work, and to the older pupils a study in both\n\nbiography and composition.\n\nHandel's life is an especially good one to use,\n\nfor the children are so interested in\n\nit.\n\nThey love to hear of this child of\n\nseven lingering about the great organ and asking to be allowed to play it.\n\nPermission being granted, he delighted the Hsteners with the melodies steal-\n\nwee finger-tips. The older boys and girls are amazed and\ncharmed to think that a mere boy of seventeen, this same Handel, should\n\ning from his\n\nhave charge of a magnificent organ in a great cathedral, writing almost all\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n642\n\n[Music\n\nthe music that was used from Sunday to Sunday, besides composing one or\n\nmore difficult compositions each week, and rehearsing twice a week a choir\ncomposed of his schoolmates, whom he voluntarily gathered together.\nIt is certainly just as legitimate to\n\nstudy the Hfe of a Handel, a Mozart,\n\nor a Bach, as of a Rembrandt, a Millet, a Corot, a Longfellow, a Whittier,\n\na Tennyson.\n\nNow, as to the correlation of music and literature.\nhigh ideas find expression in beautiful words.\n\nNoble actions and\n\nA song which embodies\n\ngreat ideals and noble sentiments and aspirations must be an effective means\n\ntoward storing a child's mind with great thoughts of other souls.\n\nThe poetry\n\nWe\nHow\n\nlearned in song should be as beautiful and artistic as can be found.\n\ncannot afford to put before the child a single unpoetical utterance.\n\noften what would otherwise be a beautiful song is marred by unpoetical word\n\nor distorted expression!\n\nMusic and sweet poetry agree,\nAs they must needs, the sister and the brother.\n\nThe poems in the songs of the music course should be by such authors\nEugene Field and Robert Louis Stevenson, long recognized as\nLucy Larcom, Francis Ridley Havergal,\nAHce and Phoebe Gary, Frank Demster Sherman, Whittier and Longfellow,\nand others like them. By the time a child has finished his school course, thru\nthe medium of his music, if by no other way, he should have quite an extensive\ncollection and knowledge of the best poems by the best authors.\nMusic awakens in the child an interest in poetry and the vast field of ideal\nas these:\n\nthe children's poets par excellence;\n\nBecause of the beauty he sees in the poetry of the songs\n\nthought it opens.\n\nhe learns, he will wish to investigate other fields of poetical literature.\n\nSo\n\nhe becomes familiar with a large number of selections that perhaps would\nnever have come to him thru any other source.\nI would close\n\nmy paper with the plea made by A. Stanley Osborne, at a\n\nrecent meeting of the National Educational Association:\nIt remains for someone to develop a historical order of music material related to the\nlife and experiences of the\n\nclose of his school life.\n\nchild at each stage of his progress from the kindergarten to the\n\nI make a plea for a course of music literature as carefully worked\n\nout as a course in English Hterature, and correlated as nearly as possible with every other\n\nbranch in the school curriculum.\nI believe\n\nit\n\nwould be wise for this department to undertake, thru a com-\n\nmittee, to formulate such a course.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. A. Putt, supervisor of music, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n—The correlation idea\n\nis\n\ndeeply\n\nrooted in modern education, and its influence in the development of unity of character\nis\n\nfully recognized by the modern teacher.\n\nThe purpose of public-school music, as that\n\nMusic is one of the means of thoughtand the curve of progress increases in the direct ratio of the increase in\n\nof all school subjects, is the development of power.\n\nexpression,\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nthe\n\nCORRELATION OF MUSIC WITH OTHER BRANCHES\n\npower of thought-expression.\n\n643\n\nIn the mind of one to whom they are unintelHgible,\n\nmusical sounds and symbols do not arouse a ripple of thought, but to one who understands them they are animated with thought and become a means of thought-stimulation.\n\nSchool-music supervisors have not fully realized the value of music in increasing the curve\nof the child's progress when correlated with other school subjects.\n\nThe Spear system of education has recognized the value of rhythm in many of the\nchild's activities, but in nature, in history, in hterature, there is much more than rhythm.\n\nMost teachers, whether consciously or unconsciously, select nature songs as essential to\nAs Mrs. Casterton has so ably stated, history is incomplete without an\nintelligent study of the songs of the various periods.\nSomeone has said that its songs\nnature study.\n\nrepresent the heart-throbs of a nation.\n\nWithout the songs of the Civil War, the study of\n\nthat period would be a cold mathematical proposition.\n\nThe \"Star-Spangled Banner\" is a more important event in the history of the United\nHave any pupils been graduated from\nour public schools who could tell all about the latter and nothing of the former ? Have\nStates than the bombardment of Fort McHenry.\n\nsoldiers ever been inspired to go to certain death in defense of their flag by reciting dates\n\nand facts in history? Was the song, \"A Hot Time in the Old Town,\" a factor in the\nbattle of San Juan Hill ?\nWould there be an inspiration to learn more of the Puritans, after\nsinging Miss Browne's setting of Mrs. Heman's poem, \"The Landing of the Pilgrims\" ?\nWith no other data than its songs a nation's history could be written which would\naccurately portray the character of its people.\n\nStudy the life of the historian, the scientist, the poet, the artist, but neglect not the\nbiography of the master-composer, for in him are combined all of the elements of these.\n\nThe \"pen and ink\" poem becomes a beautiful oil-painting in the hands of the skilled\ncomposer.\n\nIs not the following beautiful pen-picture intensified by Neidlinger's setting ?\n\nThe night has a thousand eyes,\nAnd the day but one;\nYet the light of a bright world dies\nWith the dying sun.\nThe mind has a thousand eyes,\n\nThe heart but one;\nYet the Hght of a whole Hfe dies.\n\nWhen love is done.\nThe cry of supervisors and grade teachers is for \"more time.\"\n\nIt is not a matter of\n\nMusic is not a special subject. It is a prominent and essential part of history, geography, literature, nature study, and even of mathematics, manual\ntraining, and physical culture.\nWhen its correlative use with these subjects is fully\nrecognized and adopted by superintendents, supervisors, and grade teachers, the time\nproblem will be solved.\n\"time,\" but of correlation.\n\nWhen the grade teacher recognizes the fact that she is not prepared to teach the\nso-called essentials until she can also teach the music with which they are so closely allied\n\nthen will she cease to regard pubHc-school music as a special subject.\n\nThere are teachers who would be mortally offended were they told that they could not\nsuccessfully teach reading, but whose feelings are impervious to the charge that they do\n\nnot know the diatonic scale.\n\nMay a most vigorous protest be entered here against hampering the grade teacher with\nmethods ? Give her the benefit of many methods, but remember that she should employ\nher time and energies in teaching children and not method. Her task is tremendous. Of\nboys and girls she must make men and women. By her genius in organization, she\nmakes one composite individuality out of many, without sacrificing a single one of the\nmany. To carry forth her work, she must fit method to the individual child in such a\nway as not to conflict with the individuality of the school. Freedom is as necessary as\nsunshine to a plant. If the teacher is not large enough for freedom, she is doomed to\nfailure.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n644\n\nMusic supervisor,\n\nassert thyself\n\n!\n\n[Music\n\nWe have been too narrow. We have assumed\n\nthat music is not even the tail of the educational kite, but rather a small piece of extra\n\nwhen the superintendent wishes the kite to soar a little higher at\ncommencement or on special occasions.\nPublic-school music is one of the essentials; and if it is not so regarded, the fault\n\nstring to be used\n\nWe have it in our power, thru its proper correlation, to place this proposition\nbeyond discussion forever.\n\nis our own.\n\nMUSIC AS A FACTOR IN CULTURE\nCHARLES EDWARD LOCKE, D.D., PASTOR, HANSON PLACE METHODIST EPISCOPAL\nCHURCH, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\nI do not come to you as a reformer, or specialist with any pet theories to\n\npromote, but as one who from childhood, in the home, the temple, and the\n\nschoolroom has benefited from the influence of this strangely divine power\nwhich, for the want of a better name, is called music.\n\nFrom that moment in the creation when the morning stars sang together,\nand the brooks went singing down the hillsides of Eden, and the birds made\nglad the dawn of time with their thriUing melodies, music has had an indisputable place in the world. \"There is music in all things, if men had ears.\"\nThe study of music is a liberal education. Music, like poetry, makes\nits\n\nappeal to the noblest instincts of the soul.\n\nof Cynette,\n\nIt is said that the inhabitants\n\nwho slighted music, were the cruelest of all the Greeks, and no\n\nother town was so immersed in luxury and debauchery.\nChristianity was born with a song on its Hps.\n\nMary sang in the thrilling\n\nmeasures of the Magnificat; the angels sang in their tumultuous hallelujah\n\nand the shepherds sang in plaintive strains of quiet ecstasy. And\nPaganism does not sing; it laments;\npagodas and mosques do not lighten their somber interiors with music;\nbut every Christian church, however humble, is a conservatory of sweetest\nchorus;\n\nthe world has been singing ever since.\n\nmelodies.\n\nMusic is both a science and an art. As an art, it does not, as do painting\nand sculpture, occupy itself in reproducing nature for it is itself a part of\nnature, and seeks to reveal itself. The Egyptians first excelled in music,\nbut great strides were made by the Greeks under Pythagoras. The word\n\"music\" is derived from a Greek term, which includes all the learning of\nthe Muses.\nOf all the fine arts, music is the most comprehensive. The\nmajesty of the architect, the pictures of the artist, the rhythm of the poet, and\nthe theme of all these belong to the musician, whether he sits at the instrument\nor pours out his soul in vocal melodies.\nThe fable tells that Mercury stretched\nstrings of dried skin across a shell, and, striking them with his fingers, invented\nthe lyre. The bow as a musical instrument was probably first used by the\nwarrior, who, as he described his successes in battle, twanged the string of his\nbow. It was later discovered that the bow, when drawn across certain hollow\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC AS A FACTOR IN CULTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\nobjects,\n\n—hence the\n\nproduced pleasing sounds\n\nflute\n\n645\n\nMusic\n\nand the violin.\n\nhas been called the universal language, and truly it is a means of communication between all souls, whatever clime may have given them birth.\n\nmost responsive of all the arts\n\n—the most human.\n\nIt is the\n\nIt more nearly breathes,\n\nand sees, and feels. It possesses all the varying hues of the soul. The music\nof the siren would allure Ulysses to his death, and the monotonous tones of\nthe bell buoy direct the imperiled mariner to safety. Tumultuous music is\nthe completest expression of happy souls of festal days; and tender, somber\nstrains interpret the language of sad hearts when a nation mourns for its\nmartyred heroes.\nGlad hallelujah and penitential psalm, express the contrasting emotions of the soul.\n\nMusic was defined by our own Sidney Lanier as **love in search of a\nword.\" There is an inexpressible something in the heart of a man which seeks\nto define itself in speech, but, faiUng in this, music flies to his relief, and in\n\nmelody man pours out his imprisoned soul.\noversoul;\n\nit is\n\nMusic is the language of the\n\nThe highest music\n\nthe soul prolonging, or projecting, itself.\n\ncannot be expressed in words.\n\nThis is the explanation of the angel's advent\n\nanthem and of all music in worship.\n\nThe deeper the soul-life, the more is\n\none conscious of feelings beyond the limitations of articulate utterances.\n\nIn\n\nand glorify the Infinite, all earthly\ndevices of language utterly fail, and music only, which is an adjunct of the\ninfinities, enables man to sing what he can never express\nhis adoration and\nthe attempt of the finite soul to praise\n\n—\n\ngratitude to his great\n\nGod and King.\n\nConsequently, whenever rehgion is\n\nthe sincerest, then music will be the purest.\nin the soul of man.\n\nMusic is the echo of God's voice\n\nWithout that echo, man's soul is a cavernous abyss, filled\n\nwith spectres of despair.\n\nMusic is a gift of God.\ntruth.\n\nLike all the sciences, it is a radiation of divine\n\nPythagoras taught a close affinity between music and astronomy.\n\nHe\n\nwas right so far as he went, but music leads men up to the perpetual throne\nof glory, of which stars and constellations are but ghttering scintillations.\nSt. Cecelia, receiving\n\nmusician's\n\npower.\n\nher music from angel visitants,\n\nGreat musicians are born,\n\nnot\n\ntells\n\nthe secret of the\n\nmade.\n\nTheir extra-\n\nordinary genius is an endowment, manifesting itself in phenomenal ways in\nchildhood, as in the cases of Mozart, Liszt, and Christine Nilsson.\n\nThe divinity of music further appears in the fact that the greatest musicians\nhave been good men; and to develop the mighty impulses which they have\nfelt in their souls,\n\nthe great musicians have chosen lofty divine themes.\n\nThis\n\nwas true of Jubal and Job, of David with his harp and Solomon with his\nsweet songs. It was true of Beethoven, whose soulful sonatas have won for\nhim a genuine priesthood of the emotions; and of Bach, whose elaborate\n\nfugues have been likened to Gothic temples in their intricate details.\n\nIt was\n\ntrue of Mendelssohn, who, in thirty-eight years, filled the souls of men with\n\nmusical pictures; and of Batiste and Schumann; and\nnocturnes;\n\nand\n\nof weird,\n\nif\n\nof.\n\nChopin\n\nin his\n\nnot unearthly Paganini, with his miraculous\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n646\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nStradivarius.\n\nIt\n\n[Music\n\nwas true of Mozart, whose thirty-five years gave the world\n\nsuch treasures from the Infinite that he is truly exhaustless; and of Liszt,\n\nwho, dying as late as 1886, seems to belong to us.\n\nAt eight he was the wonder\nDuring\n\nof Europe, at twelve Beethoven embraced him as a coming master.\n\nthe days of his best work, Thomas a Kempis' \"Imitation of Christ\" was his\n\nconstant companion.\nostracized,\n\nIt\n\nwas true\n\nnow nearly worshiped.\n\nof his masterful operas.\n\nof\n\nWagner, picturesque, unique, once\n\n\"The Holy Grail\" is the theme of one\n\nMost true was it of Haydn, the father of symphony,\n\nwhose massive oratorio of \"The Creation\" brings men into the presence of\nGod's colossal creative power;\n\nand true, indeed,\n\nof Handel, the majestic\n\ngrandeur of whose masterpieces has remained unequaled for two centuries.\n\nThere was another incarnation when he produced\n\nhis divinest work, the\n\noratorio of \"The Messiah,\" which, no doubt, he was right in believing came\nto\n\nhim from above.\nIt is the mission of music to soften and remove the asperities of men.\n\nhelps to unify the race and\n\nmake men homogeneous.\n\nIt\n\nSectarianism slinks\n\ninto hiding-places of shame, as Charles Wesley, a Methodist, sings \"Jesus,\n\nLover of My Soiil;\" and Toplady, a Calvinist, \"Rock of Ages;\" and Sarah\nAdams, a Unitarian, \"Nearer, my God, to Thee;\" and Whittier, a Quaker,\n\"The Eternal Goodness;\" and Faber, a Roman Catholic, \"There's a WideToday\nness in God's Mercy;\" and Doddridge, a Baptist, \"O Happy Day.\"\nspite\nof\nIn\nthese well-known hymns are sung by all and claimed by all.\ncontroversy and unbelief, the music of all the Christian church is saving this\nworld for the Christmas Christ. The hymn and the singer are often a long\nway in advance of the sermon and hearer in evangelizing influences.\nMusic refines and ennobles. In the days of chivalry the sir knights studied\nmusic because of its elevating and purifying influence. Music brightens\nlife's dark places, and soothes the heart in trouble.\nMany prison doors have\nopened and manacles burst asunder when troubled hearts have sung songs\nin the night.\nMusic was believed by the ancients to have heahng power, and\nwas used as a therapeutic. Many a weary soldier, tired and footsore, has\nleaped on to victory under the magic spell of fife and drum.\nThat the musical impulse is the beginning of all culture is boldly affirmed\nby some careful students. Mr. M. J. Donovan, of England, tho confessing\n•\n\nthat geology affords little encouragement to his theory, yet insists that music\n\"lies at the root of all human culture in the earliest ages.\"\n\nHe says:\n\nOf course it may be, at first, a vague, far-off, slow-working motive; it may have taken\nlong periods to become effective in creating during play a demand for rhythmic stimuli\na demand which would impel the playing brutes to bring their movements into rhythmic\nform. But, no matter how far below the plane of conscious effort the motive worked at\nfirst, if a playing brute once moved a muscle\nand attended\nlet us say, stamped a foot\n\n—\n\nto the muscular sensation of it, or the sound of it;\n\n—\n\nif\n\na brute once attended, and stamped\n\nagain, and attended again to the succession of stamps, at that moment the greatest obstacle\nto the free output of nerve energy in play\n\nmotive to attend again would be established.\n\nwould be in some degree removed, and the\nThus would begin that growth of rhythmic\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC AS A FACTOR IN CULTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\n647\n\nmovement and sound which we call the art of music; thus would begin that unique sort of\npleasure which is brought into existence while we attend to rhythmic movement and sound.\n\nI\nis\n\nam entirely willing to accept the logic of this thoughtful writer.\n\nMusic\n\nthe oldest of all the soul's impulses, but, paradoxically, it is the youngest\n\nof all the arts.\n\nMusic could not enjoy its best development until man had passed beyond\nand the tiger were being\neliminated from his nature. My little boy says: '*0 daddy, dear, I don't\nwant to take piano lessons! music is for girls!,\" Men had to pass beyond\nhis feudal age and reached the time when the lion\n\ntheir barbaric, belligerent,\n\nthe highest expression of\n\nand boisterous eras before they could realize that\nmind and spirit is in music. There is a quaint\n\nbelief that singing preceded speaking.\n\nAlas\n\n!\n\nperhaps one of the entailments\n\nof sin is that singing has degenerated into discordant, rasping speech.\n\nPer\n\nhaps, when man shall have reached his highest earthly estate, the means of\n\ncommunication will be in the soft tones of chastest music.\nMusic, if not more perfectly than printing the art preservative of all art,\nis surely the best interpreter of all art\n\nand science.\n\nThe mystery and miracle\n\nof truth reveal their open sesame when studied thru the atmosphere of music.\n\nI should say that\n\nGoethe is not quite right when he speaks of \"a level\n\nroad leading out from music to all the other great arts;\"\n\nit\n\nis\n\nan upward\n\npathway which leads from architecture, sculpture, painting, and poetry up\nto music.\n\nThe minster graceful with Gothic beauty, or massive with Roman-\n\nesque magnificence, can be filled to groined arches and spreading dome only\n\nby music's swelling tones.\n\nMusic\n\ngives a motif to architecture.\n\ngallery's corridors, or Belvedere, reveal\n\nThe art\n\nthe master's secret only in marble\n\nor canvas, as divinest music fills up all the interstices of finiteness.\n\nAnd poetry\n\nnever reveals its most exquisite tints of beauty and truth except in the com-\n\npanionship of music, its twin sister.\n\nTheology would have none but altars\n\nto the unknown God, if music did not dream, and prophesy,\n\npriestly office.\n\nand feel, in the\nMusic is what Walter Pater called \"the great Anders-Slreben\n\nreaching forward of all art.\"\nits\n\nown\n\n—\n\nto express\n\nIt is the soul of\n\n—\n\nman endeavoring to come to\n\nand realize and fulfill itself.\n\nIt helps\n\nBrowning's grasp\n\nto acquire its reach.\n\nMusic is thus an intellectual factor.\nas it is a truth-finder.\nlike\n\nIt is\n\nnot so\n\nmuch a truth-seeker\n\nIt does not delve among the rocks, but it comes down\n\n''This is my Beloved Son!\" It dwells\nand shouts \"Excelsior\" from peak to peak, and makes life's\n\na dove from above, singing:\n\nin the heights\n\ndizzy Alpine uplands echo with hope.\n\nGranting that music furnished to culture\n\nits\n\ninitial\n\nimpulse, and that\n\nmusic more than any other factor sustains the quest of man's nature for the\nhighest and holiest achievements;\n\nand not forgetting that:\n\nThe man that hath no music in himself\nIs fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils,\n\nI dare to submit the deliberate conclusion that instrumental as well as vocal\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n648\n\n[Music\n\nmusic should be a part of the public-school curriculum for every child.\n\nAlas!\n\nthat the children whom prosperity affords the opportunity of musical study\n\noften so little appreciate these privileges, while many who crave these facilities\n\nare deprived of them by poverty.\n\nEven the boys and girls who are compelled\n\nto leave school to enter upon the problems of making a living, would\n\nhave a\n\nlarger and more hopeful life, if their musical instruction has included familiarity\n\nwith an instrument.\n\nA daily half-hour lesson, even if there were no instru-\n\nment in the home, would give the child its chance, and make the instrument\na necessity. A musical instrument in a home is, next to the Bible and the\nmother's knee, the greatest civilizer.\n\nMusical instruments could be placed\n\nand hours for practice could be adjusted before\nand after the regular school hours. If music is all we claim for it, let us give\nour children a knowledge of music in the same proportion as of mathematics\nand chemistry and biology; remembering always, as a noted musician has\nsaid, that ''only the best music is good enough for the common people.\"\nA\nfew teachers and a little larger appropriation lifts this suggestion out of the\nall over our school buildings,\n\nrealm of impracticability.\n'Tis God gives skill,\n\nBut not wdthout man's hand.\n\nHe could make Antonio Stradivarius violins\nWithout Antonio.\n\nThe more we invest in Antonio, the more fully will he respond to his\ndivine inspiration, find his place, materialize his dreams, fulfill his opportunity,\n\nand serve his generation.\n\nIf instrumental\n\nmusic becomes part of the daily\n\nschoolroom program, the boy will see that music has virile qualities, and is\n\" Send your boy to school\nand the other boys will educate him,\" is a philosopher's intimation of the\nsensitiveness of the American boy to the surroundings of the schoolhouse.\n\nfor men as well as women, for boys as well as girls.\n\nIf the half-million public-school teachers\n\nhave the co-operation of musical\n\ninstruments, the problem of the proper care of their 16,000,000 pupils will\n\nbe more easily solved; and if a boy or girl wishes to major his way thru the\npublic school with music, his preparation for his life's work will probably be\njust as thoro as if he were compelled to agonize his hours and become embit-\n\ntered against his books by compulsory attention to studies for which he has\n\nno taste and adaptation.\n\nA little child was stolen by the Indians when she was two years old.\n\nAfter\n\nwas restored to her home, but no impression could be made\nupon the dazed and frightened child so that she could recognize her parents,\nuntil at last, the mother sang a lullaby which she was accustomed to sing\nAt once the little one recognized her mother\nto her child when she was a baby.\nand rushed to her arms.\nA little seven-year-old boy was badly injured the other day in New York\nUpon his arrival, he asked the doctors\ncity, and taken to Bellevue Hospital.\nsix years she\n\nif\n\nhe could sing, saying:\n\n\"It does not hurt so much when I sing.\"\n\nHis sweet\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "MUSIC AS A FACTOR IN CULTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\n649\n\nvoice rang out in the lovely strains of \"The Palms,\" then \"The Holy City,\"\n\nand, at last, \"Lead, Kindly Light.\"\n\nSo, in the struggle of\n\nlife,\n\nand in the\n\ndesperate contest with the foes of righteousness, by special musical culture\n\nwe are to fortify our nation's youth for peace and victory.\n\nIf Orpheus could\n\nsave the brave Argonauts from peril, by silencing the sirens and putting to\nsleep the monsters of the sea;\n\nand Amphion could lift blocks of granite into\nyoung people,\n\nthe walls of Thebes, with the strains of his lyre, truly our\n\nwith the miracle-working agency of sublime music, can defend their characters\n\nand work out their noblest ideals.\nJust here, in passing, I wish to express my appreciation of the contribution\n\nmade by the public-school instruction in music to the congregational and\nchoir singing in the churches.\n\nProbably the general singing of the worshipers\n\nwas never so excellent as now, and the large chorus choirs, in many of the\nchurches, have been made possible by the elementary training and the early\ndevelopment of musical taste in the pubUc schools.\nMusic is an element in culture more especially because it makes its directest\nappeal to man's emotional his spiritual nature.\nTrue religion, as true love, is emotional, and music is the most adequate\nexpression of the emotional faculties. Faith sings; unbelief never! Music\nreveals God.\nHandel said, when he was writing the \"Hallelujah Chorus:\"\n\"I saw all heaven open before me and the great God himself.\" Haydn said:\n\"When I was occupied with 'The Creation,' always before I sat down to the\n\n—\n\n—\n\npiano I prayed God with earnestness that he would enable me to praise him\nworthily.\"\n\nAll revivals of religion have\n\nbeen accompanied with revivals\n\nof sacred songs.\n\nPraise to God is essential to character;\n\nand holiness.\n\nit encourages faith,\n\nIn danger, music assures us.\n\nhope, humility,\n\nLuther used to say:\n\n\"Come,\n\nlet us sing the forty-sixth psalm and defy the devil.\"\n\nGod sent his singers upon earth\nWith songs of sadness and of mirth,\nThat they might touch the hearts of men,\nAnd bring them back to heaven again.\n\nAs is his Maker, so man is a spirit.\n\nMuscle and brain are merely tem-\n\nporary expedients by which man, as spirit, shall for a brief season tarry upon\nthe earth.\n\nWhen painting, and sculpture, and architecture, and perhaps\n\neven poetry, shall have ended their earthly ministry, music will be revealing\n\nMusic is the language of celestial\nTrue eloquence is thought winged with music. The infinite God\n\nthe fathomless mysteries of spirit and life.\nthrongs.\nis\n\nmore perfectly worshiped with musical accompaniment, because music\n\ngoes beyond language and logic, and opens up the vistas of faith thru which\n\ncan be seen the King in his beauty.\n\nDo you ask me which is the mightier\n\nagency for culture. Bacon or Beethoven, Spencer or Schumann, Kant or\n\nMendelssohn?\n\nI will\n\nanswer that science and philosophy have their own\n\nimportant places in the foundation of intellect and character, and are as\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6so\n\nnecessary to the soul as food and body.\n\n[Music\n\nMusic, however, not only has its\n\nmission side by side with these, but, when the present conclusions of men shall\n\nbe abandoned for the completer revelations of the All Truth of Him who is\nthe Way, the Truth, and the Life, then music, which was never anything but\ndivine in its nature and influence, shall be our old famihar friend, increasing\nin divinity as our\n\nown evolving souls are permitted to comprehend and\n\nparticipate in that divinity.\n\nRELATION OF THE GRADE TEACHER TO MUSIC INSTRUCTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nFULMER, SUPERINTENDENT OF CITY SCHOOLS, BEATRICE, NEBR.\n\nC. A.\n\nMusic is reputed by its advocates to possess an educational value, but,\nbeyond the vague notion that it refines, people have, in the main, no views\nNo proposition is more universally estabhshed\nas to how it educates, or why.\nthan that young people profit by hearing music and by taking part in it; and\non no proposition is any rational or close analysis less often brought to bear.\n\nThe singing of songs in the public schools of America is thought by all\nclasses of people to promote the pleasure and happiness of the pupils;\n\ninci-\n\ndental instruction in the rudiments of vocal music by the regular teacher is,\nin\n\nmost schools, rather reluctantly tolerated as one of the demands of the\n\ncomplex civilization of the day; while the systematic course of study in vocal\nmusic, directed by a supervisor\nagainst considerable opposition;\n\nare scarcely heard\n\nwho is a specialist, is maintained, as yet,\nin fact, the faint murmurs of acquiescence\n\namid the cries of ''fad,\" ''useless expenditure of public\n\nmoney,\" and \"let such accomplishments be paid for by those who can afford\nthem.\"\n\nWe can derive little encouragement from the fact that the American\nWe know from written history,\n\npeople appreciate music in such a vague way.\n\nand we judge from folklore, that music has always been appreciated after the\nsame manner, and, in some instances, to a greater and higher degree. The\nGreeks recognized music as a factor in education.\n\nGreece stands out promi-\n\nnently in history as a musical nation far in advance of peoples that preceded\nher,\n\nand that came for centuries afterward.\n\nall mankind was\n\ncloister,\n\nDuring the Dark Ages, when\n\ngroping about in utter bewilderment, chants in the secluded\n\nwar-songs, and perhaps the cheap, but ever-popular, wares of the\n\nwandering minstrelsy, afforded some cheer, hope, and inspiration in the\ndarkness.\n\nThen the Reformation came.\n\nHymns were sung;\n\nthe church\n\nwas popularized; music became the people's possession, for it could\nno longer be claimed exclusively by the monastery. Great masters arose,\nnations caught the fire, and the Old World broke forth into song. But when\nthe echoes of the grand anthem died away, many chided themselves for their\nunbecoming burst of emotion, and relapsed into silence. The hush was of\nchoir\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION OF TEACHER TO MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\n651\n\nshort duration, however, for the masters renewed their songs, until civilized\n\nEurope was atune; and, for the first time since Greece fell, music was appreDuring centuries now, largely thru the agency\n\nciated for its educational value.\n\nof the schools, this high standard has been maintained.\n\nThe Puritan brought no music to America, and the colonists, as a rule,\non account of the persecution and suffering, had no song in their hearts.\nSince colonial times, we have been too busy in the scramble after the almighty\nThat progress has\ndollar to pause for much consideration of this question.\nbeen made cannot be denied, when the fact is considered that scarcely three\ncenturies\n\nhave elapsed since the Puritans exclaimed:\n\nmonkish music;\n\nit is\n\nall\n\nevil!\"\n\n\"Away with\n\nthe\n\nand now songs are sung every school day\n\nby 16,000,000 children in the schools of the United States.\nBut we are not yet a musical nation as, for example, Germany is, or Greece\nwas. We, as a nation, still consider music a pastime, an accomplishment\nIf we ever become a musical nation, it must be\nfor the rich or talented.\naccomplished thru the training of the children. Leaders in music must unite\nin convincing people, with properly trained children as proof, that education,\nin its fullest sense, is the development of the human being mentally, physically,\n\nand psychically; and that the study of music gives this threefold training, and\ntherefore, is entitled to a place in the school curriculum.\nThe magnitude\nof the undertaking is at once realized when you consider that this commercial\nage is not overly friendly to culture, and it offers little encouragement to any\nsubject taught in the common schools which does not clearly demonstrate its\n'\n'\n\nbread-and-butter\n\n'\n'\n\nvalue.\n\nThe begrudged support accorded to music instruction by school authorities and the people in general, and the common doubt of its Teal educational\nvalue, will not be lessened perceptibly as long as music leaders depend upon\nconservatories,\n\nprivate\n\nschools,\n\nindividual\n\nlessons,\n\nconventions,\n\nand the\n\nunaided influence of supervisors to change the current of public opinion.\nMusicians may talk,\nefforts\n\nsing,\n\nand resolve for three centuries more, and their\n\nbe known not far beyond the circle in which they move, unless they\n\ncommunicate with the people and accomplish their desired ends thru the\nco-operation of the grade teacher, whom they must\n\nfirst\n\nrecognize, and then\n\nown enthusiasm. The grade teacher holds the key to\nThe grade teacher is the real power in the public-school\n\ninspire with their\n\nthe situation.\n\nsystem.\n\nAn army composed of undisciplined, untrained soldiers, even when commanded by a general who is himself an expert in mihtary affairs, can hardly\nbe called a good army. Even moderate achievements cannot be expected\nunder such conditions. The whole army must be trained. The commander\nmust be able to reach the private in the ranks thru the colonels and the captains.\n\nHe must be able to inspire his soldiery thru those who march and fight shoulder\nto shoulder; and he who adopts any other course fails.\nHe may issue orders,\nhe may direct, he may organize; but the execution of his plans must be accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n6S2\n\nplished by others.\n\n[Music\n\nIt is said that the success of a leader depends\n\nupon his\n\nability to get others to work.\n\nYou can apply the illustration.\nupon the grade teacher for results.\n\nThe music\n\nsupervisor must depend\n\nShe, under competent direction, can\n\nteach her pupils to the best advantage because she is more closely in touch\n\nwith them and understands their individual natures.\nI believe the far-reaching influence\n\nand value of supervision are over-\n\nestimated, in comparison with the work of the grade teacher.\nIt is almost impossible for a music supervisor to pass from grade to grade,\n\nnow a high one and now a low one, without a break in the continuity of the\nand without a failure, partially or wholly, to adapt his\nThose who\nhave made a simple announcement in grades from the first to the eighth\nconsecutively understand this difficulty of adaptation.\nThere is a tendency\nto overestimate the ability of the lower grades and to underestimate the ability\nProbably no one can instruct children of all ages\nof the higher grades.\nwith equal and uniform success.\ninstruction scheme,\n\nlanguage, manner, and teaching to the varying classes and ages.\n\nThe supervisor, who gives all of the lessons taught in a school, passes thru\nthe rooms in such rapid succession that there is little time to adjust the \" sights,\"\n\nand, as a result, there\n\nis\n\n\"overshooting,\" \"under-shooting,\" or \"scatter-\n\nWhen the supervisor gives a part of the lessons and the regular\n\nshooting.\"\n\nteacher a part, there is a division of effort that tends to neutralize the influence\nof both.\n\nIf,\n\nin\n\nstill\n\nlarger schools, the supervisor conducts recitations at\n\nrare intervals, because of the infrequency of such lessons,\nis\n\nmade upon the pupils.\n\nlittle\n\nimpression\n\nThere are prominent educators who think that\n\nmodel lessons, given occasionally by specialists, are apt to lower the pupil's\nestimation of their own teacher's ability to teach the subject.\n\nThis is specially\n\nnoticeable if the faults or mistakes of the teacher are criticised or corrected\n\nNot only this, but the model lesson is, or ought\nto be, appreciably better than the teacher can give, and the contrast does not\n\nin the presence of the school.\n\nstrengthen the confidence of pupils in the teacher.\n\nThe grade teacher is, of\n\nnecessity, an interpreter to clothe the lessons and directions of the supervisor\n\nin language and form suited to the immediate grade she has in charge.\n\nThe\n\nlarger the system of schools, the less can a supervisor hope to reach pupils, as\n\na class or as individuals, and the more he must depend upon a \"middleman,\"\nso to speak.\n\nAgain, too often the supervisor has had little or no training in pedagogy\nor psychology, and is not prepared, theoretically even, to impart instruction\nto children.\n\nMany of the most talented musicians are entirely unqualified\n\nto teach in elementary schools, where the simple, easy, yet so important, steps\n\nmust be taken. Conservatories and schools of music, as a rule, are turning\nout musicians and are not attempting to train them to teach teachers to teach.\nIt is not their business to do this.\nA supervisor who lacks the essential characteristics of a teacher can accomplish nothing except thru the agency of others.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION OF TEACHER TO MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\n653\n\nIn fact, the regular teacher, trained by education and experience to teach\nschool, and who possesses a fair knowledge of music, can handle the subject\n\nmuch more effectively than the skilled musician who knows nothing but\nmusic in itself. It often happens, too, that the person who has the finish\nand polish of the most technical musical education to the highest degree\ncannot appreciate the necessity for extreme simphcity of instruction in ele-\n\nmentary grades.\nIt may be said here that those who desire to see the gospel of good music\nand its appreciation propagated, hail with delight the multiplying number\nof summer schools of methods, and normal schools where teachers learn to\n'\n\nteach pubHc-school music.\nAll this does not imply that the supervisor should not be an expert in his\nline,\n\nshould not be a master of the theory of music, but that, in addition to\n\nthese really essential qualifications, he should be a trained educator, an organizer,\n\na harmonizer, a leader\n\nwho can inspire teachers to their best efforts.\n\nYes, the supervisor must teach the teachers how to teach music.\nof\n\nmusic\n\ninstruction in\n\nA betterment\n\npubhc schools will result from a betterment in the\n\nmusic training which grade teachers receive, before entering their profession\n\nand afterward, under the tutorage of a skillful supervisor.\nand we beheve\nIf music instruction possesses a high educational value\nit does\nis there any valid reason why teachers should not prepare themselves\nSpeed the day when a knowledge of at least the rudiments of\nto teach it ?\n\n—\n\n—\n\nmusic shall be a legal requirement for certification.\n\nAlready certain states\n\nhave legislated on the subject, as the following statistics, taken from chapter\n10 of the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1903, show.\ntion in music\n\nis\n\nExamina-\n\nrequired for state certificates in California, Iowa, Kansas,\n\nMinnesota, New Hampshire, and North Dakota; for probationary elementary\ngrade\n\ncertificates, in\n\nWashington;\n\nMassachusetts;\n\nfor special county\n\nfor first-grade\n\ncertificates, in\n\nprimary certificates, in\n\nNew Jersey;\n\nwhile such an\n\nexamination is optional for state certificates in Missouri, and may be required\nfor county primary certificates in Nevada.\n\nWhen teachers must pass an examination in music for certification, the\nsubject will cease to be considered an accomplishment, and will be placed\n\nupon the same basis as arithmetic and geography.\n\nJust as long as teachers\n\nare not expected to make themselves competent to impart instruction in this\n\nbranch of study, and the supervisor attempts to do all or nearly all of the\nteaching, just so long will music be considered uncommon, the gift of the few,\n\nand an unessential part of the curriculum.\nBut some will say that, when such conditions are realized, supervisors\nwill be needed no more than supervisors of reading and geography.\nOn the\ncontrary,\n\nwhen\n\nthat time\n\ncomes, supervision will be in the highest type\n\nprofessional.\n\nSo far, nothing has been said of the large majority of schools too small,\nor financially too weak, to employ a specialist in vocal music.\nThis number\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AiiSOCIATTON\n\n654\n\n[Music\n\nincludes small towns, villages, and rural schools, in which are found approxi-\n\nmately 50 per cent, of the entire school enrollment of the nation.\n\nIn all of\n\nthese schools, music supervision is out of question, and the responsibility lies\n\nIn reality, only a few of the larger schools in each\n\nupon the regular teacher.\n\nstate have such advantages for all or part time.\n\nEastern and central states,\n\non account of denser population, consolidated districts, and greater revenue\nIn\nfor school purposes, fare better in this respect than other states, as a rule.\nNebraska, for example, whose educational system takes high rank, only\ntwenty-six cities and towns have music supervision.\nReflection\n\nupon these statements may serve to remind us that, as yet,\n\nmusic instruction has scarcely touched the schools of America, and that, if\nthe nation ever becomes musical, we must enlist the active co-operation of\n\nNot only this, but we are forced to acknowledge\n\nthe common-school teacher.\n.\n\nthat the grade teacher must be depended upon to teach the children vocal\n\nmusic and, in most cases, without direction.\nIt is just as patent that supervisors must pin their faith to the same grade\nteacher.\n\nIt is she who\n\ncomes in touch with the real life of the pupils, who\nIt is she who, day by day, thinks and plans\n\nunderstands local conditions.\n\nwith the children and, thru them, shapes public sentiment and molds pubhc\nopinion in the district.\n\nThe leader who does not recognize these facts and\n\ndirect his influence thru her to the people has his lesson to learn.\nIt is the\n\ngrade teacher who arouses a lasting interest in music, and gets\n\nwant to sing; and not the supervisor, who reaches them\npeople that music has an eduso remotely.\nexpensive\nfad.\nis\nnot\nan\nand\nthat\nit\nvalue,\ncational\nThe influence of the supervisor must flow as an electric current thru\nthe teacher to pupils and people, with a mutual confidence which acts as a\n\nboys and\n\ngirls to\n\nIt is she who will convince the\n\nfaultless conductor.\n\nIf the\n\ngrade teacher is omitted in the calculation, the\n\ngap which always\n\nexists between a supervising\nand the people themselves. It is the grade teacher who must be\ndepended upon to create a musical spirit in America.\nWhen we concede her overshadowing influence in the schoolroom and\ncommunity; when supervisors learn to recognize her competency in handHng\n\nspark\n\nwill never leap the\n\nofficer\n\nchildren;\n\nwhen the efforts of the supervisor are directed toward the teaching\n\nof teachers how to teach, then music in our schools will be taught much more\nefficiently\n\nthan it is now.\n\nThe supervisor is much, but the grade teacher is more.\n\n\"She is the\n\nbackbone of the teaching force,\" not excepting superintendent or any other\nsupervising\n\nofficer.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJulia E. Crane, director of Normal School of Music, Potsdam, N. Y.\n\n—The impor-\n\ntance of the work of the grade teacher cannot be overestimated, and her success with the\nmusic of her grade depends upon her relation to the supervisor. In many schools this\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION OF TEACHER TO MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\n655\n\nvital point is so little appreciated that no provision is made for teachers' meetings, and the\n\nThat this is\n\nopportunity for the grade teachers to be really instructed by the supervisor.\n\nan absolute necessity must be acknowledged by all.\n\nThe supervisor's position, then, should be that of instructor of the grade teachers,\nand his aim, to make them as efficient as possible. \"But,\" it is said, \"if the grade teachers become skillful teachers of music, what will become of the supervisors ?\"\nWhen will\nthe world learn that what is good for the cause and for the people cannot bring evil to any\nindividual ? True success comes not from self-seeking, but from truth-seeking.\nForget self, and seek the highest good for the cause and all concerned, and true progress\nresults, not alone to the cause,\n\nbut to its promoters.\n\nSo long as public schools are conducted under the present plan, the part of the grade\nteacher in the music work is a most important one. That supervisor who gives the most\neflScient instruction to the grade teacher; a supervisor who gives to her true sympathy in\nunderstanding her problems and helping to solve them, will secure the most satisfactory\n,\n\nresults.\n\nThere is no reason for discouragement because the grade teachers are untrained in\nEven the great obstacle of what is called \"tone deafness\" may be overcome.\nTo accomphsh such results, the supervisor must recognize the good work of the grade\nteacher, and so modify his demands as to ask, first, of each teacher the kind of work which\nshe does best, gradually leading her by instruction and encouragement to the more difficult problems.\nTeachers differ greatly in their talents; the work in music is broad.\nBe cheerful,\" and recognize with praise any part of it which is well done. Having done\none thing well, the teacher approaches the more difficult problem with more courage.\nmusic.\n\nWe all look forward to the ideal condition when every grade teacher shall be able to\nsing artistically, and to read music as one reads a poem or a bit of beautiful prose.\n\nBut\n\nthat condition is not yet; not even all supervisors have reached this high standard.\n\nShall\n\nwe drop the music in our schools until teachers and supervisors are better prepared for\nthe work? Certainly not, but rather meet the conditions as they are, and be grateful\nfor every step gained, whether or not that step be taken exactly in accord with your own\npeculiar notion.\n\nCourage to enter upon the study of music is often the only element needed to open\nThis courage may be given by the supervisor, who recognized the grade teacher's tact and skill, even before any musical results appear. Active\nsympathy, consideration, good cheer, and appreciation acknowledged, of even the smallest\npoint gained, will soon work wonders in the music.\n\nthe way for excellent results.\n\nMrs. Thomas, of Washington.\n\n—There can be no national music in America thru\n\nAny effective musical education\nThe conditions affecting the Reaching of music, when\n\nthe efforts of the private schools and private teachers.\n\nmust be thru the public schools.\n\nthe question of tuition enters into the problem, are such that the private teacher cannot\ninsist upon a course of study which is educational \\n its character.\nJ.\n\nA. FosHAY, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\n—There\n\nis\n\nno question\n\nabout the value of music in the schools, when it is put upon a proper basis. It is quite\npossible that the people may see as much of value in the study of music as in any one of\nthe three R's.\n\nIt cannot be denied that the devotion to the three R's is connected -with the\n\nold method of education, and that these rudimental studies indicate a process of pouring\nin,\n\nwhile the standard of education which demands music education in the schools means\n\na growth along all lines.\n\nIn my opinion, music is one of the most important in the courses\n\nof study, and I am sure that the people reahze it.\n\nIn reference to the illustration given by\n\nMiss Crane, of the unmusical teacher finally making a success of teaching music, it seems\nIn our\nto me it is a very difficult thing for one deficient in music to teach the branch.\ncity we examine all the grade teachers in music, and insist that they shall have ability\nto teach it in their grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n656\n\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\n— seems\nIt\n\nto me that the musical proficiency of\n\nthe supervisor is a vital point which should be insisted upon.\n\nwhich he is not proficient himself.\n\nto others that in\n\n[Music\n\nIt is hard for one to teach\n\nThe supervisor should have high\n\nmusical attainments in order to guide others aright and inspire in them a love for the\nbest in music.\n\n—\n\nN. CoE Stewart, of New York. Experience has made me confident that anyone\nwho desires to learn music and to learn to sing can do so at any age. When I was in\nthe Cleveland schools, a teacher forty-five years old, who had never sung a note, wanted\na position in the schools, and by appHcation not only became proficient as a teacher of\nmusic, but was able to sing in chorus with others quite efficiently. If the child desires\nto learn to sing,\n\nhe can learn, and it is the province of the supervisor to awaken in his\n\npupils that desire.\n\nSarah Brinton Davis, of New York.\nlargely upon the attitude of the supervisor.\n\n—The success of the grade teacher depends\nIt is\n\nmy belief that almost all of the grade\n\nteachers can teach music with fair success, if they are properly encouraged to make the\neffort by the supervisor.\n\nI have found a number of teachers who told\n\nme that they were\n\nabsolutely unable to teach music, and yet they have succeeded in doing most acceptable\n\nwork when, in response to my encouragement, they have put forth proper effort. Supervisors should remember that things which seem perfectly easy to them seem very hard\nto the inexperienced grade teachers, and should meet them in that spirit.\n\n—\n\nWe never hear of teachers who are 'incompetent\nwho are unable to teach reading, being in the schools, and it\nseems to me the time has come when we should hear less about teachers who are incomIf the school superintendents who are attendpetent to teach music being in the schools.\ning the meetings of the National Educational Association this year would go home and\nmake a demand that their teachers should be quahfied to teach music, this question of the\nteacher who is incompetent to teach music would soon be settled.\nPowell G. Fithian, Camden, N. J. In our supervising work we find two classes of\nI\nteachers those who think they know it all, and those who think they know nothing.\nhave frequently found the best results were secured from those who thought they knew\nthe least. The best results from school music are secured where the grade teacher reposes\nC. H. CONGDON, of New York.\n\nto teach arithmetic, or\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthe most confidence in the supervisor. We usually find that the results are in direct\nproportion to the amount of this confidence. One condition which prevents our doing\nin music all we should like to do is the limited time at our disposal.\n\nIn Camden this time\n\nten minutes a day, and the work is further handicapped by teachers who are not prepared to do music work. The supervisor should insist that the grade teachers be required\n\nis\n\nto pass an examination showing proficiency in this branch.\n\nIn response to a question regarding the requirements in music in America, Mr.\n\nFoshay said that each state had its own requirements, and that the California law provided that all teachers in the pubhc schools should be able to teach music. Mr. Gantvoort stated that the same was true in the state of Ohio. The same law prevails in Iowa,\nwith the addition that every county superintendent is required to employ a teacher of music\nin the annual county normal institutes.\n\nCharles I. Rice, Worcester, Mass.\n\n—In the\n\ncity of Worcester the questions for the\n\nexamination of all the candidates for positions in the city schools are prepared by the\nFifteen questions are submitted, two of which must be answered by all, and\nsupervisor.\neight of the remaining thirteen must be answered if the candidate would be successful.\nI believe\nAll candidates for positions in the schools have to pass this examination.\nthat any supervisor having the confidence of his board might be able to put the same\n\narrangement in force.\n\nHerbert Griggs, of Colorado.\n\n—I suppose I\n\nshall be classed as a heretic, but years\n\nof experience in public-school work show me that a candidate for a teacher's position can\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "SOME FEATURES OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment]\n\n657\n\nanswer any number of questions about the staff, and notes, and the signatures of the\ndifferent keys,\n\nand show knowledge about a lot of other foolish things, and yet not be\n\nable really to teach music in the class-room.\n\nIn my opinion, the essential things are that\n\nthe teacher shall love music, love the child,\n\nand have abundance of tact.\n\nare of\n\nThese things\n\nmuch more value in the schoolroom than the ability to teach the value of the\n\nhalf-note.\n\nSOME FEATURES OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS\nOF NEW YORK CITY\nFRANK R. RIX, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOROUGHS OF QUEENS\nAND RICHMOND, NEW YORK CITY\nIn teaching school music two widely divergent methods are apparent,\nthe realistic\n\nand the idealistic.\n\nThe rigid system of the realist is based on\n\npurely disciplinary grounds, and it must be admitted that music enlists the\ndisciplinary and logical faculties to their fullest extent.\n\nthe idealist, who, on purely ethical grounds,\n\nOn the other hand,\n\nmakes song-singing the only\n\nmeans of training, simply goes to the opposite extreme\n\n—a dangerous one,\n\nsince this method, in practice, degenerates into rote-singing pure and simple.\n\nBeyond the just claims of the realist, and of the idealist also, we must\nadmit that musical experience is worth seeking for its own sake, and the\naesthetics\n\nand technique of music should be rightly united in order to have\n\nthe best method, which avoids the extreme in either direction and is that of\nthe practical idealist.\n\nThe first suggestion of aesthetic feeling comes thru the power of the senses\nThe\n\nfor enjoyment, which is greatest in those which have a specialized organ.\n\nsuperiority of sight and hearing over the other senses arises from something\n\nwhich the latter do not possess; namely, their capacity to experience a variety\nof simultaneous impressions,\n\ninto a distinct whole.\n\nand the power to group and co-ordinate them\n\nThe pleasure which this gives is, in fact, the contempla-\n\ntion of the beautiful.\n\nBeauty is manifested thru form, which is used by spirit as its medium\nof expression, and to the inner-self sense is its interpreter.\ntherefore,\n\nare the media for aesthetic impression.\n\nThe eye and ear,\n\nHence\n\ntraining in art\n\nmust be directed to the eye and ear. It is thus that the apparent antagonism\nbetween realism and idealism disappears, for the largest culture is possible\nonly thru the mastery of detail. Work, the overcoming of difficulties one by\none, and individual effort are the steps that carry us across the bridge.\n\nThe basis of musical education is the power of the ear to discriminate\nmusical rhythms and intervals, which leads in turn to the ability to conceive\nthose rhythms\nis\n\nand tones from their written symbols.\n\nThe ear, however,\n\nat a great disadvantage, when compared with the eye, as the latter, aided\n\nby touch and the measuring sense of muscular movements, finds objects of\npermanence in constant variety for contemplation, while the ear must depend\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n658\n\n[Music\n\non its unaided judgment of sounds which are of only short duration.\n\nThe\n\nmastery of music requires much practice and frequent performance for its\nhighest development, and, in view of the small\n\namount of time allotted to\nWe must\n\nmusic in school, the really creditable results seem remarkable.\n\nremember, however, that we have eight years in which to reach our highest\naims.\nis made for intelhgent enjoyment thru the hearing\nmuch as thru mere performance, and, while sight-singing is\n\nFortunately, music\nof\n\nit\n\nquite as\n\ninvaluable as an accomplishment and as a means of mental discipHne, it is\nquite as important to train up a generation of appreciative and discriminating\nlisteners.\n\nTo this end, definite hearing is necessary, the power to analyze\n\ninto small forms, and to reconstruct the same into the whole.\n\nSight-reading\n\ndoes this, and, beyond its worth as a means of performance, it is valuable\nas a measure of the power to hear definitely.\n\nThe technique of music study, then, is simply another variety of objectteaching, a matter of educating sense-perception, the objects being musical\n\nrhythms and tone progressions.\n\nmay be classed as a highly specialized and idealized form of\nthe principles involved in the study of spoken language and\nand\nlanguage,\nMusic study makes one master of the\nsinging are practically identical.\nprocesses that create the intelligent and independent performer; but, aside\nfrom its great value as a means of intellectual discipline, it must be remetnbered\nthat the abihty to read music gives the power to interpret music itself, to give\nexpression to the feehngs, and to outpour the real self in sincere helpfulness.\nThru the child's inteiest the teacher may accomplish his cherished ends.\nInterest stimulates attention, rouses perception, and fixes that concentration\nThe play\nof the mind which is essential to the getting of all knowledge.\nelement, therefore, enters largely into modern educational methods. In\nmusic, especially, the child should work thru the interest it inspires the\nSinging\n\n—\n\ninterest especially\n\nneeded in music, as the child cannot be driven.\n\nThe\n\nsubject should be treated attractively, and the materials should be such as\n\nappeal strongly to the child's imagination and natural love for the beautiful,\nthe elements in music that most strongly attract the youthful fancy being\n\nrhythm and beautiful melody.\nThe New York course of study was adopted by the Board of Education\nIn the contribution which\nin May, 1903, and has had a trial of two years.\nI made to this course of study in music I was guided by my personal experience\nin class-room work, and in dealing with pupils in all grades and conditions\nof city life.\nI obtained an interesting statement of opinion from a large number of supervisors of music thruout the country, to whom I sent a circular\ncontaining twenty questions bearing upon their experience, and upon the\nusefulness of certain methods and the practicabiHty of the same.\n\nMy idea\n\nwas to ascertain if supervisors were not in favor of a simpUfication of methods\nand a more direct application of them. I received a large number of replies,\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSOME FEATURES OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\nDepartment]\n\ncarefully written\n\n659\n\nand thoughtfully conceived, and the consensus of opinion\nIn the first place, that the work\n\nagreed with my own ideas in many regards.\n\nof the first two years should be simple, largely consisting of rote-singing, of\nvoice-training,\n\nand of fixing the knowledge of scale relations, and that staff\n\nnotation and reading from books might very well be entirely omitted in the\nfirst\n\nyear,\n\nsimplified;\n\nand very little of it done in the second; that notation might be\nthat the general practice in the books of presenting the half and\n\neighth note, as well as the quarter, as standing for the beat is unnecessary, and,\nat the outset at least in a child's music experience, the quarter note should\n\nOne of the features of our course of study is that it\n\nbe the only standard.\n\nemploys the quarter note as the beat-note uniil all the facts of two-, three-,\nfour-, and six-part rhythm have been presented to the child.\n\nIn our work, the importance of the right treatment of the child's voice\nis\n\nthe first requirement,\n\nand is rigidly insisted upon, following the accepted\n\nmethod of training from above downward in the head quality. A practice\nthat is good pedagogically, and works out well, has been constantly in mind;\nnamely, that all effects in music, whether of interval or of rhythm, should\nfirst\n\nbe presented to the child's understanding thru the medium of song.\n\nthis\n\nway, the various rhythms are presented.\n\nIn\n\nThe divided beat, the dotted\n\nquarter and eighth, the triplet, and others are shown as occurring in actual\n\nsongs before the child is expected to analyze them.\n\nHaving recognized their\nand the principle is\n\nsignificance in this form, he is given exercises and drill,\n\napplied as far as possible in the sight-reading of songs.\n\nOur aim is to lead to sight-reading with words.\n\nTo this end teachers\n\nare directed to use neutral syllables as well as the sol-ja singing names, and\nto train the children to think tones\ndirectly.\n\nand sing them with the words of songs\n\nThis part of the process needs careful watching, as it is much easier\n\nfor both pupil and teacher continually to use singing {sol-ja) names.\n\nThe complete song, containing as it does all the elements of instruction\nnamely, breathing, tone production, enunciation, rhythm, musical form,\n\nand the expression of aesthetic sentiment\n\n—\n\nis\n\nthe aim and end of all singing.\n\nTo the eventual mastery of songs all our instruction is aimed, since without\nthe inspiration which this gives all the machinery of music instruction\n\nis\n\nThe sight-singing of songs into which\nthe elements of musical instruction enter is the object and aim of the New\nrobbed of its chief aim and benefit.\n\nYork course of study.\n\nWhatever tends toward this is encouraged; whatever\n\ndetracts from it is discouraged.\n\nAt all times simpHfication of method is sought, and the means of doing\nwork in the easiest, quickest, and surest manner.\nUnusual rhythms, vagaries, and exceptional problems are of no particular\nuse in school music.\n\nIf the child is able to acquire the ability to read ordinary\n\nmusic at sight, he has accomplished all that may reasonably be expected in\nthe elementary course.\n\nIf our efforts were confined to this and to the inter-\n\npretation of beautiful songs, I believe that antagonism toward music in the\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n66o\n\nschools would cease.\n\ntoo much.\n\n[Music\n\nThe tendency of specialists is to expect and to require\n\n(Instance, class teachers' comment.)\n\nRecently the course of study and syllabi in all subjects in the city have\n\nbeen undergoing revision, and I am happy so say that, in all the discussions,\nthe only criticisms of the course in music has been that it might be well to\nsimplify still further in the\n\nfirst\n\nand that the theoretical work in the\n\nyear,\n\nseventh and eighth years should be omitted, devoting the time in these two\nyears chiefly to the sight-singing of good songs and song interpretation.\n\nThis\n\nseems quite sensible and satisfying.\nIn all grades great attention is given to correct position, care, and cultivation of the voice, to breathing exercises\n\nand breath control, to enunciation\n\nand intelligent phrasing, to song interpretation and expression, to rhythm,\nmelody, and the encouragement of individual efifort.\nChildren are taught the habit of concentration, and of solving difficulties\non the first trial by fixing the attention until the problem is finished. Success\nin music- teaching depends entirely upon the ability to secure concentration.\nIn breathing exercises the endeavor is made to secure correct breathing in a\nnatural manner without creating self-consciousness.\n\n(Explanations followed.)\n\nIn sight-singing it is asked that the singing names shall not be abused\n\nby too constant use, the effort being to read without the use of these names\nand with words directly appHed.\nIn all grades the so-called head register is called for, and that quality\nof tone which comes from singing the vowel oo on high pitches.\nThe mistake\nshould not be made, however, of overdoing \"ooing.\" Other vowels should\nbe cultivated as well as oo^ the right quality being obtained by drawing such\nvowels out of the oo quality; for example, oo-a, oo-o, oo-e, oo-aw.\n\nThe voices of the boys and the girls are treated identically, and it is found\nthat, if sufficient care is exercised, the girls' voices will partake to a considerable\n\nextent of the same quahty as the boys'.\n\nas\n\nis\n\nit\n\nConstant care, however, is needed,\n\nvery difficult for children to maintain the habit of correct voice-\n\nproduction.\nAll voices are treated equally up to the end of the fifth year, there being\n\nno permanent division into sopranos and altos.\nIn the seventh and eighth years, and, in some cases, in the sixth year,\nit\n\nseems desirable to make a more permanent change in the disposition of\n\nthe voices, as it is found that boys begin to prefer to sing in lower range, even\nif\n\nthe voice has not abeady changed.\n\nAdvantage may be taken of this fact\n\nto secure a lower third part, which, being nearly within range of upper tenor\nvoice,\n\nmay be termed \"alto-tenor.\"\n\nBoys with\n\nspecially trained soprano\n\nvoices, who wish to continue on the upper part, are allowed to do so until the\n\nvoice shows signs of changing.\n\nThe alto-tenor voice affords a convenient\n\nmeans of leading to the study of the bass clef, and the music for these voices\n\nmay be written either in a lower part of the G clef or the upper part of the F\nclef,\n\nG being the extreme lower limit.\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSOME FEATURES OF MUSIC INSTRUCTION\n\n66l\n\nOne\nwe have borne in mind; namely, that the subject of school\n\nIn planning the work, our limitations must be carefully considered.\nfact, especially,\n\nmusic must be handled from the standpoint of the class teacher.\n\nShe has\n\nto do the work, and can do only such work as she is prepared for.\n\nThe chief requirement for the class teacher is a correct ear and the abiUty\nto judge the pupils' work.\n\nShe is required to sing only in teaching rote songs\n\nor for ear-training exercises.\n\nWe must consider the limited time given, only sixty minutes a week, and\nout of that subtract the waste in getting books ready and putting them away.\n\nThe work of the class teacher is thoroly laid out by the music teacher,\nand every step is explained. Nothing is left to chance. The fault of most\ninstruction books is that they are made for specialists.\nMusic books should\nbe constructed for the class teacher. They should give her just the work\nshe has to do in black and white, exercises for dictation, for ear-training, for\nblackboard reproduction; as well as the vocalizes she is to use and the songs\nshe must teach. With such help her work will no longer be haphazard,\nHappy the class teacher who receives from the\nindefinite, and desultory.\nspecial teacher model lessons that keep to the point, that waste no time or\neffort, and in which the children are kept thinking with concentrated attention,\nand with consequent accurate work.\nWe insist that the model lesson given in the class-room by the special\nteacher is a lesson to the grade teacher and not to the class. It is, therefore,\nthe grade teacher's duty carefully to observe and follow the model lesson, and\nnot to occupy herself with anything else.\n\nIn my own jurisdiction the\n\nclass teacher\n\nhas been constantly in mind,\n\nand the result of my experience during the last ten years has proved that the\nvery large majority of teachers may do successful work in music. In the\nBorough of Queens, from the records kept by special teachers, 90 per cent,\nof the class teachers have done good work, 95 per cent, satisfactory, 5 per cent,\nunsatisfactory for various reasons, and 25 per cent, have done distinctly\nexcellent work.\nFrom the start we entered upon the education of our class\nteachers.\nIn this we were aided most efl&ciently by the attitude of the super-\n\nwho stood firmly for it. The principals, too, were in sympathy\nand where a music supervisor has the support of the superintendent and the\nsympathy of principals, he is sure to get the class teachers to work.\nWe had frequent conferences for the first year, in which practical methods\nwere demonstrated, sometimes with classes of children and sometimes with\n\nintendent,\n\nthemselves as the\n\nthe\n\nteachers\n\nless\n\nfrequently, until at present\n\ngatherings.\n\nIn\n\nclass.\n\nGradually conferences were held\n\nwe have almost dispensed with\n\ngeneral\n\nmy territory all the special teachers give frequent model\n\nlessons in the class-room; all points are demonstrated time and again for the\nbenefit of the class teacher.\n\nThe class teachers are expected to demonstrate\n\nwork for the inspection of the special teacher and the director, while\nthe work both of class teachers and special teachers comes under the critical\n\ntheir\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n662\n\n[Musk\n\neye of the director, who makes frequent visits to class-rooms and keeps in\n\ntouch with the work in all schools.\nRecently candidates for license as grade teachers in the city of New York\n\nhave been required to pass an examination in vocal music and in the theory\nof music.\n\nThese tests, while comparatively simple, have demonstrated at\n\nleast the ability of the candidates to sing in tune, to sing and recognize the\n\nintervals of the scale and rhythms, and to give a practical demonstration of\n\nthe power to teach.\n\nTo the supervising teacher comes the vitalizing of the work of the class\nteacher and of furnishing the inspiration which will make the songs of the\nschool glow with fervency, with emotional life, and with heart-throbs of feeling.\n\nNo supervisor should ever neglect this part of the work, which, in truth, is\nthe most important part of it, and without which the rest is insignificant.\n\nAs the child studies reading in order to read, and to get in touch with the\nand with the highest thought, so in music, while the\n\ngreatest in literature\ndisciplinary effect\n\nis\n\nof the utmost value, he goes thru the training that\n\nis\n\ninvolved in sight-singing in order to sing, to read and understand the masterpieces of music, to be able to express himself nobly, and to voice his highest\nfeelings in sincere accents.\n\nThus vitalized, music will contribute more fully, perhaps, than any other\nstudy, not only to the training and quickening of the mind, but, better than\nall,\n\nto the\n\nmaking of the true democrat, to the altruistic spirit, and to the\n\nbuilding of character.\n\nSOME TYPE-FORMS THAT HAVE BEEN FOUND USEFUL IN\nTHE TEACHING OF MUSIC IN THE SCHOOLS\nWALTER H. AIKEN, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, CINCINNATI SCHOOLS\nPerhaps in no study of the school curriculum have such vast changes\nobtained during the past ten years as in the teaching of public-school music.\n\nPages of books, which were formerly tasks to be committed, are now\nutilized as teaching exercises to draw out the mind.\n\nA recitation upon the\n\ntheory of music, which was a repetition of memory work,\nexercise for intelhgence.\n\nis\n\nnow a testing\n\nInstruction, which once meant information, imparted\n\nin verbal form, now signifies the art of throwing just as much light on a child's\ndifficulties as will stimulate and enable him to overcome them himself.\n\nThe\n\nteacher of today no longer rushes children thru textbooks, but seeks to utilize\nhis energies and those of the children in other ways.\n\nIt is our firm conviction\n\nthat the great mass of teachers attempt to teach by far too much.\n\nOne of those illustrious professors who formed the glory of the old ItaHan\none of those great artists in whom the most profound learning and\nconsummate experience were united with the purest taste and most exalted\n\nschool;\n\ngenius; one of those masters, in short, who are scarce at all times, but whose\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "TYPE-FORMS IN THE TEACHING OF MUSIC\n\nDepartment]\n\n663\n\nrace seems now to be extinct, was requested by a pupil to teach him the art\nof singing.\n\nThe master, who knew the young applicant beforehand and had\n\nabready remarked in him a rare combination of natural gifts, inclined to grant\nhis request, but, as a condition of his final consent,\n\ndemanded that his new\n\npupil should place entire confidence in him, and engage to pursue to the end,\n\nand without the sHghtest deviation, the course of study he would point out,\nhowever irksome he might sometimes find it, or however tedious it might\nsometimes appear.\n\nThe pupil gave his word, and the master thereupon\n\nHe took a sheet of blank music paper and\n\nconsented to direct his studies.\n\nwrote upon\n\nit\n\na few elementary exercises, followed by some others nearly\n\nas simple as the first; on the last lines of the sheet he added some ornaments\n\nand passages exemplifying the greatest difficulty of the vocal art. This\npaper he placed in the hands of his pupil, and to its study the entire labors of\nthe first year were confined;\n\nthe second year passed like the first;\n\nthe third\n\nand yet there was no mention of any lessons. The pupil\nbegan to murmur, but was reminded of his promise, and submitted. The\nfourth and fifth years were consumed in studying the same sheet of paper,\nwhich had formed the sole occupation of the three. The sixth year arrived,\nand still the paper was not changed nor its contents augmented by a single\nnote; to the eternal music lesson, however, instructions in articulation, pronunciation, and declamation were now added.\nAt the end of the sixth year,\nyear was spent;\n\nthe pupil, who still beheved that he was studying only the elements of the art,\n\nwas agreeably surprised when his master said:\nin Italy, or the\n\nwhole world!\"\n\nthe master, Porpora.\n\nIf there\n\nHe said truly.\n\n''You are the\n\nfirst\n\nsinger\n\nThe pupil was Caffarelli;\n\nbe grade teachers in this assembly today, to\n\nthem this anecdote may have all the appearance of fiction, but one well\nacquainted with the arts, and with the art of singing in particular, will see\nin it nothing but what is very natural and even probable.\nThe most complicated achievements in any art consist only of a conibination more or less\ndiversified of a few simple elementary type-forms, or principles.\n\nLet us take,\n\nfor example, an art most familiar to the generahty of mankind, that of writing:\n\na full stroke and a hair stroke, a straight line and a curve, form the sum\ntotal of the elements from the combination of which the most beautiful speci-\n\nmens\n\nof\n\npenmanship, the delight of the connoisseurs, are produced.\n\nSo\n\nwith singing: a tone firmly dehvered, and a succession of tones well connected\n\nwith each other and executed with various degrees of slowness or rapidity,\nform, at least, as far as mechanism is concerned, the whole elements of the\nart.\n\nAmong the points of music study which we deem as essential in our schools\nis\n\nthat of \"tone direction;\"\n\nthat\n\nis,\n\na consciousness of their progression,\n\nwhether upward or downward, or of the same pitch; of tone relation, scale\nrelation,\n\nand rhythm.\n\nIt is\n\nour thought that studies upon these essentials\n\nshall not only be presented in one year, but in every year of the child's school\nfife,\n\nFrom these essentials we would allow no deviation.\n\nThere is, perhaps,\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n664\n\n[Music\n\na greater temptation to the music teacher than to those working in the grades,\nof attempting to cover too\n\nThis is oftentimes\n\nwide a range of difficulties.\n\nforced upon us by the nature of the textbook exercises.\n\nThe rifle, we would\n\nAs the whole charge is brought to bear\nis the effective weapon.\nupon the single bullet, it sends it with lightning-Hke rapidity straight to the\nmark. Diffusiveness is the enemy of execution. The power of concentration\nremark,\n\nat a single point wins victories.\n\nThe great general masses his forces against\n\nthe weak point in the enemy's line.\n\nHe brings every energy to bear upon\n\nthat one spot, and finally breaks thru.\n\nFortunate is the music teacher who\n\ncan find the weak spot in the difficulty that confronts him, and then bring to\nDifficulties usually hit the weak\nman; man should learn to hit the weak spot in the difficulty.\nTeachers who make it their business to see to it that every lesson has a point\nto it, that the child knows the point and all work in the same circle of thought;\nteachers who put themselves in the child's place, and do not always have the\nsame way of removing difficulties, are at the head everywhere. People stand\naside to let them pass up, and then wonder how they managed to get so high.\n\nbear upon it all the forces at his command.\nspot in the\n\n\"Concentration,\" said Emerson, \"is the secret of strength in politics, in war,\nin trade;\n\nin short, in all\n\nmanagement of human affairs.\"\n\nthe poet-philosopher realize the trend of human energies.\n\nThus early did\nIn this age of the\n\nworld, stores are concentrated into one, factories are centralized under one\n\nmanagement, many businesses are absorbed\ncentralization.\n\ninto trusts\n\n—\n\nall\n\nexamples of\n\nThis is but another name for speciaHzation.\n\nAs soon, therefore, as the major scale has been fairly well studied and its\nparts, we will say, presented in relation to the whole, we must form a decision\n\nas to where we will specialize, at all times remembering, in planning our\n\nwork, that the ear, the eye, the hand in writing, and the voice in executing,\n\nmust each be treated in turn, and, at the same time, our methods of presentation be governed by the age, capacity, and general advancement of the\npupil.\n\nYou who have followed the grade teachers, with their modern methods\nof teaching children how to read, may have noted that word-mastery precedes\n\nsentence-reading.\n\nSo it is our thought that the mastery of some such type-\n\nforms as I have placed in your hands must precede the reading of thoughts\nas they occur in music.\nA grade teacher knows that it is not possible to read\nan English sentence made up of unknown words. Therefore we, as music\nteachers, should exercise equal care that the children be familiar with each\nof these sentences as wholes before giving to\n\nthem expression.\n\nSee to\n\nit\n\nthat they are conscious of the progression of their own voices, and of the voice\nof their teacher.\n\nI have emphasized that word \"conscious \" for its worthiness.\n\nThis cannot be accompHshed, we would add, by the use of do, re, mi.\n\nAs a\n\nsecond step, these short sentences are combined in groups of two, and the\nchildren are trained to pass from one, by a synthetic glance, to the next one,\n\nand treat the two groups as a whole.\n\nSo from the first we strive to get away\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "TYPE-FORMS IN THE TEACHING OF MUSIC\n\nDcimrtment]\n\n665\n\n—\n\nfrom the calling of notes by their syllabic names the spelling-out process by\nand compel the children to grasp each thought-\n\nwhich we learned to read\nunit before giving to\n\nit\n\n—\n\noral expression.\n\nphrases cannot be hurriedly done.\n\nThis study of the combination of\n\nThe teacher must stay with the problem\n\nuntil the pupil has acquired the art of \"taking in\" short sentences at a glance,\n\nand can interpret the thoughts or render the combinations as called for with\nsome degree of skill and accuracy. This we consider the basis of reading,\nand the sooner the pupils acquire this, the better. Without a thoro knowledge\nof these type-forms, it is our thought, there can be no true reading of music.\n\nWe are aware that in setting up types as the pivotal point in a recitation\nwe may be met at the threshold with vigorous objections. You will say that\nwe are trying to invent or discover a short-cut from the particular to the general\nnotion.\nYou inform us that induction demands of us a study of individuals\none by one, before comparing and deriving the general notion. Are we not\ndoing that ? Our method will show that we are. If we were to say that a\ntype is both particular and general, then we have thrown into confusion our\nwhole inductive plan.\nAccording to Dr. McMurry, of the Illinois State Normal School, the study\nof a type is a short-cut toward a general truth, but he adds:\n\n\"It is a process\n\nwhich the trained scientific, as well as the uncultured, mind inevitably takes.\"\n\nA child first makes the acquaintance of its own father thru a multitude\nmany sides of his character. A\n\nof successive daily experiences, revealing\nlittle\n\nlater, in\n\nmeeting other fathers in the neighborhood, he is inclined to\n\nproject this famihar notion of his\ncharacters.\n\nown father into those of other fatherly\n\nCertain it is that he does not make a second, third, and fourth\n\nelaborate study of neighboring fathers, and then sit down and patiently\ncompare them in order to discover the type-idea. It has been our observation\nthat after No. i has been thoroly studied (that is, the child can hear it, see it,\n\nwrite it, and sing it from various pitch attitudes), that after he knows it thru\n\nmany varied experiences and relationships, even as he knows his own father,\nhe has no trouble in treating similar exercises, which may start from the third\nIt is not, we will add, necessary to compare the\nmovement from the third and fifth degree to discover the type-idea. The\npupil will project his experiences upon the first degree of this scale into the\n\nor fifth of the scale, etc.\n\nother degrees, just as the scientist, in collecting his data for later ultimate\n\ncomparisons and conclusions, projects his previous experience into every new\nexperiment, thus avoiding errors and adding to his observations by a constant\nreference to previous knowledge.\n\nThe botanist who studies, for example, the pubescence of a\ndetermine\n\nits\n\nrelation to the Hfe-history of the plant,\n\nto his final conclusions, comparing that as\n\nplant, to\n\nmoves up gradually\n\nfound in each new specimen, in\n\npart at least, with the average of his previous data.\n\nWe have noted by actual\n\nexperience, that after giving a careful study to each of these nine type-forms\nof movements, the pupil has been given power to move or think tones from\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n666\n\n[Musk\n\nany staff degree, and we have further noted that children do not have a clear\nidea of how music sounds as it appears on paper, unless their attention has\n\nbeen called by comparisons to the differences and similarity of things, and\nthese have been distinctly marked.\n\nYou will notice that, instead of spreading our attention over a multitude\nwe have picked out a few important centers; around these we\n\nof excuses,\n\nwould gather other facts\ntype to its environrnent\n\n;\n\nthen we trace out the causal relations of the central\nand, finally, we discover, by comparing it with other\n\n;\n\nmovements, as formed on different degrees of the scale, that it is a representative of a law which repeats itself in other cases.\n\nWith type-forms as the pivotal point in a lesson, aimless teaching will\nWe would have them stand at the entrance of each important\n\nbe avoided.\n\navenue to the temple of music, that of tone direction, tone relation, scale\n\nThey are to be, as Dr. McMurry has said, a short-cut\n\nrelation, and rhythm.\n\nm the inductive thought-movement from particular to general—a short-cut\nthat both children and scientific thinkers ahke pursue.\n\nThe well-chosen type is a combination of the particular and the general,\nthe graphic elements of the concrete being mingled with the striking features\n\nTo disengage this general notion and bring it clearly\n\nof the general notion.\n\ninto the light, a comparison of several similar objects with the type is necessary.\n\nThis is the natural and necessary method of abbreviating the inductive process\nwithout confusion\n\n;\n\ntherefore, the type combines the two fundamental elements\n\nof all clear thinking:\n\nfirst,\n\nthe concrete basis, and, second, the outline or\n\nindex of a general truth.\nIt\n\nbehooves us, therefore, in outlining our plan of battle, that we know\n\nthe strength and weakness of our class,\n\nand then select a strategic point (a\n\nlesson unit) and, with a definite aim to our lesson, concentrate our full force\n\nupon it.\n\nNot only must our school-work be educational, but at the same\n\ntime musical and delightful, cultivating within the child a spiritual power and\n\na power to do\n\n—powers that are\n\nto remain with the child, for his service, thru\n\nlife.\n\nIn our combined efforts toward the successful carrying out of our work,\n\nwe must not fear to probe our methods for faults. We generally find them\nwhen we probe deeply enough. Let us turn the fiercest search-light upon all\nof our darling ideas (even type-studies), criticising others keenly, ourselves\nseverely, even savagely.\n\nhave been wrong;\n\nif so,\n\nPerhaps, in presenting what we have to say, we might\nwe are not afraid to change or to admit it.\n\nDISCUSSION\nW. A. Putt, supervisor of music, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n—To my mind, the most impor-\n\ntant feature of Mr. Aiken's paper is his emphasis on individual work.\n\nI believe this to\n\nbe the solution of the problem of sight-reading in the public schools.\n\nConcerted work\n\nis not a good criterion of the sight-reading\n\nwork in a schoolroom.\n\nI have often wondered\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STUDY OF MUSIC\n\n667\n\nwhat the result would be if we were to teach literary reading as we often attempt to teach\nWere we to teach reading in concert, as the only means of attaining\nproficiency in literary reading, I believe results would be quite similar to those obtained\nby teaching music-reading in this manner. Mr. Aiken's percentage of proficiency as\nChildren\napplied to Cincinnati would apply, with equal force, to the Cleveland schools.\nare excellent imitators, and they soon learn to lean upon the leaders, and that which\noften passes for good work in the schoolroom is really the actual work of a few proficient\npupils.\nWere the child to be required to do individual work from the time he enters\nschool until he graduates from the eighth grade, and were an accurate record kept of\neach individual pupil's work along reading lines, I believe that the reading problem would\nbe solved. In the Cleveland schools we attempt to keep such a record by monthly examimusic-reading.\n\nThe record of each individual child is preserved.\n\nnations in music-reading.\n\nNot all\n\nchildren are required to sing alone, because of the fact that occasionally pupils are found\n\nwho seem to be tone-deaf.\n\nFortunately, the percentage of such children is very small.\n\nIf individual work is properly conducted, no child need be put in an embarrassing position.\n\nThe music-reading problem will not be solved until the value of individual work is fully\nrecognized.\n\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON WHAT RESULTS SHOULD BE OBTAINED\nIN THE STUDY OF MUSIC IN THE EIGHT GRADES OF THE\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS\n•\n\nPHILIP\n\nC.\n\nHAYDEN, CHAIRMAN, KEOKUK, IOWA\n\nThe committee presents, herewith,\n\na brief statement of the\n\namount of technical\n\nmusical knowledge which should be acquired by the normal child in the grades.\n\nThe course should be enriched in various ways, in accordance with the judgment of\nthe individual supervisors, but at least this standard should be reached in the study of\nthe elements of music.\n\nTo avoid confusion, it should be understood that the quarter note is considered the\nbeat-note in this statement.\nFirst grade.\n\n—Songs by\n\nrote.\n\nWithout any sort of representation, develop sense of\n\ntonality and rhythm thru the use of melodic phrases sung with sol-fa syllables and with\n\nwords.\n\nLater in the year, add to this for eye-training the use of the staff with notes to\n\nrepresent melodies, with the keynote in different\n\npositions\n\non the staff.\n\nRote-singing\n\nshould be the most important feature of the year's work.\n\n—\n\nSecond year. Rote-song work should be prominent thruout the year. Review the\nwork of the first year. Individual and class drill in singing melodic phrases by syllables\nand words for dictation. The class should acquire great proficiency in this dictation work.\nStaff work in different keys'' for eye-training.\nReading simple exercises from the musicbook.\n\n—\n\nThird grade. Rote-singing. Review all previous work in staff drill and dictation.\nPromote eye-training by a study of staff by lines and spaces in all keys. 3 Individual\nproficiency in perception of the value of the staff degrees, as representing the tones of the\nscale,\n\nshould be attained.\n\nReview the first section of the music-book quickly, and when\n\ndoing so, take up the two-tones-to-one-beat movement, 2 and practice until all can sing two\ntones to one beat from the notes.\n\nSight-singing and rhythm practice.\n\nSpecial attention\n\nshould be given to the development of the sense of rhythm these first three years.\n\nFourth year.\n\n—The end of the fourth grade should find the children able\n\nto read simple\n\nMr. A. J. Gantvoort objects to the use of more than one key during the first two years, and would use\nonly part of the keys during the third and fourth years.\n«\n\n»\n\nMr. Gantvoort would have this read \" three tones to one beat.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n668\n\nmusic at sight in any major key.\n\n[Music\n\nThey should be able to sing sharp 4, sharp 5, sharp 2,\n\nand sharp 3, and flat 7. They should be able to sing exercises in 2-4, 3-4, and 4-4 measure,\nand to sing readily groups of tones represented by the dotted quarter and eighth notes.\nThey should also know the names of the notes, the pitch-names, and the degrees of the\nstaff representing the various degrees of pitch.\n\nThe ability to read music should be utilized\n\nby the singing of a large number of songs, wholly or partly at sight, and they should be\nable to sing suitable two-part songs.\n\nFifth grade.\n\n—At the end of the\n\nfifth\n\ngrade the class should be able to sing all the\n\nsharps and flat 7 from the tone above, and some of the flats from the tone below. In\nrhythm, they should be able to sing at sight exercises containing the dotted eighth and\nsixteenth*\n\nThey\nThey should be able to sing two-part\n\nand the simple forms of 6-8 measure with two beats to a measure.^\n\nshould be able to name the keys from the signature.\nexercises at sight.\n\n—\n\nSixth grade. The class should become familiar with all the chromatics, both sharps\nand flats, and be able to apply syllables to any melody they have in mind, from memory.\nThey should use melodies and exercises in the minor mode and be able to sing the different\nforms of the minor scales. They should begin three-part singing. They should begin\nwriting the signatures of the major scales from memory.\nIn rhythm, they should study\nall the forms found in 6-8 measure, two beats to a measure.\nSimple songs should be sung\nat sight without the use of the syllables.\n\n—The\n\nclass should use chromatics with facility.\nThey should sing\nThey should become familiar with the different forms of the minor\nscales and their relation to the major scales.\nThey should be able to write the major\n\nSeventh grade.\n\nreadily in three parts.\n\nscales with their signatures.\n\nIn rhythm, they should be able to read readily all the forms\n\nfound in 6-8 measure, two beats to a measure, and to sing four tones to a beat, and should\nstudy syncopation.\n\nEighth grade.\n\n—The\n\nclass should become thoroly familiar with the different forms of\n\nthe minor scales, and be able to write their signatures and the varying uses of the chromatic\n\ntones as they indicate a passing change or modulation.\nreadily sing four tones to one beat and syncopation.\n\nIn rhythm work, they should\n\nThey should be so familiar with the\n\ndifferent forms of rhythm that the groups of notes give an immediate knowledge of the\nrhythm represented, whether it be two, three, or four tones to a beat, the unequally divided\nbeat, both tones having two beats; the unequally divided beat, both tones having one\n\nbeat,3 or syncopation.\n\nBass staff studied.\n\nIn all grades the voices of the children should be light in quaUty, smooth, and free\n\nfrom harshness.\n\nAll singing should be intelligent, with good phrasing and proper attention\n\nIt should be remembered that good singing is one aim of\nmusic in the schools, and that love of song, and the desire to express one's self in song,\n\nto the sentiment of the words.\n\nshould result from the study.\n(Signed)\n\nPhilip C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa, Chairman:\nE. B. BiRGE, Indianapolis, Ind.;\n\nH. M. Butler, Newport, Ky.;\nEsTELLE Carpenter, San Francisco, Cal.;\nJulia E. Crane, Potsdam, N. Y.;\n\nt\n\nB. C. Davis, Atlanta, Ga.;\nC. A. Fullerton, Cedar Falls, Iowa;\n\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, Ohio;\nCommittee.\n»\n\nMr. Gantvoort would have this read dotted quarter and eighth.\n\n•\n\nMr. Birge would defer 6-8 measure, two beats to the measure, until the Sixth grade.\n\n»\n\nFxpressed in terms of representation notes, this would read, eighth notes, triplets (and 6-8 measure,\n\ntwo beats to a measure), sixteenth notes, dotted quarter and eighth, dotted eighth and sixteenth notes.\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday Afternoon, July 5, 1905\nThe department met in Library Hall, Asbury Park, at 2:30 p. m., and was called to\nwho introduced the president,\n\norder by Vice-President H. B. Brown, Valparaiso, Ind.,\n\nWilliam C. Stevenson, Decatur, 111,\n\nMr. Stevenson then delivered the president's annual\n\naddress, taking for his subject \"The Qualifications of Commercial Teachers.\"\n\nThis was followed by a paper on \"The Essentials of a Proper Education for the\n\nAverage Business Man,\" by John Brisben Walker, editor of the Cosmopolitan magazine.\n\nAt the conclusion of the paper, a vote of thanks was extended to Mr. Walker for the\naddress.\n\nThe paper was discussed by R. U. Conger, of the Sheldon School, New York, and\nDr. H. M. Rowe, Baltimore, Md.\n\nThe\n\nnext topic,\n\n\"The\n\nScience Work of a Four- Year Commercial Course,\"\n\nwas\n\npresented by Allan Davis, principal of the Business High School, Washington, D. C.\n\nThe paper was discussed by D. W. Springer, of the Ann Arbor High School.\nThe last paper of the session. \"The Study of Local Industries and Trade,\" was\npresented by John L. Tildsley, of the High School of Commerce, New York city. The\nsubject was discussed by William McAndrew, principal of the Girls' Technical High\nSchool, New York city.\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nON NOMINATIONS\nD. W. Springer, of Michigan.\nEnos Spencer, of Kentucky.\nHarlow S. Person, of New Hampshire.\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\nCheesman A. Herrick, of Pennsylvania.\nJohn L. Tildsley, of New York.\nTempleton P. Twiggs, of Michigan.\n\nThe department adjourned until Thursday morning, July 6.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday Morning, July 6\nThe meeting was called to order by President Stevenson at 9:30 A. m. The topic,\n\" The Value of Government Publications to Teachers of Commerce in Secondary Schools\nand Colleges,\" was introduced for general discussion, in which the following named took\npart: Edward D. Jones, of the University of Michigan; Allan Davis, of the Business\nHigh School, Washington, D. C; Mr. True, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C; and W. J. Kinsley, of New York.\n\"The Essential Elements of Study in a University Course in Commerce, from the\nView-Point of the University of Michigan,\" was the subject of the next paper, by Edward\nD. Jones, director of the course in higher commercial education, University of Michigan.\nHarlow S. Person, secretary of the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance,\nDartmouth College, presented a paper on the same subject from the view-point of Dart669\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n670\n\n[Business\n\nmouth College. Mr. James T. Young also spoke on the same subject, from the viewpoint of the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, of Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Results of the Organization of Higher Courses in Commerce,\" was presented by\nHarlow S. Person, secretary of the Amos Tuck School of Commerce; and from the experience of the University of Pennsylvania, by James T. Young, director of the Wharton\nSchool of Finance and Commerce, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following:\n\n—\n\nFor President H. M. Rowe, Baltimore, Md.\nFor First Vice-Presiaent James T. Young, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFor Second Vice-President W. H. Wagner, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFor Secretary Horace G. Healey, New York, N. Y.\n\n—\n\n——\n\nOn motion, the nominees of the committee were declared the officers of the department\nfor the coming year.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions next presented its report, as follows:\nThe Department of Business Education of the National Educational Association at\nthe meeting of 1905 wishes to make a record of its appreciation of the excellence of the\nprogram just concluded, and declares its indebtedness to the retiring officers, and to those\nwho have read papers and contributed to the discussions.\ndeclare anew our behef in the desirabihty of three forms of commercial education\nhigher, secondary, and that technical education exemplified by the private business\nschools; and we pledge our aid in developing all of these so that each may better serve\nits proper constituency.\nreaffirm our declaration that commercial instruction in our public-school system\nshould be equal in time requiremmt, and of corresponding educational value, with other\nforms of instruction to which it is placed parallel.\nnote with pleasure the improvements now going on in private commercial schools,\nand we commend the managers of th^se schools for lengthening their courses of study\nand enriching their curricula by introducing new subjects.\nThe meeting just closing should bring clearly to public notice that commercial schools\nare not limited or impoverished in educational opportunity; on the contrary, they are\ndeveloping a broad and necessary field of general education, and this department should\ninsist upon distinctively educational purpose in commercial schools.\nThis department may properly demand a larg-^r recognition of the form of education\nThe commercial element in\nfor which it stands in our general schemes of instruction.\nall our education would do more than prepare for individual success and efficiency; the\nintroduction of such an element would contribute to broad public welfare by preparing\nmen to appreciate the meaning of, and to ent'^r into, our economic citizenship.\ntherefore ask that commercial subjects have a wid^r introduction than heretofore.\nlook upon the preparation of t^ach^rs for commercial schools and departments\nas a pressing problem of commercial education, and we commend this question to our\nhigher schools of commerce and university schools of education, to our normal schools,\nand to further consideration by this body.\nRespectfully submitted,\nTempleton p. Twiggs.\nJohn L. Tildsley.\nChessman A. Herrick.\n\nWe\n\n—\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nThe following resolution was then presented by D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, and\nadopted by the department:\nResolved, That Messrs. Cheesman A. Herrick, William A. Scott, I. O. Crissy, and\nH. M. Rowe be appointed a committee, with power to add to their number as they may\ndesire, for the purpose of considering the question of \"The Preparation of Commercial\n\nTeachers.\"\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nJohn Alfred White, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUALIFICATIONS OF COMMERCIAL TEACHERS\n\n671\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nQUALIFICATIONS OF COMMERCIAL TEACHERS\nWILLIAM C. STEVENSON, DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND FINANCE,\nTHE JAMES MILLIKIN UNIVERSITY, DECATUR, ILL.\n\nTime was when the quaHfications of the commercial teacher were spoken\nof in educational circles with bated breath\n\nand in tones suggestive of fearful\n\nThose were days when commercial teaching was practically undeveloped, and the teacher of commerce was the possessor of a single idea, and that\nwas ensconced in the mazy recesses of a half -awakened brain.\nsighs.\n\nTwenty years or more have seen the development of a new idea in education.\n\nIts growth,\n\nalong with technical education and practical education of\n\nvarious kinds, was nurtured by the hard horse-sense of the common people.\n\nLike the physician with his many remedies, the commercial teacher has never\n\nTo train cap-\n\nbeen found wanting in his wiUingness to serve the people.\n\n—for a consideration—has gradually grown to be as\n\ntains of industry\n\nprofit-\n\nable as other lines of teaching, and indications point to a demand so much\ngreater than the supply that it is only a question of a few years when com-\n\nmercial teachers of the various grades will receive a larger compensation than\nis possible\n\nin other departments of educational work.\n\nWith the inauguration of the commercial high school and the university\nschools of commerce, the standing, educationally, of commercial teachers\n\nadvanced as rapidly as did the recognition of the scientific teachers at the close\nof the long contest with the classicists.\n\nToday the general public and a\n\nmajority of the educational leaders of the world recognize that culture, sweetness and light may be developed by a course of study that trains the student to\n\nhold his own in the world of business endeavor, as well as by the older forms\nof education.\n\nTo draw out the innate powers of thought, to develop individu-\n\naHty, to produce men of abihty as well as men of character, is no less possible\nfor the teacher of commerce than for the teacher of Greek.\n\nexceptions, \"sweetness\n\nand Hght\" do not\n\nWith a very few\n\nflourish in the soil of poverty.\n\nFinancial independence, the assurance of a livehhood, is most conducive to\nthe development of the best type of citizenship,\n\nand furnishes the necessary\n\nleisure for the growth of mind and soul.\n\nThe increasing prestige of mercantile pursuits,\ncommercial teachers at excellent\n\nsalaries,\n\nthe large\n\ndemands\n\nfor\n\nthe recent recognition by high\n\neducational authority of the educational value of business training, the estab-\n\nlishment of two higher forms of scientific commercial schools, are all evidences\nof an emergency that confronts the commercial teachers of today and tomor-\n\nrow.\n\nNew conditions and opportunities require of commercial teachers a\n\nlarger mental and professional equipment.\n\nWe shall be able to hold our own\n\nonly by the methods followed by the advocates of natural science in the long\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n672\n\ncontention with the forces of intrenched conservatism.\n\n[Business\n\nThey strove zeal-\n\nously and unremittingly to make themselves fit exponents of scientific truth,\n\nand to be in all points equal in manhood, efficiency, teaching power, and\nbreadth of scholarship to their gracious friends, the advocates of the classics.\n\nBut be it remembered that, to acquire those results, they at no time found it\nnecessary to leave their own field of labor.\n\nAnd it is the boast of scientists\n\ntoday that their truth, obtained thru scientific methods, is no less the truth;\nthat in teaching power, and in the development of a true manhood, and even\nin culture they are not excelled by the more ancient learning.\n\nHaving stood\n\nthe tests of the years, science today is accepted at its own estimate; and, side\n\nby side with the classics, the world has almost forgotten Herbert Spencer,\nthe exponent of the new education, and the great victory made possible by\nhis leadership.\n\nBy following the precedent set by the second great division\nit is possible that scientific commercial education may\n\nof educational work,\n\nbecome recognized as the third division of the educational trinity. There\ncan be no doubt that the number of students engaged in the study of commercial education approximates the number studying the classical or scientific foundations.\nTo continue to merit the pubHc confidence and meet the\npublic demand, it is plainly imperative that commercial teachers must receive\nan educational preparation, for their important work, equivalent to that\ndemanded of teachers of the classical and scientific foundations.\nThat commercial education cannot be included in the classics or the natural\nsciences determines the fact that commercial teachers cannot be trained\n\nwholly in or by either of them.\nteachers\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nIn the thoro training of the commercial\n\nbusiness colleges,\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nhigh schools and colleges and\n\nuniversities, and in state supervision and regulation of that training, rests the\n\nhope of\n\ntheir permanency\n\nand the public recognition of\n\ntheir\n\neducational\n\nefficiency and equality.\n\nLet us examine the teachers in commercial schools and determine their\nfitness to teach.\n\nA large majority of the teachers in the business colleges\n\npoint to a diploma received for a four- to ten-months' course in a business\ncollege as their license to teach.\n\nTeachers of commerce and other subjects\n\nin the courses in commerce in our high schools and universities have usually\n\nhad training of the same grade as the institutions in which they are employed.\nYet the training which they have received is only an indirect training for commercial teaching of high-school or university grade.\n\nThe point of view, the\ncommon subjects,\n\ntastes, ends, and aims of life, and the general treatment of\n\nmust necessarily be very different in a high school or college having the usual\na department of commerce in a high school or college,\nwhere the utilitarian end is to all intents and purposes paramount. So long\nas commercial high schools or university courses in commerce have as their\ndirective forces men trained in schools of diametrically opposite ends and\n\nliterary bent, and\n\naims, so long will they be commercial schools in name only.\n\nBy such the\n\npublic is not deceived; nor is it astonished when a teacher of ancient languages\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nis\n\nQUALIFICATIONS OF COMMERCIAL TEACHERS\n\n673\n\nplaced on the salary list of the commercial school until a vacancy is found\n\nin the classical school.\n\nWho can deny that the reverse condition would be\n\nequally wrong ?\n\nTrained commercial teachers for the secondary and higher schools of\n\ncommerce is not only a pressing need of our time, but is entirely possible of\nrealization.\nThe American Commercial Schools Institution now being considered by the independent business schools is a splendid conception, and\nwill make the continuance of those schools a possibility.\n\nThe supervision of\n\nthe American Commercial Schools Institution over elementary commercial\ntraining will eliminate the fake business colleges\n\nand the confidence man\n\nwho poses as a business educator.\nIt\n\nmay readily be seen that the conditions existing with respect to the train-\n\ning of commercial teachers for the high schools and colleges do not exist to\nthe same extent in any other educational field.\n\nIt is not sufficient for a com-\n\nmercial teacher in a high school, for example, to have completed the high-\n\nand then graduate from the college course in\ncommerce, altho this would give him a greatly improved mental and professional equipment, and would also give a corps of commercial teachers worthy\nof the name.\nThe education from high school, then from college, may appear\nschool course in commerce,\n\nto\n\nbe a sufficient preparation for teaching in the classical or scientific high\n\nBut the commercial teacher who today achieves the\nmust not only\ngraduate from the university school of commerce, but must know business\nat first hand.\nTo some extent, at least, he must be a business man, for the\nsame reason that the faculty of the law and medical schools is made up, not\nonly of the graduates of law and medical schools, but of men who have\npracticed their profession to some extent in the field of life.\nschools or colleges.\n\ngreatest success, and in the future will be most sought after,\n\nIn addition, the commercial teacher of the high school or college should\n\nhave studied those professional subjects bearing upon teaching and the laws\nof\n\nhuman thought.\n\nEvery course in a college in commerce should permit\n\nelectives of a pedagogical and professional nature for prospective teachers of\n\ncommerce in the high school or college.\n\nWithout training of this character,\n\ncommercial teachers are blind to the instincts, the passions, the motives, and\nto\n\nall\n\nthat psychological\n\ninvestigation\n\nreveals to\n\nthe executive\n\nand the\n\nteacher.\n\nTravel is a great teacher of teachers, and to none is it more necessary than\nto the commercial teacher.\nto all parts of the\n\nThe Japanese and the Germans send their youths\n\nworld to be educated by travel, by contact with strange\n\npeoples in strange lands; and the result is modern commercial Germany, and\n\nJapan the wonderful. To visit industrial establishments of all kinds; to\nfind out their work and ways of working; to teach the principles of ethics\nfor use, where ethics is most needed; to teach the use, the getting, and the\npower of money; to pour a subtle oil on the machinery of life; to prove the\nfallacy of Kipling's lines,\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n674\n\n[Business\n\nAnd little folk of little soul\nRise up to buy and sell;\n\nto be the sociologist of the world's business\n\n—these are a few\n\nof the possibilities\n\nand qualifications of the commercial teacher.\n\nWHAT SHOULD BE THE EDUCATION OF A BUSINESS MAN?\nJOHN BRISBEN WALKER, EDITOR OF THE \"COSMOPOLITAN\" MAGAZINE,\nIRVINGTON, N. Y.\nIf,\n\nat the beginning of the twentieth century, education does not accom-\n\nplish that which may reasonably be expected of it, the indifferent results must\n\nbe ascribed chiefly to the failure to determine clearly in advance the purposes\nfor which studies are to be pursued.\n\nWhile our great schools are organized\n\nin the most complete way for instruction and administration, I\n\nhave found,\n\nby personal examination covering nearly a dozen of our leading universities,\nthat there exists no board or commission of disinterested men whose duty it\nis to determine what education should be.\nOne can scarcely expect that the influential professors of Latin and Greek,\nwhose dignity has come down thru three hundred years, will vote to aboHsh\ntheir own offices.\nYet to them has been largely committed the task of determining the all-important and fundamental question: ''What is education?\"\nUntil some university appoints a commission of disinterested scholars and\n\nmen of wide attainments to consider in formal session this subject, which is\npreliminary to true education, we may expect prejudice and the customs of\nthe ancient schools still to hold the chief sway.\n\nIn attempting, therefore, to outHne what should be the education of the\nmodern man who has chosen the business world for his career, I have but\nlittle to guide me.\nThe libraries show that small attention has been given to\nthe subject; I base my conclusions upon an experience of thirty-five years in\nassociation with, or in handling, men^young and old, in pubhshing, manufacturing, and in general business\nto determine the things which most\ncontribute to the moral and material successes in the business world.\n\n—\n\nThe time allotted any man in which to seek an education in the schools\nis all\n\ntoo short.\n\nNo matter whether he has at his disposal two years, four\n\nyears, or six years, all are insufficient to cover the field of important knowl-\n\nedge.\n\nIt therefore\n\nbecomes essential to arrange with the utmost precision\nBut before this can be done so\n\nthe order for the period of time available.\n\nthat the result will be without waste, the student\ndo I hope to obtain by education ? \"\n\nmust determine: \"What\n\nThe answer to this must embrace certain things which apply to all students.\nEvery man seeks:\n\nfirst,\n\nhappiness\n\n—not enjoyment merely, not pleasure, but\n—a condition\n\nthat deeper feHcity which can be founded only upon right Hving\n\nof the soul which is given out as well to those around about us; secondly, the\ntools with which to accomplish business results.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE EDUCATION OF A BUSINESS MAN\n\nDepartment]\n\nIt goes\n\n675\n\n—that to a\n—the more certain\n\nwithout saying that the nearer one comes to truth\n\nclear understanding of the conditions\n\nwhich surround us\n\nis,\n\nto achieve happiness, the more certain to accompHsh results.\n\nis he\n\nIf the youth starts out in a fog of deception, his every effort must be ham-\n\npered.\n\nIf\n\nhe comprehends but dimly the causes at work about him, he is\n\nlikely to deceive himself and to deceive others.\n\nTherefore, in the acquisitoin of knowledge comes first and fundamentally\nsome comprehension of the universe. As a preliminary and an accompaniment to business training there should be brief studies of the known facts,\nfirst\n\nconcerning the universe itself, and, secondly, of our own globe.\n\nIf one\n\nstarts in ignorance of things which concern all life, there will be endless grop-\n\nHaving some knowledge of the world in which he exists\nupon which he lives geology he must next\nknow something of the things round about him botany and chemistry.\nThen comes the even more necessary knowledge concerning his own body\nphysiology; health stands first and foremost in human acquisitions, and\ning in the dark.\n\nastronomy\n\n—and\n\n—\n—\n\nof the globe\n\nhealth will not last long without knowledge.\nof his own mind\n\n—\n\n—\n\nLastly some understanding\n\npsychology.\n\nDo not say that these are the advanced studies of the university, and that\nThey must\nis no opportunity for them in a short business course.\nbecome a part of every education, because they are all-important, all-necessary.\nWithout them the mind of the business man must ever remain confused.\nThey enable one to comprehend; they give the power to see. The time will\nthere\n\nsoon be here when they will be recognized as essentials in every education\nas prehminary to all right thinking.\nto\n\n—\n\nTo know where we are upon what;\n\nhave some comprehension of the phenomena going on round about us;\n\nto understand our own bodies, and so preserve that health which nine scholars\n\nout of ten now sacrifice thru ignorance; to have some insight into our own\n\nmental processes, and the workings of the minds of those with whom we come\n\n—\n\nthis knowledge belongs at the beginning of all true education,\nand its assimilation should move concurrently thru all courses.\n\ninto contact\n\nAnd parallel to this must be kept a scientific study of human happiness.\nWhat is true happiness, and how is it to be attained for one's self and for\none's neighbor ?\n\nIn acquiring health and vigor, in aiding good government,\n\nin wise business planning, in perfected organization, in economic production ?\n\nThese things concern the problems of happiness, and should be constituent\nparts of all education.\nis\n\nrecognized,\n\nWhen once their true place of essential prehminaries\n\nhumanity\n\nwill\n\nadvance with extraordinary\n\nstrides.\n\nThese\n\nstudies do not mean the use of such numerous text-books as are now employed\n\nbut of simply written little volumes from such really great\nminds as have that grasp, that power of bird's-eye view, which enables them\nin our colleges,\n\nto give\n\nmuch in little; which makes clear the greatest subjects; which in\n\nsimple language, touching only the salient points, conveys that knowledge\n\nwhich so many writers have seemed to delight in making abstruse.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n676\n\n[Burfneu\n\nWe now come to the tools which education furnishes for the accomplishment of life-work. Of these, certain ones are necessary to all. To mention\nthem in the order of their importance\nHow to take that physical exercise necessary to the proper care of the\n\n1.\n\nbody; because if one falls into ill-health, all things else become insignificant.\n2.\n\nA knowledge of one's own language.\n\n3.\n\nAbility to make analysis.\n\n4.\n\nA knowledge of the use of figures.\n\n5.\n\nAn understanding of the principles of classification and organization.\n\nBeyond come the courses of specialization to fit the student for the work\nhe has elected to pursue, and into these it is not necessary to go.\n\nIf,\n\nfor\n\ninstance, he is to become a bookkeeper, he must have already laid the ground-\n\nwork in his study of analyses and of the principles of classification and organiThat bookkeeper is\nfor these underlie all successful accounting.\n\nzation;\n\nalways a failure, except in the humblest work, who is not grounded in these\n\nAnd oh, the pitiful\n\npreliminaries, which are also essential to all education.\nfailures that I have personally witnessed\n\nbeen made successes\n\nif\n\ntheir\n\n—failures that might so easily have\n\nminds had been properly opened\n\nin their\n\npreliminary training.\n\nTake, for instance, the study of analyses. In whatever business a man\nmay find himself, success or failure depends upon the power to analyze the\nproblems which present themselves during every hour, at every turn in life.\nFailing to understand the conditions, he can make no real analysis;\nin his analysis, he goes to meet his problem improperly equipped,\n\nfailing\n\nand only\n\nfortunate accident may save him from disaster.\n\nThe successful business man makes an analysis on paper of every important problem,\n\nbefore venturing\n\nupon\n\naction.\n\nTabulating, with brackets\n\n—following each probable result out\n\nagainst every phase of the undertaking\nto its furthermost hmits\n\n—he reaches a point beyond which he cannot go. He\n\nnow before him a bird's-eye view of the situation.\n\nhas\n\nIf failure\n\ncomes\n\nsubsequently, it will be because of conditions impossible to forsee.\n\nAnd this tablulated analysis must be appUed to the smallest as well as the\nlargest affairs of business life, if one would act upon premises clearly thought\nout.\n\nMuch of what has been given here as essential to the training of business\nmen is known in the schools as \"science.\" Scientific knowledge comes into\nplay in practically every branch of modern business.\nevery\n\nman who would accomplish.\n\nIts lack\n\nhandicaps\n\nTo the manufacturer, in the use of\n\nmaterials; to the merchant, in the intimate knowledge of goods; to the contractor, in carrying out his work to economic advantage;\n\nto the man engaged\n\nin transportation; to the investor, seeking opportunities which will bring him\n\nfortune; and above all to the young clerk, who would advance himself by\nbecoming useful to all these science presents itself as necessary, as indeed\n\n—\n\nit is\n\nto any career which would risef above the most commonplace.\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE EDUCATION OF A BUSINESS MAN\n\nDepartment!\n\n677\n\nKnowledge of one's own language is an important factor in business sucThe study of grammar and rhetoric, of synonyms, and of the best literature, is essential to that choice of words which brings conviction to the\nhearer; to that concise style so necessary in modern correspondence; to that\ncess.\n\nand exact statement so essential to contracts, either oral or written.\nBut beyond his own tongue, no one should waste upon languages, ancient or\nmodern, the precious minutes of the all-too-short a time which he can give to\nclear\n\nThe man seeking a business education is a runner in a race.\n\neducation.\n\nHe\n\nhas but so many seconds to win his goal: and he must keep constantly in\n\nmind the course he has set himself to pursue. If he deviates, he loses.\nModern languages are a thousand times more valuable to the student than\nthe Greek and Latin which for so many centuries were deemed the only\neducation, but to defend which, in this age,\n\nis\n\nto\n\nBut even\n\nbe ridiculous.\n\nFrench and German must be eliminated from the instruction of the young\n\nman who desires a mastery of the essentials.\n\nLanguages may be acquired at\n\nThey are no part of the fundamentals\nof either a business or a hberal education; so wide is now the field which\nany time, by anyone, in spare hours.\n\nmust be covered in other directions.\nIn conclusion, I would urge that above all, before beginning actual studies,\nthere should be a carefully matured, well-thought-out plan for the education\nof each individual.\nleast\n\nThis work is now done in a haphazard way.\n\nBut at\n\na week at the beginning of the school year should be given up to the\n\ncareful consideration of what the young man proposes to accomplish.\nthis time he should not be rushed.\n\nDuring\n\nIt should be a week of quiet thought, and\n\nattendance upon lectures which would show the purposes of the several courses,\n\nand their usefulness and their bearing upon the various employments of life.\nEach student should have, in the preparation of his table of studies, the\npersonal counsel of his professors and instructors.\n\nEach should have pointed\n\nout to him the purposes and advantages of the proposed courses.\n\nNo matter\n\nhow crowded the terms of studies, an entire week is not too much to give to\nthis\n\nprehminary; so all-important is a clear comprehension, in advance, of\n\nwhat the student aims at and proposes to accomplish.\nRunning thruout the course of the business man's education, should be\n\n— lessons ingeniously contrived\n—because an understanding organization\n\ntaught organization\n\nits\n\nto become a part of his\n\nis, after the power and\nknowledge necessary to comprehend things, the secret of all success in business\n\ndaily Hfe\n\nlife.\n\nof\n\nThe keeping of accounts\n\n—the\n\naccounting\n\n—everyone should have some knowledge of\n\nart of fiUng papers, and,\n\nabove all, the making of analyses,\n\nhave to do with that organization which is interwoven with every affair of\nbusiness Hfe.\n\nOne other teaching must run thruout the business course.\ntion fails\n\nThat institu-\n\nwhich does not provide for constant lectures upon \"Integrity, the\n\nFirst Requisite to a Successful Business Career.\"\n\nethics should be discussed:\n\ndifficult situations\n\nEvery part of business\n\nshould be presented, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n678\n\n[Business\n\ntemptations of business life shown up.\n\nBecause these things are neglected,\n\nor imperfectly explained, in our schools\n\nand colleges, thousands of youths\n\nannually wreck themselves upon the sophistries of the business world.\n\nUpon\n\nevery business field lie these wrecks of men, who would very likely have seen\nthe way to honorable fortune had they been instructed in advance concerning\nthe temptations they were to encounter.\n\nA love of truth, and the possession\n\nof a personal integrity above temptation, constitute the highest capital of the\n\nyouth who would seek business success.\nI am aware that there are\n\nmany who think differently.\n\nBut I have fol-\n\nlowed the careers of a thousand men who have sought success by unscrupulous\nways, and have watched their brilliant abiHty go\n\nhonor would have brought prosperity\n\n;\n\ndown to poverty, where\n\nwhile in the case of those dishonorably\n\nsucceeding, fortune was invariably embittered by the contempt both of self\n\nand of neighbor.\n\nEventually, ''respectable\" thieves are always recognized\n\nin every community.\n\nSuch are the requisites of a business education, as they seem to me after a\nI am aware that in\n\nlong and perhaps unusually broad experience in affairs.\n\na measure I am departing from certain accepted standards.\n\nworld\n\nis\n\nBut the business\n\nchanging rapidly, and education must be advanced to meet the\n\nrequirements of the new conditions.\n\nTHE SCIENCE WORK OF A FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE\nALLAN DAVIS, PRINCIPAL OF BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C.\nThat every high-school course, however specialized, should contain within\nelements of a good general education, and that a knowledge of the\nnatural sciences is an essential part of a complete general education, are two\n\nitself the\n\npropositions which will readily gain the assent of all\nthe matter of the American high-school course.\n\nwho have considered\n\nNevertheless, it is probably\n\ntrue that the natural sciences are not given sufficient time or weight in the\n\naverage high school.\n\nLanguage is treated liberally; mathematics has a well-\n\nestablished place; history and its allied studies are not neglected; that group\n\nbusiness\n—manual\n— seldom underrated. But both in time and in organi-\n\nwhich gives character to the course\nerature, the classics\n\ntraining,\n\ntraining, lit-\n\nis\n\nzation there is much to be desired in science.\n\nOne hour a day thruout the four years, or approximately one-fifth of\nthe student's time, is perhaps an allotment which is sufficient for science, and\n\nwhich does not encroach upon the needs of other studies.\n\nThis would permit\n\nelementary biology, combined with the study of commercial products, to be\n\npursued in the first year, followed by chemistry in the second, and physics\nin the third, with a final year of application and review thru the study of\n\nthe scientific phases of typical business organizations.\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE\n\nDepartment]\n\n679\n\nSo far as training and power are concerned, a commercial course in science\nshould not differ materially from the similar work of the ordinary high school.\nIt will teach accurate observation, lead the pupil to experiment with a definite\n\npurpose, teach the art of manipulating apparatus, train the eye and the hand\nto perform their functions skillfully, serve as a course in practical logic both\n\nin induction\n\nand deduction, tend to accuracy and facility in speech and in\n\nabove all, it will create the true scientific attitude in the student,\n\nrecording;\n\nand teach him to suspend judgment until he has obtained proof; it will force\nhim to feel that evidence is better than faith, that he must be judge and\nexaminer rather than advocate.\n\nIn determining the content of a course, its purpose must be primarily\nconsidered.\n\nAs the commercial high school will not,\n\nto\n\nany considerable\n\ndegree, prepare for college, it is freed from the restriction of college-entrance\ntests\n\nand requirements.\n\nIt\n\ndoes not specifically prepare for engineering or\n\nthe professions, and therefore need not speciaHze along these lines.\n\nIt must,\n\non the other hand, make the student broadly intelHgent, so that he may have\ngeneral information upon a variety of matters of practical knowledge, may\n\nknow his limitations and when to consult the specialist.\n\nIt\n\nmust, in other\n\nwords, fit him to be a practical man of affairs rather than a speciahst.\nretically,\n\nTheo-\n\nthe conclusion follows that the whole field of science should be\n\ncovered; practically, that those sciences should be selected which most nearly\n\ncover the\n\nfield.\n\nThe difficulty of such a task, altho great, is measurably\n\nlessened thru the aid afforded by correlation of science with related studies\nof the course.\n\nIn the study of general and commercial geography, which will probably\nbe classed with the historical rather than with the natural-science group. He\n\nan excellent introduction and a powerful aid to the sciences. Geography\nmay be defined as a study of the arts and sciences from the view-point of\nlocation upon the earth.\nWhether it be taught by beginning with the universe\nor with the neighborhood, it gives an idea of those principles of astronomy\nwhich are essential to even an elementary knowledge of man's place in nature,\npoints the way to geology and physiography, and constantly uses data drawn\n\nfrom all the sciences. Therefore, the usual science work of a high school\nwhere geography is taught will receive aid at many points from this subject,\n\nwhich calls upon science for explanations and illustrations.\nPerhaps the best way to approach science in the commercial high school\nis thru the study of commercial products, which should be based\n\ntary biology.\n\nupon elemen-\n\nThis subject does not require any great knowledge of mathe-\n\nmatics; the apparatus required\n\nis\n\nmainly simple and easily obtained; many\n\nof the data can\n\nbe obtained by individual observation outside of regular\n\nschool hours;\n\ndeals largely with\n\nit\n\nphenomena of general interest.\n\nI\n\nam\n\naware that botany and zoology are frequently taught as if their subjectmatter were entirely apart from the ordinary experience of the student, and\nthat the teacher, in too many instances, has been lost in the specialist.\n\nBut\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n68o\n\n[Business\n\nan argument for nothing except improvement. It is both scientific\nand profitable to join the study of the function and structure of the plant with\nthis is\n\nthat of the commercial product derived from it.\n\nFor example, in the case of\n\nthe wood products, one can study the roots, bark, wood, and leaves of the tree,\n\nand proceed directly to the study of oak and pine, and to the methods of sawing,\npreparing, and marketing.\n\nIn fact, a knowledge of the wood as a commercial\n\nproduct is imperfect without a knowledge of the botany of the tree; conversely,\na knowledge of the commercial wood is an excellent aid to the study of the\n\nbotany of the tree.\nIn the second year, after having received some definite training in scientific\n\nmethod, the pupil may begin the study of chemistry.\n\nhim to a new phase of nature.\n\nThis subject introduces\n\nIt continues definite scientific training,\n\nand\n\nleads to the study of commercial and industrial processes as well as of products.\nIt does not require any great knowledge of mathematics and, Kke the first-year\n\nscience,\n\ncan be taught with apparatus which is comparatively inexpensive\n\nboth for class-work and for individual use.\n\nBy the time the student reaches his third year, he has obtained training\nin the careful manipulation of apparatus, has mastered perhaps the elements\n\nof algebra\n\nand geometry, and\n\nexperiments.\n\nis\n\nprepared to perform simple quantitative\n\nBy placing physics in this year, we secure economy of time\n\nand sufficient preparation on the part of the pupil to enable the subject to be\nmastered readily in the four hours a week which are presumably allotted to it.\n\nThruout the course, the relation of theory to practice, of the science to\nthe art, should be constantly emphasized, and, wherever possible, the industrial and\n\ntion.\n\ncommercial application should be used for illustration and explana-\n\nThe\n\nfourth\n\nyear of the high-school\n\ncourse,\n\nhowever,\n\naffords\n\nan\n\nexceptional opportunity for the correlation of science with intelligent study\nof the arts which make modern business possible.\n\nIn every large city, and\n\nin most of the smaller manufacturing towns, it is not difficult to make a scientific\n\nstudy at first hand of manufacturing plants of various kinds.\n\nSimilar\n\ninvestigations can also be carried on by other departments with profit.\n\nFor\n\nexample, the department of bookkeeping and accounting might examine\ninto the bookkeeping of a large electric-power plant,\n\ncompare its methods\n\nwith those of the school bookkeeping class, obtain explanations of its special\n\nbooks and devices for dfl&ce economy, and perhaps originate, with the aid of\na skillful instructor, new methods of business organization. In the department of history and politics, whatever its exact title, the relation of the corporation to the municipality could be considered,\nvital importance relative to public\n\ntions could\n\nbe considered.\n\nand the various questions of\n\nownership and regulation of such institu-\n\nConcurrently, under a\n\ndifi'erent instructor,\n\nthe\n\nsame pupils might study the scientific phases of the plant. Geography\nwould naturally consider its relation to coal and water supply, and the advantage of location. Physical and chemical knowledge would be required at\nalmost every stage of the investigation. Similarly, almost any factory would\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "FOUR-YEAR COMMERCIAL COURSE\n\nDepartment]\n\n68l\n\nbring the student into touch with products studied in the first year of the course,\n\nand require the application of scientific knowledge for the full undertsanding\nof both process and product.\nIt would be mere surplusage to argue the educational value of such training\n\nbefore an association of teachers.\n\nTo one engaged in business its practical\n\nadvantages are equally obvious.\n\nWhile it is true that a man of executive\n\nabiHty and business sense can employ others to do his scientific work for him,\n\nhe will find difficulty in deciding whom to employ without\nsome general knowledge of the subject-matter. Many a man of good judgment in ordinary business affairs has failed because he accepted the word\nit is equally true that\n\nof the promoter as to a venture,\n\nwould have condemned.\n\nwhich an elementary knowledge of science\n\nMoreover, the average man must draw his\n\nown\n\nconclusions in ordinary matters without the aid of the expert, and therefore\n\nneeds a broad, scientific education to fit him for his life-work.\n\nThe same line of reasoning will lead to another important conclusion;\nnamely, that election of subjects in science should not be allowed to such\na degree that the student may obtain but one or two branches in his high-\n\nDisregard of this principle leads many schools to graduate\nwho are one-sided from the development of their likes rather than\ntheir needs, and who have chosen their courses along the lines of least resistance.\nThe remedy lies in permitting students freely to choose a business,\nschool career.\n\npupils\n\nscientific, technical, or academic course, but in so grouping within each course\n\nthat the graduate will be educated fully, rather than pampered into an unsym-\n\nmetrical development.\n\nProvision can be made for the intensive training of\n\nthe bright boy or girl without interfering with the general plan of the course\nfor a broad, scientific education.\n\nLaboratory equipment must be given careful attention in order to secure\nthe best results.\n\nIn addition to the usual fittings and apparatus, every com-\n\nmercial school should be supplied with a museum exhibit of products and\nprocesses,\n\nand this can best be arranged by the instructor in science.\n\nThe\n\nfirst-year exhibit, which should be arranged in the order of the course, would\n\nbe limited chiefly to natural products\n\n—woods,\n\nfibers, oils, cereals, etc.\n\nAn\n\nexhibit of products and processes would form a useful and interesting adjunct\nto chemistry.\n\nIn fact, the chemical storeroom, if systematized, might well be\n\nmade a part of the exhibit.\n\nIn physics it is even possible to show historically\n\nthe development of such machines as the steam engine and the dynamo, altho\nthe primary purpose should be educational rather than historical.\nI am aware of the enormous expenditure of time, labor, and selective\npower which such a museum requires; but, on the other hand, I beheve\n\nthat the return more than warrants the outlay.\nPupils are anxious to give\nboth specimens and labor, the pubHc and school officials are appreciative, and\n\nmuseums and industrial concerns are generally wiUing to contribute.\nThat there should be the closest and most carefully wrought-out adaptation\nof each\n\ndepartment to every other in the school will be admitted.\n\nAmong\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n682\n\nthe various science departments,\nclose.\n\nthis\n\nrelationship\n\n[Business\n\nshould be particularly-\n\nIt is equally true that this interrelation should extend from the depart-\n\nments to the teachers.\n\nIt is fatal to success to have the teacher of composition\n\nand literature ignorant of the aims of the department of technical business\ntraining, or,\n\nworse yet, hostile to anything that partakes of the nature of\n\nutilitarian education.\n\nThe scien,ce teacher should see clearly the relation\nhe should be acquainted with the\n\nof his subject to the complete course;\n\nstandards and methods of other departments, and should be in sympathy\n\nwith the aims and ideals of the school.\n\nOn the other hand, it is his duty to\n\nsee that due consideration and weight are given to science, and that the sciefttific\nside of commercial education is recognized by the school, and presented fully\n\nand clearly to every student.\n\nTHE STUDY OF LOCAL INDUSTRY AND TRADE\nJOHN L. TILDSLEY, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK CITY\nThere are three questions which naturally suggest themselves to you when\n(i) What is meant by \"the study of local industry\n\nthis subject is announced:\n\nand trade?\"\n\n(2)\n\nWhy should the subject be studied?\n\nof\n\n(3)\n\nWhat is the\n\nTo answer these three questions is the purpose\n\nproper method of study?\n\nmy paper.\n\nThe first question, then, is: What is meant by \" the study of local industry\nand trade \" ? One man's conception is that of a series of observations starting\nfrom the district where the student lives, and working out in widening circles\nobserved. With him the field work and the\ntill the whole city has been\nreport are all-important.\n\nAnother man understands by the subject a series of lectures by men who\n\nhave been successful in various industrial enterprises, and who will tell the\nstudents why they were successful, and what the qualifications for success\nin that particular field are.\n\nOne man makes it a finishing subject.\n\nHe therefore places the study in\n\nand makes it a laboratory in which is\napplied and tested all the knowledge that has been gained from all other\nthe last year of a four-year course,\n\nsubjects during the previous years of school life.\n\nAnother man considers the study, not as a means of testing previous\n\nknowledge and the understanding of principles learned, but rather as a means\nThis\nof learning how to acquire knowledge and how to formulate principles.\n\nman places the subject early in the course and makes it introductory to the\nsystematic study of the social sciences.\n\nWith this arrangement of the study\n\nthe writer is most in sympathy, tho he recognizes the great advantages of the\nsubject as a testing-ground.\n\nBut, as in the case of most subjects of study, the question of what this\n\nstudy comprises depends,\n\nfirst,\n\nupon\n\nthe\n\naim\n\nof the\n\ncourse, and, second,\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nSTUDY OF LOCAL INDUSTRY AND TRADE\n\nDepartment]\n\n683\n\nupon the method of study adopted. People will assent to the general proposition that the content and scope of any study are dependent upon the aim and\nmethod adopted; and yet in any concrete case they wish to discuss content;\nthey wish to draw up a syllabus of the subject before they have made up their\nminds as to aim and method.\nThe consideration of what the subject is must be postponed, therefore,\nuntil after we have decided what is to be the aim until we have answered that\nquestion which many of you are perhaps asking: Why should we add to the\naheady overloaded curriculum a new subject ? What should we gain by it ?\n;\n\nEspecially,\n\nwhy should we add another of those subjects which are today\n\nthe bane of commercial education, informational rather than disciplinary\nsubjects ?\n\nMy first reason for teaching local industry and trade in our schools is a\nvery practical one; namely, that our students are leaving our schools with so\nlittle understanding of,\n\noften with so little interest iA, local conditions.\n\nWhen\n\nwe send out boys who know practically nothing of the way in which the city\nmakes its living:, who understand little of the workings of the city government,\nand of the close connection between the city government and the kind of\nliving the average citizen makes,\n\nwe are certainly not turning out the right\n\nwhich to make \"our masters.\"\n\nstuff of\n\nThere should therefore be in the\n\nschools of our large cities a study of local industry and trade, and in this course\n\nshould be included a study of the administration of the city, in order that the\ncitizen may say with knowledge:\n\n\"I am a citizen of no mean city.\"\n\nIn the small town every schoolboy is a student of local industry and of\nlocal government.\n\nHe knows the chief industry of the town is machine prod-\n\nucts; for has he not often carried his father's dinner to the shop, and has he\n\nnot seen the great pumps put together as he lingered after the one o'clock\n\nHe knows about aldermen; for the alderman's son is in his class at\nHe knows about taxes he could not not have a new suit this week\nthe taxes had to be paid.\nHe knows the taxes were high this year, and that\n\nwhistle ?\nschool.\n\n;\n\nhis father will therefore vote the other ticket next April, to see if the other\n\nparty will not keep the taxes down.\n\nThe boy in the large city knows that his father is a machinist and works\ndowntown somewhere; but what a machinist does he has no idea of, since he\nhas never been in a machine shop.\noffice;\n\nThe rent is raised\n\nto guess.\nit is\n\nHis uncle works in the comptroller's\n\nbut where that is, and what the comptroller does, he never even tries\n;\n\nthe agent says it is high taxes\n\n;\n\nthe janitor says\n\nbecause of the new subway station at the corner; but which is right he\n\ndoes not know; anyway, his father does not pay taxes; the owner of the flat\ndoes that.\n\nJerome\n\n;\n\nHe has heard of some city officers\n\n—\n\nyes, of District\n\nAttorney\n\nhe is the man who raids gambhng-houses.\n\nYou who have taught in our large cities know this type of boy.\n\nHe is\n\nnot a dull boy; but the city is so big; there is no manufacturing estabHshment\nwithin a mile of his house; the city offices are miles away.\n\nBy and by he is\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n684\n\ngoing into business.\n\n[Business\n\nJust what business is, and into what kind he is going, he\n\nknows not.\n\nWe hear much of the quickness, of the inteUigence of the city boy.\n\nAlong\n\ncertain Hues it is true, but in many ways the magnitude of city activities is\n\ncrushing, and he does not begin to touch Hfe at so many points as does the\nboy of the small town. His power to observe ^nd his power to reason are\nnot so well developed. For all such boys the study of local industry and\ntrade, combined with the study of local administration, suppHes the means by\nwhich the city boy may have an even start with the town boy as a good citizen.\nWe come now to the second and more important aim of this course, its\n\npurely educational or disciphnary aim.\n\nIt is because of its disciphnary value\n\nthat we have placed this study in the first year of the High School of Commerce.\n\nThe boy comes to us from the grammar school information-stuffed. Too\noften he goes from us merely stuffed still more.\nHe may know what has been\ntold him, but seldom does he know how to find out anything for himself.\nHe may know how to study a text-book, but rarely does he know how to use\nother books.\n\nHe has been trained to watch an experiment in the class-room;\n\nhe has not been trained to use his eyes as he goes about the streets.\n\nWith\n\nsixty boys in charge, it is far easier to pour in information thru a funnel than\n\nlaboriously to build\n\nup in the boy the power to gain this information for\n\nhimself, the power to draw his own conclusions.\nIt\n\nhas been said that \"the curse of modern education is information.\"\n\nIf this be true of schools in general, much more true is it of commercial schools.\n\nWith all its deficiencies, the old-time high-school course, with its study of\nLatin and mathematics, bred in its students mental vigor, the power to work.\nDr. Goodwin, that student of secondary education, said to me some years ago:\n\"I don't see how in the commercial schools you are to secure the disciplinary\neffects of the present studies, for\n\nanswered:\n\nyour subjects are all informational.\"\n\nI\n\n\"By laying the emphasis on a problem type of recitation which\n\nshall compel the boy to think, not merely to listen.\n\nIf the commercial school\n\nis to be a success, it must have better teachers than the ordinary school, because,\n\nfrom the nature of the subjects taught, the temptation is great, to pour in\na flood of information instead of training the boy.\"\n\nIt\n\nmust be conceded.\n\nI fear, that heretofore commercial education has not turned out so good a\n\nproduct as the old-time course of study; the cause being chiefly the methods\nof teaching, but possibly also the kind of\n\nboy who was taught.\n\nFor the\n\ncommercial course in the high school has been a sort of Sargasso Sea\n\n—an\n\nabiding-place for the derelicts of the more strenuous courses.\nIf the school of\n\ncommerce is to justify its existence, it must turn out a\n\nproduct which can do and not merely know.\n\nAnd the doing needed is not\n\nthe mere ability to write a good hand, finger well a tpyewriter, or keep a set\nof books; but, in addition to this, there must be the ability to observe accu-\n\nphenomena of the business world, to gauge the causes of these\nphenomena, and in the light of these, to be able to anticipate the future. Busirately the\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDY OF LOCAL INDUSTRY AND TRADE\n\nDepartment]\n\n685\n\nThe first requisite of a professional man is\nTo secure this, I urge therefore the study of local industry\n\nness has become a profession.\n\nmental grasp.\n\nand trade, because, if properly studied, it will do much to develop those very\nqualities which the business man must possess.\n\nWhen is it properly studied ?\n\nIt is properly studied whenever the student\n\nhimself observes conditions, and thus acquires the information desired, and\n\nwhen, in addition, he is trained to reason.\nreport\n\nis\n\nnot sufficient;\n\nthe important part\n\nThe method of observation and\nthe recitation, in which the\n\nis\n\nstudent shall be required to give a reason for the statements he makes.\nis\n\nIt\n\nnot sufficient to know that the Italians live together in a center; he ought\n\nto be able to give the reason for this racial grouping, and he ought to know\n\nwhat consequences flow from it. It is desirable to know the population of\nNew York city, that it is the greatest manufacturing as well as the greatest\ncommercial city in the country; but this avails little unless he can give the\nreasons for this.\n\nSelf-activity\n\non the part of the pupil, \"Why?\" constantly\n\non the lips of the teacher, are the proofs of good teaching in this subject.\n\nWe\n\nhave often been at our wits' ends to answer the questions put to us by our\nseven-year-old.\n\nThe boy of that age has been called an interrogation point.\n\nWhy is it that this thirst for knowledge, this perpetual quest for the cause of\neverything, seems to be either assuaged or crushed\n\nthe high-school stage?\n\nby the time he reaches\n\nIt is the experience of many of us that we\n\nhave to\n\ndevote our best energies to resurrecting in the fourteen-year-old the sevenyear-old spirit of. investigation.\n\nIn the High School of Commerce our method has been to give the boy, one\n\nweek in advance of the lesson, a series of connected questions, the answers to\nwhich he is to bring in, written, the following week. We begin with questions which can be answered by using his eyes as he goes about his own\nneighborhood, such as the kind of factories nearest to his home, and the most\n\ncommon nationality in certain retail trades.\n\nIn the recitation we develop\n\nthe reasons for the existence of those particular factories in that section of the\n\n—the reasons why delicatessen dealers are Germans, saloonkeepers\n\ncity\n\nIrish,\n\nHaving given them some lessons which train\ntheir powers of observation, we then give them some topics which will require\nthem to ask questions. For example, the location of trade centers can hardly\nbe answered in a great city by observation alone. Among such topics we\n\nand\n\nfruit-dealers\n\nItalian.\n\nask the boys to find out the hours of labor, rate of wages, time of apprenticeship,\n\nand union regulations of a number of trades.\n\nHere we run against a\n\nsnag.\n\nThe city boy, with all his reputation for boldness, is really timid; he fears\nthe janitor, the fireman\", the policeman, even the day laborer.\n\nWhen it is\n\nsuggested to him that he ask these questions of any one of these men whom\n\nhe chances to meet, he wonders that you can think him so green; for if he\nshould ask such questions, he would expect to be sent about his business.\n\nThe average boy is Hkely to stand around and watch the hod-carrier fill his\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n686\n\nhod and then, after he has Ufted it, begin his set of questions.\nbetter.\n\nIt is born of\n\n[Business\n\nHe soon learns\n\nsuch experiences that he looks imposed upon the first\n\ntime you ask him to prepare a lesson by asking other people about their\nAs the boy goes from school into business hfe, he knows\nprivate business.\nlittle of the\n\nnew world into which he is plunged.\n\nHow is he to learn about it ?\n\nHe has been told he must keep his eyes and ears open; but what course in\nDoes the study of the crab or the flower ?\nWe see, for the most part, that which we are trained to see. But ever seeing\nwith the seeing eye and hearing with the hearing ear is not enough. He must\nschool has given him the seeing eye ?\n\nconstantly ask questions.\n\nWhat more impresses a man than a question\n\nand at the psychic\nDoes\nalgebra\nteach it, or the\ninstant!\nnow\ntaught\nThruout\nhis\nbusiness life\nEnglish\nas\n?\neven\nor\nphysical sciences,\nabsolutely to the point, put in the fewest words possible,\n\nQuestioning such as this is an art.\n\nthe boy is constantly to meet men for the first time, constantly to put questions to them.\n\nShould we not in school train him to do it?\n\nA valuable\n\nby-product of this study is the assurance the boy will have that practically all\n\nmen will give courteous answers to questions courteously and tactfully put.\nAfter giving our boy some exercises in the observation of his immediate\n\nneighborhood, some training in asking questions, it would be wise to test his\n\npowers by giving him some industry to report upon.\n\nOur next step in training the boy is to teach him the use of the tools of\nhis trade.\n\nThese tools are the books and papers he as a business man will\nAmong these are the trade and telephone directories, the\n\nconstantly use.\n\nshipping news and advertisements of newspapers, foreign and domestic mails\n\nand the regulations of the postal service, almanacs, shipping and customhouse guides, express and freight books, trade journals, reports of various\ncity departments, and commercial forms.\nIt is evident from the list of tools I have cited that there is a danger lest\nthis course becomes a hodge-podge composed of the things which the teacher\n\nfinds interesting or easy to work up.\n\nTo avoid this very real danger there is\n\nneed of a unifying element, so that there shall be a distinct progression in the\nThis unifying force will be found if the characteristic industry of\ncourse.\nthe city be selected, and all the lessons grouped around it.\n\nIn New York we\n\nhave grouped our study around the commerce of the city. After a few exercises\non the environment of the city, its characteristic industries, trade centers,\nracial centers and racial occupations,\n\nand labor statistics, we study first the\n\nforeign commerce of the city, then the domestic.\n\nWe note the arrival and departure of vessels during a given week, and we\nWe bring a vessel into port, dock\nand\n\nascertain the cargo they carry.\n\nit,\n\nand its cargo at the custom-house, discussing pilots, quarantine, the\ndock system and charges, lighterage, the duties of the various custom-house\nofficers, the use of bonded-ware houses, and the services performed by customhouse brokers. We compute the duty on goods, and see the goods safely\nWe find out the imports for the past month\nin the hands of the importer.\nenter it\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "STUDY OF LOCAL INDUSTRY AND TRADE\n\nDepartment]\n\nand year, and also the exports.\n\n687\n\nWe ship goods to foreign cities, and thus\n\nmake a study of the steamship Hnes saihng to all parts of the world; and we\nWe study plans\nlocate their docks and find out how much they pay for them.\nfor the improvement of the docks and of the harbor, and learn why the commerce of the city is not growing as it should. We send letters, cablegrams,\nand packages to foreign countries, and learn how to compute the rates and\nwhere to find the times of mails.\nWe then turn to domestic commerce, studying the different Hnes of Hudson\nRiver, Sound, and other coasting steamers, analyzing the cargoes they carry,\npartly from observation, partly from the shipping news, and in part reasoning\n\nfrom the products of the regions feeding the ports touched by these steamers.\n\nWe then study the trade coming by rail, and locate the freight stations.\nBefore taking up the work of the importer or wholesaler, we discuss that\ngreat source of commerce, the supply of food products, finding out where our\n\nfood comes from and how it reaches us.\n\nWe investigate the water supply\n\nas conditioning the existence of all industry, and we tarry for a lesson or two\nfor an elementary survey of consumption as determining the extent and nature\n\nof all kinds of industry.\n\nWe find out how the families of the students appor-\n\ntion their incomes, and we discuss the effect of improvements in transportation\n\non rent, the connection between rent and\n\nprices, the effect of\n\nchanges of\n\nfashion, of seasons of good and bad times on the relative proportion of these\n\nexpenditures.\n\nWe then turn to the study of wholesale trade. We saw the goods in the\nNow come the selling of the goods, the terms of\n\nhands of the wholesaler.\nsale, the\n\nquestion of credit, the use of commercial agencies.\n\nThe goods are\n\nshipped by freight, express, and mail, the charges determined, the basis of\n\nThe bills are collected by means of\nand promissory notes, and the proper form and use of each\nare brought oiit. This naturally necessitates an elementary study of the\nservices rendered by a bank; and, having entered the financial world, we\ntreat briefly and simply those handmaids of commerce, the clearing-house\nand the stock exchange. This introduces the boy to the world where stocks\nand bonds are the commodities dealt in, and so he looks up the meaning of\ncorporation and its advantage over a partnership. He learns about common\nand preferred stock, bonds, dividends, interest, speculation, its benefits and\nevils; the work of the broker, bulls, bears, and the other terms of the street.\nFor this work we use for the first time a text-book, Cleveland's Funds and\nTheir Uses, and Pratt's Work oj Wall Street.\ncharges in each case being explained.\ndrafts, checks,\n\nBelieving that there is a close connection between the prosperity of the\n\nbusiness man and the sort of government he has, we complete this course with\n\na survey of the city government, studying it from the administrative standpoint\n\nand in its actual operation.\n\nWe emphasize those departments which more\n\ndirectly concern the business man as such, the building and health departments,\n\nthe bureau of Hcenses, the water and dock departments.\n\nOur aim here is\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n688\n\n[Business\n\nto show the boy that, as a business man, among the elements he must consider,\nin estimating the probabiHties of success, is the\n\nkind of government he has;\n\nand we hope to convince him that city government is a business undertaking,\nand that the business man should see that it is conducted honestly and\nefl&ciently by men of business.\nSuch a program as I have indicated is noticeable for what it omits as well as\nfor what it includes.\ncity\n\nit\n\nselects\n\nOf the multitudinous industrial activities of this great\n\none commerce, and groups around it the training we think a\n\nboy ought to have. We give him no details of manufacturing processes. If\nour school were in Fall River or in Pittsburg, we would. But we feel it is\nThus far our work has been\nbetter to have one central theme than several.\nteacher\nand\npupil\nonly.\njointly\nOne\nimprovement\nin our plan of\nby\ndone\n\nwork naturally suggests itself to all, namely, to add the interest that is aroused\nby occasional talks from men prominent in business life. This feature we\nplan to add.\n\nOccasional talks inspire interest; too frequent doses, whether\n\nby teacher or outside expert, kill interest.\nIt may be asked:\n\nHow successful is such a scheme in practice ? I have\n\"Why don't we have more hours for com-\n\noften been asked by students:\n\nIt is more important than any other subject we have,\nand more interesting.\" The boy is, as a rule, interested in the subject. It\nappeals to him as being practical. There is always some question asked in\nthe class to which possibly he alone knows the answer, and he is proud to\nThis method does not work so well with large classes. The\ncontribute.\nteacher must come into personal contact with the student, must feel the need\nof personal preparation; or else he will be tempted to do no observing, do\nno thinking, but rely upon a classmate for the facts. If the boy is not made\n\nmercial geography?\n\nto work, or at least to think, in the class-room, the course\ngiving.\n\nis\n\nhardly worth\n\nHe cannot be expected to work if he is asked to do impossible tasks.\n\nThe school should therefore be abundantly suppHed with maps, handbooks,\nOne or two copies of each will not do. Unless you\nmake it easy to find the information desired, the boy will inevitably copy.\n\nalmanacs, and reports.\n\nBut, after all, the most important element is the enthusiasm of the teacher.\n\nUnless he keep up his enthusiasm by constant association with business\nactivities, the recitation will lose its interest, its life,\n\ncolleague of mine once said to\n\nme:\n\nand become a bore.\n\nA\n\n\"If I were doing this work, I would\n\nthem one week and quizz them the next.\" No more effectual\nmethod could be devised of destroying the value of the subject. There must\nbe constant team work, the interplay of teacher and pupil, each contributing\nsomething. If this be done, the boy will be awakened, and his interest aroused.\nIf he leave at the end of the first year, he will be a more valuable office boy\nlecture to\n\nas a result of the course;\n\nif\n\nhe goes on with school work, he will be ready to\n\ntake up more appreciatively the serious study of commercial geography and\neconomics.\n\nThe time that has thus been saved in training him how to study\n\ncan be used to the greatest advantage in those most vital subjects to which\nentirely too little time is given in our schools at the present time.\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN COMMERCE\n\n689\n\nTHE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN A UNIVERSITY\nCOURSE IN COMMERCE\nI.\n\nFROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN\nEDWARD D. JONES, PROFESSOR OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, UNIVERSITY\nOF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH.\n\nTo determine the essential elements of a university course in commerce\nis\n\nto raise all the important problems connected with that type of education.\n\nAccount must be taken of the knowledge, mental qualities, and ideals which\nThose who complete courses in commerce for\nserve men best in industry.\nthe most part find\n\nemployment with business concerns in those positions,\n\nabove the rank of clerks and mechanics, which do not call for professional\neducation in law, chemistry, mining, or engineering.\n\nIn these places they\n\nmaking sales by advertising and personal interview,\nare engaged\nmanaging\nmen, devising and operating business systems, or\nchoosing and\neither in\n\nconducting financial negotiations.\n\nIt is a part of the duty of those interested\n\nin university education in commerce to observe carefully the bearing of each\n\nelement of the curriculum upon the successful doing of these kinds of work.\n\nEvery graduate is, in his business Ufe, a laboratory experiment, bearing upon\nthe completeness or defect of the educational program used.\n\nAgain, account must be taken of the state of scientific development of the\nvarious branches of business knowledge.\nof industrial facts\n\nThe collection and classification\nThe superior system\n\nwere never so rapid as at present.\n\nby which the business experience\n\nof individual concerns\n\nis\n\nrecorded, the\n\nwider range of government pubhcation, the improved quahty of trade papers,\n\nand the more general development of the scientific instinct among men of\naffairs are contributing to the systematization of industrial knowledge, and\nto the discovery of general principles.\n\nThe teacher is thus constantly finding\n\na richer subject-matter prepared for his use.\n\nA third condition governing the choice of the elements of a course in\ncommerce is the possibility of devising efficient methods of teaching. Many\nof the subjects which it is desirable to present have a very scattered literature,\nno texts, have never been formulated for systematic impartation, and do not\npermit laboratory methods. Furthermore, in the solution of the problem\nan entirely free hand is not permitted, for, as a branch of university work,\nthe methods employed must conform to the general traditions and ideals for\n\nwhich the university stands.\nCourses in commerce consist of general-culture and technical subjects,\nthe former being dominant in the first years, the latter in the final years of\nthe student's work.\ncourses.\nclasses.\n\nThe chief problems are connected with the technical\n\nTo facilitate their consideration we may divide them into three\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n690\nI.\n\n[Business\n\nThere are the problems of those introductory courses, such as economics\n\nand commercial geography, which are intended to give the student a general\nacquaintance with the present economic order.\n\nAn entirely satisfactory\n\nintroductory course has not yet been found.\n\nEconomics\n\nJ\n\nusually taught,\n\nwhich\nis\n\nis\n\nthe gateway thru which most students enter, as\n\nso largely\n\nof general facts, stripped down to\nwho knows little of the structure and\n\ncomposed\n\nabstract principles, that the student\n\nprocesses of industry to which they apply finds them unreal, if not incompre-\n\nAgain, economics is chiefly pivoted upon the problem of distribu-\n\nhensible.\n\ntion, which the business\n\nman finds determined by certain general adjustments\n\nof industry over which, as an individual, he has little control, while the prob-\n\nlem of production, in which he is equally interested, receives scanty treatIf the first part of political economy were expanded into a systematic\n\nment.\n\nstudy of the production of wealth, and if this, so enriched with new concrete\nfacts as to give a practical cast to the treatment, were used as an introduction\n\nto the remaining parts of the subject, it would render the science more effective,\n\ncertainly for students of commerce, possibly for all classes of students.\n\nCommercial geography^ much used in the Handelshochschule of Germany,\nis being experimented with in American universities.\n\nfactory because almost exclusively descriptive.\n\nIt is at present unsatis-\n\nAs a fact study, the chief\n\npurpose of which is to state where various industries are located, it is rapidly\nbeing swallowed up by general geography; for this is a task which general\n\ngeography\n\nis\n\nrightly taking\n\nupon\n\nitself.\n\nThere is a field for commercial\n\ngeography, however, and it is capable of rendering useful service if it can be\nreorganized by introducing into\nindustry,\n\nit\n\nadequate discussion of the principles of\n\nby treating of industries rather than of products, and by Hmiting\n\nthe study of regions to a few typical countries, so that time may be given for\n\na really effective explanation of industrial conditions and their causes.\nshort,\n\nwhat\n\nthis\n\nsubject needs\n\nis\n\nto\n\nincrease emphasis\n\nIn\n\nupon the causal\n\nconnections between economic facts.\nII.\n\nA second group of technical courses in commerce involves the pre-\n\nsentation of subjects, such as commercial law, applied science, and accounting,\n\nwhich are of common interest to many businesses, and so appropriate\n\nstudies for persons preparing for different occupations.\n\nIn applied science we have not followed the German lead of elaborating\n\nWaarenkunde into a thorogoing technique of manufacture, but have developed\nthe applications of each science separately, by means of such courses as\neconomic geology, economic botany, and industrial chemistry and physics.\nDepending for this instruction upon members of science faculties, students\nin commerce have encountered the tendency to make them speciaHsts in each\nsubject, and this often, tog, without a serious attempt to show the applications of science to industry.\nIt is worth while to attempt to state the proper\naim of courses in applied* science as a part of a general training in commerce,\nand this statement will hold also for commercial law and accounting. The\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN COMMERCE\n\ntpyical business man should certainly not be possessed with the ideal:\n\nman his own lawyer, or chemist;\nhands of the expert.\n\n691\nevery\n\nbut neither should he be helpless in the\n\nSomething between the two is wanted.\n\nHe should be\n\nable to detect when his business practice is seriously out of the way; that is,\nto know when to employ an expert.\n\nHe should also know the expert's field\n\nand so understand what he ought to be able to do,\nand be able to advise with him and direct him in a general way. He should\nbe able to understand technical terms, and the explanations and reports of an\nin its general outKnes,\n\nexpert, and check them up rather closely, especially in their practical bearings.\n\nSatisfactory training in these subjects can be given only by instructors who\n\nhave been thoroughly grounded both in science and commerce, and who are\nhence able to comprehend the point of view of the general business\nadministrator with reference to the work of the expert.\n\nBusiness organization and management.\n\n—There\n\nis\n\nan important group of\n\nsubjects, including bookkeeping, auditing, cost accounting, business organi-\n\nzation, flotation,\nuniversities.\n\nand investment, in which some work is being done in most\n\nAll students of commerce are aware of the rapid improvement\n\nwhich is taking place in the methods of internal organization of business\nIt is very essential that university men should be given a broader\nconcerns.\nacquaintance with the structure of the individual business than is involved\nin accounting,\n\nand should be famihar with the normal methods of a going\n\nbusiness, as well as with matters of flotation and finance, as they are usually\n\nThere is a decided need of\nand management which shall display the\n\npresented in courses on corporation finance.\ncourses in business organization\n\nrelationships of the entire internal structure of authority of the typical business\nunit, explain\n\nhow to isolate the records of departments and individuals for\n\ncomparison and study, and detail the best methods to be employed by purchasing, stock, employment, credit, traffic, advertising, and sales departipents,\nin order that definiteness, force, and economy may be given to the management.\nIII.\n\nA third group of technical courses includes subjects each of which\n\nconcerns a restricted group of industries, and hence appeals chiefly to those\n\nwho intend to enter an industry to which it applies.\nelective\n\nIn most institutions the\n\nsystem permits students, during the latter part of their course, to\n\nchoose freely those subjects which will be most useful to them in their business\ncareer.\n\nSigns are not wanting, however, of a\n\nmore permanent\n\nSome schools are already grouping certain\n\nspecialization.\n\nof the technical courses with\n\nreference to the industry which the student intends to enter.\n\nThere are\n\ndangers connected with this movement, if pushed too rapidly, for it is conceivable that training may be given which is more narrowly technical than\n\nthe conditions of business\n\nemployment warrant, considering the variety of\n\npositions a young man is likely to hold before he secures his permanent place,\n\nand the uncertainty during his college years as to what that place will be.\nUnless restraint is exercised, this specialization may lead to the attempt to\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n692\n\n[Business\n\ninstruct in matters of detail which can be as well or better learned in practice.\n\nAt all events,\n\nif\n\nuniversity education for business\n\nis\n\nrapidly split\n\nup into\n\na variety of technical courses, it will tend to confuse the efforts now being\nput forth to perfect a well-balanced and basic general course of study which\nwill be serviceable as a firm pedestal for further construction.\n\ntime goes on, courses in commerce will\n\nIt is altogether probable that, as\n\nbecome more differentiated than is at present the case.\n\nWith the introducby the need of\nspecial equipment and increased teaching force, it is to be hoped that univer-\n\ntion of permanent specialization, accompanied, as it will be,\n\nsities will\n\ngive a reasonable respect for each other's specialties, so that a\n\nmutually advantageous division of labor will result, and students desiring, for\nexample, to enter insurance will go to one university, and those intending to\n\nengage in transportation to another.\n\nII.\n\nFROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DARTMOUTH COLLEGE\n\nHARLOW S. PERSON, SECRETARY OF THE AMOS TUCK SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE, DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, HANOVER, N. H.\nThe probleni involved in the question of the essential elements of study\nin a university course in\n\ncommerce is a more serious one for those institu-\n\ntions in which the commercial courses are given a place in the undergraduate\n\ncurriculum, than in those institutions in which these courses are offered in a\n\ngraduate year.\n\nIn the first class of institutions the effect on the curriculum\n\nas a whole must be kept in mind, in order to avoid too early specialization;\nin the second class of institiutons specialization is the chief object.\n\ntutions of the\n\nfirst\n\nclass a limit is usually placed\n\nIn insti-\n\nby the university on the\n\nproportion of the number of hours required for a degree that may be occupied\nby the commercial courses; in the institutions of the second class the whole\n\ntime of the student may be devoted to commercial work.\nthe\n\nfirst class\n\nIn institutions of\n\nthe significance of the bachelor of arts or of the bachelor of\n\nscience degree must not be violated;\n\nquestion is not an important one.\n\nin institutions of the second class that\n\nConcretely, institutions of the first class\n\nmust confine their commercial work to, say, forty of the hundred and twenty\nhours required for a degree; while institutions of the second class have in\naddition a graduate year for commercial work.\n\nInasmuch as the commercial\n\nschool of Dartmouth College is organized on the graduate plan, I shall confine myself to a discussion of this topic from the view-point of an institution\n\nof the second class.\n\nConsidering Dartmouth College and its commercial school, the Amos\nTuck School of Administration and Finance, as a single institution, we may\ndivide the larger Tuck School course into three periods: first, the preparatory period, or the\n\nfirst\n\nthree years of the college;\n\nperiod, or the senior year of the college,\n\nsecond, the transitional\n\nwhich is the first year of the Tuck\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSchool;\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN COMMERCE\n\n693\n\nand, third, the speciaHzed commercial period, or a graduate year,\n\nwhich is the second year of the Tuck School.\n1. The Tuck School has made no request of the faculty of the college to\nmodify for its convenience the work of the first three years of the college.\nfact, this pieriod\n\nIn\n\nmay be considered a preparatory period, only because the\n\nTuck School requires three years of college work for entrance, and because\nduring the three years students intending to enter the school must include in\ntheir work certain courses which the school believes desirable for the profit-\n\nBut one new course has been added on account of\nthe Tuck School to the courses which were offered by the college during this\nable pursuit of its work.\n\nperiod\n\n—a course in commercial geography, offered in the junior year. This\n\ncourse is looked upon as a liberal, cultural course, however, rather than as a\ntechnical one, and is taken by many students who are not looking forward to\n\nTuck work.\nThose courses which the Tuck School requires to be taken during the preparatory period, as necessary to enable the student to pursue profitably the\n\nwork of the school, are: first, four courses in English, chiefly in the field of\ncomposition and rhetoric; second, two courses in history, a high value being\nplaced upon the discipHne always given by the early courses in history;\nthird, two years each of two modern languages, to prepare the student to take\nup advanced commercial German, French, or Spanish in the school; third,\nelements of economics, commercial geography, and industrial history, as\nfurnishing the foundation for advanced economics and commercial work, the\ncommercial course being looked upon as essentially economic in nature; and,\nfourth, one course in sociology, or one course in poHtical science, or an additional course in history, this\n\nrequirement being intended to prevent the\n\nstudent's specializing too early in economics.\n\nthese requirements are\n\nmade is obvious:\n\nThe principle upon which\n\nthat the student shall lay a solid\n\nfoundation for the pursuit of the course in commerce without depriving\nhimself of a broad, cultural training in the college.\n2.\n\nThe courses that constitute the transitional period, the first year of\n\nthe Tuck School, the senior year of the college, may be classified as follows.\nFirst, the greater part of the year's\n\nwork is made up of courses offered by\n\nthe department of economics in the college, courses that were offered before\nthe Tuck School was organized:\n\nmoney and banking, finance, labor, tariff\n\nhistory and poHcy, corporations, transportation, statistics, and so on.\n\nThese\n\ncourses are intended for college students as well as for Tuck School students.\n\nSecond, there is a small group of courses, not large enough to dominate\nthe work of the year, but large enough to give it a technical trend.\n\ncourses are open only to\n\nThese\n\nTuck School students, and are accounting and\n\nauditing, commercial advanced German, French and Spanish, and resources\n\nand industries of the United States.\n\nThird, Tuck students in this year are\n\nencouraged to elect one or two courses in history or political science or sociology.\n\nThose students looking forward to specialization in insurance are\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n694\n\n[Business\n\nrequired to continue work in mathematics to and including calculus, and\nthose for whom it is desirable are permitted to continue work in chemistry.\n\nThe principle upon which the work of this year is organized is, that the\nstudent shall concentrate his attention upon economics, the foundation of\n\nevery course of general training for business; and that he also, on the one\n\nhand, shall not separate himself entirely from other of the social science\n\nand shall, on the other hand, be introduced to the more general of\nand shall continue such sciences as his\nprospective line of business will make it necessary for him to apply.\nstudies,\n\nthe technical commercial courses,\n\n3.\nis\n\nThe second year of the Tuck School, a graduate year of the college,\n\nthe year in which\n\nis\n\nmercial course proper.\n\noffered\n\nwhat at Dartmouth is considered the com-\n\nTo be sure, the courses of the preparatory and\n\ntransitional periods ah-eady described do not fall far short of completing the\n\nlarge\n\nnumber of\n\npart\n\nof the\n\nthe institutions in which the commercial\n\ncurriculum. The Tuck School has adopted,\nGerman attitude toward commercial activity, which considers\n\nundergraduate\n\nhowever, the\nit\n\nwork in a\nwork is made a\n\nof courses offered as constituting the essentially commercial\n\nlist\n\nthe exercise of a profession, and accordingly believes that a. commercial\n\ncourse becomes really a commercial course only when\nacteristics of a course\n\nit\n\npossesses the char-\n\nwhich aims at training for a profession\n\nstituent courses are practical, technical,\n\n—when\n\nits\n\ncon-\n\nand have direct reference to some\n\ncommercial activity in the concrete.\nIn this connection it may be well to explain what we mean by the terms\n''practical\"\n\nand \"technical.\"\n\nA course which has direct reference to some\na practical, technical course. A course\n\nline of business is for that business\n\nis a practical course which acquaints the student with the practice of a business,\n\nor with its facts and principles, or which trains him to form judgments on\nsituations which may arise in the pursuit of that business.\nsarily\n\nIt is not neces-\n\na \"practice course;\" and, except where a student may be compelled\n\nto use pen and ink in the study of accounting and auditing, or the compto-\n\nmeter in solving his problems in insurance, or may draw up charts to represent schemes of business organization, or\n\nmay devise blanks for securing\n\nefl&cient routine in the conduct of an institution,\n\nno course of the nature of a\n\npractice course is offered in the Tuck School.\n\nThe courses offered in the second year of the school may be divided into\ntwo general classes:\n\nfirst,\n\nthese which have a direct reference to all lines of\n\nbusiness; and, second, those which have reference to special Hnes of business.\nAll students take the courses of the first class;\n\na student takes such courses\n\nof the second class as have reference to the line of business in which he intends\nto engage.\n\nAmong the courses of the first group are advanced accounting\n\nand auditing; commercial law; and advanced commercial German, French,\nor Spanish (the student continuing that language which he will be most hkely\nto use in business intercourse, or which has locked up in it the most information pertaining to the business for which he is preparing himself); corpora-\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN COMMERCE\n\n695\n\ntion finance, a course which aims at giving the student some skill in \"sizing\n\nup\" business propositions; and business management, a course which considers such subjects as plant and store management, the principles governing\n\nthe location\n\nand conduct of retail, wholesale, and other forms of business,\n\nsystem, and so on.\n\nIn connection with this group should be mentioned the\n\njournal conference, which consists of periodical conferences of students and\ninstructors to discuss events of the business world chronicled in commercial\n\nand trade publications.\n\nThe courses of the second class divide themselves into a number of subgroups, according to the various Hnes of business for which special preparation is offered.\n\nThe subgroups and the most important courses constituting\n\neach may be indicated, in a tabular form, as follows:\nForeign commerce.—The. student investigates and presents as a thesis\nsome problem related to foreign commerce, say, \"The Natural Basis of\nTrade Relations Between the New England States and Eastern Canada.\"\nThe central part of his work will consist of a study of the development of\nworld-trade in modern times; of present tendencies, as to commodities and\nmarkets, of the development of the foreign commerce of the United States;\nthe procedure governing and the documents used in commercial transactions;\nforeign exchange; the commercial geography of those regions with which\nthe United States has trade relations; commercial French and commercial\nSpanish.\nTransportation.\n\n—The student investigates and presents a\n\nthesis\n\nupon\n\nsuch a subject as \"A Traffic Consideration of the Great Northern Railroad;\"\nwhile the central part of his work will consist of a study of such topics as\nthe economic function of railroads, railroad operation\n\nand administration,\n\nrailroad accounting, railroad law, and railroad finance.\n\nBanking.\n\n—The student investigates and presents a\n\nthesis\n\nupon such a\n\nsubject as \"The Relative Profitableness of Note Issue and Deposits;\" while\nthe central part of his work consists of a study of such subjects as the account-\n\ning\n\nand auditing of banks, banking methods, banking law, domestic and\n\nforeign exchange, and mathematics of annuities and compound interest.\n\nInsurance.\n\n—The student investigates and presents a thesis upon a problem\n\ninvolving perhaps the actual construction of a Hfe-table for some state, the\ncentral part of his work consisting of a study of such topics as the economics\n\nof insurance, the administration of insurance companies, the mathematics of\n\ninsurance, insurance law, and the investment of insurance funds.\n\nGeneral mercantile or manufacturing business.\n\n—The student investigates\n\nand presents as a thesis such a subject as \"The Efficiency of System in Business Management,\" or \"The Causes of the Present Conditions in the Milling\nIndustry;\" the central part of his work consisting of a study of such subjects as the history and\n\ndevelopment of the business in which he intends to\n\nengage, cost accounting, the administration and\n\nmanagement\n\nof business\n\nconcerns, system, and the commercial geography of regions furnishing\n\nraw\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n696\n\n[Business\n\nmaterials or offering markets for the products of the business in which the\n\nstudent intends to engage.\n\nTo sum up, it is the Tuck School theory, as indicated by the above description, that the essential\n\nelements of a university course in commerce should\n\nconsist, first, of a broad, general college education,\n\nhaving special regard for\n\nEnglish composition, the modern languages, the social sciences, and in some\ninstances applied sciences;\nthird, of\n\nsecond, of a thoro training in economics;\n\nand,\n\na special study, of graduate rank and with the professional spirit,\n\nand procedure of business in general, and of the history,\nand methods of that particular business in which the student\n\nof the principles\nprinciples,\n\nintends to engage.\n\nIII.\n\nFROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF\nPENNSYLVANIA\n\nJAMES T. YOUNG, DIRECTOR, WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE,\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA\n\nTwo questions are implied in the title:\n\nFirst, are there certain branches\n\nof study which are essential to every college course ?\n\naddition, certain subjects\n\nmerce ?\n\nSecond, are there, in\n\nwhich are peculiarly necessary for a course in com-\n\nIn answer to both questions I would say emphatically \"Yes.\"\n\nThe following six subjects should, in America today, form part of every\ncollege course:\n\nEngHsh; natural science or mathematics, or both; history;\n\ngovernment; economics; sociology.\nAll will agree\n\non the necessity of the first three.\n\nEnglish\n\nis\n\nessential\n\nbecause it is the means of expression by which a man brings to bear all his\nother powers.\nlive in\n\nNatural science is necessary because the business man must\n\na physical as well as an intellectual world, and his efficiency must\n\nofttimes depend upon his knowledge of nature.\n\nHistory is valuable not only\n\nbecause it is a subject of general culture, but also because it distinctly enhances\nthe value of the other branches studied.\n\nBeyond this point there exists the\n\ngreatest divergence of opinion.\n\nIn prescribing as essential an introduction to the three social sciences\ngovernment, economics, and sociology\n\n— would consider these studies from\nI\n\nthe standpoint of both culture and efficiency.\n\nWithin the last three decades America has undeniably passed from an\nindividualistic to a social\n\nframe of mind.\n\nOne of the ideals of the time is\nOur edu-\n\nthe recognition of a common social interest in all that transpires.\ncational system\n\nmust at least recognize this fact.\n\nIf the college\n\nman is to\n\nbe a progressive leader of men, he should know that we are passing thru\n\nprofound social changes of fundamental'importance.\n\nHe should have a grasp\n\nand should be prepared to play an\ninteUigent part in it.\nThe study of government is required because of our\npecuHar poUtical institutions. Economics, more than any other subject,\nof the significance of this development,\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF STUDY IN COMMERCE\n\n697\n\nteaches the far-reaching social effects of our commercial and industrial growth.\n\nSociology gives an understanding of the great progressive or reactionary\n\nmovements of the time, and of their bearing upon individuals, nations, and\nraces.\n\nIf the graduates of our colleges\n\ntheir existence\n\nwere required to spend one-half of\n\non the sea, we should not aim to give the college man less\n\nbreadth and culture, but we should insist upon his making a careful scientific\nstudy of the marine environment, with all of its moods and changes.\n\nIs it\n\notherwise with the need of a study of that intensely social atmosphere in which\nthe present-day American must live and move ?\n\nWe are now prepared to attack the second and principal question:\n\nWhich\n\nsubjects are essential for a university course in commerce ?\n\nTo the six studies already named I would add only three required branches:\nelementary business law, accounting, and the principles of finance; and would\n\nmake the rest of the curriculum consist of elective subjects, to be chosen\naccording to the maturity, advancement, and prospective career of the individual student.\n\nIt is\n\nthis recognition of individual\n\nneeds and individual\n\ncapacity which must constitute an important feature of higher business educa-\n\nBeyond a certain minimum of general culture and\nwe should proceed most carefully in order to\ndevelop the pecuHar abilities of each man. The methods of individualizing^\ntion in our universities.\n\nefficiency, as described above,\n\ncollege instruction exert a strong influence\n\non the arrangement of elective\n\nAt Pennsylvania there has been in quiet but successful operation\nfor several years a system of faculty advisorships, which system is now in\nstudies.\n\nprocess of further extension and development.\n\nEach student is referred to\n\na member of the faculty, who assists in the choice of courses, the number of\nhours to be taken, and other important matters.\n\nAn advisor in the Wharton\n\nSchool has approximately twenty-five students, on whose welfare and general\nstudying he reports regularly to the faculty.\n\nFrom the regular consultation\n\nhours and from numerous informal meetings, opportunity arises for the formation of those close friendships\n\nbetween teacher and student which may be\n\nmade to count for so much in university life.\n\nThe connection between this\n\nplan and the arrangement of studies is a very close one.\nit is\n\nWe have found that\n\nnot necessary to prescribe a complete course to be followed in detail by\n\nstudents alike, but we insist rather upon a certain minimum of required\nwork beyond which each student's course is determined by his special circumstances and aims, and after consultation with his advisor.\nFinally, in what has been said the case of the undergraduate has been\nall\n\nexclusively considered.\n\nIt is only for the\n\nundergraduate that we can speak\n\nEntire freedom of selection of\nBut we must not conclude from\nthis fact that the graduate courses in commerce play an unimportant r61e.\nof a series of \"essential elements of study.\"\n\ncourses is necessary for the graduate student.\n\nIt is a sign of the relation of the new courses to the world of practical affairs\n\nthat a number of the best men in the graduating class at the Wharton School\n\nreturn to take up postgraduate work, often with a view of engaging in practical\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n698\n\n[Business\n\nThe opportunities presented to our large universities to\nmen for advanced positions in commercial and government work are\n\nbusiness pursuits.\ntrain\n\ngrowing rapidly, and the function of developing this field belongs primarily\nto the postgraduate department.\n\nSumming up:\n\nFirst, there are certain studies which are essential not only\n\nto a course in commerce, but to every college course of high standing; promi-\n\nnent among these subjects are the social sciences.\n\nSecond, for the university course in commerce a small number of additional\nstudies should be required of all students, the remaining branches in the course\n\nbeing chosen by each student from a list of electives.\nThird, to prevent excessive specialization, and to insure a purposeful and\nprofitable choice, there should be a reasonably close contact between faculty\n\nand student;\n\nat Pennsylvania the system of faculty advisorships has proved\n\nhelpful in this and other regards.\n\nFourth, in the postgraduate department the studies must of course be\nentirely elective, in order to encourage a high degree of specialization.\n\nimportant field for university training of this grade is\n\nAn\n\nnow opening up in\n\nfinancial, commercial, and governmental work.\n\nRESULTS OF THE ORGANIZATION OF HIGHER COURSES IN\n\nCOMMERCE\nI.\n\nIN DARTMOUTH COLLEGE\n\nHARLOW S. PERSON, SECRETARY OF AMOS TUCK SCHOOL OF ADMINISTRATION\nAND FINANCE, DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, HANOVER, N. H.\nThree characteristics distinguish the Amos Tuck School of Administration\nand Finance, of Dartmouth College, from other schools of commercial education in the United States.\n\nFirst, it is organized as a graduate, or professional,\n\nschool, practically none of the strictly commercial work being offered in the\n\nundergraduate\n\ncurriculum\n\nof\n\nthe\n\ncollege.\n\nSecond,\n\nits\n\nrequirements\n\nfor\n\nentrance are high, a college education being required as preparation for entrance\n\nupon its work. Third, this graduate, or professional-school, organization\npermits the work to be practical and specialized, the training of an individual\nstudent having direct reference, in most cases, to some particular line of\nbusiness activity.\n\nIt is\n\nmy purpose, in reporting to you on this form of\n\norganization, which has received the\n\nname of\n\nthe\n\n\"Dartmouth Plan,\" to\n\napproach the subject from the view-points furnished by these distinguishing\ncharacteristics.\n\nIn organizing its commercial courses in the manner I have described,\nDartmouth College simply carried out a principle which had been long before\nadopted and appHed in the organization of other of its special schools. This\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "RESULTS OF HIGHER COURSES IN COMMERCE\n\nDepartment]\n\nprinciple\n\nis\n\nthat the College of Arts\n\nand Sciences, while growing with the\n\ngrowth of education in general, should preserve\noffering a liberal training.\n\nbroad general education\n\n;\n\n699\n\nits\n\nintegrity as a college\n\ndegree should be the evidence of a\n\nIts bachelor's\n\nshould be the evidence of a preparation for speciali-\n\nzation, but not the evidence of speciaHzation itself.\n\nIts medical, engineering,\n\nand commercial schools, accordingly, were organized as associated professional\nschools, any one of whose training should be a superstructure of specialized\ntraining reared upon the broad and solid substructure of the general education\nThis idea has been recognized by other institutions in the\nof the college.\norganization of law and medical schools; Dartmouth has carried the application of the idea into the organization of her commercial school.\nI.\n\nLeaving on one side for the moment a consideration of college training\n\nas a technical preparation for the work of the school, the Dartmouth plan of\n\na separate professional school associated with the college aims at two results:\nthe development, on the one hand, thru the medium of the college, of the\n\nman of no group or class, of the man of the world, sympathetic, broad-minded,\ncapable of observing and arranging facts, and of analyzing and interpreting\ntendencies;\n\nand the development, on the other hand, thru the medium of\n\nthe Tuck School, of the same man into the man of a class, of a profession,\n\nand prowas the belief of the organizers of the school that\nthere is no experience which so develops the man, the individual who is in\n\npossessing that power which accompanies professional knowledge\nfessional enthusiasm.\n\nIt\n\npossession of himself wherever he finds himself, as does the experience afforded\n\nby the college. That the college man always lights on his feet has become\nBut the development of this broad-minded and open-minded\nproverbial.\nman of the world is, as Mr. Carnegie says, from the point of view of business\nactivity often at a cost; he too frequently loses his \"fire\" and \"energy,\"\nloses the ability to project himself with\n\nenthusiasm into a chosen life-work.\n\nThe problem that confronts all of us is to develop the man who is open-minded\non the one side, and who is, on the professional side, skilled and enthusiastic.\nThe open-mindedness is the product of the humanizing training of the college;\nthe fire, energy,\n\nand professional enthusiasm are the product of the special\n\nschool with\n\ngroup\n\nits\n\nesprit.\n\nThis man of the world is, furthermore, the\n\nproduct of the leisure of college Hfe, of college associations, as much as of the\nclass-room;\n\nthe man of professional skill and enthusiasm is the product of\n\nindefatigable application outside the class-room as well as inside.\n\nIn a given\n\ncurriculum you cannot offer leisure outside the class-room, and at the same\ntime compel indefatigable application outside the class-room.\nditions are mutually exclusive.\n\nThese con-\n\nYou cannot secure the essential features\n\nof professional-school training within the liberal arts curriculum,\nversa.\n\nand vice\n\nIt has been said that technical subject-matter may be taught in such\n\na way as to secure a liberal training, and that a man may be given a liberal\n\nand a technical training in one process.\ndouble error.\n\nIn that argument there lurks a\n\nIn the first place, its premise is a sweeping statement of what\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nyoo\nis\n\nonly in a limited sense true;\n\n[Business\n\nspeaking broadly, the teaching of technical\n\nsubjects in a way that secures technical efficiency does not afford a training\nthat is liberal in the sense in which we are using the term.\n\nIn the second\n\nplace, it ignores the fact that much of the value of the college is in its associations, and that the leisure which makes possible literary, athletic, and personal\n\nassociations is not permitted by the hard work of a professional school.\n\nOne\n\nan atmosphere that\n\nessential element of technical, professional instruction is\n\nimpels the student to constant attention to technical matters, outside as well as\ninside the class-room.\nis\n\nThe ideal method of securing the most efficient, that\n\nthe broadest-minded, specialist, is first to develop the man\n\nby affording the\n\nformal discipline and the associations to be found only in the normal, healthy\ncollege life; and then to gather together the elements of capacity so developed,\nand concentrate them into the channels of indefatigable work and of profes-\n\n—a concentration possible only\n\nsional enthusiasm\n\nin the professional school.\n\nThe experience of the Tuck School seems to be confirming this theory.\nIts students take\n\nup the work of the second year, the year of specialization,\n\nas men with outlook, with a wide range of sympathies, as men knowing how\nto study and how to observe and differentiate.\ntheir instructors, not\n\nmerely under them.\n\nThey are able to work with\nThat is the result of the college\n\nThey are also men of a single purpose, men of a class, working\ncommon field with a common enthusiasm; men of a common ideal\n\ndiscipline.\n\nin a\n\nthe acquisition of technical efficiency.\n\nThat is the result of the concentration\n\nof the commercial work in a separately organized school.\n2.\n\nfor\n\nApproaching our subject from the view-point of the high requirement\n\nentrance,\n\ntwo questions present themselves.\n\nIs\n\nthe requirement for\n\nentrance greater than is necessary to equip the student technically for the\n\nwork of the school? and does the necessity of remaining a fifth year at the\ncollege deprive men of a commercial training, who would be able to secure\nit\n\nwere the commercial courses offered as a part of the undergraduate\n\ncurriculum ?\n\nWith regard to the latter of these questions, I think it undeniable that\nmore students would take the commercial work during an undergraduate\nperiod than now remain to take it in a graduate year. There is another\nThere is such a\naspect of the matter than that of mere numbers, however.\nthing as cultivating intensively as well as extensively.\n\nThe intensive cultiva-\n\ntion of a given selected area may be as great a social service as the extensive\ncultivation of a\n\nmuch larger heterogeneous area.\n\nIt is\n\nour experience that\n\nthe graduate form of organization operates as an instrument of selection,\n\neHminating those who show either incompetency or insincerity in their approach\nto the\n\ncommercial training, and selecting those who show competency and\n\nsincerity.\n\nWhen the Tuck School was first organized, many of the students\n\nwho took up the first year's work, as Dartmouth seniors, did it out of curiosity,\nor with the idea of securing easily a business training, without the necessity\nof forfeiting the \"leisurely contemplation\" of which the securing of a Uberal\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "RESULTS'^OF^HIGHER COURSES IN COMMERCE\n\nDepartment]\n\ntraining in part consists.\n\n70I\n\nEighteen hours of hard work during the senior\n\nyear, however, soon ehminated those without business aptitude or insincere\nof purpose.\n\nI think I may now safely say that Dartmouth juniors who make\n\napplication to the first year of the school do so because their desire for a training\nfor business is such that they are wiUing to\n\npay the price of hard work in\n\n—a year when the average student prefers\n\ntheir senior year\n\nto reduce the\n\nThe prospect of still harder pressure in the second\nyear of the school acts in a similar way as a selective force, eliminating those\nof the first-year students who are insincere of purpose, or who have not a\nreal passion for the life of a business man.\nOf course, there are worthy\nstudents who do not continue the special training, because of financial inability,\nnumber of hours of work.\n\nor because they are not convinced of the value of any special training for a\nbusiness career.\n\nBut I am convinced, because of the fact that, in many\n\ninstances where commercial courses are offered in the undergraduate cur-\n\nriculum, of forty or\n\nfifty\n\nstudents beginning the commercial\n\nwork in the\n\nfreshman year frequently only ten or a dozen continue it thru the senior\nyear, that in\n\nany comparison the feature of numbers must be qualified by\n\nthe features of aptitude and sincerity of purpose.\n\nWith regard to the question whether the Tuck School entrance requirement\nwork of the school,\n\nis higher than is desirable for technical preparation for the\n\nam satisfied that it is not.\n\nWere it possible to redistribute courses in the\nmind of securing an efficient\ntechnical preparation for the work of the school, a diminution in the number\nof years of college work required for entrance would be feasible; but so long\nI\n\ncurricula of colleges, with the sole object in\n\nas the distribution of courses in college curricula is determined on broader\n\ngrounds than the securing of efficient preparation for the work of some particular professional school, a diminution in the number of years' study required\n\nfor entrance is not desirable.\n\nWere the commercial courses of the Tuck\n\nSchool offered in the undergraduate curriculum, they could not be of so\n\nadvanced a grade; and it is the advanced grade of the work that makes it\npossible for the student so to develop himself that, in addition to the abihty\nto carry on the routine work of an office, he is able to seize those opportunities\nfor advancement that present themselves in the mastering of problems that\n\nrequire the exercise of the abihty to make an intelligent analysis of the general\n\npohcy of his particular business.\ncollege training;\n3.\n\nit does not give\n\nThe offering by the Tuck School of courses of training for specific\n\ncareers is a result of experience.\nto\n\nThe Tuck School builds on top of the\n\ntraining of the same grade over again.\n\nAt first a general course was offered, beheved\n\nbe of value to a man whatever the occupation he might take up.\n\nreference to specific careers was only a remote one.\ntion of\n\nits\n\nThe\n\nAs a result of the observa-\n\nmen, and of the requirements of certain classes of business, the\n\nschool has come to the conclusion:\ntraining, there is\n\nfirst,\n\nthat, receiving\n\nmen with a college\n\nno danger of too early specialization; and, second, that\n\nmany lines of business are either in themselves so complex, or so involve the\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n702\n\n'[Business\n\napplication of highly developed sciences, that to devote a graduate year's\n\nSome manufacturing\n\nstudy to some particular line of business is justifiable.\nbusinesses\n\n—\n\nfor instance, those involving the application of chemistry; foreign\n\ncommerce; banking\ntransportation;\nspecial study.\n\n—even the special branch of foreign exchange by\n\ninsurance:\n\nitself;\n\neach presents facts and principles worthy of\n\nAs a result of our experience and observation, we are convinced\n\nof the value of special preparation for special lines of business, when an institution's organization is such that there is no danger of too early specialization.\n\nThe best concrete test, perhaps, is the observation of the careers of an\ninstitution's graduates, the observation centering\n\nupon the rate of advance-\n\nment, as evidenced by wages received and by promotion to positions requiring\ninitiative and responsibility.\n\nAn investigation of the careers of the graduates\n\nof the first four classes of the Tuck School\n\n—the\n\nfirst class had been out of the\n\n—suggests the following\n\nschool four years, the fourth class but one year\ninferences\n\nSpecial training does not relieve the average graduate of the necessity\nof starting at the bottom and serving an apprenticeship.\n\nThere is the inevit-\n\nable period of adjustment to actual business methods and conditions, during\n\nThe medium wage of all Tuck graduates\n\nwhich he receives apprentice wages.\n\nhas been at the start $io per week; at one year out, $12; at two years out,\n$15;\n\nat three years out, $20;\n\nat four years out, $28.50.\n\nComparing this\n\nrate of advancement with the rate of advancement evidenced by such other\n\nrecords as have been made pubHc, the Tuck School graduate, from the point\nof view of wage only, seems to have been able to shorten the period of apprenticeship.\n\nThe advancement of Tuck graduates, considered from the view-\n\npoint of the responsibility involved in the positions to which they have been\n\nadvanced, more significant as indicating their future than the wage viewpoint, cannot be presented graphically.\n\nhave been exceeded.\n\nI can only say that our expectations\n\nMany of the men have been advanced to positions\n\nrequiring the exercise of special abiHty, in\nIt has\n\nmany cases managerial ability.\n\nexceeded our expectations also that the school has already received\n\nrequests from employers for more men of the caliber of Mr. So-and-so.\nI wish to report to you, in conclusion, what our experience has suggested\nto us regarding training for managerial ability.\nability\n\nshows three main factors.\n\nAs I analyze it, managerial\n\nThe first is a temperamental factor;\n\nthe\n\naverage successful manager must be of the motor rather than of the sensory\ntype, must be able to impose upon others himself and his conclusions.\n\nfactor cannot be developed by any formal training.\n\nThis\n\nThe second is a socially\n\ndeveloped factor: adaptability, adjustability to circumstances and individuals.\n\nThis factor is the product of the home, the playground, the school, the college,\nthe fraternity, athletics; there is probably no one instrument that combines\nthe forces for its development as does the college.\nbelieve that the commercial course\nof this factor.\n\nis\n\nThere is no reason to\ndevelopment\n\nof special value in the\n\nThe third factor is that of knowledge: a thoro technical\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "RESULTS OF HIGHER COURSES IN COMMERCE\n\nDepartment]\n\n703\n\nknowledge of the object of the management; a knowledge of its instruments,\nits methods, its principles; that knowledge of it in all its relations which makes\n\nand sound judgments. In view of this analysis, it seems to\nme that much may be done toward the development of successful managers\nby an institution so organized that it takes a man of the motor type, who has\nbeen socialized by college training and associations, and gives him a thoro\npossible quick\n\ntraining, practical and specialized, for his chosen line of business.\n\n//.\n\nIN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA\n\nJAMES T. YOUNG, DIRECTOR, WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND COMMERCE,\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA\n\nWhen, in 1881, Mr. Joseph Wharton founded, at Pennsylvania, the School\nand Commerce which bears his name, the new departure was\ngenerally regarded as a grave and serious breach of university traditions.\nBut as we look back over these twenty-four years, the impression is forced\nupon us that one result of the new departure has been a real broadening of\nof Finance\n\nThe place of a university in American life is still to be\nHaving estabhshed colleges of liberal arts, medicine, law,\ndentistry, civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, and architecture, the\nAmerican university has at last come face to face with that great career which\nyearly enlists more young men than all the others combined the magnificent\nmodern field of business. What shall the university do ? What shall be its\nattitude toward the manufacturers, the railway men, the merchants and\nbankers who are needed to develop, co-ordinate, and manage the immense\nresources of the American continent? The university must choose whether\nitself or some other agency is to undertake the great fundamental work of\ntraining these men.\nIf, thru some unwilHngness to \"commercialize\" its\ncourses; if, by reason of worshiping some ideal of false culture, it fails to\nsee and supply this keenly felt want, then other institutions must be found to\nprepare young men for these important careers. But mark the effect of such\nan unnatural solution of the question. A commercial school, dissociated\nfrom all the cultural surroundings and atmosphere of a university, mu^t\ninevitably tend to produce the narrow, rather than the educated, man.\nThe\nuniversity ideals.\n\ndetermined.\n\n—\n\nfuture leaders of the business world may be one-sided geniuses, or they\nmay have that progressive breadth of view which distinguishes the university\n\ngraduate.\n\nIf the latter is to\n\nbe offered in a university.\n\nadvanced\nplane.\n\nbe part of our ideal, the desired training must\n\nOnly in\n\nthis\n\nway can\n\nthe whole system of\n\ncommercial training be maintained upon the highest cultural\n\nFrom this point of view, a service of conspicuous merit has been\n\nrendered, both to the cause of education and to the business world, by those\nuniversities and colleges which have established the courses 'in preparation for\n\nbusiness and the study of the law as integral parts of their curricula.\n\nbe thankful that university ideals have broadened.\n\nLet us\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n704\n\n[Business\n\nA second result pertains to the arrangement of studies. A new phrase,\n\"the professionalizing of business,\"\n\nis\n\ncome into vogue.\n\nIt refers to the\n\ngrowing tendency to evolve separate and distinct occupations or vocations\nin the expanding branches of commerce, industry, and finance.\n\nlanguage, this is a process of differentiation.\nlines:\n\n{a)\n\nbetween different businesses;\n\npositions within a business;\n\nih)\n\nIn Spencerian\nalong three\n\nIt is taking place\n\nbetween the higher and the lower\n\nand (<:)• as between different kinds of vocation\n\nwithin the same grade of the same business.\n\nAs a consequence of the differentiation between businesses, it has become\nmore difficult to pass from one branch to another. Each branch requires its\npecuHar training and apprenticeship; each requires the entire energies, the\nresources, and the special preparation of a well-equipped man.\n\nAgain, by reason of the second differentiation, there are gradually arising\nseparate, distinct grades of business service.\nto pass from one to the other;\n\nIt is\n\nby no means impossible\n\nbut it is a noticeable fact that an increasing\n\nnumber of young men enter directly into the higher branches of service, after\nTo enter successfully upon this\nsuperior grade of work, superior ability and training are required.\nAs a result of the third process of differentiation, there are growing up\n\nundergoing a period of special preparation.\n\ncertain sharply defined\n\nbusiness\n\ncallings\n\nor\n\nprofessions.\n\nThe gradation\n\nfrom a simple employment to an expert vocation, and from the latter to a\nprofession,\n\nis\n\nnow more clearly marked than ever before.\n\nOur business\n\ndevelopment has given rise to a series of such professions which are of importance to the educational world.\n\naccountancy.\n\nA striking instance is seen in the field of\n\nFrom the general utihty-clerk there have evolved the book-\n\nkeeper, the expert accountant, and finally the profession of accountancy,\n\nwith its high standards and ideals,\n\nits\n\nnational\n\nand state associations and\n\ninstitutes, its schools of training, its state boards of examiners, and its valuable\n\nand growing professional\n\nliterature.\n\nOther such\n\ndistinct\n\nprofessions are now in course of growth and formation;\n\nvocations\n\nthe railway freight or passenger agent, the bank cashier, etc.\n\nand\n\ncredit man,\n\ne. g., the\n\nNo words need\n\nbe wasted in proving the importance of these occupations and the high rank\n\nwhich they now occupy in the business world.\n\nThe head of a modem com-\n\nmercial enterprise relies upon a cabinet of such men, just as the president of\nthe United States relies upon his department secretaries.\nists,\n\nthey form the very brains of the body commercial.\n\nAs trained special-\n\nAn interesting result\n\nof the introduction of university courses in preparation for business is seen in\n\nthe recognition now given to these new business professions and differentiated\ncallings.\n\nAt Pennsylvania we have found it advisable to arrange a grouping\n\nof the subjects given in the latter years of the course so as to\n\nadmit of an\n\nappropriate measure of specialization for certain of these careers.\n\nA third result of the introduction of the higher commercial curriculum\nhas been the contagious spirit of enthusiasm which animates both students\n\nand teachers in the new subjects,\n\nA firm and inspiring belief in the combina-\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRESULTS OF HIGHER COURSES IN COMMERCE\n\ntion of culture\nis\n\n705\n\nand efficiency, and a consciousness that the new curriculum\n\non probation in the eyes of the educational and business world, have kindled\n\na feehng akin to the missionary spirit, a determination to give the new system\nthe best and freest opportunities for success.\n\nAt Pennsylvania not only have\n\nmembers of the faculty given very practical evidences of this spirit, but the\nstudents also have entered with enthusiasm into the movement. Acting upon\ntheir own initiative, they have formed a students' association which takes up\nall\n\nconceivable matters connected with higher business education.\n\nIts mem-\n\nbers welcome the incoming men and make them feel at home, secure employ-\n\nment for such as require financial aid, engage speakers of prominence from\nthe business and legal world to address the student body, consult with the\nfaculty and authorities of the university on appropriate questions of importance,\nprepare and give to inquirers the necessary information concerning the work\nof the Wharton School, and perform other functions of a similar nature. The\nexistence of such an association implies a close bond of unity between the m^n\nwho are taking up the new courses, and is one of the most encouraging signs\nof progress.\n\nLastly, the record of the graduates\n\nforms the supreme test of results.\n\nand former students of the school\n\nThe Wharton School, altho it is the oldest\n\nand the largest institution in the field, began only twenty-three years ago\nwith a class of two members. A majority of the graduates have been out of\ncollege walls less than a decade, and only partial returns on the records of\nthese men are available.\n\nIn spite of these facts, however, the list contains\n\nthe names of men who have been able to make successful use of their training\nin a great variety of businesses, in the public service, journalism, and teaching.\nIt contains directors, general manager, treasurers, secretaries, vice-presidents,\n\nand president of financial, industrial, and commercial corporations; newspaper editors; lawyers; university, high-school, and public-school teachers;\na minister in the United States diplomatic service; a United States congress-\n\nman; a member of the United States Isthmian Canal Commission, of the\nPorto Rican Code Commission; commissioner of education of Porto Rico;\nand other officials and men of influence and public usefulness. Is it too much\nto claim, as a result of\n\nsuch a record, that higher commercial education has\n\npassed the experimental stage and has become a strong, valuable, and necessary\npart of university work ?\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Thursday Morning, July 6, 1905\nThe meeting of the Department of Child Study was called to order in the Young\nPeople's Temple, Ocean Grove, at 9:30 A. M., July 6.\n\nCharles W. Waddle, of the University of Texas, was elected acting secretary of the\n\ndepartment.\nPresident E. G. Lancaster, of Olivet College, Olivet, Mich., delivered the \"President's\n\nAddress,\" following which Dr. G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, Worcester,\nMass., read a paper on \"Child Study in the University and College.\"\n\nProfessor E. A.\n\nKirkpatrick was called to the chair while President Lancaster briefly discussed Dr. Hall's\npaper.\n\n\"Child Study in Normal Schools\" was the subject of a paper by Frank Webster\nSmith, assistant professor of pedagogy of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nDiscussion was led by E. A. Kirkpatrick, of the department of psychology and child study,\nState Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass.\n\nMiss Harriet Marsh, principal of Hancock School, Detroit, Mich., read a paper on\n\" Child Study in Special Clubs.\"\n\nMiss Isabel Lawrence, superintendent of the training department of the State Normal\nThis paper\nwas discussed briefly by Mrs. Pauline Steinen, member of the Board of Education, Toledo,\nSchool, St. Cloud, Minn., read a paper on \"A Problem for Women's Clubs.\"\n\nOhio.\n\nThe president then appointed as a Committee of Nominations:\nFrank Webster Smith, Lincoln, Nebr.\nE. A. Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg, Mass.\nMrs. H. A. Woodward, New York city.\nAdjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Friday Morning, July 7\nWilliam H. Burnham, assistant professor of pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester,\nMass., read a paper on \"Education from a Genetic Point of View,\" which was discussed\n\nby A. Caswell Ellis, associate professor of the science and art of education. University of\nTexas, Austin, Tex.\nDr. Amy E. Tanner, professor of philosophy, Wilson College, Chambersburg, Pa.,\nread a paper on the \"Relation of the Child's Development to His Control.\"\n\nThis paper\n\nwas discussed by Edwin Grant Dexter, professor of education, University of IHinois,\nUrbana, 111.\nThis was followed by an address by Stuart H. Rowe, head of the department of\npsychology and pedagogy, Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N. Y., on\nthe subject, \"The School and the Child's Physical Development.\"\n\nA discussion followed\n\nby Frank G. Bruner, head assistant of the department of child study, public schools,\nChicago, 111.\n\nThe last paper before the department was delivered by Louis N. Wilson, hbrarian\nof Clark University, Worcester, Mass., on \"Literature of Child Study.\"\n\n707\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n7o8\n\n[Child Study\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following for ofl5cers of the department\nfor the ensuing year, viz.\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President Edwin Grant Dexter, of Illinois.\nFor Vice-President H. H. Goddard, of Pennsylvania.\nFor Secretary Charles W. Waddle, of Texas.\n\nThe secretary was instructed by the members of the department to cast the ballot\nof the department for the officers nominated.\n\nThis was done, and the officers were\n\ndeclared duly elected.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\nCharles W. Waddle, Acting Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\nE.\n\nG.\n\nLANCASTER, PRESIDENT OF OLIVET COLLEGE, OLIVET, MICH.\n\nThis is the twenty-fifth anniversary of the child-study movement in AmerIn the summer of 1880 President Hall began his first investigations, in\n\nica.\n\nBoston, into the contents of children's minds on entering school.\n\nDr. Bowditch\n\nmade his historic investigations of the physical growth of children at about\nthe same time.\n\nThese led at once to widely extended studies into the nature\n\nof the child.\nIt would be interesting to give a history of the development of child study\n\nin this country during these twenty-five years, but that has been partially\n\ndone by others and could not be included in this brief address.\nIt\n\nmay be said in general that, while many teachers have no knowledge\n\nof child study, the effects of\n\nit\n\nhave reached every schoolroom in the land.\n\nTextbooks have been modified, and the ideas of leading investigators have\npercolated down thru superintendents, principals, and lecturers to the youngest\nteachers, until their work has been greatly influenced.\n\nThe child today has\n\na lesson better suited to his capacity, a kindness shown him born of inteUigent\n\n—not sentimentaHty—and a regard for his health and recreation\n\nsympathy\n\nnever known before.\n\nDuring the past year the greatest event in child study has been the wide-\n\nThe book\nwas published before our last meeting, but so few\" had read it that is was\npractically unknown to the educational world, and hence I shall speak of it\nas an event of the past year. In my judgment, no single publication has\never influenced education to the extent to which Hall's Adolescence is now\ninfluencing it.\nIt is true that Rousseau's ^mile kept Immanuel Kant from\nhis usual afternoon walk for a whole week, and otherwise had a great influence\non the world. The pubHcations of Pestalozzi and his methods of work have\ngreatly influenced, and practically reconstructed, education.\nBoth of these\nspread reading of the large work by Dr. Hall on Adolescence.\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n709\n\nmen caused the educators to realize that methods might be improved, that\nobjects were better than words for class-room instruction, and that the child\n\nBut no one before Dr. Hall has\n\nshould be treated in a sympathetic way.\n\ntaken up child-Ufe scientifically, and by most thoro and extended investigations\ninto the psychic and physical life of the child has revealed to us the nature\n\nand activities and phases of development of the child's mind.\n\nNo work of\n\nthe past century can be compared with Adolescence save Darwin's Origin\nof Species.\n\nI have discovered groups of teachers and educated people meeting\n\nregularly two or three evenings a week thruout the past winter for the careful\n\nreading and study of Hall's Adolescence,\n\nFrom them I have heard most\n\nenthusiastic expressions of appreciation of the work.\n\nA prominent physician\n\nin a western state said to me recently that in a great convention of medical\n\nmen held in a large western city it was stated, with general approval, that the\npractice of medicine with children up to the time of complete maturity would\n\nbe revolutionized by this work on Adolescence, because of its very scientific\ndiscussion of growth and diseases of children.\n\nOne general idea is certainly\n\ngrowing in the consciousness of the teachers of the country, and is gradually\ndestroying the old system of education.\n\nIt is the idea that the child passes\n\nthru phases of development, and at certain stages is more interested in some\nthings than he ever will be again in his whole life.\n\nAs a consequence, the\n\nwhole educational system is being adjusted to the natural development of\nthe child.\n\nCourses of study may no longer be prescribed by the adult mind,\n\nbeginning with general and abstract truths and gradually working down to\nparticular facts, as if the child-mind were perfectly developed and ready to\n\ntake up a subject logically.\nof education.\n\nThis work, I trust, has forever killed that notion\nBut the influence of the book is by no means confined to the\n\nprofessions of medicine and teaching.\nIt has brought before parents everywhere the hitherto unsuspected life of the adolescent, and certainly will\nmodify the treatment of young men and young women in the home. If the\n\npast year, or the past twenty-five years, had done nothing else in the field\nof education than produce this work of Dr. Hall on Adolescence, the world\nwould be well repaid for the time and energy put forth. I am speaking with\n\nstudied conservatism.\n\nBut in more general ways child study has advanced during the past year.\nNearly every college, university, and normal school beyond provincial New\n\nEngland has a chair of pedagogy and child study.\n\nExcellent courses are\n\nbeing given in practically all of the great state universities of the West, and\nparticularly in the\n\nnormal schools.\n\nThere has been an unprecedented call\n\nfor teachers of child psychology and pedagogy during the past year.\nall of\n\nNearly\n\nthe teachers of child study in the central and far West are teaching in\n\nthe summer schools, and for that reason cannot take part in this program.\n\nTo be more specific, the following universities and colleges are giving regular instruction in child study:\n\nCahfornia;\n\nthe universities of Washington, Oregon, and\n\nStanford University;\n\nthe Universities of Texas\n\nand Colorado;\n\nDenvelr University; Colorado College; the Universities of Nebraska, Kansa«?,\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n7IO\nIowa,\n\nIllinois,\n\nIndiana and Wisconsin;\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe University of Chicago;\n\nCollege; Cornell University; Syracuse University; the Baltimore\n\nColumbia University; the University\n\nCollege;\n\nof\n\nOlivet\n\nWoman's\n\nWestern Pennsylvania;\n\nToronto University; Smith, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Wellesley, and Wilson\n\nand nearly all of the best normal schools in the United States.\n\nColleges;\n\nIt\n\nis impossible in this paper to give a detailed statement of the progress made\n\nin these schools during the past year.\n\nIn foreign countries the growth of the child-study movement has been\neven greater than in America.\n\nIn England the British Child Study Associa-\n\ntion has done active work and is contributing valuable data to the science of\nchild study.\n\nIn France there is manifested a very deep interest in child study.\n\nBinet has pubUshed an extended and valuable study of the intelHgence of the\nchild,\n\nand the department of education at the Sorbonne leads a society for\n\nthe study of the child.\n\nIn Italy seventy prominent educators have this year\n\nexpressed a desire to co-operate with Clark University in\n\nits\n\ninternational\n\nchild-study investigations.\n\nThe surprise of the year comes from Poland.\n\nThe Polish Pedagogical\n\nSeminary pubHshed at Warsaw, has put out many translations of American\nworks, and the first chapters of Hall's Adolescence have been translated and\ny\n\nare pubhshed before this time.\n\nMost valuable data have been sent to Clark\n\nUniversity from Poland as a contribution to the international work.\n\nJapan,\n\nin the lead as usual, gives a three-year course in child study in the Woman's\n\nUniversity of Tokyo.\n\nTheir courses are based on the investigations made by\n\nDr. Hall and his associates.\nexcellent\n\nOther countries have done and are still doing\nwork in child study; some of the first studies came from Russia,\n\nand the interest there is still alive.\n\nGermany has, of course, made the greatest\n\nand has given to the world the\nEveryone\nknows the work of Dr. Key in Sweden, and its remarkable influence on the\ntreatment of the child in relation to its growth and health. It has been said\nby a great scientist, Dr. Minot, of Harvard, that the discovery of the fact\nthat all disease or sickness is due to fatigue is the greatest discovery of history,\nand is worth more to the world than all inventions of the past century.\nThat discovery has come from the child-study movement.\n\ninvestigation into the hygiene of the child,\n\nmost valuable publications on the physical conditions of child-life.\n\nEducators in all lands begin to reahze that there is but one foundation\nfor pedagogy, and that foundation is the scientific knowledge of the physical\n\nand mental life of the child.\n\nCHILD STUDY IN THE UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE\nG.\n\nSTANLEY HALL, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS.\n\nIn the university, where research should be the chief aim, many methods\n\nhave been developed.\n\nI can here describe, and perhaps a trifle idealize, those\n\nwith which I am most familiar.\n\nIt is\n\na plain story, uninteresting except to\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE\n\nthose concerned for the advancement of knowledge.\n\n711\n\nThe chief requisites\n\nan expert who must* have a good reading knowledge of at least\nFrench and German, and understand the theory and construction of averages\nare, first,\n\nand graphic curves. The simple apparatus for testing the eye, ear, and voice,\nand for making anthropometric curves, and the other hygienic and physiological\ntests usually found in a psychological laboratory, must also be understood.\nThere has also developed a logical method of some detail which is pecuHar\nto this class of work, altho this is not the place to describe it.\n\nThe functions\n\nof this assistant should be personally to guide and induct beginners, and not\nto devise original problems.\n\nAnother function of university research is correspondence.\ncountry and the rest\ndefinite\n\nAt Clark we\n\n—only two-thirds whom are\nscattered thruout the world —who have pledged us a\n\nhave now a list of some fifty people\n\nof\n\nin this\n\namount of assistance, such as can be rendered by correspondence.\n\nThe only return they exact of us is that we send them each printed copies\nThus, wherever we desire simple measureof all our publications in the field.\nments, or questionnaire returns, we look over our Hst, select those most competent, who have not yet rendered their annual quota of work, and send our\nSome of these individuals have attained a considerable degree\nspecifications.\nof expertness,\n\nand a few have even worked independently and published\nA number have taken special courses in details and\n\npapers of their own.\n\ntechnique in the sessions of our summer schools.\n\nAnother correspondence function is that of answering letters, which have\ngrown very greatly in the last few years in numbers. First, there are new\nWithin\nsocieties constantly being estabHshed in this and other countries.\nthe past year, for instance, a very large association of physicians in Italy,\n\nunder the guidance of university experts, has been formed and has sought our\nco-operation.\n\nAnother has been founded in Prague, which has branches\n\nthru Bohemia, yet another in Poland, another in India, and one in Spain.\n\nDespite the linguistic barriers, it has been possible in a few cases to secure\nactive and valuable aid, and we hope to make suitable return therefor.\n\nA new branch of our work, also established this year, concerns itself with\nmissionaries.\n\nScores of these in various lands have taken interest in, and\n\nanswered many of, our questions, and we are greatly indebted to this new\ncontingent, not only for their contributions to mission pedagogy, but also for\ntheir help in understanding child-life\n\nand nurture in their respective lands.\n\nThis department has also added somewhat to our literature, as it has enabled\nus to secure valuable memoirs, not otherwise obtainable, which, if we cannot\nread,\n\nsome student may.\n\nAnother correspondence\n\nfield\n\nis\n\nconcerned with exceptional children.\n\nScores and hundreds of anxious parents or friends turn to the paidologist for\nexpert counsel with descriptions of symptoms and photographs, etc.\n\nFrom\n\nwe rarely derive any scientific material of value, and in most cases can\nrender Httle or no aid. Occasionally, however, we can suggest examination for\nall this\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n712\n\ndeafness, or adenoid, nervous, or hereditary disease;\n\nan expert, or literature.\n\n[Child Study\n\nsuggest an institution,\n\nSome months ago I wfote a brief editorial in a medical\n\njournal suggesting a new kind of medical expert to deal with pubescence and\nits diseases.\n\nI think I have had a score of letters since, from physicians who\n\ndesire to enter this new field, and three write me that they have already done\n\ntho I know not with what qualification. I predict that within ten years\nwe shall have the beginning of a new specialty Hkely to rank with pediatrics\nso,\n\nand gynecology.\n\nIt used to be said that in the early teens children were not\n\nyet immune from the diseases of infancy and not yet fully exposed to those\nof maturity, but liable to both in mild forms.\n\nWe now know, not only that\n\nthis is true, but that there are specific diseases due to this age alone.\n\nNow, all these functions could to some extent be discharged by one capable\nperson, altho, with plenty of means, they might be so enlarged as to give full\n\noccupation to several.\n\nThe university study of children needs an expert in its literature.\nis\n\nThis\n\nnot yet very copious, and a few thousand titles probably comprise all that\n\nworth anyone's while to know, but this material is often hidden by a vast\nmass of cheap and almost worthless material, sometimes bearing attractive\nand very deceptive titles. This evil, which is the curse of every department\nit is\n\nof education, has, I regret to say, already grown large and formidable in this\n\nhence the bibliographer must learn how to distinguish between the\nand at least the tenth best, and do something to help much of the printed\nmatter here to speedy oblivion. Another difficulty is found in the fact that\nthis literature is very widely scattered.\nA few of the best articles are brief,\nand printed in the monthly, weekly, and occasionally only in the daily journals.\nOther material is found in the transactions of philological, anthropological,\n\nfield;\nfirst\n\npsychological, theological, pathological, and various other societies.\n\nare difficult to secure.\n\nReprints\n\nA few of the best are found in doctors' dissertations.\n\nIndeed, I have sometimes thought that one librarian's assistant might profitably give her entire time to running down and securing, by exchange, purchase, or begging, this material, which must, of course, all be classified and\n\ncataloged by subject rather minutely.\n\nI lay stress\n\non this subject because\n\nmany investigations have simply repeated work previously done elsewhere,\nand thus involved a waste of time which might otherwise be saved.\nConnected with this work there ought to be one ideal realized, toward\nwhich several publications are striving; viz., a central archive which shall\nattempt to present descriptive bibliographies of everything of importance\n\nThis Cehtralhlatt function would very greatly help our work,\nand it must be developed before the department can have the apparatus and\nfacilities which other full-fledged academic departments enjoy.\nConnected with all this should be a seminary, where all advanced pupils\ninterested should meet weekly or fortnightly to pool their knowledge for each\nother's benefit.\nHere much of the material for the publication described\nabove could be prepared. A great advantage of this, too, is that mind thus\npublished.\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE\n\n713\n\nsharpens mind, and there can thus be developed that critical and enthusiastic\n\ntemper which is so essential for the investigator in this new and complex field.\nHere, too, different investigators read for each other's benefit and criticism\ntheir papers,\n\nand they find the new logic which is beginning to emerge, and\n\nwhich awaits some new Bacon.\n\nThere must also be some room or two convenient to the street, where\nchildren can go from the schools in small groups to be subjected to the hygienic\n\nand other tests.\n\nIn the instrument department there should also be small\n\nsets of loan apparatus in duplicate, such as that use^ for testing the condition\n\nof the air in the schoolroom, the intensity of light, the temperature,\n\nthe usual physical tests.\n\nand for\n\nWe have found it greatly to the advantage of the\n\ndepartment to make occasional loans of this kind, as well as of books, sometimes to a great distance.\n\nNot only teachers interested, who desire to collect\n\ndata, can be thus helped, but also professors in other institutions can inter-\n\nchange their facilities, material, and instruments with mutual profit.\n\nThe most difficult problem for university child study is the selection of\ntopics for research.\n\nHere incessant reading, thinking, observation in schools,\n\nsometimes on animals and the insane, and savages,\nsuggestion.\n\nmay bring the fruitful\n\nHalf the battle is to find a really fresh and pregnant subject\n\nthat enables one to steal a march upon nature by approaching her from a new\n\npoint of view.\n\nA notebook should be incessantly at hand for the jotting\n\ndown of first impressions\n\nas they occur.\n\nIn\n\nmy experience, only about\n\none in twenty-five of these ever survives a second thought, and the best of\n\nthem all are those so simple and near at hand that it would seem that almost\nany fool would have thought of them at first.\nThese topics are of two kinds, one scientific and the other practical, altho\nsome features of both usually inhere in all work. Most of the theoretical\nproblems are those which shed light upon human genesis, or they pertain to\nchild-fife before the school or\n\neven kindergarten.\n\nMy own chief interest is\n\nand always has been, in this class of child study, and I have the most enthusiastic belief in its future,\n\nholding even that it will sooner or later transform\n\nour knowledge of man and bring every department of it into a new unity.\n\nThe time is certainly coming when we shall realize that there is no true knowledge except the full description of all stages of development; and if man is\nthe highest product of creation, and his own self-knowledge the highest type\nof knowledge, we can already forecast a little what this knowledge is to mean\n\nand bring to the race. It means a new correlation and co-ordination of all\nthe highest knowledge of the world, more economic and pedagogic in form,\nand richer in contents. Indeed, ahnost all my idealism focuses in this general\ndirection, and it is at this point where my homely theme this morning empties\ninto the great ocean of future science.\nFinally,\n\non the practical side, academic child study has already brought\n\ncertain results that can hardly be tabulated yet, but are very precious.\nis a\n\nnew zest for childhood abroad in the world.\n\nThere\nThat means a new love of\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "4\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n71\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe naive and unconscious which affects all our philosophy and all our art,\nand is one of the most sahent signs of our times. Men are a Httle weary of\nconsciousness and ratiocination, and they want to sound the depths of the\nsoul .below the threshold, and to feel the larger pulses of life that make\nintelligence their sport.\nOf this intuitive soul of the world the child is the\nchief organ.\nThus, parenthood itself is coming to be more desirable. There\nis reason to believe that many men and women are married today who would\nnot have been so but for this movement, and very many children owe their\nexistence to it.\n\nThe British Society for Stirpiculture aims to promote wedlock\n\nin its biological season, and the multiplication of generations, and raises this\n\nduty to one of national and ethnic moment.\nanother large chapter.\n\nHere, too,\n\nwe are beginning\n\n^^Periculum est credere aut non credere.^'\n\nCHILD STUDY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\nFRANK WEBSTER SMITH, PH.D., ADJUNCT-PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBR.\nProfessional training for teachers is as yet in an unorganized condition.\n\nThe provinces of elementary teacher- training and secondary teacher- training\nhave not as yet been deHmited.\n\nThat the two classes of teachers require\n\nradically different training for their special fields\n\nis\n\napparent, as they have\n\ndo with different studies and with different psychologies, and thus with\ndifferent training-needs, with different pupil- attitudes toward training,\n\nto\n\nand, as a result of\n\nmixed.\n\nNot\n\nall,\n\nwith different methods.\n\nBut today conditions are\n\nonly do normal schools and departments for the professional\n\ntraining of teachers vary from a close approximation to academic\n\nwork to\n\nreal conditions for presenting the theory and practice of teaching, but normal\n\nschools frequently attempt to prepare teachers for both elementary and second-\n\nary schools; and university departments of pedagogy, while devoting themselves primarily to the training of secondary teachers, send\n\ninto the elementary field.\n\nmany graduates\n\nThis is perhaps inevitable, partly because of the\n\npresent inadequate supply of trained teachers.\n\nBut it is becoming evident\n\nto both university\n\nand normal-school men that the normal school is better\n\nfitted for training\n\nelementary teachers, while the legitimate province of the\n\nuniversity\n\nis\n\nto train secondary teachers, because of the differences I\n\nbriefly pointed out.\n\nThis is the status under present organization.\n\nhave\n\nI beHeve,\n\nhowever, that provision should be made for training both classes of teachers\nin\n\nthe\n\nsame institution. Elementary and secondary schools are closely\nThere should be some association in the training of their teachers.\n\nassociated.\nIt\n\nwould make for unity in our system.\n\nAgain, a teacher, to be efficient in\n\nany grade, needs to know what precedes and what follows, and so should be\nin a position to look all along the line.\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n715\n\nThe ideal place for such a school, which may be the central normal school\nof the state, is in connection with a substantial college or university, which can\n\nfurnish the equipment for training the two classes of teachers in separate\n\ndepartments and can\n\ngrowing teachers\n\nillustrate\n\nthe whole educational process.\n\nmay profit also by the broader views and\n\nHere the\nand\n\nculture,\n\nthe general opportunities and inspiration of a community which presents the\n\nhigher grades of work.\n\nHere they are more likely to be led to larger ideas of\n\nacademic work.\n\nThe course in child study which I suggest is for elementary teachers in\nwhatever institution they may be trained.\n\nAt present it would apply par-\n\nticularly to normal schools, as they are concerned especially with teachers of\nthis grade.\n\nHappily child study has come to be an essential subject for all teachers.\nIts services are so\n\ncommon and so deeply set in our present system that we\n\nsometimes forget to refer them to their real source.\n\nWe have only to ask,\n\nWhence have come the medical inspection of schools, the reform in kinder-\n\nWhy\nWhy have we modified our ideas\n\ngarten work, improvement in school environment and school hygiene ?\n\nhave we adopted the adjustable desk?\n\ngovernment? Why have we enriched curriculum and method?\nand a hundred other similar questions, to have our memories refreshed as\n\nof school\n\nto the effects of child study.\n\nThe study is broader than notebook and tabu-\n\nlations, valuable as these are.\n\nA pubUc-school teacher told me the other day that after she took up the\nstudy she found herself conducting her school with less tension in herself and\nher children, because she appreciated their attitude toward things and honored\nit,\n\nand that the difference was appreciatively noted by parents.\n\nA college\n\nprofessor writes me:\n\nTo question the advisability of attacking the problems of the teacher from that [child\nstudy] as a starting-point seems to me like questioning the validity of the ancient principles\nof \"simple to complex,\" \"concrete to abstract,\" etc\n\nMy\n\nhabit of thought with\nregard to the attention given to child study has come to be almost precisely that which I\n\nhave with regard to my study of the elements of physics, chemistry, biology, or psychology,\nas (for my profession) simply unquestionably essential as the apparatus of my thinking\n\nand acting\n\nThen I am able to regard it, besides that, as, for general culture pur-\n\nposes, a study which lacks nothing of the scientific dignity and worth of any other subject\n\nof study, while it has a place in that high scale of humanistic studies which includes the\nbiological, psychological, and sociological.\n\nThe elementary teacher may have feelings as to child study corresponding\nto those of the college man.\n\nEveryone whom I consult acknowledges the practical value of the study.\nIt is, in fact, more essential to genuine teaching than general psychology.\n\nThruout a course in child study I would have two questions uppermost,\n(i)\n\nWhat is the child?\n\n(2)\n\nWhat does he demand in school environment\n\nand equipment, in the physical Ufe of the school, in curriculum, method, and\norganization, to give him sound development and make him most efficient?\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n7l6\n\n[Chnd Study\n\nEach of these questions involves a knowledge of the so-called psychical and\nThe study can be and\nmust be practical, putting the teacher in practical touch with the child, and\ngiving him a more practical knowledge of the means of meeting child needs.\nthe so*balled physical; in a word, of the whole child.\n\nFor this purpose I would suggest the following points for a normal-school\ncourse:\n1.\n\nA study of three well-defined periods of child-life as represented in\n\nthe elementary school, but particularly the period with which one is to be\n\nmost intimately connected.\n\nThe period beginning at about seven and closing\n\nat about nine needs far more attention than it has received in school programs,\n\nbecause of physical conditions.\n\nThe elementary teacher needs to know the\n\nmass of undigested\nHere will come in the dominant interests, ideals, and activities of\n\ntypical characteristics of these periods rather than a\nminutiae.\n\nthe periods, as well as the less conspicuous forces at work which are sometimes\nforgotten.\n\n—\n\nBy giving close attention to the larger and louder facts to the\nwe may neglect the rudi-\n\nmore highly developed and conspicuous powers\n\n—\n\nments, the germinal powers, which require nutrition and nutritive treatment\nto prevent maldevelopment.\n\nA one-sided educational diet is easy to prepare,\n\nbut is liable to cause intellectual and physical dyspepsia later, because we\nfail to detect these more modest claims and meet them.\n\nOne of the most essential points, however, is to study so-called \"nascent\nIt is essential to know the\nsigns of the times to know that they are not merely signs of something, but\nAn interest or activity may be dwarfed\nsigns of this or that particular interest.\npermanently because some teacher does not see the signs and know how to\nstages\" for the development of various interests.\n\n—\n\nmeet the occasion.\n2.\n\nThe interests, activities, and ideals which I have referred to are both\nand psychical. There is a deep-seated correlation here. But we\n\nphysical\n\nneed to study also a special correlation where neglect will bring equal danger\neven a more conspicuous, tho not more serious, danger.\n\nThe teacher must\n\nstudy the common and typical physical defects, their psychical bearings, and\nthe safest methods of treating them, so as to make wise suggestions or direct\n\nand here a little parent study is advisable\nto assure helpful co-operation of the home, so that the teacher's knowledge of\nto the proper source of health;\n\nthe physical may have tactful applications to home life.\nIt is not so simple a matter as it might at first sight appear really to know\n\nand appreciate the typical characteristics of any period of child-life. It is\neasy enough and pleasant enough to go to good books and read as to various\ngroups of characteristics, and to discuss them in class. It is even stimulating\nBut I take it that results of such study would be comparatively\nto do this.\nbarren. In the first place, we must distinguish between normal characteristics and those which are due to the injudicious use and handling of the normal\n\nby unskillful hands.\n\nA study of the latter is quite as important as a study\n\nthe others.\n\nprevent us from taking as natural those qualities\n\nof\n\nIt will\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nCHILD STUDY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n717\n\nand attitudes that are due to **art and man's device,\" and it will give large\nsuggestions for the adjustment of educational forces to the normal\ncharacteristics.\n\nIn the second place, the growing teacher must see, not merely the general\nattitude of the period in question, but its particular attitudes or relations in\n\nvarious directions\n\n—relations\n\nto psychical, and especially physical, growth, rate\n\nof growth and correlations of growth, to physical culture, including games, to\n\ncertain pathological states, to migratory and truant instincts, to the develop-\n\nment of psychic powers and forces, such as attention and imagination, to\nhistoric sense, to language power, to social eflGiciency and initiative, and to\nvarious other powers and interests which are admirably summarized in Dr.\nChamberlain's book on The Child. It will thus appear that the teacher, aside\nfrom the typical periods which I first mentioned, will multiply periods, as\nhe follows out one Une of activity after another. This will lead the young\nteacher to confusion, and must be avoided. By studying the relations of his\noriginal periods to these various points the study will be simpler and clearer.\n\nIn the third place, the teacher should study the subjects of the curriculum\n\nand the methods of teaching them on the basis of this child study and in\nShe will thus be in a position to look on the development\nconnection with it.\nof a subject, be it language, arithmetic, or history, as the development of the\n\nchild in contact with the subject.\n\nThis is the use of the subject which is most\n\ngenuinely practical and will bring the most practical results in\n\nlife.\n\nIt is\n\nstrikingly at variance with the other use in which we are following an abstract\n\nidea of utiHty.\n\nThe idea here is concrete.\n\nIn developing a course in history\n\nor art or literature or language (I use traditional terms), we take the child's\n\npoint of view, begin with the best that appeals to him and helps him at the\n\ngiven stage, and lead him naturally to new points of view,\n\nnew and better\nSo subjects become real forces. The whole\nprocess takes on a larger, more human meaning. The quota for a grade will\n\nachievements,\n\nnew\n\nideals.\n\nno longer be a bit cut off from the logically systematized subject, but those\nfacts and forces in the subject which are naturally related to the child;\n\nfirst,\n\nthose which offer the best employment of his activities; second, those which\nafford natural equipment, in knowledge and otherwise, for social functions\n\nand the\n\nlatter\n\nOur manner of\nown object. This\n\nare pecuHarly dependent on the former.\n\ngrading subjects in the past has tended to defeat\ngrading has been greatly modified by child study.\n\nits\n\nKind of material presented,\n\nand order and method of presentation, have been greatly changed. The work\nneeds to be perfected in these fines, and new appHcations must be made.\nEven supposing this should result in the omission of half the topics now given\nin some study, pupils would go out with such a grasp of principles and forms\nthat new knowledge and applications would come with the greatest ease, as\noccasion arises. But extensive omissions would not be necessary if we understand the periods when certain phases of work can be done most naturally,\nWe shall even find that we can in this way do\nquickly, and economically.\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n71\n\nfChUd Study\n\nmore in a given time, and do it more efficiently, or can do all that is necessary\nin so much shorter time that pressure of school life may be relieved or needed\n\nimprovements be made. The greatest gains from the point of view of subjects\nof the curriculum would come thru efforts to rearrange them according to\nthe logic of child-life and child-needs\n\nsubject at the psychologic moments.\n\nand to take up different phases of a\nWe have logicaHzed subjects and\n\ncourses by a kind of logic that misses the development of the child.\n\nnot the logic of nature.\n\nIt is the logic of\n\nThis is\n\nformal system which appeals to\n\nadult development, and has its place, like all phases of our inheritances, but\nat a later period.\n\nEqually important is it to study school hygiene, school organization, and\nschool environment in connection with child study.\n\nMore can be accom-\n\nmeans than by almost any\nEven their silent force is immense. But time forbids\nothers we can think of.\nme to go into detail here, tho they furnish, for me, some of the most interesting\nplished for the pupil's development thru these\n\nand suggestive topics connected with school work.\n\nA study of these fundamental matters in school life and school economy\nfrom this point of view is a most legitimate part of child study. For continuing\nand completing this work, for working out its applications under the most\nfavorable circumstances, and thus for enriching a course in child study for\nthe elementary teacher and inspiring her in it, we need a series of experimental\nschools managed by experts having a thoro appreciation of child-life, endowed\n\nwith ample funds, suppUed with the best teachers in thoro sympathy with the\nwork and its principles, and unhampered by unsympathetic elements. Here\n\nmight be applied the well-supported discoveries in child study. Here, I\nwe should demonstrate that stronger pupils, stronger physically and\n\nbelieve,\n\nmentally, would be developed in a given time than at present.\n\nthe time would be shortened.\n\nI feel confident\n\nOur present waste, and the amount and kind\n\nof waste, incident to ill-adjustment\n\nand indefiniteness and misconception of\n\neducational growth, would be shown completely.\n\nFavorable conditions for\n\ndevelopment constitute one of the fundamental principles of evolution,\n\nand\n\nare entirely consistent with the doctrine of the survival of the fittest.\n\nBut it is more important to treat of the conditions of child study than to\nouthne a course.\n\nThe idea of child study without children is amazing, but\n\nit is practically the child study of today, as carried on by prospective teachers,\n\nwe except a rather limited and superficial contact with children. The study\nshould be carried on in the midst of children, at work and at play, and under\n\nif\n\nthe constant guidance of an expert teacher, herself constantly in touch with\nThis is, to my mind, the first requisite for a child-study course.\nchildren.\n\nThe teacher-student thus meets children directly and indirectly.\n\nShe studies\n\nthem under the most inspiring stimulus and guidance, and grows to understand\nthem, to appreciate them, to sympathize with them, and thus attains some\nfitness to teach them.\n\nThe study I speak of is thus not of the lecture-room,\n\nnor of a separate department of psychology. The work must have a concrete\nPari passu\nbasis in a first-hand study of children under masterly guidance.\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN NORMAL SCHOOLS\n\n719\n\nwith this study students should read standard Hterature on the subject.\n\nBooks\n\non Sunday-school pedagogy now furnish some of the best reading on child\nClass-room work should consist only of discussions and conferences\nstudy.\nas to observations\n\nand readings.\n\nSuggestions in the line I have followed\n\nwere first made, I think, in an article on ''Normal Schools\" by Dr. Hall.\nbelieve they promise the best results attainable.\n\nI\n\nI\n\nwould add this, that the\n\nteacher of child-psychology should be someone connected with the practice\n\ndepartment of the normal school\n\n—a principal or assistant principal perhaps\n\nwho is also a master in child study.\n\nSuch a teacher is needed in the practice\n\nschool, in the first place, and should be utihzed for this other work.\n\nalso add that this work should continue thruout the\n\nmay be.\n\nyears or one year, as the case\n\nI would\nnormal course, of two\n\nThe school may be conveniently\n\norganized for the purpose, as I am making child study a broad subject and\nthe central one of the course, rather than a mere attachment.\n\nIt\n\nmay easily\n\ncomprise all the special training in psychology needed, particularly if related\nto genetic psychology\n\nand made a part of it.\n\nIf care is\n\ntaken to trace the\n\nnatural development of children, as well as to impress the characteristics I\n\nhave referred to, the teacher has a far better preparation from the point of\nview of psychology than a small amount of child study added to general\npsychology can give.\nI would also provide for these elementary teachers opportunities for learning\n\nthe general results of the study of adolescence, and that under one who has\n\na sympathetic knowledge of adolescents.\n\nEvery teacher must know something\n\nof the whence and whither of his grade in more than a perfunctory way.\n\nIn\n\naddition to a detailed and accurate knowledge of the psychology of the group\n\nwith which he is primarily concerned, and the culture-material and method\nbest adapted to it, he must know the relations of all these to the psychologies,\n\nand methods of preceding and succeeding school ages.\nOnly thus can he define aims and follow them securely. That the teacher's\noccupation is not yet a profession is due in no small degree to lack of such\nknowledge, which brings loss in results and ideals for both teacher and pupil.\nculture-material,\n\nWe have no good excuse for thwarting destiny after this fashion.\nFrom practical considerations teachers cannot be expected to come into\ntouch with a training-department for high-school work as they have with the\nelementary training-school.\n\nGood lectures, supplemented by good articles\n\nand books, would, however, be instructive, suggestive, and inspiring in the\ndirections I have mentioned.\n\nSuch a course of child study will, I beUeve, bring practical results and\nmasterful teaching.\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. A. KiRKPATRicK, psychology and child study, State Normal School, Fitchburg,\nMass. It is true that child study in some form has become an essential element in all the\nwork of our best teachers, whether they know it or not. It is the duty of the normal\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n720\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Chfld Study\n\nschool to lead young teachers into the habit of trying to understand and successfully\ndirect the activities of children singly and in groups.\n\nAside from giving a clearer idea\n\nof the aims and functions of school this is the whole purpose of all that is done to prepare\n\nnormal students for the work of teaching.\nSubject, methods, disciphne, psychology, and even child study as a science or body\nof knowledge, are simply means of accomplishing this end of giving students the power\nI would therefore lay less stress than Professor Smith\nto direct the activities of children.\ndoes upon the generalizations of child-study investigators as to the characteristics of the\nnormal child at different ages. Not only are most of these generahzations at present\neither doubtful or indefinite, and their appUcations difficult; but even if they were certain\n\nand definite, their value simply as truths is not great in the actual work of teaching. The\ngreat defect of the older type of normal-school instruction was that the rules of teaching\nwere taught students instead of developing in them the power to deal with actual and\nconstantly changing situations.\n\nPresent methods, even with child study, are likely to\n\nembody the same error if we make too prominent the idea that children of a certain age\nhave certain characteristics, and must therefore be treated in a certain way. Such truths\nare of more value to the makers of courses of study than to teachers who adapt subjects\nIn almost any group of eight children you will find nearly as\nto individual children.\n\nmarked individual differences in temperament,\n\nabiUty,\n\nand\n\ninterest,\n\nas you will find\n\nbetween the averages of children of the eight ages from six to fourteen.\nFurthermore, teaching is a process of directing changes in a constantly changing\norganism.\n\nThe essential thing, therefore, is to discern the present condition, and to use\n\nmeans by which desirable changes may be produced.\nThe important thing for the teacher is to discern conditions and exert influence. Knowlsuccessfully the various possible\n\nedge that certain instincts are prominent in children of the age with which the teacher is\ndealing may be helpful, but a change in mood perhaps a reaction against the usual\n\n—\n\nso common in children, may cause an appeal to the usually dominant instinct of children\nSince children are constantly chanof that age to be the worst possible move to make.\nging, so that the motive which sways them at one age may have weakened and almost dis-\n\nappeared the next year, the next day, or even the next hour, the young teacher who has\n\nbeen carefully taught a host of generahzations as to the characteristics of children at\ndifferent ages, but has developed no power to discern the present situation and make the\nright appeal, is the most helpless of mortals unless she forgets it all and acts as prompted\n\nby instinct and common sense.\n\nDo not misunderstand me.\n\nI\n\ndo not wish you to think for one moment that I am\n\nminimizing the value of child study. I have been teaching it for many years, and regard\nI also agree with Professor Smith that\nit as the important subject in the normal school.\nthe various topics he names should be studied; but, except in the case of physical defects,\nI am incHned to think that the change of mental attitude toward children, the raising of\nquestions, and the attempts to find the answers not merely in books, but in children, are\nof more value than the generahzations that are reached or learned.\nNormal students have from instinct and experience some power in understanding\n\nand deahng with active human beings, either old or young. The study of psychology,\nmethods, and child study should increase this power. Introspection, reminiscence,\nobservation, experiment, and reading are all helpful, especially if carried on in connection\nwith actual contact with children engaged in various activities under a variety of circumNormal pupils need to know not merely the fraction of the child that studies\n\nstances.\n\nand recites in the schoohoom, but the other and more important phases of his nature that\nappear on the playground, on the street, and in the home. She needs to become famihar,\nnot so much with the average static child as with the individual, changing, dynamic\nchildren with which she is led to come into sympathetic relations.\nEnlarge the view-point of intending teachers as much as possible by reading and\nstudy, especially in the Unes of evolutionary, comparative, and genetic psychology.\n\nGet\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "CHILD STUDY IN SPECIAL CLUBS\n\nDepartment]\n\n721\n\nher to realize that the child is neither an angel nor an imp, but an organism continually\nchanging, yet developing according to fixed laws which involve the constant interplay of\ninner tendencies and outer influences.\n\nMake her as famiUar as possible with all that\n\nhas been proved or suggested regarding all the various reflex and instinctive tendencies,\n\nand the times at which they are likely to be most prominent; reveal to her the effects of\nsurroundings, and show her all the various means that may be used to call forth and\ndevelop healthful, enUghtening, and ennobhng activities. All this is helpful and necessary; yet the essential for the teacher, as for the engineer and motorman, is not knowledge\nof general truths, but the power to direct the mechanism smoothly and successfully under\nPractice in gaining truths about children at first hand, and in directing\nall circumstances.\nthe activities of children in work and play, are the phases of child study that need to be\nemphasized in normal schools.\n\nCHILD STUDY IN SPECIAL CLUBS\nMISS HARRIET A. MARSH, PRINCIPAL OF\nIt is undoubtedly true that club\n\nHANCOCK SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH.\n\nwomen do not yet know their power, or\n\nrealize fully the strength that comes from unity.\n\ninstead of diverting time\n\nSuppose, for instance, that\n\nand energy into innumerable channels, the clubs\none vital need or principle,\n\nof a city or a state should unite in the study of\n\ndevoting to it only the amount of thought and effort usually required by the\n\nwork of an average club.\n\nThe selection would naturally fall upon some well-\n\n—something which appeals\n\nrecognized need or defect in our daily living\n\ndirectly to all classes of society, and can be studied and understood in a plain,\n\ncommon-sense fashion by people of ordinary intelligence.\nI have sufficient faith in\nis\n\nhuman nature to believe that when club work\n\nunsuccessful, failure is due to one or more of the following causes:\n\ndoes not grow out of any vital need or necessity,\n\n(h) It is\n\n(a) It\n\nnot presented in\n\nsuch a way as to appeal to, or be understood by, its intended beneficiaries,\n(c) Its\n\nprinciples or tenets are not followed, or Uved\n\nup to, by the persons\n\ninterested in its propagation.\n\nAccepting this hypothesis as correct, the first requirement of successful\nchild study\n\nis\n\na well-recognized and keenly felt necessity, something that\n\nappeals alike to rich and poor, educated and ignorant, for another important\n\nelement of club work is sympathy; not an aggravating mixture of pity, condescension,\n\nand patronage with which\n\nreally\n\ngood\n\nwomen often deceive\n\nthemselves; but the genuine article, such as springs only from mutual need\n\nUnder such conditions what shall we choose ?\nany people is the prolongation of Ufe\nand the improvement of health. Here, then, is our field. What is most\n\nor interest.\n\nNecessarily, the chief concern of\n\nneeded ?\nIn Michigan, during the year 1904, about 26 per cent, of all deaths were\nof children under four years of age, 19 per cent, of children under one year;\n\nand the chief causes were poor or insufficient food and impure air.\nis\n\nMichigan\n\nnot less favored than the average state in these respects, yet one-fourth of\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n722\n\n[Child Study\n\nher entire death-list was composed of little, helpless, struggling beings who\ndied from actual starvation, or thru malnutrition found themselves unable to\n\nBut this is not all.\n\ncope with the ordinary diseases of early childhood.\nScience tells us that\n\na plentiful supply of food tends to hasten an embyro thru the different stages of\ngrowth, and even to skip some. Lack of food may fix an embyro forever in a rudimentary\ncondition.\n\nConditions before and after birth may produce a criminal just as often and\n\njust as much as they produce a deaf child or a diseased child.\n\nof arrested development;\n\nA criminal is an instance\n\nthe conditions tending to arrested development are poor food,\n\ninsufficient warmth, and poor social conditions.\n\nAccording to Dr. Dawson, who has made an exhaustive study of the delinquent classes, idiots and criminals come largely from immature or very old\nparents.\n\nHe also favors the opinion that, generally speaking, the criminal\n\nseems in some respects to be arrested in a state of childhood, and, in support\nof his theory, calls attention to the physical signs of degeneracy indicated by a\n\nlarge proportion of the delinquent classes, as the cleft palate, face not matching, bullet-head,\nside,\n\nhead too large or too small, abnormal innervation of one\n\nbroader face, etc.; a tendency, in fact, to resemble the lower races, or\n\nour own race in infancy.\n\n—\n\nIf his conclusions are correct\n\nviz., that the crimi-\n\nand that the chief\nand temperature then it may be said that malnutrition is largely responsible for crowded\nprisons and asylums, particularly when it is remembered that reproduction\nis exceedingly active at a point just above starvation, and that a large\nproportion of our delinquents spring from the struggling indigent classes.\nnal and the idiot are instances of arrested development,\n\nfactors in development (both before and after birth) are food\n\n—\n\nBut malnutrition is not confined to the very poor.\n\nWhen animals are\n\nbrought into captivity, reproduction lessens or ceases altogether, and it is only\n\nby the most careful attention to conditions, among which that of diet plays a\nconspicuous part, that the menagerie is beginning to restore this function.\n\nHow far the semi-captivity of the office, the counting-room, the school, and\nthe workshop are responsible for the race-suicide of the\nclasses is a question for the future scientist;\n\nmore comfortable\n\nbut one thing is certain; when\n\nan instinct as strong as that which has to do with the perpetuation of the race\nis weakened or perverted, the chief cause thereof should be sought in some\nfundamental physical degeneracy, rather than in \"selfishness,\" \"lack of\nmoral principle,\" etc., which may be effects rather than causes of the decline\njust suggested.\n\nRich, highly seasoned food is often lacking in the most important qualities\nof nutrition, while it not infrequently overtaxes and overstimulates the organs\n\nof digestion.\n\nMay it not be possible that the human being fed upon this\n\ndescription of food, and confined in the ordinary schoolroom until sixteen or\n\neighteen years of age, may be as incapable of the office of parenthood as the\n\nanimal in the menagerie just mentioned?\n\nSuppose a lamb, or a colt, or a\n\ncalf confined in a stable at about the same age, relatively, that we send a child\n\nto the kindergarten or primary school for four or five hours a day;\n\nsuppose\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD STUDY IN SPECIAL CLUBS\n\n723\n\nthe little animals were kept busy at all kinds of stunts and tricks for five days\n\nmonth in and month out, until they reached maturity; how\nmuch reserve force would they have for the pecuUar functions of adult Hfe,\nin the week,\n\nparticularly if they were fed during all this time upon whatever kind of food\n\ncould be prepared most easily, without any special reference to their particular\n\nneed or condition ?\n\nThen suppose this state of things to continue thru long\nWhat\n\ngenerations of cows and sheep and horses, where would our stock be ?\nstock- or cattle-raiser would submit to such an arrangement ?\n\nA great deal\n\nmore thought and time are given to the care and diet of domestic animals\nthan are bestowed upon the average child; but then stock is a pecuniary\ninvestment while the human babe brings no price in the market.\nModern civilization thus finds itself with two defective classes one at\nthe top, the other at the bottom of the social scale; both ahke seemingly the\nvictims of malnutrition.\nUnder our present regime, the captivity of school,\nofiice, and workshop must continue.\nIt takes a long time to change the\n\n—\n\neducational ideals or industrial conditions of a people, because both are the\n\noutcome of public sentiment, and of supply and demand, factors which work\nslowly.\n\nSo the only factor at our disposal at present is food.\n\nScholars in every\n\nage have testified to its tremendous importance, many going so far to assert that\nworry, toil, and disease cannot easily undermine the system that is carefully\nand systematically nourished. Here, then, is the particular opportunity of the\nspecial club; at this present moment the great need of the country is good\n\n—\n\nwomen who can make plain, nourishing, simple, appetizing dishes;\nwomen who have a fair working knowledge of food-values, adulterations, prepaThe average college girl could do far more good in the world with\nration, etc.\ncooks\n\nthis\n\nkind of knowledge than will ever be possible with her Latin and Greek.\n\nSome such course of study should be in every elementary and high school in\nthe country; but even if it were, the great mass of women who never get\nbeyond the primary grades would not be helped by it.\n\nSo far as I can see,\n\nthe only influence that can touch this condition is the special club, and it can\n\ndo it in two ways:\n\ndirectly,\n\nby means of the actual knowledge and experi-\n\nence it gives, and indirectly, by making this form of manual labor popular;\nfor it is impossible to ignore the fact that a proper knowledge of food\n\nand\n\ncookery will never hold its true position in public estimation until women of\neducation, means,\n\nand social standing unite in recognizing its importance.\n\nThe sociological aspect of this question is serious in the extreme.\n\nThe states-\n\nman, the novelist, and the scientist are honored somewhat in proportion to\nthe benefit accruing to mankind from their efforts, but few, if any, give the\nslightest encouragement to excellence in this field of work, altho it offers\nemployment for the highest order of intelligence and philanthropy; while,\nstrange to say, women of good social position and fair education take pains\nto convey, by the means known only to their sex, the contempt they feel for\nall forms of manual labor, particularly those of the kitchen under which the\npreparation of food must chiefly fall. I am convinced that this form of\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n724\n\n[Child Study\n\nstupidity on the part of the more favored classes lies at the root of much of\n\nthe difficulty between capital\n\nand labor.\n\nBesides,\n\nit\n\nis\n\ndirectly responsible\n\nfor many\n\nhundred deaths each year, because, just so long as they render a\nknowledge of food and cookery contemptible by their attitude toward it, just\nso long will every poor family in the country strain every nerve to keep their\n\ndaughters out of the kitchen, preferring all kinds of factory and store work\nto\n\nwhat ought to be (tho frequently is not)\n\ncheerful, legitimate,\n\nwomanly\n\noccupation for all classes of society.\n\nThe writer has in mind one mother's club in Michigan that made a sysThe members of this little\nsociety were women too near the stern reaHties of Hfe to waste time on senseNo study or research ever gave them so much real pleasure\nless frivolities.\ntematic study of foods for two succeeding years.\n\nand satisfaction.\n\nI\n\nquote at random from the secretary's notebook at that\n\ntime:\nMrs.\nit is\n\nH— (seven childreji)\n\n:\n\n\"Last year we put in practice what we heard in the club;\n\nThe\n\nthe only year that we did not employ a physician for a good part of the time.\n\ndoctor has not visited us for nearly twelve months.\"\n\n— (four children): \"I am sure Percy would never have been raised had\nchildren): \"My health\nmuch\nThe club\nresponsible.\"\nMrs. G—\nso much healthier than\nbrother\nMrs. N— (four children) \" My youngest child\nMrs. P\n\nif it\n\nnot been for our club.\"\n(five\n\nbetter.\n\nis\n\nor sister.\n\nis\n\nhis\n\nis\n\n:\n\nI lay it to the club.\"\n\ni\n\nSpace fails me for further illustration.\n\nThis is the practical kind of child study that the country needs today.\nSuffering humanity is not waiting for abstract discussion or high-flown senti-\n\nmentaHty, but it is demanding a plain, common-sense knowledge, and application of the fundamental principles of life and health.\nis\n\n\"The harvest truly\n\nready, but the laborers are few.\"\n\nA PROBLEM FOR WOMEN'S CLUBS\nMISS ISABEL LAWRENCE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT, NOR-\n\nMAL SCHOOL, ST. CLOUD, MINN.\nCo-operation is the need of the moment.\n\nIf the child is to be benefited,\n\nno organized force in the community can be ignored.\ncomplains that the club\n\nOne superintendent\n\nwoman of his region \"figures prominently in all\n\nkinds of social reform, and that the school is so convenient to her hand, that\nshe has turned her pop-gun upon it.\"\n\nThis is doubtless a true statement of\n\nThe professional teacher expects a periodical peppering from the\npop-guns of amateurs. But where is the superintendent or teacher who has\n\nthe case.\n\nthe skill of a general, to transform pop-guns into cannon and then face them\n\non the enemy ?\n\nThe woman's club should be utilized, as should every other\n\nforce, to further right public sentiment in regard to the training of children—\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "A PROBLEM FOR WOMEN'S CLUBS\n\nDepartment]\n\n725\n\na sentiment whose absence in any community will render futile the work of\nthe most enlightened corps of teachers.\n\nSometimes it is the educated woman of the club who sees the situation\nrightly rather than the teachers;\n\nbut she,\n\ntoo, is powerless except as she\n\nco-operates with the school authorities.\nIt\n\nmatters not which side takes the initiative.\n\nThe greatest danger to\n\nmutual work is ever the tendency to brag on the part of those who do things.\n\n\"The fool says,\nThis I did and that I wrought: the better-lessoned mind,\n\nKnowing the play of things invisible.\nAnd how the qualities do qualify;\nStandeth aloof even from his own acts.\"\n\n—\n\nHowever brought about, good will come of union.\n\nHappy are the chil-\n\ndren of that community where teachers talk of their problems in the woman's\nclub, and where the club woman is sometimes heard in the teachers' meeting!\n\nThere is one vital problem of the present which educators will never solve\nwithout the aid of the good women of the community.\n\nIt is the question of\n\nwhat shall constitute the social life of childhood and of early adolescence.\nThe schools can no longer ignore this problem. They used to treat the child\nas if some day he were to occupy a solitary cell in some ascetic environment,\n\nor at least as if the home were the only institution that need take notice of his\n\nBut the true educator now realizes that his work must be\n\nsocial instincts.\n\ndone in full recognition of all that the child is and is to become.\n\nTo him\n\nhave come problems of the social relations of his pupils in their work, highschool fraternities, sports, parties, and the boy-and-girl question\n\n—\n\nall,\n\ndemanding instant settlement, wise or unwise.\nIt is these problems that the woman's club may help him solve.\n\nas they\n\narise individually,\n\nhas ever guided in social matters.\n\nThe\n\n**\n\nWoman\n\neternal womanly\" manifests itself\n\nmost characteristically in the magnificent force of love which sacrifices itself\nhourly for others' comfort.\n\nIt is the fine, unobtrusive power that dispels the\n\nvulgarity of small and selfish aims, and compels obedience to our best impulses\n\ntoward others.\n\nThis is the ideal society.\n\nThe training of children in these social virtues is pre-eminently woman's\nwork.\n\nIt is not true, however, that it is work she can do without preparation.\n\nGood breeding and native charm of personahty and social tact add much to\nher power in this direction; but there is arrant nonsense in the supposition\nthat woman does not need to study children, and that knowledge will not give\n\nher broader sympathies.\n\nThe mother is commonly supposed to have an\n\ninstinctive love of all children, but a moment's review of the source of this\ninstinct\n\nshows that the love of the mother has been evolved for the protec-\n\nEvery school-teacher has wondered at the selfish\nwhich many a Christian mother guards her own children's\n\ntion of her offspring only.\nfierceness with\n\ninterests regardless of the interests of other people's children.\n\nIt is an exhibi-\n\ntion of the mother-instinct, very like mother bluebird's savage pecking of the\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n726\n\n[Child Study\n\nbewildered young oriole who somehow got tangled up with her own azure\nbabies.\n\nThere is too much sentiment in regard to native instincts.\n\nThey\n\ncannot be depended upon for twentieth-century altruism.\n\nNor is the mother intuitively endowed with all the necessary knowledge\nPony Baker's mother, with\nthe best of intentions, disgraced Pony by dressing him too well and calling\nhim \"Pony dear\" before the other boys. She kept him on the verge of running away most of the time by her complete misunderstanding of his \"big\neven of her own children's attitudes and needs.\n\nInjun\" soul, with the vital element in it that found Jim Leonard fascinating\n\nand irresistible. Poor Jim what would have become of him if Mrs. Baker\nhad had a voice in deciding his fate ?\nNo, the woman's club that would help the children of the community\nmust lay a solid foundation of knowledge. The literature of child study should\nreceive attention.\nMany unnoticed and uncomprehended phenomena of the\nchild-world would be illuminated by the reading, among other studies, of Dr.\nHall's Adolescence^ Joseph Lee's Playground Education^ and Lancaster and\nStableton on the early adolescent period.\nBook study should be supplemented by reminiscence and observation.\nThis will give constant commentary on the text.\n!\n\nTeachers should be asked to present their observations before the club.\n\nTeachers of seventh and eighth grades, and high-school workers, c?in tell true\nstories of the social life of young boys and girls which it will be well for the\n\nwoman's club to consider. Their stories can give a gHmpse of the life of a\nclass of young people, rarely known, or at least sympathetically known, to the\nThere are few safeguards for this class of\nbest women of the community.\nchildren who are just entering upon the period when interest in the other sex\nbecomes suddenly dominant. The street is the place of social meeting, and\nintercourse is more or less coarse and degrading.\nThe majority of these pupils\n\nThen is the heart of the true teacher weighted with\nThe influence she has gained over their Hves suddenly\n\nleave school at this time.\n\na heavy burden.\n\nbreaks, for she is too busy to follow them all into their outside life.\n\nWhen\n\nshe can do this, she is deeply concerned for the little girl in the department\nstore and the boy under new temptations.\n\nThere cannot fail to be a quick spot in the heart of the woman who listens\nto these tales,\n\nand help for the social life of these other children will be\n\nforthcoming.\n\nIndeed, the value of this child study lies in its practical outcome.\n\nProb-\n\nlems relating to the social life of children at home, at school, and in the streets\n\nmay well receive thoughtful consideration.\nsolved goes without saying.\n\nThat they will not be completely\n\nFinality is impossible; but, however disappoint-\n\ning the results, sympathy, the best tool for social work, will surely have been\n\nsharpened.\n\n~\n\nSome questions which mays profitably be discussed are the following:\n(i) How shall we promote democracy in the social training of children ?\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION FROM THE GENETIC POINT OF VIEW\n\n727\n\nThe idle promenade on public streets. (3) The boy-and-girl problem.\nThe fraternity question. (5) The need of supervision of all public playgrounds and public functions. (6) The need of playgrounds. (7) Clubs for\nyoung people. (8) The social side of athletics. (9) Granted that there are\n(2)\"\n\n(4)\n\nbe visiting teams of high-school pupils for debates or athletic contests,\n\nto\n\nhow can ladies of the community make such visits contribute to the social\nculture of the pupils ?\nhow should they be\n(10) Parties, home and school\n\n—\n\nsupervised?\n\n(11)\n\nSimphcity in commencement functions.\n\nEach community will have its own local questions, and probably widely\ndiffering answers should be given the same question in different locahties.\nIt has thus been suggested that a problem for women's clubs is the social\nlife\n\nof childhood\n\nand early adolescence; that the problem be studied (i)\n(2) thru reminiscence and observation of\n\nthru the literature of child study;\nchildren;\n\n(3)\n\nthru conference with teachers;\n\n(4)\n\nthru discussion of practical\n\nquestions.\n\nThere is no law against dreaming.\n\nDream that all over the United States\nWould\n\nthe women's clubs should unite with teachers to study this problem.\nit\n\nnot go far toward securing a universal answer to that prayer of Robert\n\nLouis Stevenson's, which so beautifully expresses the ideal of human society\nthe prayer that *'our loving kindness\n\nmay make bright the house of our\n\nhabitation\" ?\n\nEDUCATION FROM THE GENETIC POINT OF VIEW\nWILLIAM H. BURNHAM, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, CLARK UNIVERSITY,\nWORCESTER, MASS.\n\nThe\n\ngenetic\n\nconception of education\n\nprinciple of genetic pedagogy\n\n—that\n\nof the stages of individual\n\ndevelopment\n\nis\n\nnot new«\n\nThe fundamental\n\nof adaptation of education to the sequence\n\n—\n\nis\n\nat least as old as\n\nComenius;\n\nbut a point of view means nothing unless it enables one to see the facts as\nwell as to\n\ndream dreams.\n\nThe result of modern child study has been the\n\ninsight that the only way to make this principle of adaptation vital is to find\n\nout just what is the actual condition of children at different stages of growth\n\nand development.\n\nMy purpose this morinng is to recount some of the recently\n\ndiscovered facts that have made the genetic point of view vital.\nFortunately, you are all famiHar with the modern doctrines that education\nis\n\na process; that the child is a different creature from the adult; that the\n\nchild differs\n\nfrom the adolescent;\n\ndifferent stages of its\n\nthat the child differs\n\nsignificant because preparatory to higher stages;\n\nchild before he becomes a man;\nis normal immaturity ;\n\nfrom the child at\n\ndevelopment; that stages low and imperfect may be\nthat the child should be a\n\nthat the best guarantee of normal maturity\n\nthat, as Froebel put it, the full and complete development of each stage is necessary for the development of successive stages.\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n728\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nAnd, again, on the social side, that the child is not so much fitting himself\nfor society, but that he now is a member of society; that the school represents\n\nsociety in embryo; that the teacher is primarily a member of this social group;\nthat, as Professor Dewey puts it, the school life and the home life should be\n\none and the same; and that the purpose of the school is to introduce to the\nfundamental, constructive, productive, social\n\nactivities,\n\nand that here too\n\neverything must be adapted to the child's own social experience.\n\nSuch famihar doctrines are based upon the genetic interpretation of facts.\nThere are some other truths with which perhaps you are not so famiUar.\nFirst of all, certain physiological facts.\n\nBesides the obvious facts of growth and development, which are of vital\n\nimportance to education, there are certain more specific characteristics of the\nchild's organism which are of practical significance.\n\nhas a different circulatory system from the adult.\ntively small, his arteries relatively large.\n\nThe child, for example,\nThe child's heart is rela-\n\nDuring the period of development\n\nthe heart grows very rapidly, and after adolescence it is relatively large, while\n\nthe arteries are relatively small and narrow; or, more concretely, measurements\n\nhave shown that during the period of growth the volume of the heart increases\ntwelvefold, but the width\n\nof\n\nthe aorta only threefold;\n\nor for loo cm. of\n\nheight in case of the child the heart volume is about 50 c.cm., while in the\n\nadult it is 150-90 c.cm.\n\nThus during the school period there is a complete\n\nchange of the circulatory t)rpe.\n\nThis is a fact of great practical importance\n\nto be considered in all manual work and physical training, as well as the ordi-\n\nnary work and play of the child.\n\nCardiac disturbance is quickly compensated\n\nfor in the child's organism in a way that is impossible with the adult;\n\nhence\n\nshort and rather violent activity is quite harmless for the child, altho prolonged\nactivity and feats of endurance are dangerous.\n\nAgain, in the case of the child the constituents of the blood are different\n\nfrom those of the adult; especially is the protection against contagion less\nin case of the child.\nless\n\nresistance\n\nto\n\nIn the child the blood is less alkaHne, and thus offers\n\nmicro-organisms;\n\nthe germ-destroying or bacteriacidal\n\npower of the serum, according to Weill, is not so great, and the white corpuscles of the blood with bacteriacidal power are less in number. In case\nof the adult they are estimated at 70 in 100, but they are only 28 at birth, 40\nat the end of the first year, 54 in the third, 64 from the eighth to the tenth.\n\nThat is, the protective power of the blood is twice as great in case of the adult\nas in case of the young child. This difference, together with the child's\ninferior protection in other ways, makes contagious diseases especially dangerous in the kindergarten and early primary grades. This is not a mere matter\nof theoretical speculation; statistics show that over 90 per cent, of all deaths\nfrom such contagious diseases as measles, whooping-cough, and the like,\noccur before the age of ten; and an extensive study of measles in Munich\nshows that, while between the years of two and five, 5 per cent, of all cases\nproved fatal, between the ages of six and ten the fatal cases were only o 4 per\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION FROM THE GENETIC POINT OF VIEW\n\n729\n\nIn other words, if an epidemic of measles occurs in the kindergarten,\n\ncent.'\n\nthe chances are that four children in one hundred cases will die\n\n;\n\nif the\n\nepidemic\n\ncan be postponed until the primary school, the chances are that only four in\na thousand will die.\n\nAnother specially important difference between the child and the adult\nin the activity of the lymph.\n\nThis gives a child added protection from\n\ncertain contagious diseases, but,\n\non the other hand, carries its own dangers\n\nis\n\nwith\n\nit.\n\nExperiments upon animals are instructive here.\n\nAn\n\nartificial\n\nopening made into the thoracic duct of a young dog furnished lymph to the\n\namount of between one-sixth and one-tenth of the body weight within one\nday, while from an adult dog lymph amounting to only one-tenth to onesixteenth of the body weight was obtained.\nIn some way the lymph apparatus\nin the young is more active than in the adult.\nDr. Jacobi says:\nThis is why the condition of the lymph glands in the young is of such importance.\nWhenever there is any infection of the mucous membrane, the infecting poison is carried\noff to the next gland, where there is a stopping-place.\nThat gland will become the seat\nof irritation or swelling.\nThat is why .... whenever there is only a slight diarrhea, no\nmatter from what cause .... the lymph bodies in the neighborhood will swell. Unless\nsuch a diarrhea is soon stopped, the irritation will continue; congestion, inflammation,\nswelling of the glands will ensue, and the structure of these neighboring glands will be\n\nchanged. 2\n\nOther\n\nfacts\n\nof practical significance are the different growth-rates of\n\ndifferent organs at different periods, the immaturity of special organs demand-\n\ning special care, the undeveloped eyes of young children, the danger to the\n\nnaso-pharynx, ear, and mouth from hypertrophied tonsils, and the like, the\n\nundeveloped voice of the child, and the strain especially upon boys at the\nperiod of mutation.\n\nOn the physical side, then, the aim of education from the genetic point\nof view is to give a child the opportunity for growth and development, and to\n\nMany other things are\nHe may have another oppor-\n\nfoster the acquisition of habits of healthful activity.\n\ndesirable, but a child's first business is to grow.\n\ntunity for the acquisition of knowledge, but the\n\ndemands of development\n\ncannot wait.\n\nOn the mental side the contribution of genetic psychology and physiology\nis perhaps equally great, altho it cannot be stated so concretely and definitely.\n\nIt is true, as is popularly beheved, that the child has less power of prolonged\n\nattention than the adult.\n\npower of memory.\n\nContrary to popular impression, he has also less\n\nThe fundamental difference is lack of experience.\n\nBut\n\nof such differences I must not stop to speak.\nI have recounted a few facts as I understand them.\n\nof the wider relations of these facts.\n\nenlarged the genetic conception.\n\nI should hke to speak\n\nModern biological study has enormously\n\nIt is\n\nhardly fanciful from this wider point\n\nof view to consider that process of adjustment we call education as analogous\n•\n\nSee a paper by the writer on \" The Hygiene of the Kindergarten,\" Proceedings of the National Edu-\n\ncational Association, 1904, Kindergarten Department.\n• See the\n\nTeachers College Record, March, 1905.\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n:\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n730\n\nIChild Study\n\nto the adaptation and mutation of species in plants found by De Vries, White,\n\nand others.\n\nAnd if De Vries is right in his conclusion that the production\n\nof new forms takes place only from time to time, that during the period of\n\nmutation new species are easily formed, that after this period is passed new\nforms cannot be produced, then there\n\nis\n\na certain analogy between these\n\nperiods of mutation and the nascent periods in the individual child.\n\nThe\n\nperiod of growth and development in the individual or the special organ is\nthe period of opportunity for education.\n\nThus in a practical way biological\n\nstudies are suggestive.\n\nWhen one says that hygiene and sound pedagogy fear premature and\nunrelated developments, and that the best guarantee of normal maturity is\n\nnormal immaturity, it means very Httle; but when one studies the developing\nnervous system of young animals, all this becomes very concrete and emphatic.\nI know of no more interesting illustration of this than the studies of the guinea\npig,\n\nmade by Miss Allen.\n\nThe guinea pig at birth has all its senses, and\n\nwell-developed muscles, and is psychically mature at the age of three or four\ndays.\n\nThe white rat, on the other hand, at birth is undeveloped, blind, deaf,\n\nnaked, his nervous system unmedullated, his muscular system without control.\n\nHe does not gain the power of vision for sixteen or seventeen days, of hearing\nfor perhaps thirteen days, nor become psychically mature for some twenty-four\nto twenty-seven days.\n\nThe result of the precocious development of the guinea pig as compared\nwith the slower development of the white rat appears in the education of the\n\nAs Miss Allen puts it\nWhen the guinea pig has forced his way thru a labyrinth, he has reached the end\nHe cannot pull a latch or push a bolt. He will not depress\nof his psychical powers.\ntwo animals.\n\nan inclined plane, chew a string, nor stamp his foot\nThe experience of the white\nrat extends to strange combinations of wires and strings, and all the delightful surprises\nrevealed by secret doors; but when the guinea pig has turned the proper number of corners, his dinner must be waiting for him or he does not get it.\nThe white rat at three\ndays is just learning to crawl. He has never seen an object and remembers nothing. The\nguinea pig at that age has triumphantly recalled a complex path at the end of which he\nAt twenty-three days the rat is lifting latches neatly,\nsits eating his well-deserved carrot.\nand forming what Hobhouse calls practical judgments as to the value of an inclined plane\nThe guinea pig\nin a situation at the center of which is his food, a desired thing, an end.\nis still wearing out the floor of the same labyrinth.\n\nAnd, again, to quote Miss Allen:\nThe contrasting features in the two animals are their nervous systems.\na mature nervous system\n\nis\n\naccompanied by psychical maturity;\n\nIn the one,\n\nin the other, neural\n\nimmaturity permits great psychical development.\n\nEverywhere today teachers and students are studying children, some in\nthe laboratory with carefully controlled conditions, some by the questionnaire\n\nmethod\n\nla\n\nmethode democratique, as the French\n\ncall\n\nit;\n\nothers\n\nby mere\n\nWhat\nWhat does it all amount to? Some of this work\nhas yielded practical results. Some of it has illustrated the genetic point\n\nobservation and reminiscence, often by methods crude and unreliable.\nis\n\nthe result of all this?\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION FROM THE GENETIC POINT OF VIEW\n\nof view.\n\nAll, I believe,\n\nhas been valuable.\n\ncity where I live the students of the\n\n731\n\nFor a single illustration, in the\n\nnormal school observe children as they\n\nhave opportunity, and record isolated facts, sometimes significant, more often\nTens of thousands of such reports are in the archives\nthe trivial and banal.\n\nEach year adds something to this store. Is that all? By\nThe students in this work acquire the genetic point of view, the\n\nof the school.\n\nno means.\n\nright attitude toward children;\n\nand Principal Russell says that reports from\n\nthe graduates are to the effect that the bad boys and the defective become\nobjects of special interest and study.\n\nOn the other hand, the experimental\n\nmethod is justified by results. If the hack objection be raised that it cannot\ntouch the practical problem of education, the answer is, it has already done so.\nAnd, in general, the great value of the experimental method is that it brings\none to close quarters with, the facts.\n\nThe study of children is in some important respects revolutionizing pedagogy.\n\nAttention is shifting from methods of teaching to methods of learning.\n\nThe work has already passed from the stage of mere observation and crude\nspeculation to the stage of analysis and experimentation.\n\nConcrete problems\n\nwork and of economic and efl&cient methods of study are being\nMayer has studied the\ninvestigated by careful methods in the laboratory.\ndifference between the methods and results of school work done in a group\nof children and similar work done by children alone, finding that usually the\ngroup work is superior. Schmidt has studied the home work of children as\ncompared with the school work, and found, on the one hand, that in the more\nmechanical work pupils do better in the school because of the stimulation\nfrom other pupils, while in original essays in the mother-tongue and the\nMeumann has studied\nlike they do better in the isolation of the home.\nthe most economical and efficient methods of learning by heart. A single\nSuppose the school task be to learn a\nconcrete example must suffice.\nChildren, as well as most adults, adopt the method of\nstanza of poetry.\nlearning by parts first a few words or a fine, with many repetitions, and\nthen another phrase or line. Is this a good method ? Which is better to\nlearn the stanza as a whole, or to learn it by parts ? By which method will\nit be learned in less time, with fewer repetitions, be remembered more permanently and more accurately ? Investigations upon many children, extending thru several years, show clearly that, as a rule, with them as with adults,\nthe method of learning as a whole is decidedly better.\nSomewhat less time\nis required by this method, a very much smaller number of repetitions suffices,\nand, most important of all, confusion of association and possibility of error are\navoided, while correct and healthful habits of association and of study are\nof school\n\n—\n\n—\n\ndeveloped.\nIf more were needed to show the importance of the genetic point of view,\nit\n\nwould be necessary only to note the errors that result from ignoring it.\n\nhave time for but a single illustration.\n\nI\n\nIn medicine and hygiene there is\n\nalways danger of mistaking defects incident to development, neuroses of\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n732\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nThe following case, reported\n\ndevelopment, for symptoms of degeneration.\n\nAn hysterical boy thirteen or fourteen\nyears of age was sent to a hospital. He showed symptoms of serious heart\ntrouble; and the physician to whom he was intrusted, evidently having\nto me by a physician, is an example:\n\nhad more experience with the aged than with children, prescribed one onea dose for an adult\n\nhundredth of a grain of nitro-glycerin three times a day\n\n—\n\nThe probabihty is that the boy's heart will be injured for hfe,\n\nin extremis.\n\nwhile, with care and a judicious use of iron and other tonics, he might have\n\noutgrown the trouble.\n\nThe blunder was so atrocious that it seems hardly\nApparently it was a clear case\n\npossible that a physician could be guilty of it.\nof error from lack of the genetic point of view.\n\nIf child study had done no more than to give teachers the genetic point of\n\nview,\n\nall\n\nthe labor expended would be well repaid;\n\nmake similar mistakes.\n\nfor they are\n\nprone to\n\nThe faults and even the wickedness of boys and\n\ngirls, mere psychoses of development, are often taken too seriously by parents\n\nand teachers.\n\nIf they\n\ndo not adopt a nitro-glycerin method of discipline,\n\nthey are likely to desire a guinea pig form of pre-maturity.\nIt is difficult to describe a point of view, but the point of view is everything.\n\nIt determines what we see and what we are unable to see.\n\nIn every profession,\n\nespecially perhaps in the teacher's calling, the development of the professional\n\npoint of view soon inevitably makes it impossible for one to see things as they\nreally are.\n\nThe attainment of the genetic point of view would save teachers\n\nfrom much of this scholastic bUndness.\n\nIt\n\nwould save them from worry\n\nover defects and imperfections, and give the insight that education is a process,\n\nand that normal development impUes imperfection and the gradual approximation to higher stages and higher ideals. In a word, it would revolutionize\nthe teacher's calling, and the teacher's task would become a part of the great\nworld-process of evolution in human Hfe and human society. Again, it\nwould save the^schools from what Professor James calls \"the modern textbook\nMoloch, in whose belly the souls of living children are turned to ashes,\" and\nfrom the mechanism of artificiality and traditional examination, classification,\nand grading. It would emancipate them from the idolatry of methods. It\nwould save them from overstimulation and overpressure, and from that\novertraining which means arrest of development.\nIn a word, it would make\nthe aim of the modern school development, health, individuaUzation, and the\nopportunity for spontaneous adjustment to nature and society.\n\nDISCUSSION\nA.\n\nTex.\n\n—\n\nCaswell Ellis, associate professor of education, University of Texas, Austin,\nThe study of children, and of education from the genetic point of view, from the\n\npoint of view of origins and growth-processes, has been more than justified if nothing\nfurther is ever done than to furnish, as Dr. Burnham shows that it has furnished, the concrete\nfacts to substantiate the notions loosely held for centuries by leading educators that the\n\nchild is different from the adult, and that education is primarily a process of development\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION FROM THE GENETIC POINT OF VIEW\n\n733\n\nby stages from within, and only incidentally a matter of acquiring skill and information\nfitted for use in the social environment.\n\nThe short-sighted view is all too common still\n\nAmerica and elsewhere, that education is primarily a matter of preparing to meet\ncertain social and religious demands, and only incidentally a process of development\nfrom within. That the same subject-matter and methods which best serve the one of\nin\n\nthese ends must, in the nature of things, in a rationally organized universe, serve best also\n\nWhile, then, to an infinite wisdom these two ends\nwould surely be plainly one, such is, and long will be, far from the case to the limited\nhuman intelligence of school superintendents, college professors, and committees on\ncourses of study. Widely different courses and methods of study are as yet employed by\nhim who aims primarily at development from within outward, and by him who strives\nprimarily to meet the demands of society. The genetic view-point has all along made for\nliberty and for growth, as opposed to fixation and encrustation from without, which is\nthe other end, cannot be doubted.\n\nthe inevitable, tho unconscious, tendency of the other point of view.\n\nThe writer is greatly grieved and disappointed that he can only sit tamely by and\nagree with the paper he\nsufficient to justify taking\n\nis\n\nto discuss, but there are actually\n\nup the time of this audience.\n\npaper further by not discussing it.\n\nno differences of opinion\n\nHe will therefore discuss this\n\nLet me use these few minutes to emphasize what seem\n\nto me the two most striking points of view, and new conceptions, which this genetic study\n\nhas brought into education.\n\nThe first of these is the recognition of the biological or super-mathematical relation\nWe talk much now of the process of development,\n\nbetween successive phases of growth.\n\nbut to most of us it still means little more than a process of addition.\n\nAn early childish\n\nactivity is thought of as preparing the way for, and helping to develop, a later adult activity,\n\nonly when the early activity involves the acquisition of certain simple forms of skill or\n\nknowledge, or bodily or mental power, which are also elements in the later adult activity.\n\nNow, biology shows that there are relations between successive stages of development\nfar subtler and more indirect than this.\nIn human embryology we see the young pass\ninto low animal forms which it must later give up or radically transform; yet the perfection of the different forms in the lower stages gives the essential force for the development\n\nIn the metamorphoses of lower animals we see the same fact.\nThe crawling and feeding of the caterpillar or grub are activities very far removed from\n\nof the later higher forms.\n\nany apparent connection with what the butterfly or beetle will later do, and the powers\ndeveloped are very different from what the butterfly and beetle will need; yet the future\npowers of these butterflies and beetles are dependent almost wholly upon the earlier caterpillar and grub activities.\nGenetic study now is asking what are the subtle developmental\nrelations between the apparently opposing phases of the child's mental development.\nWhat relation is there between the development of the early superstitious tendencies in\nreligion and the growth of later spiritual conceptions; what relation between early\nanthropomorphism and the later cold-blooded scientific view of nature; between childish\nselfishness and later ambition and self-respect; and so on.\nSome good work has been\ndone here, and much more is yet to be done. This genetic view of the individual child's\nlife must of course largely determine methods, and, in connection with one's aim or\nphilosophy of education, must determine the subject-matter.\nThe second far-reaching conception coming from the genetic standpoint is one concerning this ultimate aim of education itself. Prior to this evolutionary view of education,\nthe ideal aimed at was always something definite, fixed, unchanging.\nPlato's sagedom\nand the early Christian's heaven were final fixed states. Aristotle, in his doctrine that happiness, which was for him the end of education, is an activity and not a state, glimpsed a\nnew idea, which biology has since made clearer. Hegel saw it at times thru a glass darkly,\nbut only in this light of recent study from the biological^ standpoint has education been\nrecognized as a never-ending process of evolution, working out unconsciously in the race\nto ends which as yet no human can possibly conceive.\nThis view of the end of education\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n734\nwill\n\n[Chfld Study\n\nsoon cast down such golden calves as man-made morality and man-made social\n\nduties,\n\nwhich have been so long worshiped as something alive and ultimate.\n\nInstead of\n\nspending time in fashioning these dead idols, educators will train their ears to listen for\nthe still, small voice of nature within, and, not attempting rigidly to predetermine the goal,\n\nmake education aim more to maintain and promote that plasticity in the organism\nwhich is the basis of variation and of evolution.\n\nwill\n\nThe limit of time forbids any exposition of the concrete and far-reaching changes\nwhich this conception will surely bring in education. Suffice it to say, in summary, that\nthe genetic view-point of the individual will gradually\n\nmake the individual's growth-\n\nprocesses to be the dominant factor in the determination of method;\n\nand the genetic view\n\nof the race, as a developing race, will make the effort to secure plasticity and racial growth\n\ndetermine all ultimate questions of both method and subject-matter in education.\n\nRELATION OF THE CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT TO CONTROL\nOF HIM\nDR.\n\nAMY E. TANNER, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, WILSON COLLEGE,\nCHAMBERSBURG, PA.\n\nTo some of you I fear that it will seem premature to discuss the relation\nof the child's development to the control of him while the problem of develop-\n\nment itself is by no means settled. There are, however, certain periods\nwhich are now generally accepted as characteristic of children, and I shall\nconfine myself to these, trying to deal with them from the side of motive and\n\naction rather than from that of thought or intellectual interests alone, as has\n\nbeen customary.\nI wish also to preface\n\nmy paper by the statement that I am presenting a\n\nworking hypothesis rather than a proved theory.\n\nMy own observation, and\n\nthat of various teachers with whom I have talked, agree with the suggestions\n\ngiven here, but I do not know that they have been carried out on a large scale\n\nanywhere.\n\nI would therefore invite criticism and question.\n\nIn the test of life the highest mark is always given to the person who\nrenders the most efficient social service.\n\nNever yet has a man entered the\n\nhall of wealth or of fame who has developed only himself.\n\nSelfish men have,\n\nindeed, become rich or famous, but it was because they were the involuntary\n\nand unconscious exponents of their time, who satisfied some\n\nsocial\n\nneed\n\nwhile serving their own ambition.\n\nWhat we seek in education primarily is, therefore, to produce an efficient\nthat is, a person who finds his own truest growth in doing\n\nsocial individual;\n\nsome valuable work for society.\n\nWe believe in training the intellect only\n\nbecause we believe, with Socrates, that knowledge is virtue.\nis\n\nIf our knowledge\n\nnot virtue, the sooner we leave it or that portion of it out of our schools,\n\nthe better off will be the rising generation.\n\nThe new pyschology has demon-\n\nstrated too clearly the relation between thought and action for us to accept\n\nthe distinction between studies for training and studies for practical use as\n\nanything but a relative and shifting one.\n\nIf a so-called practical study does\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELATION OF DEVELOPMENT TO CONTROL\n\nDepartment]\n\n735\n\nnot train the mind, it must be badly taught and fail of its practical purpose.\nConversely, if a culture study is not somehow put to practical use, it cannot\n\narouse clear and vivid images; that is, it cannot train the mind well.\n\nWhat\n\nwe need is to recognize that efficient doing is both the test of the previous\nthinking and the condition of future clear thinking, and that therefore an\nunpractical or inefficient person is not truly educated, tho he have degrees\n\nfrom all the universities in the land, and tho his information be like the sands\nof the sea in quantity.\n\nWe take, then, an efficient social individual for our end, and when any\nproblem of school discipline arises, the first question, and the only one of\n''What course of treatment will make this child more\nand social in his ends?\"\nSuch a question can, of course, only be answered in detail when one knows\nthe individual child and the conditions in which he is placed, but it can also\n\nany importance, is:\nself- controlled\n\nbe answered in general terms if we understand the principles of growth that\n\nLet us trace this development briefly.\nDuring babyhood a child's energies are expended for the most part in\n\nthe race as a whole follows.\n\ngetting control of his body.\n\nHis first movements are impulsive and instinctive,\n\nbut thru accidental combinations which bring pleasure or pain, the feeling\n\nmovements becomes associated with certain objects or ends, the\nand in a short time a desire\nor need calls out the movements necessary to gratify it.\nThis process is\ngreatly assisted by imitation, and the education of this period consists almost\nentirely in providing healthful and beautiful surroundings, and in leaving\nof certain\n\ntraces of these are left upon the growing brain,\n\na child free to do as he wills.\nAfter a child has acquired speech, education in a truer and wider sense\nbegins.\n\nHis growth now falls into at least four periods:\n\nfirst, from the acquisi-\n\ntion of speech and walking to the beginning of the second dentition; second,\n\nfrom the second dentition to the rapid growth of connective brain fibers that\noccurs usually at about nine years; third, from this age to the beginning of\nadolescence; and fourth, adolescence itself.\n\nThe period of adolescence may\n\nalso be subdivided, as we shall see later.\n\nDuring the first or kindergarten period a child's interests are still especially\n\nconcerned with the use of his muscles and sense-organs.\n\nIt is the\n\nperiod of sense plays and of imitation of sounds, movements, and\n\nall\n\nthe\n\nThru such imitation a child becomes\nHis crude reproductions mean that he\n\nactivities that are going on about him.\n\na participator in social\n\nactivities.\n\nsome extent having the same thoughts and feeHngs as does the one\nimitated, and can therefore understand him and be understood by him.\nThis social training is, however, an unconscious training. So far as the\nchild's own thought is concerned, he is only doing what he wants to do.\nHe\nknows nothing, and cares less, about its social value. Still further, while he\ndoes care somewhat for the good opinion of others, he cares less for it than\nat any succeeding period, and he is more content to play alone than later.\n\nis\n\nto\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "6\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n73\n\n[CUld Study\n\nThe plays with other children in which he delights most are those in which\nall\n\nof the children do the same thing.\n\nHis imitations are closer copies than\n\nlater, and his invention is less free.\n\nThat is, to sum it up, in this period the content of a child's life comes to\nhim entirely thru imitation and is social but he is unconscious of his solidarity\nwith the human race, and feels and asserts his own individuality without\n;\n\nregard to others.\n\nWe have little scientific information about the characteristics of the next\nperiod, but such as we have seems to indicate that at this time a child becomes\n\nmore original and inventive than before, and also more sensitive to public\nopinion.\n\nInstead of merely imitating, he uses the activities that go on about\n\nhim as hints for something new to do. He is less satisfied with merely making\nmovements of one sort or another, and is more desirous of carrying out some\npurpose of his own and of obtaining the good opinions of his companions.\nWhereas in the last period the emphasis was on the unconscious social content\nand the conscious self-assertiveness, in this one it tends more to conscious\nrecognition of social relations and to greater originality.\n\nFrom about the ninth year to the beginning of puberty there is a period\nof balance in the life of the little child.\n\nMany tendencies to ancestral modes\n\nThere is usually a craze for tree-cHmbing, for\ncave-digging, for tenting, for running away the modern form of migrating.\n\nof life crop out at this time.\n\n—\n\nThe love of animals rises to its maximum.\ntraditional ones.\n\nThe games played most are the\nThere is a more definite entrance into the race inheritance\n\nthan before.\n\nAt the same time, a child at this age is modern history as well as ancient.\n\nHe does not care to live after the ancestral fashion all of the time.\n\nHe likes\n\nbest of all to mingle the old with the new, gratifying his vague instincts in\n\nways of his own invention.\n\nHis instincts both as an individual and as a\n\nsocius find expression in reproducing primitive\n\nhave modern counterparts.\n\nsocial\n\noccupations which\n\nWe should not forget that the importance of an\n\ninstinct never lies in the fact that it is a survival of some earher mode of life,\n\nSo a child may have tendencies to\nan infinite number of acts which his ancestors once performed, but only those\n\nbut only in its possible present utility.\n\nare of significance educationally that have not only a past but a future, that\nwill be of benefit to the race in the ages to come.\n\nFinally in adolescence, the period from twelve or thirteen years to the\n\ncompletion of bodily growth at about the age of twenty-five, the child again\npasses thru three phases which correspond roughly to those already described.\nFirst, with the beginning of puberty, is a period of self-assertiveness, when\n\nthe boy or girl is Kkely to feel cut off from everyone else.\n\ndivided against himself but is at war with others.\n\nHe is not only\n\nHe is overwhelmed by\n\na strange self that he feels within him, a self that has no love for the childish\noccupations so dear to him but yesterday, and that finds the boundaries to\nthe kingdom of manhood securely guarded\n\nclaims to citizenship.\n\nby adult carelessness of his new\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION OF DEVELOPMENT TO CONTROL\n\n737\n\nIn retaliation for this indifference he is Ukely to show a great contempt\ncommands. He is also more or less at odds with his\n\nfor adult wishes or\n\ncompanions, and he has an overwhebning contempt for girls.\nInstead of being regardless of the\n\nBut in a short time all this changes.\n\nopinion of others, his only desire now is to stand well with his fellows.\n\nHe\n\nbecomes a slave to the customs of his boy and girl friends. Nothing cuts\nhim so deeply as to be considered by them an odd fish. To escape this\ncondemnation, he will brave adult displeasure to almost any point.\nFinally, with later adolescence, I should say at\n\nabout the junior year\n\nin college, the youth consciously begins to balance his individual desires\n\nHe now\nHe is entering upon\n\nagainst social claims, and various social claims against each other.\n\nseeks an adjustment between himself\n\nand\n\nsociety.\n\nmaturity.\n\nWe may summarize the course of development thus:\n\nIn the kindergarten\n\nperiod a child feels his own individuality most strongly, but is, nevertheless,\nentirely dependent upon his surroundings for his ideas.\n\nTherefore practically\n\nthe only way in which he can act is by imitation of what he sees.\n\nHe feels\n\nhimself to be individual while he is in truth only social.\n\nBut the inevitable imitation results, first, in sympathy between himself\n\nand those whom he imitates, and, secondly, in a stock of ideas and acts which\nHe thus becomes more consciously dependent\nlater he combines in new ways.\nupon others while he is also becoming more original and individual.\nThen, with the emphasis upon ancestral modes of hfe, there is an unconscious identification of self with the race.\n\nThe child desires for himself the\n\nsame thing that the race has found necessary in its development. Finally,\nin adolescence, there is a repetition on a larger and more conscious scale\nof these three stages, the final attempt at reconcihation marking the attainment\nof maturity.\n\nIt\n\nwould\n\nalso\n\nbe interesting to ascertain whether the adult\n\npasses thru corresponding stages.\n\nNow, the question which especially interests us as teachers is how we\nwho is in some one of these stages of development so as\nto lead him without friction to the next and make him finally into an efficient\nsocial individual.\nOur question is, what course of treatment in each period\nof development will make a child most social in his ends and most selfshall treat a child\n\ncontrolled and efficient in carrying them out ?\n\nIn the kindergarten period, when a child does not recognize his solidarity,\ntho his mental content is exclusively social, when he plays happily alone but\n\nwe follow his lead or shall we endeavor\nShall we have sociaHsm in the nursery\nor private property with all the rights that it implies ? When we can have\n\nplays chiefly imitative plays, shall\nto cultivate\n\nhim into sociabiUty?\n\nbut one thing of a kind, shall it belong to one child, and shall he use it selfishly\nif\n\nhe so desires ?\n\nlittle\n\nchildren\n\nHow far are we to check the selfish tendencies that such\n\nshow?\n\nIn the first place, the problem of management will be greatly simplified\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n738\n\n[Child Study\n\nat all stages if children live among adults who habitually show consideration\nfor each other.\n\nAmong such persons the use of private property follows\n\nthe greater need or pleasure, whether it be that of the owner or not.\n\nIf little\n\nchildren see such a course of action followed, their imitativeness will usually\n\nlead to their adoption of it in keeping or lending their own belongings.\n\nOther-\n\nwise, no amount of talking will have much effect.\n\nBut surely it is a mistake not to allow a child to have the final control\nover his own things, even if he is selfish in their use.\n\nA child who is required\n\nto give or to share with others when he does not want to do so,\n\nbecomes so\n\nmuch the more aggressive when left to himself, and I believe is less social\nlater on, when he would naturally share with others.\n\nIf a little child is some-\n\nwhat selfish, rather than force him to the appearance of unselfishness, I would\nleave him alone, to the influence of good surroundings, until he enters the\nnext period. The point which I wish to make here, of course, is that merely\nrequiring a child to do certain acts does not lead to his adopting the act as\nhis\n\nown.\n\nHis sympathies are relatively undeveloped at this time, and they\n\ngrow more normally by imitation than by compulsion.\n\nOn the other hand, the beauties, of unselfishness are far more Hkely to\nbe noticed during the period of the second dentition, when children are more\nsusceptible to public opinion\n\nthan before.\n\nTeachers who have children\n\nbetween the ages of six and nine years, give very different reports as to the\nease in controlling them.\n\nSome say that they are more difficult to manage\n\nthan kindergarten children, others that they are less.\n\nBut all with whom\n\nI have talked agree that they care more for the good opinion of others, especially\n\nof other children, than before.\n\nDoes not this, perhaps, give the reason why\n\nthey are sometimes harder, and sometimes easier, to control than before ?\nIf we are able to guide the public opinion of the school and to establish an\n\nharmonious with the end that we have in view, we control\nthem easily, but if we try to impose an arbitrary and autocratic government,\nwe meet with more or less open rebelHon, especially if we shame them before\n\nesprit de corps\n\ntheir fellows.\n\nOn account of this social spirit, some form of self-government can be\nsuccessfully used at this age, the teacher, of course, being a member of the\n\ngovernment.\n\nIt\n\nmatters little, so far as the educational value is concerned,\n\nwhether the government copies in form that of the city or nation, whether\nit\n\nbe informal, or even whether the teacher rules nominally.\n\nThe essential\n\nthing in any case is that the law of the school and the home shall be considered\ntheir law by the children, not\n\nan inexplicable one coming from outside and\n\nOnly when it is looked on as\nown law, do they feel the obligation to control themselves in order to\nobey it. Only so will they learn the self-government necessary in the members\nmaintained in the last resort by compulsion.\ntheir\n\nof\n\na democracy.\n\nBut even when the children as a whole do make and obey the laws, there\nwill be a few who disobey constantly.\n\nMost of the children will lapse occa-\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "RELATION OF DEVELOPMENT TO CONTROL\n\nDepartment]\n\nsionally,\n\nbut repent promptly.\n\n739\n\nThe habitual offender, however, is harder\n\nto deal with.\n\nThe most effectual check in such cases is a pubhc opinion strong enough\nto apply the\n\npunishment without the intervention of the teacher.\n\nIn other\n\ncases, the teacher must serve as the officer to carry out the punishment imposed\n\nby the school, and if public sentiment is weak and the offense is flagrant,\nshe may even find it necessary to act both as judge and executioner. In the\nlast case, however, it seems to me that it is better to allow some particular\ncases of wrong-doing to go unpunished than for the teacher to punish in\n\nThe most important\n\nopposition to the general sentiment of the school.\n\nthing to do in such a case is to create a better public opinion.\nI should perhaps say at this point that no government by the children is\nlikely to impose the requirements of immobihty, or even of silence, that are\n\nThe schoolroom will not be a place where each child\n\nso dear to some of us.\nsits quietly and\n\ncons the printed page.\n\nWhy should it be ?\n\nIn the period of balance between nine and twelve years, the problem\ndiscipUne\nusually reduces itself to allowing children plenty of opportunity\nof\n,\n\nto indulge their tendencies\n\nconditions.\n\nI\n\ndo not\n\ntoward primitive hfe under favorable modern\n\nknow that anyone has ever tried the experiment of\n\nseeing\n\nhow children would take to primitive forms of government at this\n\ntime.\n\nWhy would it not be worth trying ?\n\nUnder\n\nthe usual conditions, self-government will\n\nbecome more\n\nfirmly\n\nestablished at this time, and certain typical heroes and heroines will be imitated.\n\nBravery is the paramount virtue\npain\n\n—\n\n—not moral courage, but disregard\n\nof physical\n\nand the adventurous hero is the ideal.\n\nAt the entrance to adolescence, when the youth asserts his independence\nof adults and, tho to a less degree, of his companions, self-government under-\n\nBoth physically and mentally the youth is going\nthru the greatest readjustment of his fife, and it is not surprising that he\n\ngoes\n\nits\n\ngreatest strain.\n\nresents our disregard of his new view-point.\n\nHe will never be easy to deal\n\nwith either singly or en masse, because the physical conditions themselves\nlead to irritabihty, but it seems to me that the difficulties in deaUng with him\n\ncan be minimized to some extent.\nIn the first place, proper training in self-control before this period should\n\nhave giyen him habits that will go far to carry him thru this time of transition.\nIn the second place, we ought to give him the recognition and responsibility\nthat he so craves.\n\nI mean that we should give it to him in reahty, not only\n\nfor as long as he does what we would do.\n\nLet him manage some things even if he does it incorrectly.\n\nHe will never\n\nLet him\nsee the value of advice until he has found out his own weakness.\nlearn\nwill\nthus\nhe\nare,\nfor\nlearn by actual experience what his own limitations\npersistence and self-control as well as his need of others.\n\nIn the following period, when he becomes overwhelmingly\nenters into the age of hero worship and of ideals.\n\nsocial,\n\nhe\n\nAt no other time is the\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n740\n\ninfluence of good books and of friendships so strong.\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nProbably at no other\n\ntime can a teacher exert so strong and lasting an influence.\nControl of the school should now be in the hands of the students, and the\nteacher's influence should be used even more than before to cultivate close\n\npersonal friendships between herself and her pupils and between pupils.\n\nOf course co-operation should exist in every grade, from the kindergarten up,\nbut surely it reaches its maximum only at this time, in the years of the later\nhigh-school,\n\nDo not we teachers make a great\n\nand early college, course.\n\nmistake in leaving the young people of this period to form all sorts of funny\n\nand foolish, if not actually harmful, societies by themselves?\n\nSurely if we\n\nco-operated with them, we could make the home, the school, and the town\nfar better by using this passion for organization to effect some valuable ends.\nI\n\ndo not mean that we should manage their societies for them, but that in\n\nvarious indirect ways their ideals of social relations should be made valuable\n\nand worthy, as well as interesting, to them.\n\nThese years of education should\n\nbe a course in training to conscious social co-operation, and in the estabhshing of high personal and civic ideals.\n\nWith the choice of such ideals, the youth finally enters upon the period\nof maturity, in which he must constantly set against each other the personal\ndesire and the social need, harmonizing the two when possible and, when not,\n\nHe has now, as a rule, attained to moral and legal\nand the remainder of his education is that furnished by life.\nWhether he prefers the wide social service or the narrow personal ambition\ndepends upon his previous training.\nDoes he amass wealth by wrecking the lives of others ? Where then did\nhe form the habit of disregarding others? Does he buy and sell the law?\nWhere did he acquire a contempt of law ? Are not our schools responsible\nto a large degree\nequally with our homes for our present economic and\npoHtical evils ? How can a democracy a government of the people and for\nthe people ever succeed if our youth are trained in home and at school to\nchoosing between them.\n\nresponsibihty,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nautocratic or monarchical rule ?\n\n—\n\nThe very foundation of our repubhc is the\n\ntraining of our children to self-control\n\nand to social efficiency and service.\n\nAre we giving such training?\n\nDISCUSSION\nEdwin Grant Dexter, director, School of Education, The University of Illinois,\nUrbana, 111. The line of thought that I wish to present for your consideration is one\nborrowed from the biologist. He has accounted for the tremendous process of racial\n\n—\n\nadjustment to a world-environment\n\n—racial education,\n\nif\n\nwe adopt a definition of educa-\n\ntion that is becoming more and more widely accepted, thru reliance upon what is generally\n\nknown as the \"Darwinian Tripod of Evolution.\"\n\nIt asserts, first, that more organic forms\n\nare brought into existence than can, in the nature of things, mature; second, that no two\n\nand third, that the ones best fitted to their environment\nThese three laws, variously interpreted, seem to account for the process of\n\nof these forms are exactly alike;\nsurvive.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "-\n\nRELATION OF DEVELOPMENT TO CONTROL\n\nDepartment]\n\nBut this entire\n\nracial adjustment and control as it expresses itself in organic evolution.\n\nprocess\n\nis\n\nwrit small in the lifetime of the single\n\nhuman individual.\n\n741\n\nWhat our entire\n\nancestry has accompHshed in the progress of ages must, in a sense, be done over again by\n\neach human being.\nof the race.\n\nThe education of the individual is but a synopsis of the education\nThe evolutionary tripod restated in terms of the latter process is as follows\n\nmore impulses and interests are bom to the child than can be developed with\nand interests vary with every child; third, only those\nprophetic of the greatest usefulness in the particular environment in which Ufe is to be\nFirst,\n\nprofit;\n\nsecond, these impulses\n\nspent should be developed\n\n:\n\nthe rest should be suppressed.\n\nThe general thesis expressed\n\nby this apphcation of scientific laws to the profession of the teacher might be stated as of\neducation thru survivals.\n\nIn terms of it, our educational systems are but features of the\n\nenvironment, controlled for the purpose of making certain that the useful impulses and\ninterests of every child will be discovered and developed to their maximum of efficiency,\n\nthe latter to be determined by the aim of education for the particular time and place.\n\nBy the term impulse is meant inherent tendencies to act; by interests, inherent\nThe human being, in his growth from infancy to matur-\n\ntendencies to like or to disUke.\nity,\nis\n\nexpresses a continuous sequence of impulses and interests, the appearance of which\n\ndetermined by the laws of nature.\n\nThru a proper selection of the former he gains con-\n\nbody and learns to do things. It seems quite probable that no\nactivity which is essential to the perpetuation and preservation of the race comes in any\nother way. Let us see if this claim is unreasonable for the motor activities of walking\nand talking. In the case of the former, we should have to suppose that at an age somewhere between eight and sixteen months, and usually not far from a year, brain centers\nripen to use a figure of speech which set up a series of motions of the legs, varied and\nalmost innumerable; really nothing more than instinctive movements, differing not at all\nfundamentally from the spasmodic prenatal squirmings, except that some of them enabled\nthe child to do things which he wanted to do, that \"want to do\" being determined by the\nlaws of growth, and being, in the present case, what we call walking. Not that the child\nhas any conception of walking, and so consciously determines his acts accordingly, but\nthat each motion leading up to the act gives him pleasure in itself, because of enlarging\nhis field of activity.\nProbably no single act in the series is due to conscious imitation,\nnor even to that unconscious imitation which we call suggestion, but each act is in itself\nan impulse, pure and simple, made without any reference to aim or end. Yet of the\nhundreds of impulsive movements, each different from the other qualitatively and quantitatively, some give no pleasure because they make his world no larger; these are suppressed, are the unfit, which nature eUminates.\nOthers give pleasure by putting things\nwithin his reach which otherwise were beyond the limits of the Httle tangible world which\nhe is building; such are the \"fittest,\" which survive. The only presupposition to this\nhypothesis of motor functioning is that of many movements natural to the child, and no\none who has studied carefully thru the period just preceding that of learning to walk\ntrol of the parts of the\n\n—\n\n—\n\nwould, I think, wish to question the validity of such a presupposition.\n\nWe certainly\n\nunderestimate the possibilities of the little fellow ^if he has not kicked and squirmed in as\n\nmany and varied contortions as are possible to his anatomy, and misjudge him if all the\nmovements of walking are not among the myriads of other motions with which they are\nsmothered. Creeping would be explained in the same way, and, coming at the time it\ndoes, gives a most admirable corroboration of the culture-epoch theory.\nBut how about talking? Our hypothesis would presuppose that among the babblings, and the gurglings, and the mumblings, of the months and weeks just preceding the\ntalking period were all the elements of articulate speech, mixed up with hundreds of\nsounds from which might just as well have been selected the elements of Chinese, Choctaw,\nand, for aught I know, Chimpansee. Do you question the truth of that, fathers and\nmothers ?\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n742\n\n[Child Study\n\n—\n\nAmong the interests common to the child those Ukes which do not express themWhat child does not\nthe earhest seems to me to be that for rhythm.\n\nselves in motion\n\n—\n\nlike the mother's crooning lullaby, or the Mother Goose rhymes, or simple poetry ?\n\nAn interest in flights of the imagination comes next and the fairy-tale and the story\ndemanded. Next comes the imagination tied down to things of earth, and\nmust be the medium for selection and development. But even this\ninterest, especially with the girls, is soon ecHpsed and subdued by an absorption in the\nthings of romance.\nReligion and humor come in their turn as more or less controlUng\ninterests and with them the gamut is perhaps run.\nBut what, you ask, has the teacher to do with all this ? Much, tho not the direction\nof the whole process.\nThe education of the child covers two more or less distinct periods;\none in which the environmental conditions are unmodified for educational purposes, and\na second in which they are modified for particular educational ends. The former comDuring it the child probably undergoes\nprises roughly the first six years of childhood.\nmore changes than during the other, but they are made in response to the conditions of\nthe home which are established for quite other purposes.\nFor this early period education\nis but a by-product; not so, however, for the later period.\nThe school is an artificial phase\nof this environment, established solely for the purpose of. selecting- and perpetuating the\nfavorable impulses and interests of the child.\nIf we are responsible for such an environment, and would not be recreant to a trust,\nwe must recognize these facts: first, that the impulses and interests of the child express\nthemselves in a sequence determined by nature and entirely beyond our control; second,\nthat they are but temporary and must be seized upon at the opportune time; and third,\nthat a sufficiently broad and varied environment be provided to make certain that none\nof myth are\n\nstories of adventure\n\nescapes detection.\n\nWith these three fundamentals of education provided, nature will\n\ntake care of the rest.\n\nTHE SCHOOL AND THE. CHILD'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT\nSTUART H. ROWE, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY\nBROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS, BROOKLYN, N. Y.\n\n\"You teachers kill a lot of girls every year.\ntoo,\n\nbut you can't.\"\n\nSuch,\n\nif\n\nYou would kill a lot of boys\n\ncorrectly reported,\n\nwas the pointed charge\n\nmade by an eminent common-sense thinker on educational questions against\na representative body of teachers.\n\nIn remedying the errors to be pointed\n\nout in this article, and in the recommendations made, I believe that nothing\nis\n\nrequired of the teacher which common-sense does not dictate to be of the\n\nfirst importance to the cjiild.\n\nSo much progress has been made in years pa'st\n\nin lighting, heating, ventilating,\n\nand seating schools and so much emphasis\n\nhas been laid on these problems that these former scapegoats of teachers'\nmistakes no longer serve their ancient useful purpose.\n\nConsequently, 1\n\nshall take for granted the essential features of equipment such as a building\n\nwith rooms Hghted from the left, or left and rear (in which case the architect\n\nhas left the teacher to protect his own eyes as best he can), or from the left\n\nand right, with curtains to cut off direct sunlight, with no desks darkened\nby wide piers or pillars, with forced ventilation, and indirect and adequate\nheating, with a sanitary cellar and closets, with baths if possible, with hygienic\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL AND CHILD'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT\n\n743\n\nand paper or cloth individual towels. I assume also an\nefficient janitor and suitable school furniture adjustable, of various sizes,\nand put down (if put down at all) with proper reference to the minus distance.\nschool fountains,\n\nThere is still, as a matter of fact, even in splendidly equipped schools at best\nonly a slight diminution in the growing number of defective eyes, curved\nspines, cases of contagious diseases,\n\nand nervous disorder.\n\nIt is\n\nstill\n\nmore\n\npatent to the casual observer than to either teachers or parents that thru the\nschool year there is a steady decrease in the number (not to say elimination)\n\nno wonder that observing\nask why it is that their\nand\nparents come to the teacher, or his directors,\nin\nthe best of health have\nSeptember\nchildren after coming into school in\nand study.\nfor\nboth\nfood\nnow lost their red cheeks and their zest\nemboHsm.\nIt is due to a\ncalled\nThere is a form of infantile paralysis\nfloats thru\nand\ndislodged,\nbecomes\ntiny growth which develops in the heart,\nof the strong and healthy-looking children.\n\nthe arterial system until\n\nit\n\nIt is\n\nreaches channels in the brain too small for\n\nits\n\npassage. This clogs the system beyond and so cuts ofif all nutriment from\nsome portions of the brain, and as a result, the cells have no way of renewing\ntheir energy, and the portion of the body controlled by that portion of the\nbrain becomes paralyzed. If one part of the brain be affected, the arm or\nWhat\nleg, or perhaps both and other parts of the body are rendered useless.\nby\naccompUshes\nthis dread disease does in such a complete way, man often\nhis short-sightedness.\n\nFailure to provide nutritious food, sufficient sleep,\n\nadequate clothing, pure air, and frequent bathing are all methods by which\nthe thoughtless parent impoverishes the blood supply,\n\nand hence cuts off\n\nor diminishes, not so seriously as an embolism, but none the less surely, the\n\nenergy which is necessary for the functioning of the cells.\n\nThe teacher, unfortunately, has his way of accomplishing similar results.\nSome of the most persistent, and least recognized, of these methods it is my\npurpose to present to your consideration, rather as emphasis is needed than\nin any hope of covering the ground or exhausting the topic.\nIt would naturally be supposed that given a good building, teachers would\n\nco-operate with the architect in bringing it to the highest efficiency possible.\n\nThey usually do, as far as heating is concerned; but many do not know even\nthe positions of the curtains necessary at various times of the day to co-operate\n\nwith the architect's plan for light, while comparatively few can explain the\ngeneral plan of the system of ventilation used in their buildings.\n\nYet all\n\nthis is necessary to adapt oneself properly to the changing conditions of cloud\n\nand sun and time of day in the Hghting, or changes in wind and temperature\nFrequently, a whole system of heating and ventilating\naffecting ventilation.\nis deranged by an open door or window, and good left light is curtained off\nfor inferior rear light not to mention violations of the lighting scheme such a^\nturning classes so as to face the Ught or so that the poorest possible fight is\n\ngiven to the children's books.\nSimilarly, in\n\nrooms where the furniture is good on the whole, anyone\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n744\n\n[Child Study\n\njust glancing in while writing or figuring is being done will find in nine out\n\nof ten rooms from 20 to 90 per cent, of the children taking positions that are\n\ncertain to produce in time spinal curvature, and are more than likely to do\nmore harm to the eyes than was ever traceable to the old-fashioned, poorly\nThis is in most cases due to carelessness and inefficiency\nlighted building.\n\non the part of the teacher.\n\nWeakness in this particular is sometimes accompanied by no rational\nWhere there is no\nadjustable furniture, frequently no effort is made to put the large children\nin the largest seats rather than according to some other principle, such as\nIf, as Eulenberg's figures would\nclass divisions, alternate girls and boys, etc.\nattempt to adjust the desks and seats to the children.\n\nindicate, 90 per cent, of the cases of spinal curvature are developed during\n\nattendance at school, it is important that teachers reaHze the weakness and\n\ndisablement which\n\nis\n\nHkely to follow.\n\nA teacher should understand his\n\nbuilding and its furniture perfectly, and be able to adapt himself to varying\nconditions, report defects, and otherwise co-operate with the architect.\n\nMore\n\nthan that, he should secure the children from harm as they read, and even\nin standing or walking (particularly if they are well laden with books) they\n\nmust be watched, and taught to avoid postures likely to result in harm to\nthem if made habitual.\nBut granted co-operation on the part of the teacher, still the fact remains\nMost grown people avoid threethat children are exposed to serious risk.\nhour sessions, whether of church or state, and, in spite of the attractiveness\nof a fine theatrical performance,\n\nwould welcome an intermission.\n\nAnd no\n\none wishes to shut himself up to that sort of thing for two sessions a day.\n\nYet we ask, nay, require, of children that very thing without the attractiveness\nor excitement of the theater to sugar-coat the treatment.\n\nWhere to this\n\nconfinement is added the refusal of access to the closets, it becomes absolutely\ncriminal.\n\nOf course, habit comes to the rescue of the child and makes it\n\npossible for him to endure confinement and live, but only at the expense of\n\nother powers.\n\nIf by means of recesses, educative plays and games, out-of-door\n\nobservation, and other devices for breaking up the confinement of school-life,\n\nthe teacher reduced it to the minimum, then a long step in advance has been\ntaken.\n\nThere is one advantage in a three-hour-and-a-half school day for primary\nchildren,\n\nexcept in densely populated sections.\n\nThese children are then\n\nassured of their out-of-door play, not only in summer when they will get it\n\nanyway, but in winter when a five-hour school day ordinarily leaves the\n\nOf course, it could be arranged much better,\nby having an hour and a half of the second period assigned\n\nchild no dayhght for his play.\ntheoretically,\n\nto free play out of doors, but as a matter of fact, I have yet to see the school\n\ncourse of study which does provide this amount, or anything like it, whereas\nthere are a few isolated instances of the shorter sessions.\nI\n\nam also desirous of endorsing the plan inaugurated by Dr. Balliet in\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCHOOL AND CHILD'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT\n\n745\n\nthe Springfield schools, which provides for a recess of a week every two months\n\nThe desirabiUty for the average child of a week's\n\nduring the school year.\n\nadjournment the last week of February and of April seems to me to need\nno argument, even if that time is subtracted from the long vacation.\nThe child comes to school with a tremendous desire to understand the\nthings about him, his pets, birds and insects, flowers, trees\nthe rocks, water, houses, stores, etc. ;\n\nand vegetables,\n\nalmost his whole mental make-up is\n\na conglomeration of instincts caUing him to continuous action over a most\nextended range. His first lesson in most schools is to inhibit every tendency\nto action until his teacher tells\n\n\"until the bell rings.\"\n\nhim what to do.\n\nHe is to wait every thing\n\nThese. instincts were nature's chief provision for the\n\neducation and healthful employment of children.\n\nWe take them away, and\n\ntoo often supplant them with the blind efforts of the lowest bidder for the\n\nprimary position.\n\nThe children of this country are saved only by the fact\n\nthat there are conscientious and noble hearts among these same low bidders.\n\nThanks to theoretical pedagogy^ the instincts of the child are now receiving\nmore nearly their due recognition, and that necessitates the reduction of all\nThe method of repression is now to\nrepressive measures to the minimum.\nbe replaced by the method of substitution. If a child reacts along the lines\nof an instinct which cannot be harmonized with the general activity of the\nroom, then another must be evoked as a substitute. In low forms of life to\nreact is to live.\n\nProminent among games used to break up the confinement, and reduce\nthe repression, of school\n\nlife\n\nare tag, letter carrying,\n\nLondon Bridge, Mr.\n\nRobin, following the leader, hiding (several games), skipping, cat-and-mouse,\nponies, bean-bag, rocking horse, ringing the bell, hop-toad, Yankee-doodle,\nAction has been directed thru manual work (i) by cutting (horseshoes,\n\netc.\n\nflags, trolleys, hens, tables, pinwheels,\n\nsquares, etc.)\n\n;\n\nwigwams, rabbits, trees, triangles and\n\n(2) by folding (making houses, oblong boxes, triangular boxes,\n\nboats, soldier-caps, picture frames, handkerchiefs, etc.).\n\nTeachers have also\n\nmade use of dramatizations with the same object in view.'\n\nIt\n\nseems hardly\n\nnecessary to add that the extension of this free constructive work in upper\n\ngrades is most desirable.\n\nThe course of study in general, but particularly a lack of business-like\nmethod in carrying out its provisions, frequently causes confusion which is\nboth mentally and physically disastrous to the child. The failure of teachers\nto distinguish between the habits they wish to form and the ideas they wish\nto present is the most common of all mistakes in method.\n\nThe jumbling of\n\nall the arithmetical processes into the first year of number, the teUing of words\n\nin primary reading, and most mistakes in discipHne are due to the failure to\n\nrecognize the fact that the idea is to be fixed in action, that the habit is the\n\nmatter of prime importance in each case.\n\nOn the other hand, in geography\n\nand history, children still learn by heart and have drilled into them page after\n»\n\nTeachers have found quite helpful Clara Sawyer Reid's Games and Songs, published by Hammett.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n746\n\n.\n\n[Child Study\n\npage of textbooks with only the barest facts; whereas here it is last of all the\nisolated habit of running thru a small number of barren details, but rather\n\nthe mass of ideals or the panoramic picture, which marks the one who has\nlearned.\n\nand lack of clearness all result in confusion\nmind of the child. Where a child's general impression for several\nmonths tells him that he has learned nothing, even tho the majority of the\nIndefiniteness, indecision,\n\nin the\n\nclass has done well, he is rendered physically even less able, thru the nervous\n\nThe identification between the value of\nsound pedagogy and of hygiene as appHed to the avoidance of confusion\nbecomes a criterion in method.\nwear and tear of such a situation.\n\nIt applies as well to matters of discipline as of instruction.\nlike order rather than chaos.\n\nChildren\n\nThey like to be protected from the too boisterous\n\nplay or fooHng of their associates, and in times of study from interruptions\n\nwhether by whisper or noises.\n\nConsequently discipline is hygienic in so far\n\nas it promotes order rather than confusion.\n\n•\n\nBut on the contrary, discipline, as soon as it becomes merely arbitrary,\nand appeals to the fear of children, is provocative of the most undesirable\nform of confusion and results in a state of flurry which cannot fail, if continued,\nto have its effects on the nervous system.\nWorry is another factor to be removed from the schoolroom, and frequently\nit is hardly to be distinguished from confusion, so often they go together.\nAn examination is, however, usually a very definite, precise, and clear operation (I had almost said method of torture).\nIt is not fundamentally productive\nof confusion.\nIt is productive of worry.\nAn arbitrary and overruling manner\non the part of the teacher, a multipKcity of rules and regulations, tests in\nwhatever guise, rivalry, rewards and punishments in their usual forms are\nall productive of a worry which helps to contribute to the pale faces and\nweakened physiques of the children at the end of the year. Almost the only\nargument for the private school in a democracy is its usual laissez-faire poHcy,\n\nOn this account\nAn Ideal School, leaves work\n\na distinctly comfortable policy from a health standpoint.\nSearch in his extremely suggestive book.\n\nunassigned for one year at about the age of fourteen, in spite of the recognized\nbenefit of his play school, and the adaptability of his individual method.\n\nHe\n\nand rightly: \"The school which has difficulty in placing children\nreceived from other schools, or who have been out of school for a time, is\n\nsays,\n\nnot simply out of joint with other schools, but is itself out of joint with nature.\"\n\nThe strenuousness of our American life is too often carried into our schools,\nand the children pushed to the limit of their strength. They are often expected\nto maintain the positions in a class by parents who claim that they are as\n\"smart\" as the others, when, as a matter of fact, they have been doing their\nbest,\n\nbut have gradually lost ground.\n\nIf this truth\n\nwere recognized, these\n\npupils would be saved much wofry and discouragement.\n\nChildren who are at\nhome will fear that^they are falling behind their classes, and return to school\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Deportmentl\n\nSCHOOL AND CHILD'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 'T\n\nbefore they are well, in order to keep their places.\n\n''\n\n747\n\nSome teachers are them-\n\nselves nervous either in temperament or as a result of weakness and overwork,\n\nand consequently are quick, impatient, and arbitrary in their movements and\nChildren are very imitative. They become quick (which in\ndirections.\nthem means thoughtless), impatient, and arbitrary, and, finally, as a result\nThe teacher who is enjoying life and is healthy\nof friction, nervous and worn.\nin mind and body has a very different effect on the pupils.\nIf all these elements of error could be removed, we should do away with\nthe discouragement which results from worry, confusion, and disappointment.\nIt is, of course, absolutely impossible to reduce to nil any one of these three\nfactors, but wonders can be done by appealing to the child's ability or talent\nor his courage and persistence. It is said that men who have been engaged\nin active work all their Hves, break down very quickly after their employment\nhas been taken away from them. Discouragement as a function is katabolic,\nand is deadening to both mind and body. Worry and confusion are warnings\nof danger, incentives to the substitution of more satisfactory forms of activity.\nProfessor Thomdike, in his Notes on Psychology for Kindergartners, has\nalluded forcibly to the unnaturally stimulating conditions incident to the life\n\nAs he proceeds, his picture of the modern schoolroom where the children with eyes bulging with excitement and arms waving\nin air \"pop out of their seats Hke corks\" has a certain uncanny reality about\nChildren should not be keyed up artiit which should serve as a warning.\nficially for long periods.\nMake provision for rest periods and do not allow\nof a modern city child.\n\neven your enthusiasm in your teaching to infringe on those periods.\n\nAlternate\n\nthe harder and the easier work, that requiring careful concentration and that\n\nadmitting a freer play of fancy, the arithmetic and the drawing, the history\nand the music, and so forth.\nPerhaps the most serious error of teachers is their failure to note pupils\nwho lack normal physique, or are in any way defective, and to adapt their\n\nrequirements to the physical strength of their pupils.\n\nIn cases of defective\n\neyesight, loss of hearing, poor digestion, bad circulation, overwrought nerves,\n\nspinal curvature, or other diseases, even supposing the teacher can do nothing\n\ntoward remedying the evil, he can in almost all cases do something\ntoward alleviating the conditions productive of ill, and certainly avoid the\n\npositive\n\npossibiHty of contributing to the defect.\n\nErrors of refraction may be corrected\n\nby glasses, nearly 90 per cent, of cases of defective hearing may be cured,\nrelief from strain, and perhaps temporary removal from school altogether,\nwill restore digestion, better air\n\nand more clothing or gymnastics or special\n\ntreatment will better the circulation; and so in practically every case, given a\ndefect that is known, something can be done about it.\n\nYou enter any average schoolroom and you will see children with squinting,\ninflamed, or bloodshot eyes or breathing with open mouths\n\n;\n\nless often children\n\nwith headache, fevered faces, sore throats, spasmodic twitches, bad coughs,\nspinal curves, etc.\nTeachers who have really thought of it seriously have\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nno trouble in quickly sizing up their classes and noting all important departures from the normal.\n\nThose who have not formed the habit of taking some definite period at\nthe beginning of the day or session for making observations of this sort will\nleave out many cases worthy of their attention.\nis\n\nWhere medical supervision\nmade only the more\n\navailable, the work of the teacher in this regard is\n\niijiportant, as he\n\ncan get expert confirmation or refutation of his suspicions,\n\nand thus add to the force with which these defects may be brought to the\nattention of the parents for treatment.\n\nThis crowns the teacher's\n\nefforts\n\nWhen the supervision is absent the\n\nwith at least hope of their removal.\n\nteacher should make an effort to get whatever reliable information he can.\n\nThe symptoms of eye defects are:\n\nsquinting, discharge, bloodshot condi-\n\ntions with permanently inflamed or encrusted lids, pain in the eye\n\nand fre-\n\nquent headaches.\n\nThe symptoms of ear defects are: the cipen mouth which often accompanies\nadenoids, discharge, delay in executing commands, apparent stupidity (there\n\nmay be other causes but defective hearing is certainly an important one).\nSpinal curvatures are found where there\n\nis\n\na noticeable lack of ability\n\nwalk distances or engage in certain forms of exercises, bad postures in\nwriting (i. e. with back bent to the side) or in standing, when a bent spine\nto\n\nshows itself by raising one hip higher than the other, and even round shoulders\n\nmay be a symptom.\nThe symptoms of nervousness and permanent fatigue are of various\nsorts, but the really serious ones are those which are characterized by lack of\n\nmuscular control such as involuntary twitchings of the face, hand or limbs\n(occasional lapses in control of the hand in writing, as certain letters or parts\nof letters are made, being an evidence of an early form of chorea), lapse from\n\nnormal memory, inability to attend, irritabihty, hasty reaction, asymmetry\nin moving both hands, or quivering of hands, increasing pallor or thinness,\nhysterical laughing or crying; while in others there is a lack of sensitiveness\n\nand ready reaction, which is even more serious and is even recognized by the\nchildren as a dopy condition.\n\nThe flushed faces, sore throats, or skin eruptions, coughing, vomiting, or\nother serious condition will sufficiently\n\nwarn teachers of oncoming disease\n\nof serious nature and should be followed by immediate dismissal of the child\n\nfrom school both for his own sake and for the sake of the other children.\nTo give directions for testing where symptoms have been noticed would\nbe far beyond the scope of this paper. I have attempted that in my book,\nThe Physical Nature of the Child and How to Study It. It should be remembered, however, that the well child does not need your tests.\n\nThe child who\n\nresponds to all his studies, is strong and healthy, full of life, vigor and optimism\n\ncan be safely disregarded. The only hope of the weak, unhealthy, dopy,\nand morbid child is in being discovered. The child found defective opens\na fine field for the play of the teacher's skill. Just how far can his work be\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCHOOL AND CHILD'S PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT\n\n749\n\nmoderated without his taking advantage of his unique position with reference\nto the class ?\nJust what means may be taken to find, and what to remove,\nthe causes ?\n\nthe child.\n\nThese are questions which can only be answered by study of\n\nHe certainly must be excused from such exercises as are harmful.\n\nHe may be excused from the restraint of school, but even then work can be\ngiven him which will be beneficial and, in a sense, compensatory.\n\nThis paper has already passed its assigned hmits, but I cannot bring it\nto a close without recommending a more general acceptance of the value of\npositive building-up\n\nperiods of the school.\n\nexercise in\n\nconnection with the gymnastic and play\n\nThere should be included in these breathing exercises.\n\nWe are only just beginning to see the practical application of measurements\nas indicators of Hues of development necessary, while in few schools, outside\nof a half-dozen cities, is the physical culture other than a more or less restful\n\nchange.\n\nThe school is, on the average, more hygienically administered than the\nhome; but unless the utmost caution is maintained to co-operate with the\narchitect and adapt ourselves to his mistakes and omissions to rest the children properly, and see that they maintain correct postures; to guard against\ncontagion, and discern defects in time; to remove confinement by allowing\nfreedom, and repression by substituting action; to avoid confusion as a result\nof method or discipline; and to remove causes of worry or of discouragement,\nwe shall not need to wonder at the ravages of disease of one form or another\n;\n\namong children attending school.\n\nDISCUSSION\nFrank G. Bruner, assistant director of the department of child study, Chicago\nTho by no mea,ns the only factor, and perhaps not the most important,\n\nPublic Schools.\n\n—\n\nin effecting injury to the health\n\nand beauty of children during their earlier years, the\n\nschool does not escape with a modicimi of responsibihty.\n\nIf anything, I should be inclined\n\nto emphasize what Professor Rowe has already so ably and emphatically said.\n\nWere I to\n\ntake issue with him at all it would be on the method of applying a remedy, or rather upon\nwhom I would place the responsibility for the present deplorable state of affairs. And\nlest I might be misunderstood in what I shall have to say, let\n\nme put emphatically at the\n\nbeginning the statement that I consider this that I shall add entirely secondary to the\nstatement of the need for improvement in this very much neglected field of education\nthe child's physical health and development.\n\nThe teacher's work is both positive and negative.\n\nIn the positive sense, it tends to\n\ndevelop the child's activities, mental and physical, or to emphasize certain activities at\nOne does not\nthe expense of others, so as to correct certain anomahes of body or mind.\n\nhave to argue long to show, too, that this process is more than a feeding process, in so far\nas this is considered the act of throwing the pabuliun before the child. Exercise and\nstudy both require an adjustment on the part of the recipient. The teacher's work here\nis, first, to know the condition of the child's mind or body, and then, to apply the treat-\n\nment that will bring about a symmetrical development of the individual, i. e., a sound,\nhealthy, active mind in a vigorous and well-functioning body.\nThis, of course, necessitates a careful diagnosis.\n\nOn the mental side it has long\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n7 5o\n\n[Child Study\n\nbeen insisted that teaching to be developmental must be individual, and not mass teaching, that it must be suited to the individuals of a class as well as to the class as a whole.\n\nNow what I want to insist upon, with all my might, is that the child's physical organism\nshould be given as careful attention as the mental, and this chiefly because haphazard\nnot only unbeneficial, it is positively and decidedly harmful, frequently\npermanent ill health, and sometimes in premature death. This phase of\nthe physical side of the child's organism makes it highly delicate to deal with, and, to\nmy mind, of far greater importance than the mental could well be. And you will observe\nI have made absolutely no allusion to the other very important consideration the\ndependence of a healthy mind on a healthy body.\ntreatment\n\nis\n\nresulting in\n\nThe godmother-tea stage of educational science, let us hope, is almost over.\n\nChil-\n\ndren are too complex and finely organized in their mechanisms to be experimented upon\nwith this or that expedient, just because it happened to prove beneficial to some other\nA few\nchild, when the chances are that cases required radically different treatment.\nthere are\n\nwho are vigorous enough to survive such treatment with few or no evil\nwho prove victims to such unscientific\n\nconsequences, but there are always thousands\nproceedures.\n\nChild study, to date, has spent entirely too much time on averages, norms, and on\ndeveloping educational dictums from some theoretical (so-called philosophical)\n\npre-\n\nsupposition, arriving at certain facts (so called) about child development, to which every\n\nteacher of brain and experience gives the lie.\n\nEverybody cannot invent, nor need it be\n\nexpected that each teacher must needs have the capacity and peculiar gifts that are essential to the making of an efficient student of mental phenomena,\n\nsciences.\n\nor a student of any of the\n\nAnd it is just this pecuUar type of mind, and this alone, to my mind, that is\n\nindispensable to the correct diagnosis of the physical and mental condition of the child,\n\nwhich we are here considering; I mean the physician's attitude.\nYou will say \" But we cannot have specialists as teachers, at least not for the present,\nso why not deal with the conditions as they obtain at present, and suggest some means of\ntaking care of the problem that we have in hand.\" But I insist that, in the better schools,\nit is expected that teachers have special training in teaching the subjects they have to\nteach to normal children, but are not given that information which will assist them in\ndetecting and correcting mental and physical defects; nor should so much be expected of\n:\n\nthem.\n.\n\nPhysicians devote from four to six years to preparing themselves for the practice of\n\ntheir profession,\n\nand only those who have had the experience of\n\nreferring pupils to\n\nphysicians, for the diagnosis of such simple things (apparently so) as the detection of\n\nadenoids, that would impair hearing, or the most simple anomalies of refraction, that\nseem to be the cause of persistent headaches, I say that only those who have had experience can appreciate the almost total want of knowledge of these things on the part of the\n\nmedical profession.\n\nNow if physicians, who, we expect, should be able to detect the\n\ncommon defects of sight and hearing, are unable to do so, can we with reason expect that\nteachers shall have this ability ?\n\nIf it were possible for teachers to acquire such knowledge\nfrom reading, the case would be different, but in most cases there would be repetition of\nthe episodes of book -taught Bilkins, and the health of our children is of too great moment\nA mistake is not often possible of correction, especially when\nto be tampered with thus.\nthe diagnosis has been incorrectly made and an improper remedy given.\nI have in mind an instance of a girl of fourteen of very delicate health.\nHer teacher,\njudging that her poor health was due to insufficient exercise, put her thru a course of very\n\nThe source of the weakness happened to be a heart trouble. The\nover-stimulation accentuated the weakness, and in consequence the girl died. This is an\n\nvigorous gymnastics.\n\nextreme case, I appreciate, but there are others which parallel it, and I have no doubt\nthat there are many cases of poor eyes that have been examined by teachers, and pronounced all right, that have led to headaches that caused children^ to leave school, or\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "NOTES ON A FEW BOOKS IN CHILD STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\npermanent defects of sight, and in other instances, the entire loss of vision.\n\n751\n\nThe same\n\nmight be said of hearing, tho the danger here is not so great, from the positive side of\ngiving treatment in the wrong direction.\nWhen it comes to motor and nervous developmental defects, the danger from inability to detect anomalies and apply the suitable\n\nremedies is even greater than in the case of vision.\n\nThe test usually suggested in our books for sight is the Snellen letter test. Now this\nshows only a general insensitiveness of the retina, or that the patient suffers from\nmyopia. In either case, the defect is one of convenience rather than one whose neglect\nwould have any very serious consequences. Very few would be those, if any, who would\nsuggest that any teacher should give any further test, and those who have tested several\nhundred individuals, as have I, will appreciate the impossibility of anything more by\nanyone besides the specialist.\ntest\n\nI should insist, therefore, that if teachers are to be given this work a very thoro prepa-\n\nration should be insisted upon, otherwise the\n\nwork of teachers and principals in this\n\ndirection should in all cases be (i) to be on the alert for any sign of abnormality in chil-\n\ndren under their care and, (2) to refer such a case to the parent or guardian of the child,\n\nand suggest that the\n\nchild be taken to a specialist, or at least to a physician, for\n\nexamination.\n\nSchool boards have been very willing, in general, to take up any work that has been\nshown to be really worth while for the interests of the schools. In Chicago and Antwerp\nfor many years there have been employed specialists who have been especially trained\nto do just such work as we have been considering here, and this has in both instances\nalways received the hearty approval of parents and teachers alike.\nIt is a very simple matter to see that a tree is dying.\nIt is very much more difficult\nto tell just what is causing the tree to wither and decay.\nOnly by a careful study of the\ndiseases of trees, the fungi that cause their decay, the means of destroying these, together\nwith vast experience gained by work with trees under varying stages of decay, can the condition of any given tree be known and the remedy be suggested that will improve its\ncondition.\n\nGymnastics given ad hoc will be preventive, but not curative.\n\nLikewise, the teacher\n\ncan do much in the way of seeing to the sanitation of the school, and should know the\n\nfundamentals of\n\nthis\n\nscience, also\n\nstrain, spinal curvature,\n\nthe rules for seating pupils, so as to obviate eye-\n\nabdominal compression, and other nervous and motor defects.\n\nAll this is well within the ability of every teacher.\n\nWe, as teachers, can do excellent work by forcing the condition of pupils in our\nschools to the attention of school officials, and in this way the time will come when every\n\nschool will have a consulting oculist, aurist, and pediatrician to\n\nwhom teachers may\n\nany case that they may suspect as suffering from some one or the other of these\nanomaHes. But I should want to insist that no teacher, whatever her motives, should\npermit herself to pass upon any child unless she feels she has had the training that would\nrefer\n\nfit\n\nher for such work.\n\nNOTES ON A FEW BOOKS IN CHILD STUDY\nLOUIS N. WILSON, LIBRARIAN, CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS.\n\nThe few books mentioned in this list are selected because they are in\nEngHsh and easily accessible.\n\nIt is\n\nhoped that they may serve as an intro-\n\nduction to those who desire to know something of child study, but the Hst is\nnot intended for speciaHsts, nor for those already familiar with work in this\nfield.\n\nThese latter are referred to the \"Bibliography of Child Study,\" pub-\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n752\n\nlished each year in the Pedagogical Seminary;\n\nto the sections\n\n[Child Study\n\non \"Child\n\nStudy\" in the Psychological Index, prepared by Professor H. C. Warren, of\nPrinceton University; and to the Department of Child Study of the\nProceedings of the National Educational Association.\n\nThe periodical literature, already vast, is growing more so year by year.\nThe Pedagogical Seminary is devoted chiefly to this phase of the subject, as\nis\n\nalso the Paidologist, the organ of the British Child Study Society.\n\nThe field of child study is so large that no single book could possibly\nembrace all phases of the subject. The one work thus far published that\ncovers the most ground is President Hall's two volumes on Adolescence, the\nresult of twenty-five years' careful study and observation by a pioneer in the\nfield.\n1.\n\nStudies in Education. New York: G. E. Stechert & Co., 1896-1902. 2 vols. $2 each.\nWork done largely by public -school teachers with public-school children. The first\n\nBarnes, Earl.\n\nvolume treats American work, the second English. A good comparative study.\ngood papers on punishment, the money sense, and on other social topics.\n2.\n\nChamberlain, Alexander Francis.\n\nThe Child:\n\nScribner's, 1901.\n\nPp. 498.\n\n$1.50.\n\nCovers the whole\n\nfield\n\nin brief\n\nA Study in the Evolution of Man.\n\nHas\n\nLondon:\n\nform from the evolutionary standpoint. Brings\nGives good r^sumfe\nStrong on the side of play, growth, food, and the\n\ntogether a large amount of matter but sHghtly treated elsewhere.\nof studies in foreign countries.\nsignificance of infancy.\n3.\n\n4.\n\nContains a very complete bibliography.\n\nDrummond, W. B. The Child: His Nature and Nurture. London: Dent & Co., 1901.\nA very useful and inexpensive little manual.\nHall, G. Stanley.\n\nPp. 146.\n\n40c.\n\nAdolescence: Its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Soci-\n\nology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education.\n\nNew York: Appleton, 1904.\n\n2 vok.\n\n$7.50.\n\nThe latest, and by far the fullest, treatment of child study in existence at the present\ntime.\n\nPresents the results of scientific study of the whole field.\n\nIt is a large work treating\n\na vast and important subject, and, while necessarily expensive, is pre-eminently the best\nwork by a master hand.\n5.\n\nKiRKPATRiCK, Edwin Asbury.\n\nFundamentals of Child Study: A Discussion of Instincts and Other\nNew York: Macmillan Co., 1903. Pp. 384. $1.50.\n\nFactors in Human Development.\n\nWhile this volume does not adequately represent the genetic point of view, it is written\nin popular form, the chapters are brief, the style simple, and it gives a good idea of the\n\nmental development of the child as related to school work.\n6.\n\nLoTi, Pierre.\n\nPp. 304.\n\nStory of a Child;\n\ntr.\n\nfrom the French by C. F. Smith.\n\nBoston: Birchard, 1901.\n\n$1.25.\n\nA reminiscent study.\n\nPerhaps the most consecutive work on the early life of a\n\nchild, showing how the mind developed, as seen by the individual in his later years.\n7.\n\nThe Development of the ChUd. New York: Macmillan, 1898. Pp.296. $1.25.\nWritten by a physician. Compares child and adult. Touches on the primary\n\nOppenheim, Nathan.\n\nschool, religion, the child as a witness in courts of law, the genius, the criminal, etc.\n8.\n\nPreyer, W.\n\nMental Development in the Child; tr. from the German by H. W. Brown.\nPp. 170. $1.\n\nNew York:\n\nAppleton, 1893.\n\nGood popular resume of his larger work on The Mind of the Child.\n\nValuable for\n\nparents and teachers as an introduction to the subject.\n9.\n\nRowE, Stuart M.\nPp. 207.\n\nPhysical Nature of the Child and How to Study It.\n\nNew York: Macmillan, 1899.\n\n$1.\n\nA brief statement of the physical side of child development.\nvaluable, nevertheless, as an introduction.\nconditions.\n\nWritten by one\n\nPerhaps too brief, but\n\nwho knows public-school\n\nSummarizes many periodical articles, and should be used as complementary\n\nto Kirkpatrick.\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "NOTES ON A FEW BOOKS IN CHILD STUDY\n\nDepartment]\n\n10.\n\nShinn, Milicent Washburn.\n\nBiography of a Baby.\n\nBoston: Houghton, 1900.\n\n753\n\nPp. 247.\n\n$1.50.\n\nThere are many other studies of individual children and for these the student is\nreferred to the bibliographies.\n11.\n\nSully, James.\n\nNew York: D. Appleton & Co., 1896.\n\nStudies of Childhood.\n\nPp. 527.\n\n$2.50.\n\nA good general book by a well-known English educator. Has a chapter on children's\ndrawings, and extracts from a father's diary covering the first six years of a child's life.\nAlso a chapter on George Sand's childhood.\n12.\n\nTanner, Amy Eliza.\n1904.\n\nPp. 430.\n\nThe Child: His Thinking, Feeling, and Doing.\n\nChicago: Rand, McNally,\n\n$1.25.\n\nAims to present in condensed form a summary of the work thus far accomplished in\nStates a few general conclusions, and seeks to indicate lines along which\nfurther work is especially needed.\nchild study.\n\n13.\n\nTracy, Frederick. Psychology of Childhood. With an introduction by G. Stanley Hall,\nBoston: D. C. Heath & Co., 1903. Pp. 170. 90c.\n\nsth ed.\n\nWritten from the psychological side; gives a good resume of that phase of the subject.\nIs particularly good in such subjects as the acquisition of language and child vocabularies.\n14.\n\nWarner, Francis.\nPp. 264.\n\nStudy of Children and Their School Training.\n\nNew York:\n\nMacmillan, 1897.\n\n$1.\n\nThrows Ught on developmental defects, particularly minor abnormalities and borderland phenomena, and their detection in school children.\nIt is impossible here to give space to the many special books and articles,\n\nsuch as \"The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence,\" by E. G. Lancaster,\npublished in the Pedagogical Seminary, July, 1897;\n\n\"Growth of Children\n\nin Height and Weight,\" by Frederic Burk, published in the American Journal\nof Psychology, April, 1898; \"The Meaning of Infancy,\" by John Fiske, in\nExcursions of an Evolutionist (chap. 12 ^which, by the way, the publishers\n\n—\n\nought to issue in pamphlet form for the benefit of teachers)\n\n;\n\n\"Talks to Teach-\n\nbut these and many more are referred to in the\n\ners,\" by WilHam James, etc.;\n\nworks already mentioned.\n\nThe subject of school hygiene, however, is worthy of special mention here\nbecause it covers so important a part of child study.\nA. G.\n\nIn 1892 appeared Dr.\n\nYoung^ extended and valuable report on \"School Hygiene\" in the\n\nSeventh Annual Report of the Maine State Board of Health.\n\nIn the same year\n\nDr. Wm. H. Burnham pubhshed in the Pedagogical Seminary, a very important\n\n\"Outhnes of School Hygiene,\" and is at present engaged\nupon a book covering this field. Two good books on this subject are:\n\narticle entitled,\n\n15.\n\nShaw, Edward R.\n\nSchool Hygiene.\n\nNew York: Macmillan Co., 1901.\n\nA good, practical book by a reliable authority.\n\nPp. 260.\n\n$1.\n\nFor the most part elementary in its\n\ntreatment, but contains a brief bibliography.\n16.\n\nKoTELMAN, LuDWiG.\nBardeen, 1900.\n\nSchool Hygiene;\n\nPp. 391.\n\ntr.\n\nby J. A. BergstrSm and E. Conradi.\n\nSyracuse, N. Y.:\n\n$1.50.\n\nA good translation of a valuable Gernian introduction to the subject; contains new\nand important matter not in the original.\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5, 1905\nThe first session of the Department of Physical Education was called to order in\nthe First Congregational Church,\n\nAsbury Park, N. J., at 10 A. m,, by the president, E.\n\nHermann Arnold, director of New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven,\nConn., who addressed the department upon the subject \"The School Yard and its\nImportance to the Well-Being of the Child.\"\nE. A. Kirkpatrick, department of psychology and child study. State Normal School,\nFitchburg, Mass., read a paper entitled, \"Some Simple Methods of Recognizing Physical\nFitness and Unfitness of School Children for School Work.\"\n\nThis paper was followed by a short discussion by William W. Hastings, instructor\nin International Y. M. C. A. Training School, Springfield, Mass.\n\nMiss Rebecca Stoneroad, director of physical training, public schools, Washington,\nD. C, spoke on the subject \"How Far Should Physical Training be Educational and\nHow Far Recreative in Grammar Schools.\"\nClarence F. Carroll, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N. Y., then read a paper\nentitled \"How Far Should Physical Training be Educational and How Far Recreative in\n\nHigh Schools.\"\n\nA general discussion followed.\nThe president appointed a Committee on Nominations as follows:\nMiss May Long, Mason City, Iowa.\nDr. Augusta Requa, New York city.\nMr. Anderson.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Friday, July 7\nThe second session of this department was called to order at 10 a. m. by the president.\nMiss Caroline Crawford, instructor in physical training, Teachers College, Columbia\nNew York city, read a paper on the subject \"How Far Should Physical\nTraining be Educational and How Far Recreative in Colleges and Universities.\"\nDiscussion was led by R. Tait McKenzie, professor of physical education. University\nUniversity,\n\nof Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nDr. Augusta Requa then presented, on behalf of the nominating committee, •the\nfollowing nominations:\n\n—\n—\n—\n\nFor President E. Hermann Arnold, New Haven, Conn.\nFor Vice-President Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Washington, D. C.\nFor Secretary Miss May Long, Mason City, Iowa.\n\nThe report of the nominating committee was accepted without dissent, and the\nnominees declared elected.\n\nRebecca Stoneroad, Acting Secretary.\n\n755\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n756\n\n[Physical\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nTHE IMPORTANCE OF THE SCHOOL-YARD FOR THE\nPHYSICAL WELL-BEING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\nE. H.\n\nARNOLD, DIRECTOR NEW HAVEN NORMAL SCHOOL OF GYMNASTICS,\nNEW HAVEN, CONN.\n\nPhysical education is a comparatively new branch in the curriculum of\npublic schools in this country.\n\nits way has been\nOne of the main ones has been the\n\nLike other innovations,\n\nbestrewn with a great many difficulties.\n\nlack of sufficient space for carrying on physical training.\n\nThis lack of space\n\nbrought with it the necessity of adapting gymnastics to the smaller space\n\nand the unfavorable conditions of the schoolroom. Thru this adaptation\nthere has beea lost a great deal of the efficiency of physical training.\nThis\nis small wonder if we consider that practically all the systems of physical\ntraining now in vogue have originated either in the gymnasium or on the\nplayground.\n\nNow, since we are slowly gaining suitable gymnasia in high\n\nand grammar schools, we find that in the readaptation of gymnastics to these\nmore favorable circumstances features of the original system of exercises,\nwhich contributed largely to the efficiency of the exercise, do not reappear.\nThey had been sacrificed to the necessity of exercising in the crowded schoolroom and on re-entrance into the gymnasium they are usually sacrificed to\nconvenience. This is why schoolroom gymnastics have been in a great\nmany places unsuccessful, and why, even with the provision of gymnasia,\ngymnastics cannot always be made a success. All this has been wrought\n\nby lack of space in the school building for physical training.\n\nLet us consider\n\nfor a moment whether this has been an unavoidable process.\n\nThe experience\n\nwhom physical education at some one time has also\nbeen a new branch in the pubHc-school curriculum, may serve us as a guide\nof other peoples, with\n\nin this matter.\noffered\n\nNeither the schoolhouses of\n\nGermany nor those of Sweden\n\ngymnasia to physical education when it was first introduced.\n\nYet\n\nneither country has experienced the- necessity of schoolroom gymnastics.\nIt is interesting to\n\nknow how this necessity was there circumvented.\n\nIn\n\nmost places, where, by ministerial edict, physical education was made over\nnight a compulsory branch of the pubUc-school curriculum, recourse has\nbeen had to the school-yard as the place most suitable to the conducting of\nphysical education.\n\nWhy could not, and why can not, this same procedure be followed out\nA country as vast in extent as this, and as thinly populated\n\nin this country ?\n\nas this, should certainly furnish ample opportunity for physical education in\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "THE SCHOOL-YARD FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\nDepartment]\n\n757\n\nAs a matter of fact, however, we find that\n\nschool-yards of sufficient size.\n\nin those places where physical training makes itself felt as a necessity this is\n\nThe places where physical education is thought to be more\ncities.\nIn these we find\nthat neither in the old school buildings is there room for a gymnasium, nor\nnot the case.\n\nurgently necessary than elsewhere are the large\n\ndo there exist school-yards of sufficient dimensions to allow their use for the\nIn the smaller cities,\nsuccessful conduct of physical education exercise.\ntowns, and villages, the necessity of physical training is not felt to be urgent.\n\nNo provision in the school buildings is made for gymnasia and no one thinks\nof providing school-yards of considerable size.\n\nThe unoccupied lots within\n\ntown or village, the outlying fields and meadows offer such fine opportunities\nfor physical training of the best kind, athletics, and games, that no one thinks\nthat the school-yard has any right of existence at all, beyond serving to give\n\naccess to the school building.\n\nThe marvelous growth of cities in this country\n\nmakes it hi^ly probable that over night a place may take on such rapid\ngrowth that within the span of a very few years it has become a densely populated city, wherein building grounds\n\ncommand high prices.\n\nIf\n\nnow in this\n\nnewly-created large city the necessity for physical training in the pubHc schools\n\ndemonstrates itself, one finds that there is not room in the school building\n\nand worst of all, that there is practically no schoola wise poUcy to establish the rule, that, in view\nof the possibility of growth of any city or town in this country, it is necessary\n\nfor gymnastic exercises,\n\nIt would seem, then,\n\nyard.\n\nthat with each schoolhouse to be erected there should go a school-yard of con-\n\nsiderable size.\n\nIf I would make this plea before school authorities and before\n\nthe taxpayers, and could rest\nsity,\n\nit\n\nsimply on the grounds of gymnastic neces-\n\nthe chances of their lending a wilhng ear to it would be mighty small.\n\nIt behooves\n\nme then to reinforce my argument by additional reasons.\n\nThe\n\nschool-yard is important for the physical well-being of the child from other\n\nstandpoints than that of physical training.\n\nThe most important matter of\n\n—the matter of ventilation—cannot\n\nschool sanitation\n\nsatisfactorily\n\nbe solved\n\nwe have a large school-yard surrounding the school building. No\nmatter how perfect may be the ventilating contrivance of a modern school\nunless\n\nbuilding, you must have good air to take in your fan, or whatever else it may\nbe, to begin with.\n\nIn a crowded district with a scant few yards dividing the\n\nschool building from tenements, factories,\n\netc., it\n\nthe ventilating contrivance with good\n\nair.\n\nengineers and architects in the larger\n\ncities, for\n\nis\n\nimpossible to furnish\n\nThis is recognized by sanitary\n\nwe hear and read of their\n\nplacing in operation, in connection with the ventilating plants of large office\nbuildings,\n\ncontrivances for the sifting out of dust.\n\nThis having proven\n\ninefficient, they are now beginning to wash the air before using it in the venti-\n\nlating outfit.\n\nSuch contrivances are costly and a good many times unsatis-\n\nme as much easier and much more economical to provide\ngood air from a large school-yard free of dust, exposed to the beneficial action\n\nfactory.\n\nof the\n\nIt strikes\n\nsun rays.\n\nProvision for the fighting of schoolrooms are unavaihng\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n758\n\n[Physica\n\nand it amounts to little that the laws of some states provide for a minimum\nof window area for the floor area of a schoolroom if the schoolhouse so well\nprovided with windows stands in close proximity to buildings higher than\nIt is impossible,\nitself and who shade it on all sides practically continually.\nnow-a-days, to restrict the height of buildings, once we have gone to construct\nbuildings of twenty stories and more for commercial and industrial purposes.\n\nThe attempt to do so would involve legislation of most compHcated, and\nIt would seem, then a much\n\nin the end inefficient and unsatisfactory, kind.\n\nmore rational performance to regulate by law the size of the school-yard.\nThere should be established definite proportions of school-yards to ground\narea of school building, to its height, and to the number of children in the\nschool building. This would provide for efficient ventilation, and for a\nIt would also do away with one great difficulty\nplentiful source of light.\nschools situated in large cities have to contend with; namely, the street noises.\nStreet noises penetrating into the schoolroom are not only disagreeable, but\n\nSchool\n\nare positively deleterious to the health of the child.\n\nlife,\n\nwithout\n\nany doubt, makes necessary on the part of the child great nervous effort,\neven under the most favorable circumstances. Given a bright, willing child,\na good teacher, good teaching faciUties we shall still find that the nervous\nstrain to which a child is subjected in school is tremendous.\ndifficulty which\n\nNo unnecessary\n\nwould tend to increase this nervous strain should be added.\n\nThe child will have\n\nOne of these additional difficulties is the street noise.\n\nits attention diverted by these noises from the subject-matter under considera-\n\nIt\n\ntion.\n\ncan no longer pay the attention of interest to the instruction; but\n\nas its attention of interest is engaged by the unusual sound of a street noise,\nit\n\nmust, in order to follow the instruction, pay the so-called willful attention.\n\npower a child acquires late, a power which exhausts\nand if the child must pay willful attention to the instruction and must,\nin addition, use its power of inhibition in order to prevent the street noises,\nagainst which it cannot close its ear as it could its eye against a sight which\nit was unwilling to behold, to reach the zone of consciousness, it is small\nwonder* that the child will become nervous under such strain. The school\nWillful attention is a\n\neasily;\n\nis\n\nso often accused of destroying the nervous health of children that it cannot\n\nafford to have such a\n\nblame settled upon it without making some attempt\n\nof remedying the evil.\n\nAttempts at diminishing street noise by paving streets\n\naround schools with a pavement which will diminish rattling of wagons and\ncars\n\nand horses' hoofs have been made, and are\n\nstill\n\nbeing made.\n\nWhile\n\nthe noises have been thereby diminished in number, others still exist which\nthis\n\nremedy can never reach.\n\nThe one efficient remedy, in this respect, is\n\ngreater distance from street and neighboring buildings\n\n—a large school-yard.\n\nThis will do away with a great many noises altogether, and will reduce the\nintensity of all.\n\nIf\n\nwe have proved the necessity of a large school-yard for\n\nother reasons than gymnastic considerations, and have been granted a school-\n\nyard of good dimensions, then it is my opinion that such school-yard should\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nTHE SCHOOL-YARD FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\nDepartment]\n\n759\n\nbe made use of, in the first place, for purposes of physical training. A large,\nwell-kept lawn and magnificent flower beds in front of the school building\n\nmay serve the purposes of aesthetijc education admirably.\n\nThey are, however,\n\nabsolutely out of place if, in order to have such aesthetic enjoyment, the place\n\nwhere the child should play and roam is reduced to such dimensions that\nplay is no longer possible. We may then behold the peculiar spectacle of\nblooming flowers on the front lawn and withering children in the school\nbuilding, w)iich spectacle would remove, for any feehng being, any aesthetic\nenjoyment of lawn and flower beds.\nfirst\n\nplace,\n\nThe school-yard then should, in the\n\nbe a playground for the children.\n\nIf\n\nit\n\nwere of the proportion\n\nindicated above, it would give a chance for the re-establishment of the old-\n\ntime recess, when all the school turned out for play and recreation in the\nschool-yard at one time.\nof disciphne\n\nThis recess has been sacrificed to the necessities\n\nby smaU school-yards, which allow only one class of children\nThis freedom, however, is not unrestricted,\n\nat one time to enjoy its freedom.\n\nfor there is one condition under which one class may enjoy its separate recess;\n\nnamely, that by its play it does not disturb the classes in session.\n\nThis means\n\nplay without shouting, natural activity without its natural form of expression\n\nMost consequential and logical beings\nwe are, we schoolmasters. On the one hand, we strive to free the child\nfrom awkward forms of expression of its feelings, we strive to give it powers\nof expression, we preach about expression, the desirability of it, and so forth\nand so on, and then when the child is given a chance to indulge in the most\nnatural and the most important of its activities play we tell it that it must\nthe shout of joy of playing children.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nnot express its feeling by the expression intimately connected with this activity.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nto say, the child is given\n\nno chance to play at\n\nall.\n\nFor while it\n\nplays the tendency to be noisy, for the exhibition of which there was before\n\nno chance, now crops out with renewed vigor. While the child made no\neffort before to restrict a shout, there being no occasion for one, it now is\ninduced to play, is led into the temptation of shouting, and must now make\nspecial effort to suppress it.\nWe wish to free it from awkward consciousness\nby play, and make it intensely conscious that it is playing and must not shout.\nThis is what we call rehef from mental strain and free play. This is what\nour deep knowledge of psychology brings us to do. A large spacious schoolyard will do away with all this. It will allow the re-estabUshment of the oldtime recess with all the children playing at one time in a school-yard and\n\nshouting; that is really playing.\n\n•\n\nIn order to provide such spacious school-\n\nyards, provision for their acquirement has to be made long before they may\n\nbe actually used as school-yards.\n\nNot only years, but decades, ahead must\n\nthe sites for school-yards and buildings be bought by the communities in the\ndistricts as yet outlying and\n\nunoccupied.\n\nMoney so invested will come back\n\nwith interest to any community that tries the scheme, as is evidenced by the\nprices paid for school sites by communities that buy the land for schoolhouses\nafter the section in which they are to stand has been settled.\n\nEconomy then\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n760\n\n[Physical\n\nmakes it necessary to buy a lot as small as possible. This can be avoided\nby foresight and prompt action of communities that this day foresee a chance\nof rapid growth.\nSchool-yards may not only serve the child and its physical\nwell-being during school hours, but the conviction that the use of the school-\n\nhouse and its facihties during a part of the day, week, and year only is economical is fast gaining ground.\n\nSchool buildings and school-yards are being\n\nopened outside of school time as natural centers for the play and other activities\n\nAs playgrounds outside\n\nof the child.\n\nof school hours, they are certainly\n\nvastly superior on account of their greater number and of being of easy access\nto playgrounds\n\nin parks.\n\nTwo sets of children will be mainly benefited\n\nby such use of school-yards as neighborhood playgrounds. In the first place,\nthe small children, who can easily walk the comparatively short distance\nto the schoolhouse, while they could not reach the park playground by walking\nwithout being, by the walk, so fatigued as to be incapacitated for play. To\nthese smaller children the school-yard will offer ample ground for play, for\ntheir play does not require as much space as the baseball and kindred games\nof larger children, which larger children may well walk to the playground\nIn the second place, the children of the poor, to whom the larger,\n\nin the park.\n\nand of necessity, remoter parks are inaccessible they not having the means\nof transportation, are the beneficiaries of school playgrounds.\n\nFor\n\nall\n\nthese reasons\n\nwe should demand legislative action to compel\n\ncommunities to furnish school-yards which can serve the above purposes.\n\nCommunities by law compelled to furnish them would have to exercise foresight and acquire the sites in such goodly time that the purchase of school-yards\n\nof proper dimensions would not unduly burden the community.\n\nSOME SIMPLE METHODS OF RECOGNIZING PHYSICAL\nFITNESS AND UNFITNESS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN FOR\nSCHOOL WORK\nE. A.\n\nKIRKPATRICK, DEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL,\nFITCHBURG, MASS.\n\nChild Study has been prominently before the American people for two\ndecades, and has been represented by a department in this association for\n\ntwelve years.\n\nThe physical nature of children has received more attention\n\nthan any other phase of the study.\n\nIt has been emphasized over and over again\n\nthat the mental and moral characteristics of children are largely determined\n\nby their physical condition, and it has been proved again and again that many\nchildren are in school who should be at home, in the woods, or in a hospital.\nIt is not strange, therefore, that the physical\n\ndepartment of this association\n\nhas called upon a representative of the child-study department to supply\nit with \" Some Simple Methods of Recognizing Physical Fitness and Unfitness\nof School Children for School Work.\"\n\nIt will doubtless be assumed by many\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFITNESS AND UNFITNESS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\n761\n\nthat if child-study speciahsts cannot satisfactorily respond to all such simple\n\nrequests as this they have accomplished nothing, and. child study is only a\n\npopular fad.\n\nNotwithstanding this, perhaps natural, opinion, I will say at the outset\nthat I am unable to give an answer to this question that will enable every\n\nteacher to discover all of her physically unfit children, and I know of no one\n\nWhy then am I here ?\n\nwho can do so.\n\nI hope first to decrease your demands\n\nfrom child-study investigators, and then partially to satisfy your decreased\nAllow me to refer you to a science and an art that has had\nexpectations.\na recognized place in all civilized nations, not merely for twenty years, but\nfor more than two thousand years.\n\nI refer to the science and art of medicine.\n\nThe populace has demanded that the medical profession shall supply them\nwith some simple remedy that will cure\n\nall\n\ndiseases.\n\nQuacks have been\n\nresponding to this demand for many years, but regular physicians are strangely\nslow in granting this very reasonable request.\n\nThe more reasonable demand\ncommon diesases\n\nfor simple directions that will enable anyone to detect the\n\nand administer the proper remedies has been met by numerous books and\narticles, some of them by regular physicians, but strangely enough, most of\nthem close with the advice: \"You had better consult a regular physician.\"\n\nThe results of the demand that every man shall be taught how to be his\nown doctor can therefore scarcely be described as satisfactory. Comparatively\nfew men are able to prescribe for sick umbrellas or disordered bicycles or\nautomobiles, so one may be excused for his inability to profit by directions\nEven\nas to how to reinvigorate his own infinitely more complex mechanism.\nphysicians themselves often look wise and say nothing definite as to the nature\nof the disorder.\n\nSometimes they do name the disease and the remedy, yet\n\noccasionally it turns out that what is called scarlet fever proves to be only a\ncold, or that a case of measles actually is smallpox.\n\nPhysicians may even fail to do what you wish to have me tell teachers\n\nhow to do.\n\nLast winter I sent notice to the parents of a boy in our training\n\nschool that he probably had adenoids, and that he ought to be examined by\n\na physician.\nspecialist.\n\nThey took him to one who practices as an eye, ear, and throat\n\nHe informed them that the child was all right;\n\nthat he simply\n\nhad a habit of breathing through his mouth. The parents were advised\nto consult another physician and finally did so.\nThis doctor at once said,\n\"It is a bad case of adenoids;\" and later proved it by removing a large\ngrowth.\n\nNow adenoids is one of the most common diseases to which children are\nsubject, and one which most often interferes with school work.\nist \"\n\ncould not detect its signs.\n\nto tell untrained teachers\n\nThis \"special-\n\nDo you wonder that I do not claim to be able\n\nhow they can infallibly discover such defects?\n\nSince, however, the signs of adenoids are the most distinct and easily detected\nof all diseases I will describe to you the means by which all intelligent teachers,\nafter a little experience, should be able to discover at least the worst cases.\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n762\n\n[Physical\n\nThe characteristic sign is the so-called \"habit\" of breathing thru the mouth.\nThis habit, hke all other habits, has a cause, and in this case the cause is an\nobstruction that makes it difficult to breathe thru the natural respirator, the\nnose.\n\nTo observe for this defect, ask the child to close his mouth for a min-\n\nute while you notice whether he has any difficulty in breathing.\n\nTest further\n\nby placing your finger on one side of his nose so as to close the opening, while\nyou observe whether he can breathe thru one nostril. Repeat for the other\nside, making sure that the mouth is kept closed and that the breath is not being\nheld.\n\nhas a severe cold when the test is made, repeat it when\n\nIf the child\n\nhe has not.\n\nThe other signs of adenoids are a peculiar broadening of the nose between\nthe eyes and an obstructed nasal tone of voice, both of which are easily detected\n\nby the experienced observer; chisel-shaped teeth, and either mental dulness\nor nervousness are\n\nalmost universal\n\ncommon accompaniments, while partial deafness is an\n\nresult.\n\nProbably at\n\nhearing are due to adenoids.\n\nleast three-fourths of all defects of\n\nThe above symptoms are much more prominent\n\nwhen the child has a cold, and may almost entirely disappear in the milder\ncases when the child has been free from a cold for some time.\nSleeping\nwith the mouth open and snoring are additional symptoms that may be\ndiscovered by inquiry.\n\nIn the moist climate of our eastern states this disease is very common,\nIn the past year I found over fifty cases in our model and training school\nof about six hundred children, and about half of these were so serious as to\ninterfere with the school\n\nwork of the children.\n\nMy students usually learn\n\nto detect the worst cases by means of the above symptoms.\n\nDefective hearing, most of which is associated with adenoids, is not easily\ndetected in its slighter forms because of the diversity of its signs and the\ndifficulty\n\nof\n\nmaking accurate\n\ntests.\n\nThe more common signs\n\nimpairment of hearing are expressionless\n\nface,\n\ninattention,\n\nof serious\n\nand dulness.\n\nbut sometimes the eyes take the place of the ears and the child is especially\nattentive\n\nand quick\n\nin response.\n\nIn both types, failures to respond and\n\nunaccountable mistakes occur especially when the teacher speaks suddenly\nor from behind the children.\n\nThey also frequently do not follow directions\n\ngiven them till they look around to see what the other children are doing.\n\nIn testing for defective hearing, the first essential is to make sure that the\nchild is not being guided by some other sense, thus deceiving you and perhaps\n\nhimself also.\n\nIf the voice test is used,\n\nbe sure that your mouth cannot be\n\nseen, and if a watch or some other instrument is used, have a card held against\n\nthe side of the face next you in such a way as to cut off any possible view of\n\nyour movements.\nin a\n\nIn the voice test, numbers or other words should be spoken\n\nlow tone (not whispered) and the children asked to reproduce them.\n\nWith care, the worst cases of defective hearing in a room may be detected\nby a teacher without individual tests. In the test of individuals with a watch\nor other instrument, care needs to be exercised lest the tone of voice in asking\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFITNESS AND UNFITNESS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\nquestions suggests the answer *'Yes\" or\n\n\"No.\"\n\n763\n\nThe distance at which a\n\nwatch or other instrument can usually be heard needs to be determined by\nexperiment, and allowance made for other noises that may interfere with\nThere are few watches which cannot be heard in a quiet room\nhearing.\n\nby a normal person at a distance of as much as three feet.\n\nThe above direc-\n\ntions are simple, but I will not guarantee that all teachers will\n\nfollow them.\n\nbe able to\n\nIn one instance a bright young lady, who had received directions\n\nfrom me as to modes of testing hearing, not having a watch, used an alarm\nclock, and thus determined that her children all had good hearing, since they\ncould without exception, hear it at a greater distance than three feet.\n\nRegarding defects of sight, the facts are so familiar that I will say nothing\nexcept as to a few details of testing.\n\nIf one wishes to test\n\nyounger, as well\n\nas older, children, it is best to use the card with E's turned in various directions\nfor the test.\n\nBefore beginning, make sure that the child knows how to indicate\n\nwhat he can see by having him at a distance of only a few feet, point in the\nThis is important.\ndirection toward which some of the E's are turned.\nWhen I first began testing children, I found more defects of sight than I do\nnow, and I am convinced that the reason is due in part to the fact that some\nchildren had difficulty in expressing what they saw, rather than in seeing.\nThe physical condition that in every school interferes with the work of\nsome school children is indicated, in a general way, by the term \"nervousness.\"\nIn all cases where this or any other disorder is more or less permanent, simple\nadvantage, not so much because they are better than the\nmay be observed during the regular school work, but because\n\ntests are often of\n\nsigns which\n\nthe teacher's attention is then directed to definite signs,\n\nand she is thinking\n\nof the child's condition rather than of the course of study that she wishes him\nto master.\n\nStrange as it may seem, tests are especially important when the\n\nteacher is well acquainted with her children.\n\nWe soon get used to the promi-\n\nnent pecuHarities of people, and under the usual conditions are unable to\nsee what strikes the stranger at once.\n\nIf,\n\nhowever, we see familiar people\n\nunder new circumstances, as in taking a simple test of some kind, we readily\ndiscover their peculiarities.\n\nIn scarcely one case in a hundred will a teacher\n\nbe able to detect defects of pupils which she has not already noticed, without\na special test to direct her attention to the peculiarities of certain children.\nNervousness, real and pseudo, has so many forms which often quickly\n\nchange from one to another, that it is exceedingly difficult to classify the\nconditions and describe the signs of each.\n\nIn general, nervousness is either\n\na state of low nervous tone or of nervous irritabihty, but it is most often both\n\nsame time. Excess of nervous energy in children of the motor type\nform of pseudo-nervousness that is almost indistinguishable from the\nabnormal irritabihty of the really nervous child. The chief differences are\nat the\n\nis a\n\nthat the really nervous child makes more irregular and unco-ordinated move-\n\nments, responds excessively to slight stimuli given suddenly, is more likely\nto become\n\nangry and to cry on slight provocation, and these symptoms are\nmore marked after a period of physical or mental exercise.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n764\n\n[Physical\n\nNervous weakness may not be evident to ordinary observation, except\n\nwhen the child is subjected to an unusual or prolonged strain, when it is often\nshown in a sudden weakening and loss of self-control. The best test for defiby following Warner's suggestions for\nEvery teacher should look at the picture of\n\nciency of nervous force is obtained\n\nobservation of the nervous hand.\n\nthe nervous hand which he gives in his book, The Study oj Children, showing\n\na peculiar drooping curve of the wrist with the third finger sHghtly separated\n\nfrom the others and the middle joint raised above them.\n\nAfter an image of this\n\ntype of hand has been gained it may best be observed by asking the children to\n\nstand and hold their hands out in front of them, pahns down.\n\nThe significance\n\nand the uncertainty of a teacher's judgment based on ordinary\nobservation, is indicated by the following case of twins.\nOne was restless,\nwhich was taken as a sign of nervousness, while the other, a steady, quiet\nworker, gave no such signs, yet he had a nervous hand. The teacher was\nsurprised to hear from the mother of the children that the quiet boy \"went\nall to pieces \" when he got home at night, while the other one showed no\nDoubtless close observation for nervous hands\nsigns of nervousness at home.\nwould often enable teachers to guard against the sudden \"going to pieces\"\nof quiet, studious children, which sometimes occurs, much to the surprise of\nthe teacher and the disturbance of the school.\nIf, when the hands are held out in front, the fingers are straight but the\nthumbs drooping, a less degree of nervous weakness (perhaps due to temporary\nOther signs of lack of nervous tone and balance,\nfatigue) is indicated.\nshown in the same test, are over, under, or unequal elevation of the arms,\nor a throwing forward of the abdomen, especially wh^n the pupil is asked\nFurther evidence of lack\nto stand erect and hold his arms horizontally.\nof balance and good muscular control may be obtained by asking the children\nto close their eyes and hold their arms out horizontally on each side, then\nobserve for swaying and lack of symmetry of the arms.\nOne of my students recently used these tests in observing several hundred\nchildren, and, with a few exceptions, all that had shown signs of nerv'ousness\nwere detected by these tests, while a number manifested some of these signs\nof nervousness in whom it had not previously been noticed.\nof this test,\n\nOther enhghtening tests are to ask children to sit perfectly still without\nmoving a muscle for a minute or two, or to place their hands on the desk, and\nkeeping all but the forefingers on the desk, tap as rapidly as possible for a\nminute or two without stopping. Manual work and games of various kinds\nalso furnish good opportunities for observing nervous defects, irregularity\nof lack of control of movement usually indicating nervousness.\n\nThe more marked forms of nervousness such as chorea or St. Vitus dance\nby irregular twitching of the mouth or fingers.\n\nare most readily detected\n\nWhether children with such disorders as stuttering and chorea should be\nin the school is often a difficult question, as is illustrated by the following\nA child nearly ten years of age was sent to the first\ninstances in our school.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\ngrade.\n\nFITNESS AND UNFITNESS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\n765\n\nShe had had scarlet fever, and remained sickly for some time, tho with\nShe became much better, and\n\nthe senses of sight and hearing unimpaired.\n\nhaving had little association with other children, her physician thought it\nwould be good for her to go to school and be with other children. She made\nmany irregular movements and talked to herself a great deal so that, altho\nshe was placed in a rear corner partially behind a screen where the children\ncould not readily see her, yet her lack of self-control so affected the other\n\nand previously very suchad very hard work, and never succeeded\nin getting her usual good results.\nThe effect was increased by one or two\nother rather nervous children in the room, and it carried over int® the next\nyear.\nThe child, who infected the other children as surely as she would have\ndone had she had the smallpox, gained slightly from being in the school.\nAnother case is that of a boy of about the same age, large, apparently\nstrong, successful in his studies, who had an attack of St. Vitus's dance, but\nafter some improvement was admitted to the ungraded room.\nHis irregular\nmovements were confined almost wholly to the mouth, so he was placed in\na front seat and Httle evidence of unfavorable influence on others was noticed.\nHe remained for only a part of the session each day, and gradually improved\nchildren that the teacher, tho experienced, tactful,\n\ncessful in producing self-control,\n\nin every way.\n\nFreedom from worry or nervous strain of any kind is the essential in\nall cases of actual or incipient St.\n\nVitus's dance, but whether those conditions\n\ncan best be secured in the home or the school depends upon the characteristics\n\nNo\n\nof the home and the school, and how they affect that particular child.\n\nteacher or other person can inteUigently decide whether a nervous child should\nleave school unless he knows what kind of a home he Hves in and the effects\nof school work upon the child and of the child's actions upon the school.\n\nPhysical tests, such as measurements of height, standing and sitting, weight,\ngirth of head, and of chest contracted and expanded, breadth of head, chest,\n\nand waist, lung capacity and grip of right and left hand, such as are described\nby Dr. Hastings in his Manual of Physical Measurements, give facts of considerable value in judging of the physical vigor, or vital capacity, of children.\n\nThey serve to suggest that certain children should be observed, and\ntaken that they are not subjected to undue strain.\n\nIt is possible to\n\ncare\n\nmake\n\nthis whole series of tests, and several others, at the rate of about two children\n\nper minute.\ntest\n\nI have several times done this with two of\n\nas helpers.\n\nmy students for each\n\nUnfortunately, the division of labor which\n\nmakes such\n\nrapid work possible, makes it impracticable for those engaged in the work\nto study the peculiarities which the children manifest as they take the various\ntests,\n\nsomething that is always important in giving any kind of a test.\n\nof the\n\nTwo\n\nmost important tests, those for lung capacity and chest expansion,\n\nunfortunately give results that depend almost as much upon the skill of the\n\none who is trying to get a young child to do his best, as upon the actual power\nof the child.\n\nIf time can be found to make such tests accurately one or more\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"\n\n766\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physica\n\ntimes a year, much data of both general and individual value may be obtained\n\nregarding the normal physical development of children from year to year,\n\nbut as indicated above, such tests have their Hmitations.\n\nAs to temporary\n\nconditions, such as fatigue, that unfit for successful\n\nmany investigations have been made with the purpose of discovering simple tests by which the unfitness of children for school work may\n\nschool work,\n\nbe determined, but none of them have, in my judgment, been successful.\nIn my opinion, no such tests will ever be found any more than we shall ever\nfind what has so long been sought, i. g., methods of teaching that will succeed\n\nA locomotive engineer knows whether his\n\nwithout inteUigent teachers.\n\nengine is in perfect working order by the feel and the sound of it, even tho\nit is\n\nrushing thru the storm at the rate of a mile a minute, yet he could not tell\n\nyou how you could do the same.\n\nIn a similar way the intelligent, experienced,\n\nsympathetic teacher should know when her children are out of sorts, or are\n\nShe should discover the difficulty\nand apply the remedy long before it has become sufficiently pronounced to\nbe detected by any simple mechanical test that can be devised.\nWhere the unfitness is more or less permanent tests are valuable, but the\ninteUigent co-operation of teacher, of school or family physician, and of\nparents is necessary to determine whether a child should remain in school, and\nwhat remedies should be apphed. The discovery of the physical unfitness of\nchildren by close observation of the way in which children do their school\nwork and by such tests and measurements as have been described, devolves\nnoW; and in the future will devolve still more, upon the teacher, but in the\nfinal decision she must have the help of physicians and parents.\n\nbeginning to lose their inclination to Work.\n\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam W. Hastings, instructor in International Y. M. C. A. Training School,\nSpringfield Mass.\nThis question was first stated: \"A simple test of physical fitness and\n\n—\n\nunfitness of school children for school work.\"\n\nProfessor Kirkpatrick has rightly changed\n\nthe title to some \"simple methods of recognizing physical fitness,\" etc.\n\nsimple test which is final, but many; and this is fortunate.\n\nThere is no one\n\nIt enables various individual\n\nteachers, with each a particular bias of mind, to apply that method of observation which\n\nbest pleases, and yet to reach much the same general conclusions as to the health of the\nchild.\n\nTo one, malnutrition is everything; to another, lack of exercise; another, defective\n\nposture;\n\nanother, pulmonary diseases\n\nand ventilation;\n\nstill\n\nanother, nerve signs;\n\netc.\n\nThe result is the same and beneficial, whatever the facts of diagnosis emphasize, if only\nthe right pupils are kept out of school or given special corrective exercises.\n\nIt\n\nenables\n\nthe teacher of broad views and culture, Uke a good physician, to arrive at the same con-\n\nThe difference is that the judgment of\nand final, and provides a satisfactory basis for advice to\n\nclusions thru a half-dozen different channels.\n\nthe latter is thoroly scientific\n\nparent and child.\n\nWhenever we cease to cry, \"Lo here, and lo there, I have the newest secret of life,\"\nand therefore the best ( ?) whenever we, as teachers, have become more earnestly and\n;\n\nhonestly concerned about the discovery of truth than about obtaining credit for the same;\n\nwhenever we learn to welcome that culmination of research, scientific classification of\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "FITNESS AND UNFITNESS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN\n\nDepartment]\n\nfacts in the order of their logical importance,\n\n767\n\neven tho this involves the exaltation of\n\nanother man's hitherto insignificant idea to become the corner-stone of the structure,\n\nand the debasement of our own exalted pet theory to become merely a building or a pavingstone, then will there have arisen such co-operation among the devotees of child study as\nshall rear toward heaven a new\n\nand harmonious temple of knowledge, even a real true\n\nscience of child study or paidology.\n\nMy first word is therefore one of congratulation to Professor Kirkpatrick for the\neven temper and judgment displayed in the presentation of the different lines of approach\nto this subject.\n\nWhatever is added to the discussion will be mainly along two lines: the natural order\nof use of these \"simple methods of recognizing physical fitness,\" etc., and the education\nof the teacher in the use of these methods.\n\nThe natural or logical order is from the general to the particular, from that which\ntakes little time to that which requires more careful observation;\n\nit is\n\nalso from the con-\n\nsideration of those differences in growth and development which are due to the normal\n\nand prevailing differences in heredity, nutrition, and activity, to those which are abnormal\nand to be attributed to inherited disease, and positively wrong environment; it is from\nthe consideration of organic vigor and normal growth, intellectual and physical, to the\nconsideration of those abnormalities which may affect this vigor and growth unfavorably.\nNormal growth intellectually is usually determined in a general way by school grades\nand progress in studies, as ascertained by daily recitations and tests. There are various\nand widely diverse explanations of the exceptions. Children are retarded in school\nprogress by diseases and accidents, by deafness, poor eyesight, and other defects congenital or acquired; by being kept out of school for work, or because of lack of good schools.\nThere is, however, a certain normal standard, and a certain normal variability from this\n\nstandard.\n\nIt is part of the teacher's function to\n\nseek out the occasion of the variability\n\nof the individual.\n\nThere are also certain physical standards of growth and development, and a certain\nnormal limit of variability; and departure from these standards should call for the careful\nscrutiny of the individual concerned and a search for the cause of extreme variation.\n\nThis method of ascertaining the fitness of the child for study is basal.\nall children.\n\nIt applies to\n\nIn the case of certain diseased individuals, however, it becomes secondary\n\nComparison with known standards of growth indicates the net result\nand environment; gives not symptoms or disease,\nbut the product of his heredity and habits of living. Naturally he must be compared\nwith children of the same age, sex, and height, in order that any definite conclusions as\nto his variation from the normal may be reached.\nProceeding from that which is simplest, and most fundamental and easy to observe\nto that which is more complex, accessory, and which requires professional experts for\nfinal diagnosis, the following order is to be observed: (i) size or amount and quality of\ndevelopment, structural, muscular, and functional; (2) posture as associated with atrophy\nor disease; (3) nerve signs, as the symptoms of various disorders; (4) the etiology of\nthese nervous symptoms discoverable in various functional defects.\nUnder the first heading the following is the order of importance in observation, by\nin importance.\n\nof the child's past physical activity\n\nthe teacher:\n\nheight vs. weight as indicating nutrition;\n\nas indicating respiratory vigor;\n\nheight vs. respiratory measures\n\nheight vs. trunk dimensions as indicating vital capacity;\n\nand height vs. strength as indicating activity and muscular function and neuro-muscular\nUnder posture the observation of one or two of the commonest defects may be\n\ncontrol.\n\nmentioned, cervical curvature (kyphosis) giving rise to the degeneration of the scaleni\nmuscles, and to consequent lack of upper chest depth and to permanent impairment of\nthe respiratory vigor; uneven shoulders, and the associated scoliosis in the dorsal region;\n\nand flat foot.\n\nThe observation of \"nerve signs\" is exceedingly important, but for lack\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n768\n\nof time Professor Kirkpatrick's discussion\n\nmust sufl5ce.»\n\nIt is\n\n[PhysicaJ\n\nenough to say that the\n\nmajority of these nervous symptoms will be removed by the removal of the adenoid growths,\nof defects in eyesight, hearing, and other functional defects, simple to observe.\nIt is too often the case,\n\nhowever, that overpressure and stimulus, long school hours\n\nwith scant recesses, are the occasion of these nervous symptoms.\nsystems, as a whole, are at fault.\n\nIn this our school\n\nA half-day of interested application on the part of a\n\ngrowing child is worth more than a whole day of droning fixed attention.\nshould be spent out-of-doors, if possible at free play and nature study.\n\nThe other half\nIf this is imprac-\n\nticable, and everything must be systematized for him all day, then give him the same sort\n\nof thing in\n\ngymnasium and laboratories, but leave all the room possible for personal\n\ninitiative and the\n\ndevelopment of individuaUty.\n\nOne cannot fail to agree with the closing statement of Professor Kirkpatrick that\n\"the discovery of the physical unfitness of children, by close observation of the way in\nwhich children do their school work, and by such tests and measurements as have been\ndescribed, devolves, and in the future will devolve, still more upon the teacher;\" and with\nits corollary that \"in the final decision she must have the help of physicians and parents;\"\nand allow me to add also that of the physical director.\n\nThe comparison of the teacher to the locomotive engineer provides a pleasing analogy.\nThe true teacher in the best sense, as also the engineer, is born, not made. Yet the knowledge of disorder in the machine is in each case based on accurate knowledge of the construction of the normal machine itself, and of its normal function.\n\nThe successful engineer\n\nhas been trained in locomotive shops to build his machine in every part; has often made\n\nmany of the parts.\norder\"\n\nway\nif\n\nHis knowledge is therefore more absolute, his recognition of \"working\n\nless intuitive,\n\n—that\n\nis,\n\nthan that of the teacher; but the teacher must study in the same\n\n—the human organism.\n\nby laboratory methods and as thoroly\n\nanywhere, that there is need of emphasis.\n\nIt is here,\n\nAll these methods of recognizing physical\n\nand unfitness of school children must be taught in the normal schools as thoroly\nand practically as locomotive engineering is learned in the shops.\n\nfitness\n\nHOW FAR SHOULD PHYSICAL TRAINING BE EDUCATIONAL\nAND HOW FAR RECREATIVE IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS?\nREBECCA STONEROAD, SUPERVISOR OF PHYSICAL TRAINING, PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nMISS\n\nThe subject which has been assigned to me, \"How Far Should Physical\nHow Far Recreative in Grammar Schools,\"\n\nTraining be Educational and\n\nmight imply that there is a Une of demarcation between physical training\n\nwhich is distinctly educational and that which is distinctly recreative, which\nneed not be in our minds, for we know that what are considered recreative,\nthe plays and games, are truly educational,\n\nand we can conceive that what\nby\n\nare generally referred to as the educational or formal gymnastics may,\n\nproper methods and wise choice of exercises, have much of the element of\nrecreation.\n\nIn a complete system of physical education we have the two essential\ndepartments;\n\none in which the motor education\n\nis\n\nobtained thru formal\n\ngymnastics, and one in which the motor education is obtained thru plays,\n'\n\nFor a fuller statement see E. A. Kirkpatrick's Fundamentals of Child Study, chap. xvii.\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS\n\ngames, and athletic sports.\n\nI take\n\nit,\n\nthen, that\n\n769\n\nmy subject asks: What\n\nshould be the proportion of the plays and games to the formal gymnastics in\n\ngrammar schools ? To answer the question, let us consider in order, first,\nthe physiological demands of the growing child in these years; second, the\nneeds of the child in school, that nature be not thwarted by the\n\nartificial\n\nconditions of school life; third, the practical question as to how these demands\n\ncan be met under present school conditions.\n\nBy grammar grades we generally mean the four or five years of school\nlife\n\nfollowing the four years in the primary schools, the ages of the children\n\nranging from nine to fourteen years.\nlife-history of the individual,\n\nment.\n\nThese are the years which,\n\nin the\n\ncorrespond with the second period of develop-\n\nThey are the years immediately preceding, and partly including, the\nEarly childhood has passed. We know that this is\n\nperiod of adolescence.\n\na time of rapid growth and development; the bones are hardening, muscles\n\ngrowing larger and stronger.\n\nThe power to co-ordinate muscular movements,\n\nespecially in the finer mechanisms of bodily activity,\n\nwhich means a corres-\n\nponding increase in the motor functions of the brain, is now reaching the\nhigh tide of its development.\n\nThe mature man or woman is greatly the sum\n\ntotal of all the conditions of food, work, rest, sleep, and exercise which sur-\n\nround him at this critical time.\n\nIf we\n\nwould influence for good the future\n\nof the child, and have him attain in later life that maximum of body growth,\n\nphysical skill, and mental power, all varying in degree according to inherited\n\ntendency, now,\n\nif\n\never,\n\nmust education step in, both physical and mental,\n\nand, at this receptive stage of body and mind, do its best work, having the\nleast amount of resistance.\n\nThe physical exercises which are adapted to children of this period, then,\nare those which specially affect nutrition and growth, which increase heart\n\nand lung power, and which have to do with the training of nerves and muscles\nto obey the will.\nHerein lies the educational value of physical training, in that it is a training\nfor\n\nlife.\n\nThe department of plays and games holds a high place in this\n\nthought, for in no other form of physical exercise can we get in so short a time\nthose qualities of quick observation, reasoning, decision, nerve and muscle\ncontrol.\n\nThe constant playing of a game secures accuracy and quickness\n\nof execution, generally\n\ntermed skill, which enables one to do not only this\n\nthing well, but all aUied movements, thus relating them to the great purpose\nof education which is the power to do.\n\nNow is the time to form in the school room those physical habits which\nare to be of the greatest advantage in the future life of the child.\n\nAmong\n\nthese may be mentioned, a fine poise of the body, conducive to health and\n\nadding to personal appearance, the habit of deep breathing, a good carriage\nin walking, and such control over muscles as is conducive to grace in all the\n\nordinary motor activities of daily hfe.\n\nThese come not\n\nnaturally, but are the result of constant effort and practice.\n\nto\n\nmost\n\nof us\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n770\n\n[Physical\n\nIt is in the grammar grades that we notice an increase in those defects of\n\nbody which are sometimes referred to as school deformities, particularly the\ncurvatures of the spine.\nOur school gymnastics then, must have the general\npurpose of counteracting the effect of much leaning over a desk.\nsitates\n\nThis neces-\n\na wise and deliberate choice of such exercises as directly affect and\n\nstrengthen the muscles of the back, lift up the chest, and give definite power\n\nover those muscles whose office it is to hold the body in hygienic positions.\n\nSuch exercises are both preventive and corrective in their results, and must\nbe given to meet the demands of the body due to school conditions.\n\nThese two latter phases\n\nof\n\nphysical education, the formation of good\n\nphysical habits and the corrective work, are such as cannot be obtained thru\nplays and games, but only from constant daily effort and class drill.\n\nGrammar-school gymnastics consist of physical exercises adapted to the\nage of the children, becoming more complicated and\nwith the increasing years.\n\ndifficult of\n\nexecution\n\nIt is this enlarging of physical experience\n\nwhich\n\nmakes a rational system of physical training educational in its results.\nThe games which appeal to children of this age are those having comThere is the spirit of individual emulation in\npetition of sides and teams.\ngames of skill, in throwing, running, and catching. The most desirable\ngames, from the standpoint of physical education, are those in which many\n\ncan join at once, which demand quickness and moderate strength, but not\nthose requiring tremendous exertion as the result of emulation.\n\nPhysically,\n\nboys of this age are not ready for the great endurance which comes in adult\nlife.\n\nThere is grave danger of overdoing in the matter of certain athletic\n\ncontests, particularly the individual feats, the undue and premature promotion\n\nof which may work harm to pupils of these grades.\nI believe it would be possible, under ideal conditions of playground space,\n\nso to choose, plan, arrange, and adapt plays and games that they would form\n\na large share of the physical training of the school.\n\nThis requires rare powers\n\nof organization and leadership, and is most likely to be accompHshed in private\n\nschools with many instructors, few children, large grounds, and much school\n\nThese are not, however, the conditions of most of our grammar schools.\nUnder the ordinary environment, it is practically impossible to institute a\nsystem of plays and games which will include all the children of the school.\nEven a gymnasium in the building does not answer all the requirements of\ntime.\n\nspace for daily exercise of all the children.\n\nSince this form of physical exer-\n\ncise must of necessity be taken in the school-yard, and when we consider that\n\nthe average amount of space necessary for each child has been estimated at\nthirty square feet,\n\nlimited.\n\nour opportunities, at least in city schools, are greatly\n\nIt is by means of the class exercises that we are enabled to influence\n\neach and all of the hundreds of children in a grammar school, such as could\nnot be reached or handled in plays and games alone.\n\nThe opportunity is\n\ngiven for a personal inspection, and individual training in posture and habit.\n\nSchool gymnastics, altho an artificial form of exercise, have the advantage\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmcntJ\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS\n\n771\n\nover plays and games in our educational scheme on account of their practicability.\n\nWe can give daily to large masses of children, in a short space of\nand under all conditions of weather, with or without\n\ntime, in all seasons,\n\nplaygrounds, a certain amount of\n\nall\n\nround, systematic, physical exercise,\n\nbased upon physiological principles, calling into play all the muscles of the\nbody, and so planned and executed as to be of the greatest value educationally.\nIt must be distinctly understood that school gymnastics are not recreation,\n\nI would never attempt to substitute such work for the\nBoth departments of physical education, the plays and\ngames and the formal gymnastics, are necessary, and should go hand in hand\n\nthey are school work.\n\nplay of recess.\n\nin a perfect system of physical education.\n\nThe time alotted for physical exercises varies from ten to thirty minutes\ndaily, the average being fifteen minutes,\n\nsive of the noon hour.\n\nwith a fifteen-minute recess, exclu-\n\nIn so short a period as fifteen minutes, it is impossible\n\nto do more than meet the hygienic\n\ndemands arising from school conditions,\n\nso that all of this time should be devoted to exercises having this purpose in\n\nWhen work is done in a gymnasium, and the period that of thirty or\n\nview.\n\nforty minutes,\n\nit\n\nwould seem a fair proportion to divide the time into two\n\nequal parts, one consisting of class exercises and the other of plays and games.\n\nA few directors of physical training in public schools have made more or\nless effective efforts to secure play in the school-yard during the recess period,\n\nhoping thereby to supplement the body training of the class-room or hall with\n\nThis is done under the direction of one or more teachers,\n\nthe play of recess.\n\nsince it has been found that pupils of this age lack organizing power.\nIt\n\nmay be said by some that such play is not real play, that it lacks\nThe experience of summer play-\n\nspontaneity and the whimsical element.\n\nground teachers has been that children prefer direction, that of two playgrounds, one having a teacher and the other not, the children flock to the one\n\nwhere the teacher\n\nis\n\ndirecting, while\n\nit\n\nis\n\nunsupervised free playgrounds are httle used.\n\nan acknowledged fact that the\n\nSome children do not care to\n\nplay, and need to be encouraged, not forced, or the purpose of play for recreation would be lost.\n\nWhen forced, play becomes work.\n\nchild, only certain ones play, generally those who\n\ntain\n\nIf left to the individual\n\nhave special skill in a cer-\n\ngame which is played to the exclusion of others, producing onesidedness.\n\nUnsupervised play is spasmodic and irregular, and cannot be considered as\n\nan integral part of a physical-training course, altho accessory to it.\nI believe that as\n\nour public-school system is at present organized, this is\n\nabout all we can do.\n\nIn certain cities public-school athletic leagues, not con-\n\nnected with the board of education, fill a certain place in the general scheme,\n\nbut of necessity the league is managed by outside officials, and care cannot\n\nbe taken of the individual.\nBefore closing, I would make the plea that more of joy and happiness be\ninfused into gymnastic exercises.\n\nWhile as I have already said, school gym-\n\nnastics are school work, yet there can be pleasure .in work and an enjoyable\n\nphase which cheers and refreshes.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n772\n\n[Physical\n\nThe choice of exercises determines to a great degree the amount of delight\nDancing movements are alway pleasurable. Those large movements of walking, running, hopping, jumping, such as repeat the activities\n\nin them.\n\nof the race, and at the same time engage large groups of muscles, appeal to\n\nthe pupils\n\nmore than conventional movements.\n\nWe know enough of the\n\npsychology of play to take advantage of it in our class-work.\ntant factor is variety in exercises;\n\nment.\n\nAnother impor-\n\nsomething new to do adds to the enjoy-\n\nOne great element in the pleasure of execution is success in the effort,\n\nbringing with it a feehng of achievement, a satisfaction in doing the thing\nwell.\n\nThe personahty of the teacher, the voice and the manner, inspiring\n\nmethods and enthusiasm\n\nall have their influence.\nJoy and happiness is a\nmental state which to a degree can be reflected from one to another.\n\nEnthusiasm is contagious.\nWhile retaining the educational purpose and value, the method of teaching can be one which will arouse interest, delight, and pleasure.\n\nSo let us\n\nintroduce more of the recreative element into what by its very nature could\nresolve itself into a dreary monotonous drill.\n\nIn conclusion I would say the more recreative the educational gymnastics\nand the more educational the play, the better will be the system of physical\ntraining adapted to grammar schools.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMr. Kilpatrick, of New York, said that he would enter a protest against the exces\" Children who do not care to play of themselves should be\nsive supervision of games.\nunder the care of a physician.\"\n\nWhen visiting his New York city playgrounds, he had\n\nnoticed long lines of children waiting to play when under supervision.\n\nThey did not\n\nseem to enjoy play. He made a plea for free play based upon the good results as\nshown in his own school. He quoted his little son as saying: \"I wish I went to your\nschool, papa, because the boys can\n\nmake a noise at recess there.\"\n\nThe school-yard\n\nshould be a place for children to play.\n\nMr. Ray K. Savage, principal School No. 7, Rochester, N. Y., said that while he\nthought we should guard against oversupervision, we should also guard against undersupervision.\n\nThe\n\nteacher's place\n\nis\n\nto see that the children are playing, not merely\n\nThe teachers are there simply to explain and direct the games. The\naim should be to make the children forget the teacher's presence. His experience was\nthat when children had no supervision they wandered aimlessly about, getting httle good.\n\nexpending energy.\n\nMiss Stone, of New York, said that she believed, personally, that the gymnasium\nshould be the sunniest place in the whole building, hterally as well as figuratively.\n\nHer own lessons in the high school were preceded by five minutes of absolute freedom, a remnant of the old-time recess. The girls had been kept perfectly still for\nhours and naturally had something to say. If advantage was taken of this freedom, one\nadmonition of its possible withdrawal was sufficient. Following this period of relaxation\ncame the body exercises, necessary, but not interesting. The gymnastic exercises were\ngiven twice a week, and on other days, games or Gilbert work. The lesson ended with\nanother period of absolute freedom.\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "PHYSICAL TRAINING IN HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\n773\n\nMiss McConkey, of Springfield, Mass., said that the unprecedented growth of our\ngreat cities had brought about new conditions necessitating an entire reconstruction of our\n\nsystem.\nlittle\n\nHigh-school\n\nare spending ten hours a day in a sitting position.\n\ngirls\n\nfreedom of motion.\n\nThere is\n\nThe gymnaThey need play-\n\nGirls must walk demurely through the streets.\n\nsium alone is not enough. Open playgrounds are not used by girls.\ngrounds inclosed by a high board fence, where they can abandon themselves to play.\nThey need out-of-door play in the sunshine.\n\nHOW FAR SHOULD PHYSICAL TRAINING BE EDUCATIONAL\nAND HOW FAR RECREATIVE IN HIGH SCHOOLS?\nCLARENCE F. CARROLL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y.\n\nOur fathers lived\n\noutdoors.\n\nThey were\n\ngiants,\n\nTheir offspring migrated to the\n\ngiants every day.\n\nand did the work of\nand to the great\n\ncities\n\nWest, and became leaders in our supremacy as a nation.\n\nIn turn the off-\n\nspring of these men are many of them physically weak, and often degenerate.\nLife on the farm\n\nwas productive of intellectual and moral force.\n\nThe life\n\nin the home of the rich or well-to-do in the city tends to diminish the power\n\nof observation, and reduces muscular activity.\nStrength and suppleness of\nbody are necessary to the best type of manhood. Weakness of body is likely\nto be accompanied by loss of courage, ambition, and initiative.\nOur urban population is rapidly becoming the victim of disease. Comparatively few people who follow a sedentary life are free from some form of\nphysical weakness. Almost every person we meet carries about a physical\n\nhandicap.\n\nThere is a great army of healers who fatten upon the infirmities of the\ncommunity.\nsive\n\nThe business of supplying remedies is one of the most exten-\n\nand profitable.\n\nof every name.\n\nThere are great cities of sanitariums devoted to cures\n\nMen and famihes of means migrate, as do the birds, to find\n\ncertain favorable conditions of temperature and weather.\nIf our population were made up entirely of famihes of affluence, the race\nwould soon become extinct. It is necessary that the children of the extremely\n\npoor, who are underfed, and who swarm in homes that are unclean, be res-\n\ncued from their hopeless condition, and bodily reconstructed.\n\nDepression of\n\nspirit often weighs down alike upon the rich and poor who labor under these\n\ncrushing physical infirmities.\n\nA child of perfect physical development is\n\nrarely seen, and mild forms of nervous disease are everywhere visible in the\n\nfaces of school children.\n\nFrom this statement it is fair to derive the first principle upon which we\nbase the need of physical development in schools.\n\nAt the end of one or two\n\ngenerations, under present conditions, individual and community fife are threat-\n\nened with decay, and call for scientific treatment such as apparently can be\n\nGermany has attempted\nsuch a reconstruction by a system of gymnastics, which is applied first to the\ngenerally suppHed only thru the public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n774\nschools,\n\nand second to the army.\n\n[Physical\n\nUnder this stimulus the German system\n\nhas become so popular with Germans that it has attained a place as a part\nof the community life, and the German Turner Society is almost as well\nknown in America as in Germany. No more remarkable evidence of what\n\ncan be accomplished by a system of educative physical training was ever\n\nThis movement was offensive and defensive.\n\nseen.\n\nIt was due to the deUb-\n\nGerman government to produce a generation and an\narmy strong enough to defeat its western neighbor, and to give Germany such\na place among the nations as it had never before attained.\nSo much in favor of a system of physical training which shall be educaerate attempt of the\n\nOn the other hand, from the first, games are ever a source of education.\n\ntive.\n\nPlayfulness is an element in the\ntively the parent\n\nfirst\n\ninteUigence of childhood.\n\nwatches for, and stimulates,\n\nthis tendency.\n\nInstinc-\n\nDay by day\n\nnew movement is stimulated under the impulse of play. Little children play\nall the day long.\nThe muscles depend upon games for development. Some of the best intellectual exercise of childhood consists in the\ncompetition of the playground. The games of the kindergarten are its soul\nand inspiration. Play has become almost a new reUgion among the great\narmy of missionaries, among children. Playground leagues are a new discovery, and a new force, in civihzation.\nNew fines of sports have become\npopular within recent years. Every man of means aspires to some fine of\ntogether\n\nrecreation.\n\nGolf, tennis, the bicycle are\n\naU serving their part in bringing\n\njoy back to the world.\nSchools and colleges have entered into the competition. The college man\nwho is not interested in some form of athletics is an anomaly and must make\n\nan explanation.\n\nSuch a man would not be tolerated in an English university.\n\nIndeed, the educated Engfishman receives an education in athletics as\n\ncomplete as that which he receives in Greek or Latin.\n\nIn an up-to-date school the games of childhood again have their place,\nand every child, and every class, engages each day in good earnest in these\ngames with aU the joy of ancient days. Not only do these games promise to\nhelp to arrest the downward physical course of the race and bring back\nambition and courage, but they are also bringing back the joy of life. This\nspirit of free play has become contagious, and men and women alike look\nwith defight upon the games of school children; and as gracefully as we\nmay, we are aU becoming children again. Men testify that the golf-field is\nrevolutionizing their lives, and is giving hope of added years.\n\nWho then shall attempt to say whether physical training shaU be chiefly\nrecreative or chiefly educational?\n\nIt\n\nmust be, on one side, systematic and\n\nexacting, correcting curvature and spinal weakness, giving keenness of appetite,\n\nand ambition to do and execute.\n\nspirit\n\nOn the other hand, it must fift the\n\ndepressed by confinement, and relieve the strain upon our weakened\n\nAgain, who shall say that one is not as educational as the other?\nThe trained athlete has a fund of intellectual reserve of no mean magnitude.\n\nbodies.\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN UNIVERSITIES\n\n775\n\nHe is deliberate, resourceful, can mass all the energies of his life in a moment\nand at a given point. If systematic physical training develops patience, no\nless do endurance and skill, called for in games, enable a man to meet his\ncompetitors of whatever sort.\nIt is\n\nnot our business to discuss abuses and excesses in athletics.\n\nThey\n\nare inevitable and must be dealt with resolutely, but they do not affect the\n\nOur hope in building up the individual and in perpetu-\n\nprinciple involved.\n\nating our national\n\nlife\n\nmuch as in the other.\nof the intellect,\n\nmonstrosity.\n\nis\n\nin the physical\n\nand educational alike, in one as\n\nThe body is the dwelling-place of the spirit as it is\n\nand the education of either, considered apart, produces a\n\nWe are gathering the data upon which we may build a civili-\n\nzation that shall be worthy of the day,\n\nluxury and ignorance ahke.\n\nand that may resist the inroads of\n\nIt is our privilege and opportunity as schoolmen\n\nto appreciate, and to appropriate, the opportunity that is held out to us.\n\nTo summarize: We are threatened by physical degeneracy in the large\nand\n\ncity.\n\nIntellectual\n\nalike,\n\nin consequence.\n\nspiritual\n\nlife,\n\nand general initiative must\n\nall\n\nsuffer\n\nA complete physical reconstruction of the rising\n\ngeneration is called for, thru the school system.\n\non body and nerves is intense.\ncollege requirements, isolation\n\nIn the high school the strain\n\nExamination and marking systems and\n\nand lack of sympathy, pride and depression\n\nof spirit, and consequent lack of success are making the high school a place\n\nof frequent failure.\n\nWe hesitate to tell the number of tragedies.\n\nThis con-\n\ndition calls for the best system of physical training and for the largest increase\n\npossible of the social element provided\n\nby free games and athletic sports.\n\nThe health and happiness, and very life, of the nation are at stake.\n\nHOW FAR SHOULD PHYSICAL TRAINING BE EDUCATIONAL\nAND HOW FAR RECREATIVE IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES?\nMISS CAROLINE CRAW^FORD, INSTRUCTOR IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY\nIt seems necessary in discussing the educative and recreative phases of\nany special department of education to restate the educative process in the\n\nterms of the educational theory of today.\n\nFor such statement we have quoted\n\n\"Froebel's Educational Principles\" as given by\n\nDewey in the Elementary\n\nSchool Record of the University of Chicago Laboratory School.\n,\n\nIn general, they are\n\nThat the primary business of the school is to train children in co-operative, and\nto foster in them the consciousness of mutual independence, and\nto help them practically in making the adjustments that will carry this spirit into overt\n1.\n\nmutually helpful, living;\nacts.\n2.\n\nThat the primary root of all educative activity is in the instinctive, impulsive\n\nattitudes and activities of the child, and not in the presentation and application of external\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n776\n\n[Physical\n\nmaterial, whether thru the ideas of others or thru the senses, and that accordingly, numberless spontaneous activities of children, plays, games, mimic efforts, even the apparently\n\n—exhibitions previously ignored as\nor even\n—are capable of educational use, nay, are the foundation\n\nmeaningless motions of infants\n\ntrivial, futile,\n\ncondemned as positively evil\n\nstones of educational method.\n3.\n\nThat these individual tendencies and activities are organized and directed thru\n\nthe uses made of them in keeping up the co-operative living already spoken of;\n\ntaking\n\nadvantage of them to reproduce on the child's plane the typical doings and occupations\nof the larger, maturer society into which he\n\nis finally to\n\ngo forth; and that it is thru\n\nproduction and creative use that valuable knowledge is received and clinched.\n\nFollowing the thought in these principles, the activity of the little child\n\nbecomes an expression of the self which the educator must needs investigate\nin order to interpret the means for the educative process.\nis\n\nThe child's play\n\nthen of the deepest significance, and in it are found the beginnings of the\n\ncompleted forms of expression.\nsentation,\nlittle\n\nis\n\nThe dramatic instinct, or instinct for repreThe\n\none of the most prominent characteristics of childhood.\n\nchild's expression is literally\n\nmotor;\n\nhe \"acts\" his thought, and he\n\ndiscovers the meaning of other's actions by his \"make beheve.\"\n\nA knowledge\n\nof other's actions is a necessary preparation for social life, and, in the develop-\n\nment of the child's social experience, play is gradually carried over into games.\nThis thought suggests that we may find values of expression in games not at\npresent recognized in education.\n\nIn studying games as developed from the instinct of representation, there\nare two important characteristics to be considered\n\n:\n\nthe expression of physical\n\nforce thru action, a knowledge of which is gained only by comparison with\n\nother forces\n\nchance\n\nby conflict, and thus the development of games of skill and\nof the elements of appHed and pure\n\n—the dramatic presentation\n\nscience;\n\nand the expressing of the truth of relationship thru the action of\n\n—the dramatic presentation\n\nthe dramatic game\n\nof the elements of art.\n\nIn the games of skill and chance, the child gets, in concrete form, a knowledge of the principles of science thru the action of related forces, and when\n\nhe discovers mechanism from experience, he can project that knowledge\ninto the field of action outside himself.\n\ngames.)\n\n(Here is the significance of the Greek\n\nWhile the material is ready, the connection of such action with\n\nthe symbolic forms, so that its projection into other fields may be directly\npossible in accord with development, is one of the missing factors of education.\n\nThe dramatic games are an epitome of the world of art.\n\nThe discovery,\n\nthru action of the truth of relationship is transferable to whatever medium\n\nmay be used for the expression of that truth.\nThe common origin of the game-forms, and the development of the element\nof skill, apart\n\nfrom the dramatic, point to the ultimate development from\n\nthis embryonic structure to the forms of science\n\nthe two forms of truth are thus expressed\nof nature;\n\n:\n\nand of art;\n\nin other words,\n\none, the truth of the existing factors\n\nand the other, the truth of the relation of these various factors\nThe first form of truth is revealed\n\nwhen combined in an organic whole.\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN UNIVERSITIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n777\n\nand the second to the imagination, for in the second\nand in the final outcome, beauty; the\ntest of the truth of the symboHc presentation, is the revelation to the senses.\nThe logical development from the games of skill is thru the co-operative\noccupations for food, clothing, and shelter. In the conflict with nature and\nto the physical senses,\n\nthe existing forms become symbols,\n\nwith other forms of life, the invention of mechanical aids to compete in the\nstruggle\n\nonly a greater mastery of the earUer games of skill and chance.\n\nis\n\nWhile the child needs to make the adjustment from the game to the occupation,\nhe needs also to bring the unity of the two to consciousness, and to realize\nthe elements in the evolving occupation, in order that the instinctive\n\nand\n\nemotional interest developed thru the games may be carried over into the\noccupation.\n\nThe development of the dramatic game, the song and dance, is\nmovement music, poetry, drama; the ideahzation of the\n\n—\n\nthru the arts of\n\noccupation and its relations, thru the reaHzation of the values.\n\nTo gain a knowledge of physical forces involves their measurement\nthe origination and mastery of mathematical symbols;\n\nand to use that knowl-\n\nedge by translation involves the abstraction of it thru sign-making-language\n\nsymbols in the various forms.\n\nIn this process is the living reaHzation of\n\nThere is thus suggested, thru the spontaneous activity\nof the child, the beginning of the mastery and organization of the factors of\n\nthe three \"R's.\"\n\nlife;\n\nsecondly, the representation of these factors by means of signs, that the\n\nknowledge gained may be translated to other factors, and thus more\n\nlife\n\nand lastly, the relating, the putting together,\nof these factors, either directly or by means of their symbols, that the final, the\n\nbe vicariously experienced;\n\neternal values may be known thru their relationship.\n\nThere\n\nfollows,\n\nfrom the biological and psychological standpoints, the\n\nconsideration of the stages of individual development.\n\nAgain we quote\n\nfrom the Elementary School Record.\n\nThe first stage found in the child, say of from four to eight years of age, is characterized by directness and promptness of relationship between impressions, ideas, and action.\n\nThe demand for a motor outlet for expression is urgent and immediate.\n\nHence the\n\nsubject-matter for these years is selected from phases of life entering into the child's own\nsocial surroundings, and as far as may be possible, capable of production by him in some-\n\nthing approaching social form\n\n—in play, games, occupations, or minature industrial\n\narts,\n\nThe material is presented as something\nto be taken up into the child's own experience, thru his own activities.\n\nstories, pictorial imagination,\n\nand conversation.\n\nIn the second period, extending from eight or nine to eleven or twelve, the change\ncomes to the child from his growing sense of the possibility of more permanent and objective results, and of the necessity for the control of agencies for the skill necessary to reach\nthese results; when the child recognizes distinct and enduring ends which stand out and\ndemand attention on their own account, the previous vague and fluid unity of life is broken\nup. The mere play of activity no longer directly satisfies.\nIt must be felt to accomplish\nsomething to lead up to a definite and abiding outcome. Hence the recognition of rules\nof action.\nThat is, of regular means appropriate to reaching permanent results and of\n\n—\n\n—\n\nthe value of mastering special processes so as to give skill in their use.\n\nBut in recognizing that this is the period of technique, of getting facility, skill, in\nwe must keep in mind certain fundamental principles. First, the\n\nparticular directions,\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n778\n\n[Physical\n\ngrowth is gradual; secondly, the interest in technique, in acquiring skill, demands, in\norder not to lead to arrested development, a sufficient background of actual experience;\nand, in the third place, the introduction to technique must come in connection with ends\nthat arise within the children's own experience, that are present to them as desired ends,\n\nand hence as motives to effort\nThe prime psychological necessity is that the\nchild see and feel the end as his own end, the need as his own need, and thus have a motive\nfrom within, an intense and impelling motive, for making the analysis and mastering the\n\"rules,\" i. e., methods of procedure. This is possible only as the formal work is kept in\nconnection with active, with constructive, and expressive work, which, presenting difficulties, suggests the need of acquiring an effective method of copying with them.\n\nCarrying the general statement over to this special study it would seem\nthat what has been called educational in physical training, in the terms of\n\neducation, technique, and\n\nwhat has been termed recreative, is expression.\n\nThe child's first actions are expressive in the sense of bringing a thing to\nconsciousness, but in the process of gaining consciousness there comes gradually\n\nthe sense of the inadequacy of the expression and the desire to intensify\n\nconsciousness by a fuller expression.\n\nThe necessity for training, for technique,\n\ngrows out of this desire for more adequate expression.\n\nThere is in this both\n\nthe elements of play and of work; play in the sense of realizing the end, and\n\nwork in the sense of mastery over the means to that end.\nIn this effort of the individual to intensify consciousness there is, on the\n\none hand, the little child's play, and on the other, man's present attainments\nin science\n\nand in art.\n\nThe achievement of the one from the other is thru\n\naction, and the educative process is the translation of activity to its intellectual\n\nand spiritual values.\n\nThe vital thing in education is the translated activity,\n\nthe necessary counterpart is the mastery of the symbols for the process.\n\nIn\n\nphysical education there is need of much study so to direct the activity that\n\nthe translation of the expression will involve the symbols, and the technique\nof the expression, the development of the body.\n\nHOW FAR SHOULD PHYSICAL TRAINING BE EDUCATIONAL\nAND HOW FAR RECREATIVE IN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES?\nR.\n\nTAiT Mckenzie, professor of physical education, and director of\nTHE DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nTo college conditions it is the practical application of the principles so\nclearly stated by Miss Crawford in her paper that we have to consider in this\n\ndiscussion, and if the object of all education is to develop and direct the latent\n\npowers of the individual in such a way that he will be most useful to himself,\n\nand most valuable to the state as a citizen, it is especially important that this\nshould be kept prominently in mind, for those who are approaching the age\n\nwhen they must cast aside the leading strings of the schoohnaster and assume\nindependence of thought and action.\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING IN UNIVERSITIES\n\n779\n\nThe college student is at the golden age for educating his physical powers.\nHis growth is almost completed; his heart and lungs having caught up with\nthe great increase in body-height and -weight, that takes place from twelve\nto sixteen, and with his newly acquired physical powers still practically untried.\n\nWe find, however, that on entering college, most students have to begin\nwith the simplest movements and easiest muscular tasks.\n\nMany men cannot\n\njump over a cord two feet from the ground, or Hft their weight by their arms.\nThey do not know how to stand properly erect, or to answer promptly or\ncorrectly a word of command.\nThey should begin with class gymnasitcs\nand simple feats to teach control, agihty and\nThis work is educational rather\nthan recreative, and to lighten it, gymnastic games are introduced which are\nmarching formations,\nalertness\n\n—\n\ndrills,\n\nto give them speed and strength.\n\ndesigned to cultivate some special physical quality;\n\ne. g.,\n\nalertness.\n\nAthletic games may be modified to conform to this educational requirement,\nbut, as a rule, they are too wasteful of time to be so used;\n\ne. g., baseball.\n\nAthletic games have, however, the important advantage of giving an ethical\n\nor moral training that is quite as important to the future citizen.\n\nThe bruises\n\nand fatigue of games like football act as a useful counter to the ease, or even\nluxury, of the average youth's surroundings.\n\nThey develop courage, loyalty\n\n—the\n—and so have an influence in molding character, that\n\nto the team, to the institution, and by extension, to the land of his birth\n\nessence of patriotism\n\nwould be hard to overestimate.\n\nThe rounded college course in physical education should then include\nthose formal gymnastics\n\nand the gymnastic games that train the body to\n\nknow its possibilities and limitations in all the activities of running, leaping,\nand cHmbing, for which it is adapted; that give the prompt response to the\nword of command, and teach that discipline of obedience, which is so essential\nfor all great achievements.\n\nIt should include those athletic sports for all but\n\nand\ngames which are the epitome of Hfe, where inherent\n\nthe physically unfit that cultivate individual daring, courage, and pluck;\nit should not overlook those\n\nmanliness is put to the proof, and where, as representatives of their club or\ncollege, they have to\n\nuphold her good name on track and field, as in future\n\nlife they will be called\n\nupon to do by their town, party, or country.\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Tuesday, July 4, 1905\nThe department met in the auditorium of the Asbury Park High School, and was\nand opened by an address by President Frank M. Gilley,\n\ncalled to order at 10 A. M.,\n\ninstructor in physics and chemistry. High School, Chelsea, Mass.\n\nThe following program was then presented:\n1.\n\"Correlation of Mathematics and Science,\" by Clarence E. Comstock, department of mathematics, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111. Discussion was participated in by Lambert L. Jackson, Normal School, Brockport, N. Y.; F. T. Jones,\nUniversity School, Cleveland, Ohio; William J. Holloway, Maryland State Normal\nSchool, Baltimore, Md.; Joseph V. Collins, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.;\nGeorge Macloskie, department of biology, Princeton, N. J.; and William McClain'\n\nLondon, Ohio.\n2.\n\n\"Science Teaching in Elementary Schools,\" by\n\nHugo Newman,\n\nprincipal of\n\nPubhc School No. 33, New York city; followed with lantern illustrations of work done.\nDiscussion by A. T. Schauffler, district superintendent. New York city, who also made\nuse of the lantern to illustrate his paper.\n\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president:\nH. L. Morse, Troy, N. Y.\nO. W. Caldwell, Charleston, 111.\nWilliam Franklin Watson, Greenville, S. C.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 p.m. by President Gilley, and the\nfollowing papers on the teaching of biology were presented:\n1.\n\"Some of the Common Insect Pests, and How the Children Can Study Them \"\nby John B. Smith, professor of entomology, New Jersey Agricultural College, Experiment\nThis paper was illustrated by lantern slides, and was\nStation, New Brunswick, N. J.\npreceded by a few remarks on the author's experience in handling the mosquito problem.\nDiscussion followed in the form of a talk on forestry, illustrated by lantern slides by\nH. A. Smith, of the Bureau of Forestry.\n\"Teaching Biology From Living Plants and Animals with a Projection Micro2.\nscope: A Demonstration of Apparatus and Methods with Living Specimens,\" by A. H.\nCole, department of biology. Lake High School, Chicago, 111.\n\nThe president then called for the report of the Committee on the Physics Courses.\nThe report on the \"Course of Study for a First-Year Course in Physics,\" and an \"Outline of a Second Year of Physics for High Schools,\" were presented.\n\nThese reports were discussed by E. R. Whitney, Troy, N. Y.; O. W. Caldwell\n111.; F. R. Nichols, Chicago, 111.; and E. P. Churchill, Tarrytown, N. Y.after which it was moved by Irving O. Palmer, Newtonville, Mass., that the report on the\nfirst-year course in physics, and the outhne of a second year of physics for high schools\nThe motion was seconded by several and\nas presented by the committee, be adopted.\nwas unanimously carried.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was read and adopted, and the following\nofficers were elected for the ensuing year:\nCharleston,\n\n781\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n782\n\n[Science\n\n—\n\nFor President H. A. Senter, head of the department of chemistry, Omaha High\nSchool, Omaha, Nebr.\n^.For Vice-President Irving O. Palmer, science master, Newton High School, New-\n\n—\n\ntonville,\n\nMass.\n\nFor Secretary\n\n—E. R. Whitney, vice-principal of High School, Binghamton, N. Y.\n\nThe^department adjourned at 5 45 P. M.\n:\n\nH. A. Senter, Secretary,\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\nFRANK M. GILLEY, INSTRUCTOR IN HIGH SCHOOL, CHELSEA, MASS.\n\nWe are here together again in the year of our Lord 1905, and of the inde-\n\n—\n\npendence of the United States of America 129; or if you Hke and I don't\nknow why the historians should have matters their own way even in fixing\n\n—the year of the separation of fluorin\n\ndates\n\nrays 9.\nscience\n\n14, and of the discovery of Roentgen\n\nWe are here to see what we can do for science, and for students of\n\n—and by students\n\nI mean teachers as well as pupils.\n\nThe first step\n\nin that process is to see what there is to be done.\n\nIn general, it is safe to say that the outlook in science teaching is today\nDuring the past few weeks commencement\nbrighter than ever before.\nspeakers all over the country have been telling us of the increased demand\nfor scientific instruction in technological schools and scientific departments,\n\nand reporting at the same time greatly increased endowments to meet such\nBut in secondary schools the outlook is not so bright. The\ndemands.\n\ndemand for instruction, to be sure, is increasing there also, but neither the\nschools nor the teachers have an equipment commensurate with the part that\nscience must have in the education, or the development, of the present cen-\n\nSecondary education, ev^n more than collegiate education, needs, and\nshould have, actual endowment. It must be admitted that science in second-\n\ntury.\n\nary schools has not yet proved the success that its friends have prayed,\n\nand its opponents feared, it might be. That it has not proved so is due to\nthe lack of equipment of which I have spok^, and the many difficulties\nunder which the science teachers labor. The causes of these hindrances\nare not beyond remedy.\nPerhaps the most serious difficulty under which the science teacher labors\nis\n\nthe great number of demands on his time, even the time he should devote\n\nto recreation, professional study, and culture.\n\nHe often has to teach from\n\nthree to six sciences, each as large a subject as a language,\n\nsented by pubhcations,\n\nmany of which he must read\n\n—\n\nand each repre-\n\npubHcations of far\n\ngreater extent than the growing hterature of any one language.\n\nThe administrative duties of his department, the selection, purchase, care,\nrepair, and use, of apparatus, and the obtaining of money, the superintendence\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n783\n\nof assistants, and the general oversight of laboratories and equipment, require\n\na portion of his time in school hours.\nduties at the same time.\n\nHe cannot teach and attend to these\n\nIn some instances, additional burdens in the manage-\n\nment of the school, the control and supervision of the athletics, for instance,\nrequiring several half days' time per week, have been put on the already\n\noverburdened science teacher.\n\nSince his subject is larger and more exacting\n\nthan those of other teachers, and requires more time both in school and out,\nHe should not be\nall the time and energy he can give to it is none too much.'\nrequired to give any to other duties.\n\nBesides being hindered by multifarious duties, the science teacher is\nhampered in his methods of teaching. The changes in courses of study, and\nthe policy of management of schools, always lag behind the advancement\nin methods of teaching.\n\nA reform in mathematical teaching, or in language,\n\nis easy to inaugurate, but any change from the beaten paths in science instruc-\n\ntion requires changes that are made too slowly.\n\nIn most schools today the science teacher is urged to have his methods\non the estabhshed methods of teaching other subjects the method of the\nassigned lesson and the recitation thereon. To do this would be to deprive\n\n—\n\nscience teaching of\n\nits\n\ngreatest valUe\n\nthought on the part of the pupil.\n\n—the necessity\n\nfor constant original\n\nI think it is an open question whether it\n\nwould not be better to introduce more of the science method into other subjects\nthan to reduce science to the dead level of memory work.\nAnother difficulty which, if anything, grows, rather than diminishes, as\ntime goes on, is the lack of buildings and equipment.\nessentials are too often\n\nDemands for these\nThe constantly\n\noutgrown before they are fulfilled.\n\ngrowing need for equipment is seldom anticipated, more often it is not met\nNew laboratories are overcrowded during the first year they are\nfor years.\nused.\nIt is perhaps safe to say that over three-quarters of the secondary schools\n\nAn expenditure of $5 per\nyear per pupil for books is often exceeded in the upper classes; yet the science\nhave no equipment in science worthy of the name.\n\ndepartment that has the inadequate expenditure of $2 per pupil per year\nis\n\nconsidered very fortunate.\n\nscientific studies,\n\nBetter by far postpone the introduction of\n\nsaving for the time being the salaries that would be paid,\n\nuntil an equipment in some one branch is assured.\n\nthat has become useless should be \"scrapped,\"\nas effective.\n\nApparatus and equipment\nand not carried on the list\n\nIn view of the large sums that could be profitably spent, I\n\nmight suggest here that secondary science work is a good field for private\ncontributions.\n\n•This first cause, then, of the present unsatisfactory condition of science\nteaching, the lack of proper equipment, can be removed in a year or more\n\nwith a proper supply of money.\n\nThe second, the lack of able and well-\n\ntrained teachers, is not so easily disposed of.\n\nthan the other.\n\nCertainly it is no less important\n\nFully half of the ineffectiveness of science teaching in second-\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n784\n\n[Science\n\nary schools today is due, as it seems to me, to the fact that nearly all science\nteachers have had their training in college, and college methods are not suitable\nfor secondary work.\n\nbeen taught.\n\nFor the tendency of teachers is to teach as they have\n\nThe example of their teachers is more impressive than the\n\nprecepts of the pedagogical department, which does not always emphasize\nthe need of thoro knowledge.\n\nFor this there seems to be no immediate remedy.\n\nNo single school exists\n\ntoday where complete instruction can be obtained in the subject-matter,\n\nmethods of presentation, and preparation of equipment.\n\nThe manipulation\n\nof the projection lantern, the preparation of lantern slides, specimens, appara-\n\ntus for demonstration or to serve as models, the use of charts and diagrams,\n\nshould be learned by every science teacher.\n\nEven in such schools as exist, those preparing to teach science do not\nMost of them spend one or two years, taking one, or\n\nspend enough time.\n\nat most two, courses in each subject;\n\nwhereas language teachers have, as a\n\nfrom four to nine years. This is a wrong proportion. I have already\npointed out that any one science taught in a secondary school is a larger and\n\nrule,\n\nmore constantly growing subject than any one language.\n\nThe teacher who\n\nhandles several such sciences should have at least as long training as he who\nteaches one language.\n\nOne of the primary causes of this difficulty is the fact that, in most cases,\nthe man who studies one branch of science as long as a language teacher\nstudies a language can earn more money in practical work than in teaching.\nLarge commercial awards await the man who perfects himself in physics,\nchemistry, or geology.\nfirst\n\nIf\n\nsuch a man teaches at all it is either during the\n\nyear or two of his study, or else in university work, where the dignity\n\nand rewards are greater, and he has leisure to pursue practical work. In\nThese matters can be improved\nby demanding longer preparation on the part of teachers; by providing more\nelementary courses in colleges and technical schools, courses which, including\nthe practical and interesting apphcations, are presented in a fullness and\nsimphcity that would be intelligible to a high-school pupil; by providing\ncourses for teachers in summer schools that shall deal with sciences from the\nschool, rather than from the college, point of view; and by making such\neither case, he is lost to the secondary school.\n\ninducements in increased salary as shall encourage teachers to follow these\ncourses year by year.\n\nMoreover, science teachers should be allowed a sab-\n\nbatical year for foreign study, and inducements should be offered in the way\n\nof salary, etc., for\n\ngood teachers to enter upon, and remain in, the work.\n\nThey should be allowed constant opportunity for study while in service.\n\nThe\n\ntraining of science teachers should be not only in school but in the growing\n\nworld, and should never cease.\n\nThe habit of continual daily study must\n\nbe formed and exercised.\nOne of the ways to make the position of a good teacher more attractive\nis to relieve\n\nhim of some of the demands on his time in ways I have already\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nPRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\nsuggested.\n\n785\n\nBut more than this, he should be reUeved of the necessity of\n\nteaching any part of the mathematics required for his subject by proper\ncorrelation of mathematics with science, especially with physics and chemistry.\n\nEarly in the course of mathematics introduce squared paper and the plotting\nof simple equations, the teaching of simple trigonometric functions,\n\nuse of physical problems.\n\nSpecific gravity, composition of forces,\n\nand the\n\nmoments\n\nand the center of gravity, motion, force, impact of projectiles, machines,\nand machinery, photometry, thermometry, Boyle's law,\nexpansion of gases, linear and cubical expansion, mirrors, refraction, foci,\nsize of object and image, arrangements of cells, resistance, and the electric\nmotor and dynamo are a few of the topics in physics alone that supply practice\nin algebraic formulas, and the manipulation and derivation of useful algebraic\nAny of these would be not only more useful, but more interesting,\nequations.\nthan the fabulous hare and tortoise races or impossible railway schedules.\nWhat\nAll this requires only the simple portions of algebra and geometry.\nneed is there, at any stage, of complicated exercises and abstruse problems\nin algebra and geometry, if the problems that are met in science demand so\nsmall an amount of mathematic knowledge ?\nThe manual-training and science departments should be made more\nmutually helpful. Without some practical experience in a few trades, scientific\nknowledge is often merely academic. The close acquaintance with real\n\nefficiency of engines\n\nthings, the study of the property of inertia, the only property that all matter\n\npossesses in\n\ncommon, and the most important one, is best studied\n\nin the\n\nThere are no laboratory exercises in physics that teach much of the\nlaws of motion. The hammer and chisel, the hammering, bending, and\n\nshop.\n\nThe workman does not\n\nspinning of metals teach the properties of matter.\n\nmerely know, he feels, what is the right way to perform an operation.\n\nThis\n\narrangement I suggest fully as much in behalf of the manual-training schools\nas of the science teacher.\nof thumb.\n\nWithout science an artisan works merely by rule\n\nThe problems in the mechanical world require a knowledge both\n\nof constructive processes\n\nand of the scientific principles that underly them.\n\nThe speciahst becomes a specialist merely because he has no time for more\nthan a narrow portion of one subject.\na source of strength.\n\nHis narrowness is a weakness, never\n\nTherefore the manual-training schools should teach\n\nmuch physics, and the physics teacher should be trained in all branches, and\nmore than\n\nthe manual-training school teacher.\n\nI\n\ncannot\n\nemphasize\n\ntoo\n\nstrongly the fact that technical education must rest on a broad scientific basis\nfor the time is past when improvements can be made by novices.\n\nA portion of the hand-work of the manual-training school might well be\napparatus and models for use in science work.\n\nBy this arrangement much\n\nof the mystery which the apparatus has for the new pupil would be dispelled.\n\nAn interest would be aroused in the manual-training department, and in its\nproductions.\nHomemade kites, boats, models, and toys are more real, and\ninterest us more, than those we buy.\n\nIf they are our own, or the production\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL'^ASSOCIATION\n\n786\n\n[Science\n\nof our schoolmates, if we are more or less in at the making of them, they have\n\nthe strongest hold upon our interest.\n\nThe training of the hand, as I understand it, is to carry out accurately\nsome motive impulse of the will.\n\nIf the manual-training and science instruc-\n\ntion fit well together, there will be economy of effort and efficiency in work.\n\nAccuracy of measurement, for instance, is taught in both departments.\n\nIn\n\none, we discard the incorrect results obtained or computed; in the other, the\n\nCorrelation of the two departments would prevent\nwould also double the amount of energy available for use at\nThat there is no such thing as an absolutely straight line,\ncritical points.\n\nimperfect object itself.\nthe waste.\n\nIt\n\n5\n\ncm. long, or a perfectly elastic body, or an irresistible\n\nforce are conceptions\n\nwhich the average pupil finds, for some reason, very\n\nan object exactly 2\ndifficult to grasp.\n\n.\n\nIf he had them presented to him in both departments he\n\nwould be almost certain to get hold of them from one side or the other.\nFurther correlation of science with other branches would bring about\nsimilarly beneficial results.\n\nScience teaching should be brought into relation\n\nwith language work by teaching the French, and particularly the German,\n\nnames along with the EngHsh ones for each substance and process. Azote\nmeans to 40,000,000 Frenchmen, and Sticksioff to 70,000,000 Germans, what\nnitrogen does to English-speaking people. Sauerstojf is \"the gas that makes\nthings burn\" to one-half the educated, scientific world. There are five\ncommon names in English for copper sulphate. We learn them without\nWhy not learn one more name ? The pupil will then be able\ngreat effort.\nwith the additional study of a little academic French or German\n\n(giveji in\n\nthe regular modern language courses) to get at the vast amount of science\n\nwhich is, and always will be, locked up in those languages.\n\nScience offers\n\nan inexhaustible list of subjects for expository themes in English, and no\nsubjects could offer better training in accuracy of expression.\n\nAnother opportunity of improving science teaching, one which is not used\n\nand\n\nto half the extent that it should be, lies in the use of museums, parks,\n\nThese offer the city child opportunities similar to those of the\ncountry child (tho not so great) of acquiring simple facts from observation.\n\nfactories.\n\nThings are presented to the mind first as wholes, and, as far as possible, in\nthe true setting in the natural environment.\nthat this work is very useful.\nall\n\nthat they might be in some respects.\n\nin the South Kensington\n\nThe city of New York has proved\n\nIt is true that our museums, at least, are\n\nnot\n\nWe should have models like those\n\nMuseum, some of which work continuously when\n\nan observer presses a button.\n\nAlmost side by side are the first locomotives\n\never made and models, many of them operative, of improvements up to the\npresent time.\n\nThese models could be made by amateur mechanics.\n\nSuch\n\nThere is, it seems to me, a\npsychological size for each model, large enough for the separate parts to be\ndistinct, yet small enough for the machine to be viewed as a whole; a size,\nmodels should be larger than ordinary toys.\n\nperhaps, that a boy could carry, and that he imagines would carry him.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n787\n\nFurther practical efficiency could be given to science teaching by estabb'shing \"continuation schools\" in science and the trades as has already been\n\ndone on a small scale in several cities. They are of great value to business\nmen and mechanics. Such men are able to do more and better work in a\n\nThey know more, can do\nThe increased wages for one year more than\nThey find not only advanceoffsets the total cost of maintaining such a school.\nment, but relaxation, in such classes. The best of work is done in such classes\nsurprisingly short time after they begin to study.\n\nmore, and earn more money.\n\nbecause the pupils, being in some employment, are earnest.\n\nThe effect of these schools is more far-reaching than one would at first\nAfter all, it is the general sentiment in a community toward education\n\nexpect.\n\nthat determines the success or failure of school systems.\n\nThe interest of\n\nparents in education can most easily be awakened by educating the parents\nthemselves.\ntion as\n\nis\n\nThe wage-earner is a producer, and should have as much atten-\n\ngiven so freely to the regular pupils,\n\nall\n\nof\n\nwhom belong to the\n\nunemployed in a certain sense. The work of the older pupils is of the best\nkind, as is admitted by all who have taught in evening high schools, for the\neagerness to learn and the dogged persistance to conquer each point by one's\nself make up for the lack of quickness.\nJust as the use of the hand arouses\nthe activities of the brain, so the use of the brain in intellectual work will lead\nto more efficient use of the hand in any trade.\n\nThe thinking man makes a\n\nbetter soldier and a better artisan.\n\nIn the matter of laboratory work, too, I think the teaching of science in\nsecondary schools is susceptible' of improvement.\n\nIt is now, to be sure, pretty\n\ngenerally admitted that instruction in science, if it is to be instruction at all\nin any real sense of the word, must include some laboratory work.\n\nIn spite\n\nmany schools where the quality or quantity\nof the laboratory work (too often both) is such as to make it unworthy of the\nof this, however, there are\n\nstill\n\nname.\n\nBy this I do not mean to say that less attention should be given to other\n\nOn the contrary, I see clearly the importance and\nmore attractive and well-illustrated lecture- table experiments.\n\nmethods of instruction.\nthe need of\n\nA most hopeful sign is the attention now given in biology teaching to the Hving\nplant or animal. A large part of the best work that is being done in this\ndirection\n\nis\n\nthe instruction given to the class as a unit with the aid of the\n\ndemonstration lantern.\n\nThe projection microscope in the hands of a skillful\n\nteacher enables each member of the class to see and study on the screen, while\n\nwork with the compound microscope would yield\nThe Hfe-history of common insects is of unfaihng interest.\n\nthe results of individual\n\nnegative results.\n\nThe fact that some are helpful, others harmful unless held in check by parasites,\n\nthe development of new, or the improvement of existing, food-plants,\n\nthe bacterial and chemical means of making atmospheric nitrogen combine\n\nand form useful fertiHzer, all these are live topics for study.\n\nIs it not natural\n\nthat a child Hkes to study tangible things instead of abstractions, to watch\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n788\n\n[Science\n\nfrom day to day the life-history of an animal, or of insects, in the laboratory\nor aquarium? Nomenclature and plant analysis actually are much less\nimportant than direct observation.\n\nThe school garden might have added to it a school forest where each year\nmany trees are planted. The sense of partnership in its success, the delight\nin watching the growth, slow but sure, in learning to distinguish one kind of\ntree from another, and the love of nature that comes from continued association\n\nwould in time aid in the reforesting of the waste land of this country.\nI\n\nknow that it is always easy to suggest reforms.\n\nAny earthly creature\n\ncould outhne in five minutes a millennium such as the angel Gabriel has not\n\ndreamed since time began.\n\nI have no more patience than you have with the\n\nman who sits coolly in the shade and criticises him who toils in the sun.\n\nBut\n\nbetween his criticism, or that of the millennium dreamer, and mine, I beg you\n\nThe first is that I too arri toihng in the sun.\nThe second is that there is not one of the improvements that I have suggested\n\nto note two essential distinctions.\n\nthat could not be put into effect, under proper conditions, within five years,\n\nand by far the greater part could be put in working-order at once. There is\nno reason in the nature of things why, if we all work together, the sixteenth\nyear of the separation of fluorin should not see them all accomplished.\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\nCL.A-RENCE E.\n\nCOMSTOCK, PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, BRADLEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, PEORIA, ILL.\n\nA foreword in regard to the point of view of this paper may be of service.\nI take it that any interplay between the school courses in different subjects\nto be of lasting value must spring from underlying relations which serve as\nessential links binding those subjects into one.\n\nin mutual helpfulness, or else\n\nit\n\nfails of its\n\nThis interplay must result\n\npurpose.\n\nScience is not to be\n\nlugged into mathematics as an outsider, nor is mathematics to be foisted\n\nupon science as an added burden.\n\nIf it\n\ncan be found that the one is indis-\n\npensable to the other, then, and only then, can there be any reasonableness\nin the remarks offered in this paper.\n\nI trust that you will find the position of\n\nthe speaker a thousand miles removed from that of the teacher in a grammar\n\nschool of a decade or two ago, who, holding up a bird before her bright-eyed\npupils, asked them to count its eyes, its legs, its toes, its wings, etc., and then\n\npropounded these elucidating questions: \"How many eyes and toes does the\nIf it had three more toes, how many would it have in all ?\n\nbirdie have ?\n\nIf you multiply the number of its eyes by the number of its toes,\n\nthe result\n\nwhat would\n\nbe?\"\n\nFrom the point of view of the scientist, mathematics is a tool of science;\nfrom the point of view of the mathematician, science is a field for the applicafrom the view-point of both, mathematics is a\n\ntion of mathematical truth;\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\n\n789\n\nmethod of science. In fact, it may be called the ultimate method of science;\nmore perfectly a science is developed, the more mathematical does it\n\nthe\n\nbecome, until it reaches a stage when it is classified as mathematics.\n\nAway\n\nin the past was it when the sciences of arithmetic and geometry assumed their\n\nmathematical names.\n\nIn comparatively recent years mechanics has reached\n\nsame development, and is now classed as mathematics. The various\nastronomy, meteorology, and chemistry are\nbranches of physical science\nrapidly being subjugated by this method of exact investigation; while the\nbiological, mental, and social sciences are still in a very unmathematical\nThe method is of such power and value that it must\nstate of evolution.\nitself be made the subject of investigation; its inner relations must be scrutinized, and the inevitability of its conclusions established on a firm basis.\nThere has thus arisen the most wonderful and enthralling science of them\nall\nthat science which defies definition, as it transcends all limiting bounds;\nthat science which rears unto itself in imagination a palace whose walls and\nthe queen science\nturrets know not the limiting thralldom of time and space\nof them all abstract mathematics.\nIf this view of the relation of mathematics and science in general be true,\nthen it would seem that there should be a corresponding intimacy between\nthe courses offered in schools and colleges for instruction in these subjects.\nOf course, there is, and always has been, a certain degree of interplay between\nsuch courses; but the query obtrudes itself: Cannot a more vital and\nthis\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n;\n\n—\n\neffective relation be maintained ?\n\nIt is easy to see that the\n\nstudy of mathe-\n\nmatics is absolutely essential to anything but a very superficial knowledge of\nthe sciences.\n\nPhysical laws of motion, the laws of chemical action, and the\n\nlaws of the formation of crystals are derived from observed data and verified\n\nby the methods of the higher mathematics.\n\nIt is the very language of science.\n\nTo read Shakespeare one needs to know the meaning and the use of words.\nTo read Hilton's Crystallography, Preston's Theory of Light, or the works\nof the masters in chemistry, a very considerable acquaintance with mathematics\nis a prerequisite, if they are not to be sealed books.\n\nBut it is not to the scientific man alone that mathematics is indispensable;\narmy of workers in appHed science, is\nequally in need of such knowledge.\nThe minute differentiation of the engineering profession, which has in very recent times resulted in countless pursuits\nwhich require technical education, has opened an ever-increasing field for\nthe engineering profession, that vast\n\nthe operation of human activities.\n\nThe specialists who concern themselves\n\nwith problems of sanitation, water-supply, highway construction, marine\n\nand manuand a thousand more,\nhave need of expert technical knowledge. It is becoming more and more\napparent that success in these technical professions is conditioned upon such\nknowledge and training. In a recent meeting of the National Association\nof Electrical Engineers it was the generally expressed conviction that one\n\narchitecture, bridge-building, the telephone, tannery, refinery,\n\nfactory;\n\nthe machinist\n\nand the designer\n\n—\n\nall these,\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n790\n\n[Science\n\nprerequisite for success in that profession is a thoro training in mathematics.\nIt is clear that science is\n\nan indispensable part of modern civilization.\n\ncourse, science is not the only element in education, for culture\n\nis\n\nOf\n\nbroader\n\nand must include much more. And yet it is certainly true that, when so large\na part of modern human activity is based upon scientific knowledge, it becomes\nnecessary that the schools furnish ample opportunity for adequate instruction\nin science; and if in science, then also in mathematics.\nAn examination into the teaching of science in the schools and colleges\nof America for the past two hundred years or so reveals some interesting\nUntil very recently its study was considered of little importance.\nthings.\nThe amount of mathematics required in courses in astronomy and natural\nphilosophy in early American times can be inferred from the amount of\nmathematics taught. At Harvard in 1643 ^^^ mathematical course began in\nthe senior year, and consisted of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. The\nThe importance ascribed\nscience of algebra was unknown on the continent.\nto mathematics is shown by the time devoted to different studies: philosophy,\n10 hours; Greek, 6; rhetoric, 6; oriental languages, 4\n\n;\n\nmathematics, 2.\n\nIn 1726 natural philosophy was given in the junior year, but was metaphysical rather than mathematical in form;\n\nnor could it be otherwise, as\n\nand geometry were still taught in the senior .year. By 1742\nalgebra was taught at Yale, and the mathematical studies were put earlier\nThe freshmen had arithmetic and algebra; the sophomores,\nin the course.\narithmetic\n\ngeometry; the juniors, mathematics (probably trigonometry), conic sections,\n\nand natural philosophy.\n\nBy 1766 fluxions had been introduced as an optional\n\nstudy.\n\nSince 181 6 the whole of arithmetic has been required for entrance to\n\nThe catalog of 1825 adds algebra thru simple equations, with\n\nHarvard.\n\nroots, powers,\n\nwas added.\n\nand the progressions.\n\nIn 1843 ^ \\ii^^^ introductory geometry\n\nThe mathematical course at Harvard in 181 8 was as follows:\n\n—algebra and geometry; sophomores—algebra and trigonometry,\n—natural\n\nfreshmen\n\nwith application to heights and distances and navigation; juniors\n\nphilosophy, astronomy, mensuration of surfaces and soHds, surveying; sen-\n\n—conic\n\niors\n\nsections, spherical geometry.\n\nThe physics taught in the colleges of the eighteenth century required\nvery Httle knowledge of mathematics.\n\nTo master Olmsted's Natural Philoso-\n\nphy which was extensively used during the middle of the nineteenth century,\n,\n\na fair knowledge of algebra and geometry, with a very Httle trigonometry,\n\nwas sufficient. Almost no mathematics was used in the treatment of heat\nand electricity, whereas now calculus is commonly used in college courses in\nphysics.\n\nIn former days, when the college course (classical) chiefly trained\n\nfound very little or no field\nThere was no application for it in\n\nfor the so-called learned professions, the student\n\nin\n\nwhich his mathematics was needed.\n\nhis serious work,\n\nand it was therefore studied purely for a cultural value,\n\nas a means of training the general logical and reasoning powers of the mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\n\n791\n\nBut, with the growth of scientific study and the rise of scientific courses and\ntechnical schools, the study of mathematics has assumed a much more impor-\n\ntant role.\n\nIt\n\nnow becomes an essential prerequisite to the future work of a\n\nlarge number of students\n\nor gymnastic.\n\nit\n\n;\n\nbecomes highly functional rather than decorative\n\nWe begin to learn that the real worth of mathematical study\n\nis not the general training of the mind,\n\nbut the training of the mind in mathe-\n\nmatical thought, to the end that our ignorance of the phenomena about us\n\nmay be lessened, and our impotence in the face of the forces which surround\nus may be reduced.\nOne would naturally suppose that such an important change in function\nought to have considerable influence in determining the form in which mathematics is presented to the student.\nof the mathematical fetish;\n\nIt is having some effect in the dethronement\n\nthe increasing tendency to\n\nmake mathematical\nAnd yet\n\nstudy optional is traceable, I think, in some degree to this cause.\nthe courses themselves are too little affected.\n\nIn most cases the vital con-\n\nnection between mathematics and science is not dwelt upon, and the student\nfails to find\n\nany place for his mathematics in his scheme of life.\n\nto cipher, but sees in\nis\n\nit\n\nnothing but an artificial pastime.\n\nof value when ciphering leads to\n\nsome desired end.\n\na quadratic equation in itself is worthless;\n\nit is\n\nHe learns\n\nNow, ciphering\n\nThe ability to solve\n\nonly when the equation is\n\nsolved for some other end that the ability to solve it has meaning.\nIt\n\nappears to be true that under present conditions the student is not\n\nproperly prepared in mathematics for his work in science.\n\nA training which\n\ndoes not furnish the student with the best and most efficient mathematical\n\nequipment for such work is certainly misdirected.\n\nThis brings us to the\n\nHow can courses in mathematics be organized\n\nmain quest of this paper:\n\nto better meet the needs of science ?\n\nA speaker in a recent convention of electrical engineers said: \"What\nwe need most is a common-sense mathematics.\"\nto\n\nme to be an imperative need.\n\nThis voices what seems\n\nWe need a mathematics stripped of its\n\nartificialities and direct in its purpose.\n\nIt is often a far cry from the mathe-\n\nmatics of the schools to the mathematics of actuality.\n\nOur texts are filled\n\nwith cunningly devised exercises which are remarkable for nothing but their\nintricacy, tangles,\n\nand labyrinths, the like of which are found nowhere save\n\nThey are meaningless devices, \"which,\"\n\"make the student's mind sterile thru the ever-\n\nin the brain of the drill-master.\nto use Beltrami's language,\n\nlasting exercises which are of no use except to produce a new Arcadia where\n\nindolence is veiled under the form of useless activity.\"\n\nSuch artificial exercises, it is true, afford a certain training, but a training\nin nothing else than dexterity in the manipulation of impossible formula?\n\n\"brain-spinning,\" as the\n\nGermans call it.\n\nNow,\n\naltho a high degree of\n\ndexterity in the use of algebraic forms is essential to successful study of higher\n\nmathematics and science, yet that dexterity is not the main thing to be sought.\n\nThat which is of the most importance in mathematics as well as in science is\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n792\n\nthe interpretation of the mathematical forms used.\n\n[Science\n\nIn the higher mathematics\n\nthere are countless forms that do appear and call for transformation or simpHfication.\n\nLet such forms be used as exercises in lower reaches of algebra,\n\ninstead of the useless forms so prevalent in our texts.\n\nA few illustrations\n\nmay make clearer this distinction between mathematics as it is taught and\nmathematics as it is used.\n\nA recently pubhshed algebra tells us that \"an unknown quantity is usually\nNow, this is\n\ndenoted by one of the last letters of the alphabet, as x, y, z.\"\nfar\n\nfrom being the fact, unless you restrict the field to elementary algebra.\n\nOpen any book on astronomy, physics, chemistry, meteorology, or higher\nmathematics, and the exact contrary is found to be the case.\n\nSuch equations\n\nas these meet the eye on every page.\na _ sin A\nb \"sin\n\nB\n\nA=Trr'\ns\n\n= vt — ^gt^\n\nE\nw = c log —\nVx\n\nI=fp^dM\nIn fact, in the higher mathematics x and y have a meaning largely restricted\nto the Cartesian co-ordinates.\n\nThe constant use of the x, y method is harm-\n\nful in that it relieves the student of the necessity of scanning an equation ; for\n\nthe unknown for which the equation is to be solved is at once recognized, and\nthe solution follows mechanically, whereas some attention must be given to\n\nsuch an equation as\n\n— or s = vt — *gt'\nD=w\nV\n\n;\n\nand right here lies a fundamental of great importance. From the standpoint\nof science an equation is looked upon as stating a relation between certain\nnumbers of co-ordinate importance. The significance of the equation rests\nin this, that if some of these numbers be known, the others can be found.\n\nNow, in order that algebraic training shall be of advantage to the student of\nthis view should be firmly impressed upon him.\nToo often the\n\nscience,\n\nequation is regard%d as a formal puzzle to be solved, rather than as an essential relation to\n\nbe perceived.\n\nIt is in the interpretation of the\n\nthe result of its solution that true algebraic thought resides.\n\nequation and\nIt\n\nwere better\n\nto solve a limited number of equations understandingly than a large number\n\nmechanically.\n\nNor will this thoro consideration of a few examples prevent\n\nthe acquiring of dexterity in solution; for if all steps are understood to have\n\na meaning and are thoroly mastered in their relations, the very clearness of\nperception thus produced will induce a better performance.\n\nmore than half in the doing.\n\nClear seeing is\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\n\n793\n\nAgain, the scholastic method so prominent in all our texts produces the\nresult pointed out by a recent scientific writer:\n\n''The regular text-books of\n\nmathematics rather perplex than assist the chemical student who seeks a\nshort road to a working knowledge of higher mathematics.\"\n\nThe scientific\n\nstudent needs a thoro insight into mathematical methods, as well as a working\n\nknowledge of them; but to obtain this it is not necessary for him to go thru\nall the artificial rubbish with which so\n\nA man\n\nmany works are incumbered.\n\ncan gain his exercise and develop his mathematical muscle among the green\nfields and wooded lanes of\n\nGod's universe, rather than on the tread-wheel in\n\na man-made gymnasium.\n\nI protest against a condition of affairs because of\n\nwhich it is possible to say that instruction in mathematics befogs the issue\n\nand cheats the scientific student out of the very results for which he began\nhis study of mathematics.\n\nAs a second element in the improvement of mathematical training I would\nAs\nmathematical science advances, it produces better and better methods for\nsolving given problems.\nIt was a long step in advance when multiplication\nwas substituted for a large class of additions; and one can hardly express the\ndebt the world owes to Napier and Briggs for logarithms. Descartes, Newton, and Leibnitz have forged for us titanic instruments with which to work.\nThe progress of civilization is conditioned to some extent upon the application of these discoveries to the needs of mankind.\nWithout a murmur, the\nsuggest that the best mathematical methods be used as early as possible.\n\nmost of us replace our tallow dip with the incandescent fiber, the messenger\npost with the copper wire, the copper wire with the wireless telegraph.\n\nBut\n\nthere is a great outcry when any of us propose to use logarithms in arithmetic,\n\ntrigonometry in geometry, or calculus in the secondary school.\n\nThe history of mathematics is but the story of the victorious march of new\nand better methods; new ideas and processes replace the old; new discoveries\nincrease efficiency. A search in the algebras of a generation ago would not reveal\nthe presence of the remainder theorem, the graph, or the determinant.\nOnly\nwithin late years has the ratio definition of the trigonometric functions become\ncurrent in our teaching.\nIt is a waste of time and of perspicuity to teach\nsimultaneous equations without graphs and determinants, or the geometry\nof the triangle without trigonometric functions.\n\nThe calculus offers instant\n\nreHef among the antiquities of college algebra and analytic geometry.\n\nSays\n\nProfessor Jules Tannery, of the Ecole Normale Superieure, in speaking of the\n\nuse of integral calculus in the secondary school:\n\n\"After these lessons, say,\n\nnine or ten, one half-hour is sufficient to establish the expressions for all the\n\nvolumes of elementary geometry.\"\n\nWhy not use the best instruments the\n\nmathematician can turn out, at the first opportunity that offers ?\nsays one, the student cannot understand\n\nall\n\nBecause,\n\nthe fundamental theory of the\n\nsubject.\nEspecially is this urged in the case of calculus.\nBut would you\nthrow the equation out of algebra because it is impossible to prove to the\n\nchild that every rational, integral equation has a root ?\n\nShall\n\nwe give up\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n794\n\n[Science\n\nmultiplication because we cannot construct a definition that will include all\n\nIndeed, we never get to the bottom of anything.\nWhat is number? No one can tell us, not even Professor Peano. We are\noften led away by the will-o'-the-wisp, thoroness, until we lose our pupils in\nthe maze and perplexities of the more advanced reaches of a subject much too\ncases of multiplication ?\n\nabstract to be within their powers of comprehension; whereas the beginnings\nof trigonometry, analytics, calculus, and differential equations open a field of\nclear and simple ideas, well within their power of understanding.\n\nIt is folly\n\nto insist that a problem be worked by a certain method of elementary arith-\n\nmetic, when it can be done in a better way by algebra or calculus.\n\nIt is high\n\ntime to strike off such shackles as those with which Euclid bound elementary\ngeometry, the ruler and the compass.\n\nThe sciences, astronomy, physics, chemistry, and mechanics, can make\nWhat waste of effort to treat the\n\npowerful use of these higher forms of tools.\n\ncomposition and resolution of forces without the help of the trigonometric\n\nThe\n\nfunctions!\n\nideas\n\nof\n\ndifferentiation\n\nproductive in the hands of science.\n\nand integration are wonderfully\n\nWe can best benefit the student of science\n\nby giving him an early mastery of these powerful agents. He must have that\nmastery, if he is to have anything but a superficial glimpse of the fields of\nscience, or if he is to be of material service in the application of that science\n\nto the subjugation of the world.\n\nBut there is a third way in which mathematical courses may better fit for\nservice\n\n—the consideration\n\nof real scientific problems.\n\nThe stating of a problem\n\nin algebraic form, its solution, and the interpretation of the result are rightly\n\nregarded a valuable part of algebraic study.\n\nAll our algebras contain long\n\nand it is to the character of these problems that I wish\nThey are for the most part manufactured, unnatural. A\nto call attention.\nfew illustrations, taken from an algebra published in 1904, will serve to make\nlists of such problems,\n\nthis point clearer:\n\nA lady purchased 20 yards of one kind of cloth, and 50 yards of another, for $30.\nShe could have purchased 30 yards of the first kind and 20 yards of the second for $23.\nWhat was the price of each ?\nThis is artificial, as no lady would ever meet such a problem.\n\nOr this:\n\nA fishing-rod consists of two parts. The length of the upper part is f that of the\nThe sum of 9 times the length of the upper part and 13 times the lower part\n\nlower part.\n\nexceeds 11 times the length of the whole rod by 36 inches.\n\nFind the length of the rod.\n\nThis was evidently manufactured for consumption in simultaneous equations.\n\nand impossible, and is a mere rehabiting of that old\nproblem supposed to have been given by Euclid, in 300 B. C:\n\nIt is thoroly unnatural\n\nA horse and a donkey, laden with corn, were walking together. The horse said to\nthe donkey\n\n:\n\n\" If you gave me one measure of corn, I should carry twice as much as you,\n\nbut if I gave you one, we should carry equal burdens.\"\nlearned master of geometry.\n\nAs a contrast to these problems consider two:\n\nTell me their burdens,\n\nO most\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\n\n795\n\nA stone dropped from a balloon, rising at the rate of 32 feet a second, reaches the\nground in 17 seconds. How high above the ground was the balloon when the stone was\ndropped ?\nIt is desired to find the height of a tower or hill\ns set\n\nabove a level plain.\n\nA 6-foot pole\n\nup, and the point determined where the hne connecting the top of the tower and\n\nThe pole is placed at this point, and a second point determined\nThe distance between these two points is measured. What is the\n\npole strikes the ground.\nin the\n\nsame way.\n\nheight of the tower ?\n\nObjection is often made to this sort of a problem, that it brings in matter\n\nand it is said that in the first class, such as\n**\nthere is an especial\nadvantage in that the attention is not distracted from the algebraic side of\nthat is unfamiliar to the pupil,\n\ndeal with ages, money, capital, partnership, legacies,\n\nthe problem while the acquaintance with algebra is as yet sHght.\"\n\nAfter con-\n\nsiderable experience in using both kinds, I find that students will solve the\n\nThey may require more thought,\n\nsecond class as readily as the first kind.\n\nbut this is to be commended; for the thought is productive thought.\nfor\n\nRespect\n\nmathematics can hardly be maintained if its interpretation is given in\n\nterms of how old is Ann, and if it seems to have no more serious purpose than\nthe solution of a mathematical rebus.\n\nIt\n\nwere much better to present the\n\ndignity of a mathematics evolved to solve real problems ;\nof such problems\n\n—\n\nand the world is full\n\nproblems of number, mensuration, statics, and dynamics,\n\nwhich need offer no distracting ideas.\n\nThe two problems just mentioned,\n\nthe balloon and the tower problems, were solved with Httle difficulty by a class\nin first-year algebra,\n\nand several solutions given.\n\nThese natural, real, vital\n\nproblems should be spread thru the whole course of school and college\nmathematics.\n\nMathematics is an abstract science.\n\nIts gJory is that it can proceed to the\n\nprofoundest generaUzations without appeal to the world of the senses; and\nyet its ideas at the start are abstractions from that world.\n\nFrom one point\n\nof view, geometry is a system of logic entirely independent of a physical world;\n\nyet our EucHdean geometry is but a classification of observed facts and the\n\ngeneralizations arising therefrom.\n\nThe difficulties of a geometrical propo-\n\nsition may often be dissipated by the\n\nIn our geometrical\n\nstudy of a model.\n\nteaching we are making constant use of diagram and model.\n\nThe transit\n\nhas come to be of service for furnishing material for the class in trigonometry\nto work upon.\n\nBut this is about the extent of any appeal to the world of the\n\nsenses, made in our classes in mathematics.\n\nTo me this seems unfortunate,\n\nespecially in view of the steady pressure by which mathematical study is being\n\ncrowded into the earlier years of a \"student's growth.\n\nIt appears to be undeni-\n\nable that capacity for abstract thought develops late.\n\nNow, it takes thirty-\n\nsix or forty-eight weeks to cover the same ground that was covered in twelve or\n\nsixteen weeks when geometry was a college study.\n\nAltho we have lengthened\n\nthe time for the boy, we have made but little alteration in the method, forgetful of the fact that\n\n\"boys are not men of a lesser growth.\n\nthe process of making, and there the likeness ends.\"\n\nBoys are men in\nThe impetus given to\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n796\n\n[Science\n\nthe study of physical, chemical, and biological phenomena by the recourse to\n\nand experiment has been most remarkable. It would\nseem to me that a similar vitaHzing movement may be of service to mathematics.\nThere are dangers connected with the use of experimental methods\nactual observation\n\nin instruction, and laboratory work has often been carried to absurd lengths;\n\nand yet the study of the world at first hand can never cease to be the fountainhead of all serious scientific study. I firmly believe that the study of mathematical relations in concrete form by students of elementary mathematics is\nof great value.\nLast fall I asked a class beginning algebra to cut from a\nNot\nstrip of cardboard lo by ij inches a piece containing 12 square inches.\nmore than two out of a class of thirty could do it. I found that very few of\nthem had ever used a scale or a tape-Hne. All of them could answer the\nabstract question:\n\n\"The area of a rectangle is 15 square inches; one side is\n\nwhat is the other side?\" The divorce between the abstract and\nthe concrete had been so complete in their case that the connection had been\nentirely lost.\nThis is but an instance of a widespread condition the failure\n3 J inches;\n\n—\n\nto embody mathematics.\n\nAs a fourth means of meeting the needs of a scientific age, then, I would\n\nmake the suggestion that more use of actual experiment and observation be\nmade in our classes in mathematics. You will pardon a reference to some\nwork with which I am intimately connected. I make it with the thought that\na bit of testimony from actual experience may be of service in this connection.\n\nIn Bradley Polytechnic Institute we have introduced such experimental work\nto a greater or less degree for five or six years.\n\nrather than diminish such work.\n\nThe results lead us to inrcease\n\nThere are certain experiments usually per-\n\nformed in the physics laboratory that are really mathematical in form.\nlittle physical knowledge is needed for their performance.\n\nare now performed in our mathematical classes;\n\nBut\n\nA number of these\n\ncredit is given for reports\n\nupon them by both departments of mathematics and physics.\n\nIt is not so\n\nmuch the purpose to teach physics as to teach mathematics in a setting of\nphysics.\n\nIn the beginning algebra class the balance and lever are used, and\n\nobservations on the movement of a street car are made.\nbodies, s\n\nThe law of falling\n\n= igt^, is tested by a stone dropped from the tower.\n\ndistances are calculated, and then actually measured.\nin mathematical processes\n\nHeights and\n\nThis gives confidence\n\nand control in their application.\n\nIn the second\n\nyear, devoted especially to geometry, the work is a little more serious.\n\nCare-\n\non about thirty experiments, chosen because of the\ngeometrical ideas involved. Among these may be mentioned reflection of\n\nful reports are required\n\nlight and formation of images in plane mirrors, refraction of light by prism,\n\ncomposition and resolution of forces, and inclined plane involving use of\ntrigonometric functions.\n\nThe same care and accuracy that are demanded\nFrom this kind of work the\n\nin the physics laboratory are insisted upon.\n\nstudent gets a more real and intimate hold on the meaning of geometric and\nalgebraic truth.\n\nIt is often objected that there is\n\na waste of time in such\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCORRELATION OF MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE\n\nwork;\n\nsaid that \"the geometrical results can be arrived at more expe-\n\nit is\n\nditiously in other ways.\"\nis\n\n797\n\nIs it not true, however, that the geometrical result\n\nnot the only thing to be sought?\n\nvalue, and the utility of the fact.\n\nFully as important is the setting, the\n\nA boy may not see the use of filing a piece of\n\nmetal to the exact diameter demanded by the teacher, but when he finds that\nthe piece is too large or too small by the thousandth of an inch, to fit into the\n\nengine or machine he is helping to build, and has to be made over or thrown\n\naway, he learns something of great value.\nthat exceeding care must be taken\n\nif\n\nJust so, the student\n\nwho finds\n\nthe lines determining the image in the\n\nmirror are actually to meet on his drawing, learns something from his own\nexperience that the insistence of the teacher can seldom impart.\n\nOur experience seems to point to two definite things.\n\nWe are often told\n\nthat, **no matter how geometry be taught, the student must be able to pass\n\nthe entrance examinations set by the colleges\n\nand the universities.\"\n\nNow,\n\nwhile I demur to the view that the typical entrance examination is either a\nfair or\n\na desirable test of mathematical ability, I am willing to admit that,\n\nsince the examinations exist, they must be met.\n\nWe determined to make a\n\ntwo weeks ago.\n\nThere were two classes in\n\ntest in the examination just held\n\ngeometry to be examined: One, a class of boys, was given the entrance examination for one of the large eastern universities; the other, a class of girls, was\n\ngiven an entrance examination of one of our best-known woman's colleges.\n\nThe instructor in charge of the classes did not see the papers until they were\nThe class had reviewed but a very\n\ngiven him at the time of the examination.\nsmall portion of the work of the year.\n\nThere were in the classes a few stu-\n\ndents whose general standing as students would debar them from being\ncollege timber.\n\nOf those who were at all eligible for going up for college\n\nentrance, but two out of forty were unable to pass, and those two were good\n\nstudents who always fell down on examinations from emotional or nervous\nreasons.\n\nSome of the papers were of a very high order.\n\nbe said.\n\nAfter a training involving a large number of physical experiments,\n\nAt least this can\n\nthey were no less able to handle the reasoning of the abstract originals than\nare those who are not so trained, while at the same time they have in addition\n\na real and intimate knowledge of mathematics as revealed in natural\n\nphenomena.\n\nThe other point of interest comes as testimony from the classes in physics.\nSaid a boy who entered the physics class from another school, to his instructor\nin physics: ''You talk to us as tho you expected us to know mathematics, and\nI seem to be the only one that has very much difficulty in using mathematics.\"\n\nNow, this is a crucial test.\nThis is the real service that instruction in mathematics may render to\nscience.\n\nNot that science be taught as science in classes of mathematics,\n\nbut that the language in which science speaks shall be taught and, as far as\npossible, mastered so that the science teacher may proceed with his teaching\n\nunhampered by the inability of the student to understand the language in\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n798\n\n[Science\n\nwhich he can most clearly and accurately put the ideas and laws with which\nhe is dealing.\n\nBy such means, it would seem to me possible to make mathematics a more\nNor\nwould the student who is to become the pure mathematician receive a less\n\nefficient instrument in the hand of the student of science or engineering.\n\nworthy training.\n\nIt is\n\nfrom a rich mathematical soil that the great mathe-\n\nmaticians of the future will arise.\n\nIt is\n\nFourier\n\nwho said:\n\n''The deeper\n\nand we\nremember that it was the effort to solve some particular problem of science\nstudy of nature is the most fruitful source of mathematical study;\"\n\nIn our study\n\nthat gave birth to most of the great advances in mathematics.\n\nof mathematics, the queen of science, let us not get too far from that world\n\nwhich, to quote Kelvin and Tait,\nis\n\nreplete with astonishing theorems of pure mathematics such as rarely fall to the lot of\n\nthose mathematicians\n\nwho confine themselves to pure analysis or geometry, instead of\n\nallowing themselves to be led into the rich and beautiful fields of mathematical truth\n\nwhich lie in the way of physical research.\n\nSCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nHUGO NEWMAN, PRINCIPAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL 33, THE BRONX,\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nWhat can the elementary school do in the teaching of physical science?\nWhat should be the aim, scope, and method of science work in the elementary\nschool? What results may reasonably be expected? It is my purpose in\nthis\n\npaper to set forth what is being done in the city of New York toward\n\nanswering these questions.\n\nAbout two years ago, a new course in \" nature study \" was planned for\nthe elementary schools.\n\nIt is stated in the syllabus that\n\nThe aim of nature study, particularly in the lower grades, is to cultivate a sympathetic acquaintance with nature, and to develop the power of observation.\n\nTo this end,\n\nthe children should be brought into actual contact with the object of study whenever\npossible, either in or out of the class-room.\n\nThe power gained by learning facts thru\n\nactual observation or experiment will enable the pupils afterward to picture to themselves facts which it will be feasible to make\n\nknown to them only by description\nThe phenomena of life in the world about the pupil should be made prominent.\n\nThe\n\npresentation of the topics in elementary science in the seventh and eighth years should,\nas far as\n\npossible, be\n\naccompanied with\n\nillustrative\n\nexperiments.\n\nClassroom work\n\nshould be supplemented by visits to the parks and museums, and by the use of pictures\n\nand lantern slides.\n\nThe course of study outlined in the syllabus divides itself into three cycles.\nIn the first three years it is purely observational, consisting of lessons on famihar\nanimals and plants, and observations of familiar natural phenomena, such\nas the weather, winds, clouds, storms, the sun, changes of season, etc.\n\nIn\n\nthe fourth and fifth years a more intensive study of animals and plants is\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "SCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\nrequired, together with\n\n799\n\nIn the seventh and\n\nsome elementary classification.\n\neighth years (the last two years of the elementary school course), nature study\n\nbecomes ''elementary science\"\nphysics.\n\nIt is this last\n\n—practically a complete course in elementary\n\nphase of our nature-study work that I purpose to\n\nspeak of somewhat in detail.\n\nThe aim of the course in \"elementary science\" is not only to acquaint\nthe pupil with the fundamental laws and principles of physics, but to train\n\nhim into habits of careful doing, close observation, accurate thinking, and\ncorrect expression\n\n—\n\nin short, physics is taught for its disciplinary as well as\n\nits practical value.\n\nThe scope of the course is somewhat comprehensive, as may be seen\nfrom the following outline:\nSeventh year, first half: Gravity, mechanical powers.\nSeventh year, second half:\n\nThe mechanics of liquids and gases.\n\nEighth year, first half: The phenomena of sound and heat.\nEighth year, second half:\n\nThe phenomena of light, electricity, and magnetism.\n\nFor the interpretation and practical operation of this course, a special\nsyllabus has been prepared which contains a suggestive\nthat may be performed by the teacher and the pupils.\n\nlist\n\nof experiments\n\nThruout the course,\n\nemphasis is laid on the experimental presentation and development of the\nsubject.\n\nConstant correlations with the other subjects of the grades, and\n\nwith the experiences in the daily lives of the children, are required.\n\nIt is\n\nsought to make the course not merely a collection of isolated facts, but to\norganize the experiences of the pupils into a connected, logical, unified whole.\n\nThe practical applications and illustrations in the industries are an essential\nfeature of the course in fact the keynote is found in the injunction to \"make\n\n—\n\nthe work practical and interesting.\"\n\nThe time schedule calls for two periods of 40 minutes each per week, but\nthe permissible addition of a \"study period\" makes the available time to be\n\ngiven to physics three periods per week.\n\nMany discouraging conditions were met with in the introduction of this\nThere was no equipment whatever for the work, no apparatus was available, the classes were too\nlarge for laboratory work, and (most discouraging of all) the majority of\nupper-class teachers had no preparation whatever to teach properly an\n\nexperimental course in science into the public schools.\n\nexperimental course.\nIt is gratifying to\n\nnote that these unfavorable conditions are being over-\n\ncome as rapidly as it is possible in so vast a system of education as that of\n\nNew York.\n\nThere is a growing reahzation of the importance of natural\n\nscience as a legitimate branch of the\n\ncommon-school curriculum.\n\nTreated\n\nat first with contempt, as another of the \"fads and frills,\" it is now generally\nfelt\n\nthat the study of science has a high claim for recognition as a factor in\n\nthe common-school education of every boy\n\nand girl, not only as an object\n\nin itself, but as a means of general culture and discipline.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOur board of education has recognized the importance\n\nof laboratory\n\n8oo\n\nwork in science teaching by providing for a \"science room\" in the plans of\nall new elementary school buildings, and by placing on the supply list apparatus\nand material for fully equipping such a room for demonstration and individual\nlaboratory work. In a number of the older schools, regular class-rooms\nhave been equipped with demonstration tables for the teachers, and a sufficient\nsupply of apparatus to carry on successfully a practical laboratory course.\nThe introduction, two years ago, of the \"departmental system\" of teaching\ninto the seventh and eighth years, has been a powerful aid in developing and\nUnder this system, each teacher becomes,\nperfecting the course in science.\nto a certain extent, a specialist devoting his time exclusively to one subject,\nor, at most, to a small group of related subjects.\n\nIt is thus possible, in many\n\ncases, for the principal of the school to assign the subject of physics to a teacher\n\nwho has some special quahfications for the work.\n\nThis system, also, conduces\n\nto economy of equipment and a unification of the entire course in a school.\nIt makes possible the division of a large class into small laboratory sections,\n\nor the assignment of an additional teacher to aid in supervision and instruction.\nFinally, the teachers as a whole are realizing the educational and disciplin-\n\nary value of science instruction, and are striving by all means in their power\nto equip themselves for the work.\n\nPerhaps in no other subject of the course\n\ndepend so much upon the teacher as\nNot only must he be enthusiastic, and\nthoroly conversant with pedagogical method in general, but in addition, he\nmust possess a comprehensive knowledge of the subject-matter and its techof study do the results to be attained\n\nin the subject of elementary science.\n\nnique.\n\nIt is useless for a teacher to\n\ndo as well as tell.\n\nattempt to teach physics unless he can\n\nThis practical knowledge he can obtain only at first hand,\n\nas the result of his own experimental work.\n\nUniversity and summer-school\n\ncourses in practical physics are being attended by a goodly number of those\nteachers who feel the lack of training in laboratory methods.\n\nAs a further\n\nproof of the desire on the part of the school authorities to obtain the best\nresults in this branch of instruction,\n\nit\n\nmay be stated that all applicants for\nthe city must now pass an\n\nlicense to teach in the elementary schools of\n\nexamination in physics.\nIt will be seen from this rapid survey of the field that much has already\n\nbeen accomplished toward the establishment of a rational course in physics\nin the elementary schools,\n\nand that the outlook for future development is\n\nvery bright.\n\nRegarding the method of teaching physics to be followed in the elementary\nschool, it is\n\nmy opinion that the work should be conducted along three lines:\n\nPresentation or demonstration by the teacher, assisted, whenever practicable,\nby some pupil or pupils.\n2. Individual laboratory work by the pupils.\n3. Recitations upon the topics of the demonstration or laboratory work.\n1.\n\nLet us consider briefly these three phases.\nI.\n\nIt is\n\nassumed that the school has an ample equipment of apparatus\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\n8oi\n\nand material to enable the teacher to present experimentally the fundamental\nEvery experiment to be performed by the teacher\nbefore the class should be rehearsed carefully in private, no matter how\nsimple it may appear, or how often it has been done before. The teacher,\nprinciples of the science.\n\nwhen he stands before his class, should have absolute confidence in the successful outcome of the experiment he performs.\n\nNothing can be more sub-\n\nversive of the aims of science teaching than the exhibition of an experiment\n\nperformed in a bungHng manner.\n\nAn occasional failure may occur, even\n\nwhen the teacher has the highest technical skill. In such a case, no particular\nharm is done, in fact the failure may prove even more instructive than a\nsuccessful outcome, provided the teacher retains his composure,\n\nand quickly\n\nturns the attention of his class to a careful examination and consideration of\n\nthe new and unexpected phenomena observed.\n\nDuring an experiment (which should always be performed with deliberanever in a hurry) the teacher should, by skillful questioning, guide and\n\ntion,\n\ndirect the attention of his pupils, and stimulate their observing and reasoning\n\npowers.\n\nToward the end of the period, the teacher should write on the black-\n\nboard an outhne giving in concise form the object, method,\napplications of the experiment.\n\nnotebooks, together with a sketch or diagram of the apparatus.\nlet the\n\nresults,\n\nand\n\nThis may be copied by the pupils in their\nI would not\n\npupils of the seventh year take notes during the progress of a demon-\n\nstration.\n\nIt is\n\nmy experience that pupils at this age (about 13 years) are too\n\nyoung and unprepared to take notes intelligently in this way. Their attention\nis divided between the experiment and the notebook, and the lesson of the\nexperiment becomes obscured or lost entirely. Besides, a habit of scribbling\nis easily formed, and may seriously cripple their work in other departments.\nWith the eighth year pupils, I would omit the outHne on the blackboard, but\nwould pause in the demonstration, at frequent intervals, to enable the pupils\nto record observations and inferences, and to arrange their notes logically\nand neatly. All this may seem like doing too much for the pupil, but experience has shown me that the average pupil of 13 to 14 years needs much more\nhelp than the teacher is apt to realize.\n\nAs to the kind of experiments that should be performed by the teacher,\nI would say that, in general, he should perform:\n1.\n\nExperiments that may be considered basic or typical.\n\nExperiments that are wholly, or almost wholly, qualitative in character, and\nwhich it would be a waste of time to have each pupil perform.\n3. Experiments requiring apparatus not easily or conveniently duplicated for\n2.\n\nindividual work.\n4.\n\nExperiments requiring a degree of manipulative skill not to be expected of the\n\npupil.\n5.\n\nExperiments or exercises illustrating methods of manipulation or computation.\n\nThe question as to whether the teacher's demonstrations should precede\nor follow the laboratory work will depend for its answer upon the nature of\nthe topic treated, the method of treatment, the equipment of the school, the\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8o2\n\ncapacity and previous training of the pupils,\n\netc.\n\n[Science\n\nIn general, I would say\n\nthat a fundamental principle or law should be developed\n\nby the teacher\n\nbefore the class, to be followed by verification and appKcation in the laboratory\n\nby the pupils.\n\nIf a series of minute observations has to be made in order to\n\nestablish a law, these observations\n\nmay well be made in the laboratory by\n\nthe pupils individually, and then discussed with the teacher in the recitation\n\nor \"study period.\"\n\nThe experiments selected by the teacher for demonstration should be the\nsimplest that can be devised for the purpose in view.\n\nIt is a mistake to use\n\ncompUcated apparatus with beginners, to call attention to all the details of\nmanipulation, and the multipHcity of minor phenomena that have no direct\nIt is a good plan to call upon the\nmore apt pupils to assist the teacher wherever possible. This gives an added\ninterest to the demonstration, and is a stimulus to the other pupils to do their\n\nbearing on the object of the experiment.\n\nbest in order to secure the coveted privilege of assisting the teacher.\n\nIn this\n\nway, the teacher may be able to train some pupils to be of valuable aid to him\nin the preparation of apparatus and its distribution and storage.\n\nNo opportunity should be lost to impress upon the pupils the practical\nThe base-\n\nappHcations and illustrations of the principles they are studying.\n\nment of the modern school building usually furnishes a storehouse of useful\nand interesting information regarding furnaces, boilers, heating and ventilating\nmachinery, pumps, elevators, dynamos, motors, etc. An inspection and\nexplanation of this valuable school equipment should form a part of the\ndemonstration work. Whenever and wherever possible, the class should\nvisit\n\nneighboring manufacturing estabHshments, power-houses, etc.\n\nIn fact,\n\nthe field work of '' nature study\" in the lower grades, may here find its counter-\n\npart and extension in the more advanced work of the upper grades.\n\nBy this\n\nmeans an intense interest is aroused and maintained in the pupils.\n2.\n\nRegarding the pupils' laboratory work, I think there can be no question\n\nof its necessity in science teaching, even in the elementary school.\nresults in this, as in most other branches of study,\n\nSatisfactory\n\ncan only be obtained by\n\nhaving the pupil do something, by providing that most potent means in the\nacquisition of knowledge\n\nthing to be studied.\n\n—physical contact with, and manipulation\n\nof,\n\nthe\n\nDuring the first five years of the course in \" nature study,\"\n\nthe attitude of the pupil was largely, if not wholly, that of a passive observer\nof given\n\nphenomena or conditions.\n\nNow in the seventh and eighth years\n\nhe creates the conditions, adds experiment to observation, and learns to use\nfor the first time this most powerful and fruitful of all aids in the acquisition\n\nof knowledge.\n\nHe learns how to put \"a question to Nature, as it were, which\n\nshe must herself answer\nconditions.\"\n\n—a kind of observation under\n\ndefinite and dehberate\n\nThis being a new and untried process for the pupil, it is no\n\nwonder that he often finds it difficult to \"get his bearings,\" unless the skillful\nand experienced teacher sets him right at the start. I have no sympathy\nwith that use of the inductive method which places before the untrained pupil\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\n803\n\na physical problem to be solved experimentally, without giving him the slightest\ncue as to purpose, method, and results to be looked for. An unconscionable\namount of time may be wasted in this way. Life is too short for this sort of\nthing.\n\nLet the experiment to be performed by the pupils be most carefully considered\n\nby the teacher before assigning it.\n\nLet it be the most simple that\n\ncan be devised, and absolutely within the comprehension and capacity of\nthe pupil.\n\nLet it have some practical bearing, if possible, on his every-day\n\naim of the exercise, give explicit\nand minute directions (particularly at the beginning of the course), and, if\nnecessary, call attention by means of suggestive questions to those phenomena\nwhich have a bearing on the conclusions to be drawn. After the pupil has\nbeen in the laboratory for a term, there will be less need for minuteness of\ndirections, for he will have acquired then some skill in technique, and he will\nState in clear terms the object or\n\nhfe.\n\nbe able to observe more closely and accurately, without guidance at every\n\nBut at the beginning, definiteness and clearness in statement of aim\nand method are essential to his later success. ''Nature can only give a correct\nand unambiguous answer to the question you put it, when it is clearly and\ndefinitely proposed.\nThis is very often not the case, and the experimenter\nloses himself in meaningless efforts, with the fooHsh hope that 'something\nmay come of it.' \" Aimless, desultory work in the laboratory, a mere pottering\nand playing with test tubes, bottles, magnets, etc., is the worst possible intropoint.\n\nOn the other\n\nduction a student can have into the realm of physical science.\n\nhand, a carefully selected series of experiments, adapted to his capacity, and\n\nperformed with intelligence and earnestness, will develop in him a power of\ndoing and thinking which no other single study can give him so well.\nis\n\nno better means\n\nfor training in observation, reflection,\n\nand\n\nexpression, than judiciously selected,\nlaboratory.\n\ncarefully executed,\n\nAn eminent German philosopher says:\n\nThere\n\njudgment, and\n\nwork in the\n\n\"The accurate and\n\nsupported by careful experiment, is\nmodern science has over all earher efforts\n\ndiscriminating observation of facts,\ncertainly a great advantage that\nto attain the truth.\"\n\nThe kind of experiments to be performed by the pupils may be classified\nas follows:\n1.\n\n2.\n\nExperiments that verify laws demonstrated by the teacher.\nExperiments wholly, or largely, quantitative in character.\n\n3. Experiments or exercises that will impart a certain degree of mechanical skill.\nThese may properly be repetitions of the teacher's model demonstrations.\n\nThe so-called \"even front\" system of laboratory work is, in my opinion,\nthe best for elementary school pupils.\nthe same exercise at the same time.\n\nUnder this plan, all pupils work at\n\nIt requires, of course, a complete outfit\n\nof apparatus for each pupil, and hence is somewhat more expensive than the\n\nplan of assigning a different exercise to each pupil.\n\nHowever, the \"even\n\nfront \" plan enables the teacher to utiHze to the best advantage the all-too-short\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8o4\n\n[Science\n\ntime at his command, it permits of general directions and explanations to\n\nand simplifies the management of\n\nthe whole class, facilitates supervision,\n\nthe laboratory.\n\nIndeed, since the classes in the city schools are apt to be\n\nlarge, this seems to me to be the only feasible plan to adopt.\n\nOne of the essential requisites in laboratory work is the keeping of a\nThis record should be made\n\nwritten record of the details of an experiment.\nin a notebook of convenient size,\n\nand should contain the following data:\n\nNumber and date of experiment, object or aim, a description or diagram of\nthe apparatus used, a statement of manipulations performed, the observations\n\nmade (tabulated or graphically illustrated when possible), and the conclusions\nor inferences drawn from the experiment.\nIt is best to use two pages for each exercise, reserving the even-numbered\n\npages for a description of the experiment and the odd-numbered pages for\ndiagrams,\n\nand computations.\n\ntabulations,\n\nA device for faciHtating the\n\nexamination and criticism of notebooks, which I have seen used with some\nsuccess, consists of a rubber stamp by means of which the instructor stamps\n\nthe following items on the lower part of the odd numbered pages\n\n:\n\nDescription\n\ndiagram; observation; inference; grammatical structure; neatness.\n\nA word\n\nor two opposite an item will serve to call the attention of the pupil to those\nparticulars in which his record is deficient.\n\nThe teacher should only indicate\n\nthe errors; the pupil himself should make the corrections.\n\nMuch attention\n\nshould be given to the language employed by the pupil in making his records.\n\nThere is a good opportunity here for emphasizing the work of the English\ndepartment.\n\nA good plan for presenting the experiments to the class is to typewrite\nand mimeograph the directions on a set of cards about 5X6 inches, and distribute these among the pupils during a \"study period\" for careful perusal\n\nand for preparation of the form to be used in the notebooks in the following\nlaboratory period. No portion of the time allotted to laboratory work should\nbe given to reading up the experiment. This should always be done in a\nprevious \"study period,\" thus giving the full time of the laboratory period to\nthe actual performance of the experiment.\n\nThe supervision of laboratory work is no easy matter, especially if the\nbe large. One teacher cannot handle effectively more than 15 to 20\npupils, even when they are all working at the same exercise.\nUnder the\nclass\n\n\"departmental system,\"\n\nit\n\nis\n\npossible,\n\nby a judicious arrangement of the\n\nprogram, to divide a large class into two or more sections, or it may be possible\nto assign an assisting teacher to aid in supervision and instruction of a large\nclass.\n\nThe latter method has been tried in the school under my supervision\n\nwith excellent results.\n\nBoth teachers are in close touch with the pupils, and\n\ntheir work in the laboratory, and can give counsel and direction with facility\n\nand despatch. These two teachers also divide between them the labor of\nexamining and criticising the written work.\n3. In the recitation periods, the topics of the laboratory periods and\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSCIENCE TEACHING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\n\n805\n\ndemonstrations should be carefully reviewed and discussed, errors indicated\nand corrected, correlations made with the other subjects of the grades, and\nvery simple problems given, illustrating the principles or laws derived by\nexperiment. This period should usually take the form of a quiz, both teacher\nand class asking and answering questions. In this way a greater interest\ncan be maintained in the class than by a formal recitation, and it is possible\nIf a\nfor the teacher to gauge more accurately the mental status of his class.\ntextbook be used, it should be a real textbook, not a manual of \"inductive\nquestions.\" The textbook should supplement and extend the knowledge\ngained by the pupil in class and individual work. I consider a good, simple\ntextbook, if rightly used, an important aid in the teaching of physics. Without it, the pupil is likely to become possessed of a mass of isolated facts\nwhich he has not the power to correlate or classify. The textbook will provide the connecting hnks which he needs to unify his knowledge.\nThe\nabsence of a textbook increases very materially the work of the teacher and\nrestricts somewhat the scope of the course.\nWritten tests should be given about once a month. These will serve to\nindicate to the teacher the general grasp which the pupil has of the subject\nas a whole.\nI cannot, within the limits of this paper,\n\ndo more than merely indicate\n\na few of the correlations of science with the other branches of study that can\n\nbe made if the teachers of the \"departmental\" classes work together as a unit.\nMathematics, physical geography, physiology, composition, drawing, shop-\n\n—\n\nwork all these departments may draw upon the science work, and the latter\nmay, in turn, draw upon all the others. It is essential to the success of the\nwhole system that such correlations be properly made. The practicability\nof this is one of the tests of a well-made curriculum.\nIt is too early, as yet, to say what will be the effect of this new course in\n\nscience on the later science work of those pupils who enter the high school.\nIt is safe to\n\nassume, however, that they will be better prepared to do the\n\nadvanced work, even if some of the earlier work has to be repeated.\n\nThere\n\ncan be no doubt as to the value of this work in science to that vast majority\nof pupils who never enter the high school.\n\nthat the whole course is planned.\n\nIt is for them, more particularly,\nThat the work is already producing practical\n\nresults is evidenced by the fact that several recent inventions of considerable\n\nmerit were\n\nmade by elementary-school pupils.\n\nrelieve the congestion at Brooklyn bridge,\n\nfor a wireless- telegraph system.\n\nAmong these is a plan to\n\nand a new receiving apparatus\n\nThese inventors claim\n\nto\n\nhave obtained\n\ntheir initiative and inspiration from the physics lessons in the schools.\n\nThus we are not only acquainting our pupils with the great truths of\nscience, but we are creating and fostering that most desirable and productive\n\nquaUty, the \"scientific habit of mind.\"\n(Followed by an exhibition of lantern slides illustrating the work in \"elementary\nscience\" as carried on in Public School ^t,, The Bronx, New York city.)\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8o6\n\n[Science\n\nDISCUSSION\nBOTANY—FOURTH YEAR\n[illustrated with lantern slides]\nA. T. Schauffler, district superintendent 25th and 26th\n\nBronx, New York.\ndescription of\n\n—In opening the discussion on\n\ndistricts,\n\nBorough of the\n\nthis subject I shall confine myself to a\n\nan experiment tried in the last term, and I am happy to say with great\nBorough of The Bronx, New York city. In these schools\n\nsuccess, in the schools of the\n\nthere are some 45,000 pupils, but the experiment referred to, namely, the broadening of\n\nthe instruction in Botany in the fourth year, under the general heading \"Nature Study,\"\n\nwas confined to the pupils in the last half of the fourth year, some 3,000 in number.\nBelieving that the best way to study nature is to go to nature, and that the only way\nto become intimate with living objects is to see them alive, and that hence the only proper\nway to study plants is to observe them growing, it occurred to some of us that an attempt\nshould be made to enhst the co-operation of the management of the New York Botanical\nGardens in an endeavor to bring our young people, who are studying nature, into immediate contact with it, and that under the guidance of experts, who could not only tell them\nwhat to see and how to see it, but show them where the objects to be observed could be\nfound.\n\nWe were met more than half way by Dr. N. L. Britton and his associates and his\nboard of directors, and the purpose of this discussion is to show how the fourth year pupils\nhave been brought into that contact with nature which alone can give them the opportunity to become, not only interested in the subject, but intimately acquainted with the\n\nplants about which they have been studying from pictures and descriptions, which pictures have faded from their memory,\n\nand which descriptions have left only very limited\n\nnotions.\n\nAs taught in the fourth year, the subject is subdivided into three heads:\n1.\n\n2.\n\n3.\n\nSeedless plants (mosses, lichens, fungi, seaweeds, ferns).\nCultivation of plants.\nClassification of plants.\n\nAbout 2,500 pupils of this grade were taken to the Botanical Gardens in groups of from\n700 to 800, and each group attended a lecture under each head in the lecture-hall of the\nmuseum. These lectures lasted about forty minutes and, as prepared, followed closely\nthe syllabus laid down by the board of superintendents. The lecturers, one and all>\navoided technicalities that were above the comprehension of the children and spoke to\nthem in language which they could perfectly assimilate. After each lecture the pupils\nwere separated into groups of from 40 to 100, and taken from the museum into the grounds\nof the garden and into the conservatories, and there demonstrators showed them the real\nthings, of which they had seen enlarged pictures on the screen.\nThis laboratory method\nof fixing the matter which had been given them in lectures was the most happy and\nsuccessful part of the work.\n\nTo show a little more in detail how the scheme was planned, let me describe the work\nAfter Dr. M. A. Howe had talked to them about the \"seedless plants,\"\n\nof the first lecture.\n\nand shown them pictures of various kinds of mosses and lichens (emphasizing carefully\nthe difference between the two and showing, for example, that certain mosses, such as\nthe reindeer mosses, are misnamed and should be called, as they are really, Uchens),\nhe continued with fungi and a very full illustration of seaweeds, closing with sHdes showing the different kinds of ferns, and illustrating in detail the methods by which the spores\nare protected, etc.\nThe pupils were taken into the museum and at one large case, which\nwas opened and the contents taken out, they had an opportunity to observe closely the\npreserved seaweeds, and, at another case, fungi.\n\nThey then were guided to a spot where\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CHILDREN CAN STUDY COMMON INSECTS\n\n807\n\nthere is a large bed of mosses at the foot of some bold rocks richly covered with mosses of\n\nother kinds, where a demonstrator was ready to point out the different kinds growing, and\n\nThence they\n\nalso to show them specimens of mosses which could not be found near by.\n\nwalked thru the forest to a fine large rock covered with lichens, at which point the matter\nheard in the lecture was further illustrated. Thence they proceeded to the conservatory,\nin one of the divisions of which another demonstrator showed them some twelve or fifteen\ndifferent kinds of ferns, ranging from the ordinary ferns most commonly found, thru\nthe climbing fern, the walking fern, the maidenhair, the staghorn,\n\netc., to\n\nthe tree fern\n\nof the tropics.\n\nThe second lecture by Mr. George V. Nash on the \"Cultivation of Plants\" was\nspecially prepared in every detail for this occasion,\n\nI shall show you a set of slides pre-\n\npared by him to show the development of the pea, from the time of its planting to the\nproduction of the new pea.\n\nThis entire lecture was again illustrated at various points in\nshowed the real objects from which\n\nthe garden and conservatories, where demonstrators\n\nthe slides had been made.\n\nThe third lecture on the \"Classification of Plants\" was given by Dr. N. L. Britton,\ndirector-in-chief of the garden.\n\nI shall show you a few of his slides, all of which were\n\nprepared especially for this lecture.\n\nThe demonstrations and illustrations followed as\n\nbefore.\n\nBy a special resolution of the board of education, on the hearty recommendation of\nthe city superintendent, pupils were permitted to attend these lectures during school\nhours.\n\nThe lectures commenced at 2 o'clock and the children were all on their way home\n\nafter demonstrations before five.\n\nSince these lectures were given, I have made it a point in all my visits to schools to\n\nThe stimulus given and the interest aroused,\namounting to a real enthusiasm, has been most gratifying to teachers and principals, as\ntest their effects upon the classes attending.\n\nwell as to myself.\n\nI\n\nam glad to say that the authorities of the Botanical Garden are\n\nready to extend similar privileges to schools in the otheroboroughs and to broaden the\nwork, so as to cover the entire subject as taught in the fifth year, as well as the fourth.\n\nMy hope is that this may be only a beginning, and that before long we shall be giving\nthe pupils who study zoology an opportunity to receive the same kind of instruction and\n\ndemonstration in the 2^6logical Park, not far distant from the Botanical Garden.\n\nSOME OF THE COMMON INSECTS, AND HOW THE CHILDREN CAN STUDY THEM\nJOHN B. SMITH, PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY, NEW JERSEY STATE\nAGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, NEW BRUNSWICK, N. J.\n[illustrated with lantern slides]\nIt\n\nhas always been a matter of interest to me to test the students that\n\ncome into my classes, year after year, as to their natural tendency toward\nand the extent to which whatever ability they may have has\nbeen exercised. After I have become acquainted with each individual,\nknow where he has spent his early school Hfe, and under what circumstances\nhe has lived, I make opportunity to ask a question concerning some every-day\nfeature of insect economy, which I feel sure has come into his way again and\nagain.\nIn almost every instance, the student pleads ignorance! never saw\nobservation,\n\n—\n\nsuch a thing;\n\nfeels almost sure it could not have occurred without his seeing\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8o8\nit;\n\n[Science\n\nand doubts whether it would have been possible for him to overlook such\n\nan occurrence, under any combination of circumstances. Almost invariably,\nafter the first visit home, the man tells me that he had looked up the question\nto which I had referred, and had found to his surprise that matters were just\nas I\n\nhad\n\nstated,\n\nand that\n\nfor years he\n\nhad been seeing\n\nthings,\n\nwithout\n\nrecognizing the fact that he did see them.\n\nIn my official mail as entomologist to the Experiment Station, I frequently\nget some striking specimen that has fairly run against the sender, with the\n\nstatement that no one in his vicinity has ever seen such a creature before;\nthat it is something utterly unheard of, and must be of entirely new occurrence.\nI have got so that before I have read half a dozen Hnes of said letter, I know\n\nalmost exactly what is coming, and can identify the specimen long before I\nget to the end, or have opened the parcel that accompanies it.\nis\n\nThe trouble\n\nsimply that few persons pay attention to even the commonest insects, or\n\nto the most obvious facts in insect life, unless the specimens are directly annoying, or unless they cause some injury that touches the well-being or the pocket\n\nof the observer.\n\nYet a little observation of even the commonest of our insects\n\nmay be made to teach important biological facts.\nMaterial for observation is always abundant during the warmer months\n\nThe young collector,\nwho desires to learn something about the common insects, needs only half-adozen fruit jars, with as many squares of cheese cloth to serve as covers; a\nof the year, and only the simplest apparatus is needed.\n\nfew rubber bands, or pieces of twine, to keep them in place; a few small\nboxes to hold the living specimens collected; a few small bottles for aquatic\n\nwhen such are sought for; perhaps a small forceps; and a needle\nmounted at the end of a thin stick. That is all that is required, and even\ninsects,\n\nthat can be cut down so that only two or three fruit jars constitute the entire\noutfit.\nif\n\nIn extreme cases, it is not necessary to have any outfit whatever; and\n\nthe young student has access to a garden, he can make his observations\n\nfrom day to day, and learn many facts that will prove both new and interesting\nto him.\n\nHouse flies are found abundantly in the city as well as in the country,\nand to breed them in one of the fruit jars, all that is necessary is to cover the\nbottom with an inch or two of horse droppings pretty well pounded down.\nCapture about a dozen flies in such a way as not to injure them more than\nnecessary, introduce them into the jar, cover with one of the squares of cheese\ncloth, and watch.\nIt is suggested that a dozen or more of the insects be\ncaptured, that both sexes may be represented; and then the children should\nbe asked to examine carefully the specimens that are in\n\ncaptivity.\n\nTheir\n\nattention should be called to the fact that however similar all flies appear,\n\nno two of them are exactly alike. This is a matter that will\nsome little attention to appreciate, but in even a few minutes the\ndifference between the males and the females will be recognized, and two,\nnevertheless\n\nrequire\n\ngroups in that way will be established in their minds.\n\nAfter that, individua\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CHILDREN CAN STUDY COMMON INSECTS\n\npeculiarities will\n\n809\n\nbe seen, especially when several children are engaged in\n\nlooking at the same jar.\n\nThe point to be emphasized in this connection is\n\nthe individuality of each unit of a species, and the fact that it is as marked\nin the insect as in the\n\nhuman species.\n\nIn from twenty-four to forty-eight\n\nhours, little heaps of white eggs will be seen on the bottom covering, and from\nthese, minute wriggUng maggots will emerge a few hours thereafter.\nis\n\nGrowth\n\nrapid, and if the jar was well stocked with flies, the astonishing point will\n\nbe to see how many maggots may develop within so small a space.\n\nThis is\n\nan important feature, because it points out to the children that even small\nneglected places may be of very grave importance when the matter of development of insects comes into consideration, and that no foul place is so insignifi-\n\ncant as to be unworthy of attention.\n\nIn about a week, the maggots are full\n\ngrown, stop feeding, contract to a brown, barrel-shaped pupa, utterly unlike\neither the maggot that\n\nformed it or the adult fly that laid the egg.\n\nYet in\n\na day or two more, a perfect house fly will emerge from each of these brown\npupae, thru a split at one end of the structure.\n\nIt has been frequently asked\n\nwhether something could not be done to reduce the fly pest.\nis to\n\nThe first step\n\nteach the children how and where flies develop, and that if we do away\n\nwith places where flies breed, there will be no flies.\n\nWherever there is a shrub or a tree, even if it be only a rosebush in a back\nyard, or a few plants in pots in the window, there are almost certain to be\n\nplant lice; and wherever there are plant Uce, there are almost sure to be ants\n\nand lady-bird beetles. As to the plant Uce, it requires no apparatus at all\nto study them, and it is really very amusing to watch them for a time, and\nnote their antics. Some of them are always kicking up their heels, or exercising\nthemselves in some way, feeding continually the while; and it is a weak colony\nin which there are not some young being born at all hours.\nAll stages in\nthe process of extruding the young may be noticed, and it is interesting to\nsee the little ones kick themselves free of the enveloping membrane, and\nstart feeding by inserting the soft little beak into the plant tissue.\nChildren\nhave very sharp eyes as a rule, but a magnifying glass, even if of low power,\nwill add materially to the ease of observation.\n\nAccess to a garden is desirable\n\nfor the study of these insects, but if that is impossible a few potted roses and\n\nchrysanthemums will usually supply abundant material.\n\nThe relation of ants to plant Uce may be also studied in the garden; and\nthe first thing to be noted is that the association is a friendly one.\n\nAn ant\n\nnever eats a plant louse, and the plant louse never resents the presence of\n\nan ant.\n\nNevertheless, plant lice do furnish the ants with a food in the form\n\nof a sweetish excretion from the honey tubes at the end of the body; and in\n\nreturn, the ants render important service in continuing their hosts, for there\n\nare some plant lice that are absolutely dependent upon ants for the continuance\nof the species.\n\nWhen such aphids lay eggs, they are allowed to drop to the\n\nground without attention and without regard to situation.\n\nThe ants gather\n\nthem, carry them down into their winter nests, and in the spring bring them\nto the plants upon which the insects afterward feed.\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\n8to\n\nnational educational association\n\n[Science\n\nAn important lesson to be learned here is the dependence of one species\nupon another, and that this dependence is based upon a benefit to each party.\nAmong almost every colony of plant lice, minute, blackish, wasphke creatures\nmay be seen moving about; and scattered among the green and black Uce,\nlivid gray specimens will be noted, many of them with a little round hole in\nthe back.\nThis illustrates parasitism, and brings out that all insects have\ntheir natural enemies, which under normal conditions prevent them from\nbecoming over-abundant. It should be impressed upon the young student\nthat there are two forces at work in nature: the first, to increase the number\nof individuals of a species; the second, to prevent any species from becoming\ndominant at the expense of any other. Some species lay hundreds, and some\nthousands, of eggs; and yet, in ordinary seasons, the surviving progeny of\nthe single female that may have laid a thousand eggs is exactly one pair.\nis\n\nIt\n\nnot a bad lesson to teach that life is the cheapest thing that nature has.\n\nThe individual is absolutely unregarded: regard is had to the species only;\nand if it is necessary to produce one thousand individuals in order that two\nmay survive, that all comes within the ordinary course of affairs.\nCaterpillars appear on shade trees, even in the city, and at times are quite\ncommon. In the large cities, the vaporer moth and its larvae are usually\nmost abundant, and may be easily bred. One of the fruit jars will serve to\nmature half a dozen or even more examples. If only large caterpillars are\ncollected, a few leaves of the food plant will be sufficient to make them ready\nfor pupation, and then it will be interesting to watch the larva spin a thin\nThere is not silk enough\nsilky covering as a protection during the change.\nto\n\nmake the covering complete, so the caterpillar divests itself of its hairy\n\n<:oat, and, by rolling\n\nround and round, works the hairs into the silk, making\n\na thick, feltHke substance.\n\nAt this point it will be well to call the attention\n\nof the children to the fact that all silk is the product of caterpillars, and practically of\n\none kind of caterpillar only.\n\nIt takes\n\nan enormous number to\n\nproduce the silken goods used by all the world, and every mile of the simple\nsilken fiber means the death of a pupa, because the insects are killed before\n\nthe cocoons are reeled.\n\nThe change to the pupa, and from pupa to the adult,\n\ncomes rapidly with the vaporer moth, and tho the caterpillars were all alike,\nOne set will have broad black or\nthe resulting adults are very different.\ngray mottled wings, and these are the males.\n\nThe others will have no wings\n\nat all, and will crawl to the outside of their cocoons and remain there, grublike.\n\nThese are the females, and they lay their eggs in white frothy masses just\nwhere they develop. The Hfe-cycle is now complete, and the young observer\nis ready to understand why, if we clear the eggs off a tree during the winter,\n\nwe may prevent re-infestation next season by a band of fluffy cotton or other\nbarrier, that neither caterpillars nor wingless females can climb over.\n\nof the cities caterpillars are more numerous.\n\nOutside\n\nIn any cabbage patch, at almost\n\nany time during the summer, we may find the yellow eggs of the rape butterfly\nand after a little closer search, the caterpillars themselves may be found, tho\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CHILDREN CAN STUDY COMMON INSECTS\n\n8ll\n\nthat is not as easy as would appear at first sight, because the color of the\ncaterpillar and its texture are so nearly like that of the leaf on which it feeds,\n\nthat it is easily overlooked.\n\nresemblance, and shows\nenemies.\n\nThis makes an excellent example of protective\n\nhow some caterpillars escape from some of their\n\nThis is another of the forms that develop rapidly, and the course\n\nfrom the chrysalis to the adult stage requires only a few days in midsummer.\nIt will be interesting to watch the butterflies, just out of the chrysalis, to see\n\nthe crumpled-up wings when the insect first emerges, and to note that those\n\nwings are really sacs,\n\nfilled\n\nwith a Hquid material;\n\nbut the sacs rapidly\n\nexpand, the liquid disappears, and then we have the broad wings, ready\nfor flight.\n\nSome butterflies are easily caught, and these, when handled, will serve\nto demonstrate the fact that the colors \"come off;\"\n\na transparent\n\nthat there is really only\n\nmembrane covered with scales arranged in definite patterns.\n\nIt will be easy, also, to\n\nshow the coiled tongue, held on the underside of the\nUnder the compound\n\nhead, but readily unwound with the point of a pin.\n\nmicroscope, the tip of such a tongue is a really beautiful object.\n\nThere are many kinds of caterpillars, they vary much, and many people\nhave an unreasoning dread of them; but with only a few exceptions, they\n\nAs a rule, it is safe to say that the more formidable a caterpillar\nThis is illustrated by the \"hickory\nhorned devil,\" and by the caterpillars of the hawk moths in general. No\ncaterpillar can bite so as to pierce the skin, except under the most favorable\nconditions, and then the bite is harmless, because there is no poisonous secretion to be forced into the wound.\nThis is a general statement that may\nbe made as to all insects, and a bite inflicted by the jaws or mandibles can\nnever under any circumstances become injurious. This does not include,\nhowever, the puncturings made by those insects that have lancet-Hke mouth\nparts, and pierce Hke horse flies and mosquitoes.\nNevertheless, there are\nsome slug caterpillars, and some that are covered with short, stiff hair, that\nare capable of causing discomfort, and even severe pain; but that is by a process\nof nettling, or because the hair is furnished with little prickles which make\ntheir way into the skin and set up a mechanical irritation.\nMany insects fly at night, and the question arises: What becomes of\nthese during the day? Many, as a matter of fact, rest openly, exposed to\nthe view of anybody who can see them.\nI have often walked thru the shaded\nstreets of cities, and have seen dozens of moths sitting openly on tree trunks,\nwhere probably no one else who walked the streets that day suspected their\npresence.\nA large proportion of the nocturnal species that do not actually\nhide, are protected by their selection of places that resemble themselves so\nare harmless.\n\nappears, the less dangerous it really is.\n\nclosely that they are practically invisible.\n\nUnder every flat stone in the field, insects occur; and under every piece\nof loose bark on a dead or dying tree, beetles or their work may be seen, and\n\nother insects are found in hiding.\n\nIn every garden, and on almost every\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8l2\n\n[Science\n\ncity tree, some kind of leaf beetle may be found, and in almost every open lot\n\nin the outskirts, potato beetles occur on some of the solanaceous plants that\n\nare almost sure to grow there.\n\nWhile the slugs or larvae of potato beetles\n\nare not especially attractive, they grow rapidly, and require only a few days\nto come to maturity and bury themselves in the ground.\n\nIt is usually easy,\n\nalso, to find the patches of orange-yellow eggs on the undersides of the leaves,\n\nand there is no real difficulty in raising a brood from the eggs to the adults.\nOne of the same fruit jars will answer the purpose, and there should be about\ntwo inches of loose soil in the bottom. When the slugs have changed to\npupae, it will be noticed that every member of the future beetle can be dis-\n\ntinguished,\n\nand is separately incased in a tliin membrane.\n\nIt is interesting\n\nto watch the gradual hardening of the tissue, the appearance of the colors,\n\nand then suddenly, when stimulated or irritated in some way, the pupa that\nhas so gradually changed to a beetle will, start and walk away, without any\ndistinct\n\nshedding of the skin.\n\nThere is no more interesting insect for easy examination than the honey\nbee, which is with us from the opening of the first dandeHon in spring to the\n\nA bumble bee is better for ordinary study because\n\nend of the last aster in fall.\n\nsame facts. First of all, the\non the flowers, and it will be seen that they do\n\nof its greater size, but otherwise presents the\ninsects should be observed\n\nnot only feed, but actually roll themselves, in the blossoms, and become covered with the yellow pollen.\n\nBees may usually be captured by putting the\n\nmouth of a bottle over the flower, allowing the insect to fly up, and then plugging the neck with cotton. Observations may then be made at leisure, and\nwithout danger of being stung. It will be seen that the pollen is held among\nthe hairs partly by its viscid character, and partly by the structure of the hair\n\nwhich, examined under the microscope, is seen to be branched or compound.\n\nLarge masses of pollen are sometimes observed on the outside of the hind\nlegs,\n\nand the question arises:\n\nHow did they get there?\n\nIt is easy,\n\neven\n\nwithout a glass, to see the broad joints of the hind feet, with a curry-comb-like\nsetting of spines, by means of which almost the entire body can be combed\n\nand all particles of pollen removed. So on the fore-legs there is an arrangement for cleaning the antennae, and altogether we have a beautiful example\nIf the bottle in which the bee has been\nof adaptation for a special piu-pose.\ncollected is a large one, the process of combing and cleaning may be generally\nseen after the insect has been in confinement for a few moments. If it is a\nbumble bee that is under examination, the head and mouth structures will\nbe found interesting.\n\nThe tongue is almost as long as the insect itself, and,\n\nas a matter of fact, it is the bumble bee only that can get out the honey in\n\nred clover, incidentally pollenizing that plant.\n\nAlmost anywhere, except in the heart of a city, mud wasps may be observed.\n\nThey select back porches, sheltered comers under eaves, and other places\nnot directly exposed to the weather. Nothing is more curious than to observe\nthese insects patiently bringing load after load of mud and forming cylindrical\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nHOW CHILDREN CAN STUDY COMMON INSECTS\n\n813\n\ncells, which, no matter how shapeless they may be on the outside, are clean\nand smooth within. If the location is a favorable one, and a number of specimens are at work building nests, the observer will also see that no two specimens\nwork exactly aHke. While all examples make nests which in the long run\nare similar, yet in the actual work of building, each has its own way of doing\n\nthings.\n\nIn storing the nests with small spiders or caterpillars, this difference\n\nin individual\n\nwork will still further appear, and while some examples are\n\nstupid in their way of getting work done, others are correspondingly handy.\n\nWhere nests are plentiful, cells can be opened from time to time, and it will\nusually be noted that while the stored insects are motionless, they are yet\n\nahve.\n\nThey have been stung and paralyzed, and the poison that was injected\n\nintO'them has also a preservative effect.\nthe gradual development of the\n\nh easy in this way, also, to observe\n\nIt\n\nwasp larva; and when the last particle of\n\nstored food has been devoured, the change into the pupal stage takes place.\nI have said nothing of aquatic insects, because few of these are accessible\n\nwithout special collecting apparatus.\n\nBut there is at least one species which,\n\n—\n\nin summer, is available in most sections of the country\n\nI refer to the mosquito.\n\nWherever these insects occur, it will be easy to secure the life-cycle of the\ncommon house species. If an uncovered rain barrel is available, the supply\nIf there is no such barrel, a pail of water set in a\nof wrigglers is assured.\nshady place in the back yard will answer the purpose, if a handful of sod or\n\nEggboats appear promptly, and\n\nsome old, decaying leaves are put into it.\n\nmay be, if desired, transferred to a fruit jar half filled with water over a layer\nof garden soil.\n\nYoung wrigglers appear in about twenty-four hours, and in\nThe antics of the wrigglers will be a source\n\na week the pupae will be ready.\n\nof much amusement, and their method of feeding and breathing, getting air\n\nfrom above the surface and food from below it, will prove distinctly interesting.\nA child who has once watched a mosquito develop from egg to adult will\nnever believe that dense vegetation or tall grass on uplands is responsible for\nthe hordes that are sometimes found there.\n\nOf course children, like adults, differ in their natural abihty to see things;\nbut almost any of them, after they have been taught that there is nothing to\n\nbe feared from insects, will find something that is worth watching. Insects\nlend themselves well to experiments such as children are sometimes inclined\nto\n\nmake.\n\nThey are not only numerous, but their nervous organization is\n\nnot such as to warrant the beHef that they feel any well-marked sensation\n\nsuch as we term pain.\nof feeHng.\n\nI\n\ndo not mean to assert that insects have no sense\n\nOn the contrary, in some cases the tactile sense is very highly\n\ndeveloped; but I do mean that the sensation of pain, as we know it, is almost\nnon-existent.\n\nIn fact, the insect organization, while in its essential points\n\nlike that of the higher animals, is in its\n\ndevelopment carried along lines so\n\ndifferent, that we are in no position to judge insect sensations from our own\n\nexperience.\n\nIn closing, I have found that it needs only a Uttle stimulation to make\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8i4\n\nchildren see things.\n\n[Science\n\nA child can be shown a fact, and if that fact be explained,\n\nand it be indicated that there are other facts that may be observed, the observation will almost surely follo-w;\n\nand when the habit of observation is once\n\nformed, it is rarely lost.\n\nTEACHING BIOLOGY FROM LIVING PLANTS AND ANIMALS\nWITH A PROJECTION MICROSCOPE\nA DEMONSTRATION OF APPARATUS AND METHODS WITH LIVING\n\nSPECIMENS\nAARON HODGMAN COLE, DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, LAKE HIGH SCHOOL,\nCHICAGO\n[an abstract]\n\nThis actual demonstration of work done in a Chicago high-school laboratory, with apparatus and specimens brought from that laboratory, supplements\n\na paper,\n\n\"The Projection Microscope: Its Possibilities and Value in Teaching\n\nBiology,\" read before the Department of Science Instruction of the National\n\nEducational Association at the MinneapoHs meeting, 1902, and printed in\nfull in the\n\nminutes of that meeting at page 771.*\n\nA powerful projection\n\nmicroscope using an electric arc light threw upon a screen highly magnified\n\nimages of live plants and animals which were mounted in water in small glass\nThe objects were magnified from a few hundred to over 5,000 diameters,\ncells.\n\nby i-inch, f-inch, J-inch, and ^-inch oil immersion objectives.\n\nAll the details\n\nof structure of the live organisms were visible to each member of the audience,\n\ndemonstrating how the instructor directs the students as they observe and\nstudy, or make drawings of, objects projected on a screen.\n\nspecimen at the same time and in the best focus.\n\nAll saw the best\n\nLive plants and animals\n\nwere used because they are more interesting and instructive, and exhibit\n\nThe brilKant living-charts observed on\n\nnormal colors, form, and structure.\n\nthe screen exhibited all the motions, and many of the obscure vital phenomena,\nof the plants\n\nstudy;\n\ni. e.,\n\nand animals, thus demonstrating the central fact in biological\n\nlive protoplasm at work.\n\nFrom the hundreds of different species\n\nof small animals and plants common everywhere, which may be used in this\n\nway, typical species were shown including fresh water hydras and two of\ntheir common food animals, the water fleas daphnia and cyclops, an active\n\nyoung crayfish, gammarus,\nwater-beetles,\n\nsnails'\n\nnymph of the\n\neggs, water-spider, water-boatman,\n\ndragon-fly Agrion^\n\nand\n\nplanarian worms, leech,\n\nearthworms, larvae of insects, tadpole, and among plants, lemna, elodea evolving\noxygen, and a section of common white potato showing\n\ncells\n\npacked with\n\nstarch grannules.\n«\n\nReprints of that paper may be had by enclosing postage and address to the author, A. H. Cole, 5715\n\nMonroe ave., Chicago, HI.\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartment]\n\n815\n\nThe following brief statements of the details of the demonstration of the\nscore of organisms which were exhibited illustrate not only the methods of\n\nhandling the various live animals and plants, but also the variety of structural\nparts and functional activities which were projected on the screen.\n\nOne of the most instructive species is the common earthworm.\n\nTwo\n\nsmall ones were shown, one wriggling vigorously to demonstrate its normal\n\nmotions and form, while the other was anesthetized with chloretone and\n\nshowed no voluntary motions. By compressing the worm shghtly in a special\nglass cell the worm's body appeared nearly transparent to the light from the\nelectric arc used in the projection microscope and was five or six feet in diameter\nscreen.\nThe worm's esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine, muscles\nbody wall, septa, nephridia, dorsal vessel, and pulsating ''hearts,\"\nThis gave the\nactually pumping red blood, were clearly demonstrated.\n\non the\n\nof the\n\nmembers of the audience, as it does the students in a class, a first-hand knowledge of the animal's form, motions, color, structure, and, what is most\nimportant of all, its vital organs in normal position and activity.\nIn a\n\ncommon pond-weed, Elodea Canadensis, cells of five protoplasm,\n\ncolored green with chlorophyl, showed nature's real starch factories at work.\n\nWhen first projected, the plant showed no activity, but under the stimulus of\nthe electric light the plant began to combine inorganic water and carbon dioxid\ninto food,\n\ni.\n\ne.,\n\nstarch,\n\nand bubbles of oxygen gas were seen escaping from\n\nthe cut end of the stem.\n\nStarch grains in a sHce of white potato were first\n\ndemonstrated, then tested with iodine and finally boiled by the heat from the\nelectric arc, after the cooling-tank\n\nmicroscope.\n\nhad been removed from the projection\n\nIce-cold water placed on the pond- weed while bubbles of oxygen\n\nwere escaping caused its vital action and accompanying oxygen evolution\n\nand was seen to kill the plant. This demonstrated (a)\nphenomena of food production for all organic life, (b) the\nnecessary solar energy, replaced in this experiment by light from the electric\narc, and (c) the destructive effect of cold on growing protoplasm.\n\nto cease instantly,\n\nthe fundamental\n\nREPORT OF DEPARTMENT COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\nCOURSES\nI.\n\nFIRST-YEAR COURSE IN PHYSICS ADOPTED BY THE DEPART-\n\nMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCA\nTIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1905\nThirty-five of the following numbered exercises constitute the first year's\ncourse.\n\nLIST OF EXERCISES\nA. Measurement of a straight line.\nB.\n\nThe lines of the right triangle and the circle.\n\nArea of an obUque parallelogram.\nD. Volume of a rectangular body by displacement of water.\nC.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8i6\n\n7.\n\nWeight of unit volume of a substance.\nLifting effect of water upon a body entirely immersed in it.\nSpecific gravity of a solid body that will sink in water.\nSpecific gravity of a block of wood by use of a sinker.\nWeight of water displaced by a floating body.\nSpecific gravity by floating method.\nSpecific gravity of a liquid: two methods.\n\n8.\n\nThe straight lever:\n\n9.\n\nCenter of gravity and weight of a lever.\n\n10.\n\nLevers of the second and third classes.\n\n1.\n\n2.\n3.\n\n4.\n5.\n6.\n\n[Science\n\nfirst class.\n\n11.\n\nForce exerted at the fulcrum of a lever.\n\n12.\n\nErrors of a spring balance: study of a Jolly balance.\n\n13.\n\nThree forces in one plane and all appHed at one point: Parallelogram of forces.\nFriction between solid bodies.\n\n14.\n\n15.\n\nCoefl&cient of friction.\n\n16.\n\nUse of photometer.\nImages in a plane mirror.\nImages formed by a convex cylindrical mirror.\nImages formed by a concave cylindrical mirror.\nIndex of refraction of glass.\nIndex of refraction of water.\n\n1 7.\n\n18.\n19.\n\n20.\n\n21.\n22.\n\nFocal length of a converging lens.\n\n23.\n\nRelation of image-distance to object-distance: Conjugate foci of a lens.\n\n24.\n\nShape and size of a real image formed by a lens.\n\n25.\n\nVirtual image formed by a lens.\n\n26.\n\nBreaking strength of a wire.\n\n27.\n\nComparison of wires in breaking tests.\n\n28.\n\nElasticity:\n\nstretching.\n\n29.\n\nElasticity:\n\nbending.\n\nEffect of varying load.\n\n30.\n\nElasticity:\n\nbending.\n\nEffect of varying dimensions.\n\n31.\n\nElasticity:\n\ntwisting.\n\n32.\n\nSpecific gravity of a liquid by balancing columns.\n\n33.\n\nCompressibiUty of air: Boyle's law.\n\n34.\n\nDensity of air.\n\n35.\n\n37.\n\nFour forces at right angles in one plane.\nComparison of masses by acceleration test.\nAction and reaction: elastic colUsion.\n\n38.\n\nElastic collision continued:\n\n39.\n\nTesting a mercury-thermometer.\n\n36.\n\ninelastic collision.\n\n40.\n\nLinear expansion of a solid.\n\n41.\n\nIncrease of pressure of a gas heated at constant volume.\n\n42.\n\nIncrease of volume in a gas heated under constant pressure.\n\n43.\n\nSpecific heat.\n\n44.\n\nLatent heat of melting ice.\n\n45.\n\nDetermination of the dew-point.\n\nLowering of wet bulb thermometer by different\n\nliquids.\n\n46.\n\nLatent heat of vaporization.\n\n47.\n\nVelocity of sound in open air.\n\n48.\n49.\n\nWave length of sound.\nNumber of vibrations per second of a tuning fork.\n\n50.\n\nLines of force:\n\n51.\n\nSingle-fluid galvanic cell.\n\n52.\n\nStudy of a two-fluid galvanic cell.\n\n(a)\n\none-bar magnet, (&) two-bar magnets.\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartment]\n\n53.\n\n817\n\nLines of magnetic force about the galvanoscope.\n\n54.\n\nResistance of wires by substitution: different lengths.\n\n55.\n\nResistance of wires by substitution: cross-section and multiple arc.\n\n56.\n57.\n\nMeasurement of resistance with the Wheatstone bridge.\nChange of resistance with change of temperature.\n\n58.\n\nBattery resistance.\n\n59.\n\nTelegraph sounder and key.\n\n60.\n\nElectric motor.\n\n61.\n\nThe dynamo.\n\n62.\n\nStudy of pulleys with continuous cord.\n\n63.\n\nInclined plane force parallel to incline.\n\n64.\n\nGeneral laws of equilibrium in a plane.\n\nFour or more forces acting at different\n\npoints of application, no two forces parallel.\n65.\n\nStudy of the statics of a crane or truss.\n\n66.\n\nStudy of the pendulum (law of lengths).\n\n67.\n\nStudy of multiple images: plane mirrors, parallel and at an angle.\nDetermination of wave-lengths of light.\n\n68.\n69.\n\nCritical angle of glass or water.\n\n70.\n\nStudy of astronomical telescope or compound microscope.\n\n71.\n\nNewton's law of cooling.\n\n72.\n\nDetermination of the boiling-point of alcohol by the direct method and by the vapor-\n\n73.\n\nDetermination of the melting-points of some substances such as paraffine, wax, and\n\n74.\n\nElectrostatic series.\n\n75.\n\nElectromagnet: Study of poles and field in relation to direction of current.\n\n76.\n\nElectric bell.\n\n77.\n\nElectro-chemical series.\n\npressure method.\n\nnaphthalene.\n\n-3\n\n'\n\n78.\n\nElectrotyping or electroplating.\n\n79.\n\nStudy of the charging and discharging of a simple storage-cell, using a voltameter\n\n80.\n\nLaw of current induction.\n\nand an ammeter.\n\nII.\n\nA SECOND YEAR OF PHYSICS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nINTRODUCTION\n\nThe course here outlined is intended to follow in the high school a regular\nThe regular elemen-\n\ncourse in elementary physics such as is outlined above.\n\ntary course is given usually during the third year of the high school.\n\nThis\n\nnew course would naturally be given during the fourth year.\nThe course has been planned for boys and girls whether preparing for\ncollege or not, but it is recommended that only those pupils take it who have\nshown exceptional ability in the elementary course.\nThe material of this course includes those topics, found in the standard\nelementary textbooks, that are generally omitted in giving the elementary\ncourse.\n\nBesides\n\nthis,\n\nthere has been included\n\nsome additional elementary\n\nmaterial of exceptional interest and importance.\n\nIn making use of this second-year course, it is suggested that the teacher\n\nkeep in mind the general purpose as indicated by the topics.\n\nLecture demon-\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n8i8\n\n[Science\n\nand numerical problems are to be used\nand are not\n\nstrations, laboratory experiments,\n\nprincipally for the purpose of elucidating the topics discussed\nto be treated as ends in themselves.\n\nAs it will be impossible to cover in one year all the material mentioned,\nthe course has been made very broad with a view to a phoice of topics in accord-\n\nance with the needs and facilities of local conditions.\nthat,\n\nIt is\n\nrecommended\n\nduring a year, with five or more periods a week, there be presented a\n\nselection of topics represented by thirty laboratory experiments, appropriate\n\nand discussions bearing\nupon practical and theoretical applications. In making this selection, it is\nfurther recommended that, in order to preserve balance in the course, each\nof the sections lettered A, B, C, etc., be represented by at least two laboratory\nlecture demonstrations, simple numerical problems,\n\nexperiments.\n\nOUTLINE\n(Selections to be made as explained in introduction.\n\nin the laboratory by the pupil.\nA.\n1.\n\n2.\n\nExp. indicates an experiment\n\nDem. indicates a demonstration by the teacher.)\n\nPROPERTIES OF MATTER, AND MOLECULAR PHYSICS\n\nMagnitude.\nEstimation of tenths and hundredths of a division.\n\nExp.\n\nI.\n\nExp.\n\n2.\n\nUse of micrometer caliper.\n\nExp.\n\n3.\n\nSpherometer.\n\nExp.\n\n4.\n\nCurvatures of a meniscus lens.\n\nOptical lever (improved form).\n\nVery minute measurement^.\nWeight and the laws of gravitation.\nExp. 5. Accurate determination of the weight of an object by the method of double\nweighing of Gauss. Allow for the buoyancy of the atmosphere.\nDiscuss the mechanics of the balance.\nDiscuss Boys' method of determining the mass of the earth.\n\n3.\n\nCompressibility.\n\nExp.\n4.\n\nDetermine the compressibility of water.\n\n6.\n\nDuctility.\n\nDraw down thick wire to thin with wire-drawing plate.\n\nDem. I.\n\nDiscuss WoUaston's method for extremely fine wires.\n,\n\n5.\n\nDiscuss manufacture of lead wire, lead pipe, and tin-lined lead pipe.\n\nMalleability.\n\nDem. 2.\nDem. 3.\n\nBeat out pure gold.\nExhibit transparency of gold leaf.\n\nDiscuss the process of rolling.\nDiscuss the process of spinning.\n6.\n\nViscosity.\n\nDem. 4.\n\nExhibit in progress Kelvin's experiment with shoemaker's wax, corks, and\nbullets.\n\nExp.\n\n7.\n\nDetermine the viscosity of water.\nDiscuss relation of viscosity to lubricating qualities of oils.\n\n7.\n\nCrystallization.\n\nDem. 5.\nDem. 6.\nDem. 7.\n\nSulphur from fusion.\n\nAlum from solution.\nIodine by sublimation.\n\nDiscuss very briefly the fundamental crystalline forms.\nDiscuss purification by crystallization.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nREPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartmenl]\n\n8.\n\n819\n\nTenacity.\n\n(Refer to first year exp. on tenacity of wires.)\n\nExp.\n\n8.\n\nTransverse breaking strength of whitewood;\n\nlaws of breadth, thickness,\n\nand length.\nDiscuss briefly tensile and compressile strains in beams and girders.\n\nSimple problems.\n(Elasticity may be studied here\n\nif it\n\nhas not already been done so during the first\n\nyear.)\n9.\n\nSurface tension and capillarity.\n\nExp.\n\n9.\n\nMeasure surface tension of soap water.\nEither by method of wire rectangle and balance,\nb) Or by rise in capillary tube.\nStudy of law of diameter of capillary tubes, and law of distance of capil-\n\na)\n\nExp.\n\n10.\n\nDem.\n\n8.\n\nlary plates.\n\nVarious.\n\nDiscuss many of the everyday illustrations.\n10.\n\nDiffusion of gases and liquids.\n\nDem.\n\n9.\n\nVarious.\n\nDiscuss prevalent false notions regarding the spread of odors.\n\nDiscuss very briefly the phenomenon of osmotic pressure.\nB.\n11.\n\nMECHANICS OF SOLIDS\n\nAbsolute units of force and energy in the metric and British systems.\n\nDiscuss dyne and poundal as a special case in which coefficients reduce\nto unity in dynamic effects.\n\nSimple problems.\n12.\n\nEquilibrium in a plane: general laws.\n\nExp.\n\nII.\n\nFour or more non-parallel forces (no three of which intersect at a point)\napplied by means of spring balances at the corners of a wire frame\na)\nb)\n\nFind algebraic sum of moments with respect to any point.\nFind algebraic sum of components of the forces in two given directions\nat right angles with each other.\n\nDiscuss familiar illustrations of equilibrium in a plane.\n\nProblems worked graphically.\nExp.\n13.\n\n12.\n\nStatics of crane or truss.\n\nCircular motion: centripetal and centrifugal force.\n\nDem. 10.\n\nVarious.\n\nExp.\n\nStudy\n\n13.\n\nof\n\ncentripetal\n\nand\n\ncentrifugal\n\nforce\n\nin\n\nconical\n\npendulum\n\nquantitatively.\n\nDiscuss applications, pointing out in each case the centripetal and\ncentrifugal force.\n\nSimple problems.\n14.\n\nThe pendulum and its use in measuring the force of gravity.\n\n(Law of length studied during the first year).\nDem. II. Iron pendulum, magnet.\nDem. 12. Interchangeabihty of centers of suspension and oscillation.\nExp.\n\n14.\n\nValue of g with Kater's pendulum, using method of coincidences (optical\nor electrical).\n\nDiscuss briefly effect of motion and shape of earth on apparent direction\n\nand amount\n\nof gravity;\n\nalso the effect of\n\nmountain ranges and the\n\nirregularities in the density of strata.\n\n(Hydrostatics usually fairly well developed during the first year.)\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n820\n\nC.\n\n15.\n\n[Sdence\n\nPNEUMATICS\n\nSpecial method of measuring atmospheric pressure.\n\nExp.\n\n15.\n\nDem. 13.\nExp.\n\n16.\n\nSmithsonian barometer, vernier. Use of correction tables for capillarity\nand for expansion of mercury and scale.\nStudy of mechanism of aneroid barometer.\nMeasure with fine aneroid the difference in level of two window sills, and\nverify with tape.\n\nDiscuss hypsometry.\n(Density of dry air and Boyle's law studied during first year.)\nD.\n16.\n\nENERGY AND ITS TRANSFORMATIONS\n\nMechanical energy.\nExp.\n\n17.\n\nCompare energy stored in spring as measured by work done in compressing or bending it, with the energy as measured by work done on mass\nprojected vertically by the spring.\n\n(Height.)\n\nExp.\n\n18.\n\nDitto, but mass projected horizontally.\n\nExp.\n\n19.\n\nEfl&ciency of a set of pulleys.\n\nExp.\n\n20.\n\n(Velocity.)\n\nEfficiency of a water motor.\n\nDiscuss water turbines.\n17.\n\nRelation of heat energy to mechanical energy.\n\nDem. 14.\n\nHeat developed by compressing air.\nDiscuss case where intermolecular force is absent.\n\nDiscuss incandescence of meteorites.\n\nDem. 15.\n\nHeat absorbed by the expansion of air.\n\nFormation of clouds.\n\nDiscuss application of certain ice-machines.\n\nExp.\n\n21.\n\nExp.\n\n22.\n\nDiscuss cause of low temperature at high altitudes in the atmosphere.\nDetermine mechanical equivalent of heat.\nDetermine efficiency of hot-air motor, using data of Experiment 23 a).\nDiscuss applications and illustrations.\n\nSimple problems.\n18.\n\nRelation of heat energy to chemical energy.\n\nExp.\n\n23.\n\nHeat of combustion of one of the following:\na)\n\nIlluminating gas (Junker's calorimeter very satisfactory).\n\nh)\n\nHydrogen (Junker's calorimeter).\n\nDiscuss applications.\n\nSimple problems.\n19.\n\nRelation of heat energy to electrical energy.\n\nExp.\n\n24.\n\nDetermine calories of heat energy developed by the consumption of one\nwatt-second of electrical energy.\nDiscuss electrical heating devices.\n\nSimple problems.\nExp. 25.\n\nThermo-battery run with gas flame (Guelcher or other form),\na)\n\nDetermine cost of one kilo-watt hour, using gas meter.\n\n'Determine, by calculation from data of exp. 23 a) the fraction of\nheat energy of flame converted into electrical energy during maximum\n\nh)\n\noutput.\n20.\n\nRelation of electrical energy to mechanical energy.\n\n21.\n\nRelation of electrical energy to chemical energy.\n\nExp.\nExp.\n\n26.\n\n27.\n\nDetermine total efficiency of electric motor at various loads.\na)\n\nWith platinum electrodes very near each other in acidulated water,\ndetermine minimum voltage that will maintain a constant evolution\nof gas.\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartment]\n\nh)\n\nPass a current of about 5 or 10 amperes for about 15 minutes and\n\nCompare\n\nmeasure\n\nhydrogen\n\nelectrical\n\nenergy consumed with the chemical energy Hberated (use\n\nevolved.\n\nwatt-seconds\n\ndata of Experiment 23 h) and Experiment 24).\n22.\n\nDiscuss general subject 0} conservation of energy.\n\n23.\n\nVibration.\n\nE.\n\nExp.\n\n28.\n\n821\n\nof\n\neffective\n\n.\n\nSOUND\n\nDetermine frequency of vibration of tuning fork to within one-fifth of i\nper cent.\nDiscuss simple harmonic motion.\nDiscuss the mechanics of vibration.\n\n24.\n\n(Laws of vibration of strings studied during first year.)\nSound waves.\nDem. 16. Exhibit lantern slides of the photographic work of Boys and Wood on\nsound waves.\nExp. 29. Determine velocity of sound in air directly (if not during first year).\nExp. 30. Determine velocity of sound in metal rods, using longitudinal vibration,\na sonometer, and a known tuning fork.\nExp. 31. Determine velocity of sound in hydrogen or carbon dioxid, using Kundt's\ntube.\n\nDiscuss velocity in relation to elasticity and density.\n\nSimple problems.\nDiscuss very simply the kinematics and dynamics of sound waves.\n\nDem. 17.\n\nIllustrate Doppler's principle by swinging high-pitch tuning fork.\n\nDiscuss apphcations.\n25.\n\nInterference of sound waves:\n\nbeats.\n\nDem. 18.\n\nVarious.\n\nExp.\n\nDetermine frequency of fork by comparing with known fork by means\n\n32.\n\nof beats.\n\nDem. 19.\nExp.\n\n33.\n\nShow properties of sensitive flame.\nMeasure wave-length of inaudible whistle by Rayleigh's method (stationary waves by selection; sensitive flame).\n\nDiscuss certain failures of fog signals.\n\nDem. 20.\n\nShow different tones with two tin flutes.\n\n'\n\nDiscuss relation of beats, difference tones, and overtones to harmony and\ndiscord,\n\nand then in this new hght discuss the structure of the diatonic\n\nscale.\n\n(Sympathetic resonance studied during first year.)\n26.\n\n27.\n\nOvertones.\n\n(Overtones of strings studied first year.)\n\nDem. 21.\nDem. 22.\nDem. 23.\n\nOvertones of open and closed organ pipes.\n\nExp. 34. Determine overtones of metal rod vibrating transversely.\nMusical instruments.\n\nDem. 24.\n\n28.\n\nOvertones of Chladni plates.\n\nOvertones of oboe (even and odd), and of clarinet (odd).\n\nStudy the acoustics of some common instruments not studied above,\nsuch as the flute, the cornet, and the reed organ or harmonium, tin horns,\nxylophone and bell.\n\nTimbre.\n\nExp. 35.\n\nLet group of pupils and the instructor using a set of Helmholtz's resonators, determine the approximate relative strength of the overtones of\n\nseveral vowel tones.\n\nDem. 25.\n\n(They lie in the neighborhood of the \"characteristic tones.\")\nBrief study of developed phonograph rpcords.\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n822\n\nF.\n\n29.\n\nLIGHT\n\nRefraction: refractive power.\n\nExp.\n\n30.\n\n[Science\n\n36.\n\nAngle of a prism; spectrometer.\n\nExp. 37.\nExp. 38.\n\nIndex of refraction; prism, spectrometer.\nDetermine longitudinal spherical aberration of plano-convex lens in both\naspects, using sodium light.\n\nExp. 39.\n\nDetermine critical angle in glass or in water.\n\nDispersion: dispersive power.\n\nDem. 26.\nDem. 27.\nExp. 40.\n\nDem. 28.\nDem. 29.\n\nShow difference in dispersive powers of flint and crown glass.\nAchromatic prism.\nDetermine the chromatic aberration of a plano-convex lens. Use deep\nruby glass and copper ammonio-sulphate. Cover central portion of lens.\nDirect-vision prism.\n\nAchromatic lens.\nDiscuss\n\nvery\n\nbriefly\n\nmodem\n\nphotographic\n\nlenses,\n\ntelescopes,\n\nand\n\nmicroscopes.\n\nDem. 30.\n31.\n\n32.\n\nPrinciple of rainbow.\n\nSpectroscopy.\n\nDem. 31.\n\nShow in lantern absorption spectra of various media.\n\nExp. 41.\nExp. 42.\n\nPlot line spectra of Na, Li, K, Tl, and Sr.\nIdentify metals in a mixture by physical analysis.\n\nDem. 32.\n\nReversal of Na line.\n\nExp. 43.\n\nPlot Fraunhofer's lines.\n\nColor sensations.\n\nDem. 2,7,.\n\nPrimary and secondary hues with lantern color mixer.\nDetermine color equations with Maxwell's discs.\nRetinal fatigue and other ordinary disturbances.\nExp. 45. Determine approximate period of persistence of vision for different degrees\nExp. 44.\n\n33.\n\nof illumination.\n\nDiscuss the kinetoscope, and every-day illustrations.\n\nDem. 34.\nDem. 35.\nDem. 36.\n^\n\n34.\n\nSimultaneous color contrast.\nSuccessive color contrast.\n\nDiscuss application to color schemes.\n\nInterference of light.\n\nDem. 37.\nDem. 38.\n\n35.\n\nAfter-images and allied phenomena.\n\nNewton's rings.\nVarious illustrations of colors of thin plates.\n\nExp. 46.\n\nDetermine wave-length of Na light with Newton's rings apparatus.\nUse spherometer to measure curvature of lens.\n\nDem. 39.\n\nFresnel's biprism.\n\nDiffraction of light.\n\nDem. 40.\n\nDiffraction phenomena using various obstacles (with arc light and oblique\nflat plaster screen the effects\n\nmay be shown to several pupils at once).\n\nExp. 47. Measure wave-length of Na light with grating.\n36. Double refraction of light.\n\nDem. 41.\n37.\n\nIceland spar.\n\nPolarization of light.\n\nDem. 42.\nDem. 43.\n\nShow polarization of reflected and refracted beams.\nNicol prism and tourmaline.\n\nExp. 48.\n\nDetermine angle of polarization of black glass.\n\nDem. 44.\nDem. 45.\n\nSelenite and mica in polariscope;\n\nexplain colors.\n\nStudy in polariscope the color phenomena displayed by glass strained\nby mechanical force; by unequal heating; by imperfect annealing.\nExplain.\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartment]\n\nG.\n\n823\n\nHEAT\n\n(Calorimetry in relation to latent heat and to specific heat is studied\nduring the first year.)\n\n38.\n\nHeat energy.\n\n39.\n\nExpansion.\n\nSee section\n\nExp. 49.\nExp. 50.\n\nD divisions 17, 18, 19, for material under this heading.\n\n(Studied in part during first year\n\n—such parts omitted here.)\n\nCalibration of thermometer.\n\nAbsolute expansion of mercury.\n\nExp. 51.\n\nExpansion of mercury relative to glass.\n\nDem. 46.\n\nMaximum and minimum thermometers, weather bureau pattern, clinical\nthermometer.\n\nDem. 47.\nDem. 48.\n\nRecording thermometer. Bourdon gauge type.\nMetallic thermometers and thermostats.\n\nDiscuss temperature regulation in buildings.\n\nDiscuss common systems of heating and ventilating large buildings.\n\nDem. 49.\nDem. 50.\n\nBalance wheel of watch and compensation pendulums.\nPrince Rupert's drops and Bologna flask.\n\nDiscuss importance of anneahng glass.\n40.\n\nRegelation.\n\nDem. 51.\nDem. 52.\n\nTwo blocks of ice.\nIce and wire.\n\nDiscuss applications.\n41.\n\nSaturated and unsaturated vapors.\n\nDem. 53.\n\nEther in barometer, warm water.\n\nExp.\n\nCurve of vapor pressure of water from 25° to 100° C.\nVapor density of alcohol (Victor Meyer's method).\n\n52.\n\nExp. 53.\n\nDiscuss applications.\n42.\n\nInfra-red rays.\n\nDem. 54.\nDem. 55.\nDem. 56.\nDem. 57.\nExp. 54.\nExp. 55.\nExp. 56.\n\nDem. 58.\nDem. 59.\nExp. 57.\n\nRadiation from various substances.\nSurface absorption.\nReflection of dark heat-waves.\n\nDiathermancy.\nNewton's law of cooling, small differences of temperature.\nDetermine relative radiating power of various substances.\nDetermine relative diathermancy of glass and rock salt.\nLaw of inverse squares, Tyndall's method.\nRadiometer.\nInverse squares with radiometer, using several gas or candle flames to\ncalibrate the speed of the radiometer.\n\nDiscuss many of the everyday illustrations of radiation and absorption.\nH.\n\nELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM\n\n(Develop elementary portions of the subject omitted during the\n\n43.\n\nStatic electricity.\n\n44.\n\nMagnetic effects 0} the electric current: magnets and magnetic fields.\nDem. 60. Lines of force about current-bearing wire; iron filings.\nDem. 61. Lines of force two wires currents in same direction.\n\nfirst\n\nyear.)\n\nDem. 62.\nDem. 63.\nDem. 64.\nDem. 6$.\nDem. 66.\nDem. 67.\nDem. 68.\n\nLines of force\n\n—\n—\n—two wires—currents in opposite directions.\n\nMutual action of two current-bearing wires in all relative positions.\nSingle loop sets with its plane east and west.\nHelix sets north and south.\nLines of force about helix; effect of introducing iron core.\n\nMagnet deflected by current (first year).\nCurrent-bearing wire deflected by magnetic field.\n\nDiscuss the above phenomena in the hght of Ampere's theory of magnetism, and also of the theory of the interaction of lines of force.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n824\n\nDem. 69.\n\nDem. 70.\nDem. 71.\nDem. 72.\nDem. 73.\nDem. 74.\nDem. 75.\n\nMagnetic induction in earth's field.\nDetermine angle of dip.\nDetermine value of\n\\ „\n,,\nj tt\n.\nDetermine value of M-^H J\nMagnetic cut-out.\nHotel and elevators annunciators.\nMagnetic door latch.\nAutomatic regulating arc lamp.\nStandard forms of ammeter, voltameter and wattmeter.\nParamagnetic and diamagnetic substances.\n\nExp. 61.\n\nHysteresis curve of iron.\n\nExp. 58.\nExp. 59.\nExp. 60.\n\nMXH\n\n,\n\n[Science\n\n,\n\n(Exp. 26, Section D). Efficiency of a motor.\n\n45.\n\nDiscuss the motor more thoroughly than during the first year.\nHeat effects of the electric current.\n\n(Exp. 24, Section D).\n\nDem. 76.\n\nRelation of a calorie to a joule.\n\nRelation of a diameter of wire to temperature produced with a given\nvoltage, and again with a given amperage.\n\nDiscuss\n\nmany of the modern applications of the heating effect of the\n\nelectric current to domestic purposes.\n\nExp.\n\n62.\n\nExp.\n\n63.\n\nDem. 77.\n\nWatts per candle of incandescent lamp run at different voltages.\nTemperature co-eflScient of resistance of copper, iron, and of la la metal\n\n(Hermann Boker, Duane St., New York).\nNemst lamp glower with and without ballast.\nrapidly reversed current.\n\nDem. 78.\nDem. 79.\n46.\n\nConstruction of Nemst lamp.\n\nCooper-Hewitt lamp.\n\nThermo-electricity.\n\nSimple juncture of iron and copper; neutral point and reversal of E. M. F.\n\nDem. 80.\nDem. 81.\n\nThermo-pile (Melloni form).\n\nExp. $4.\n\nMake a thermo-electric diagram of two metals such as iron and copper.\n\n(Exp. 25, Section D.)\n47.\n\nUse either alternating or\n\nHeat with Bunsen.\n\nEfl&ciency and cost of output of thermo-battery.\n\nChemical effects of the electric current.\n\nDem. 82.\n\nElectroplating, electrotyping, and electric etching of copper.\n\nExp. 65.\n\nFaraday's law. Show in what way the weights of hydrogen (calculated\nfrom observed volume) and of silver set free by the same current\n(unmeasured) in the same time (unmeasured) are related to the combining\nweights of those elements.\n\nExp. 66.\n\nDetermine the electro-chemical equivalent of copper or silver, using a\n\nWeston standard ammeter.\n\nDem. 83.\n\n—two lead plates in\n\nPrinciple of the storage cell\n\ndilute acid, electric bell\n\nor motor.\n\nDiscuss the value of accumulators in central stations\nDiscuss the arrangements in an electric automobile.\n48.\n\nElectrical measurements.\n\nExp. 67.\n\nVerify approximately Ohm's law by any suitable method (beware in the\n\nproof of a hidden assumption of the law itself).\n\nDiscuss the practical establishment of the fundamental units upon the\nbasis of a standard resistance and a standard cell.\nDeduce law of Wheatstones's bridge from Ohm's law.\nDeduce formula for resistance of wires in parallel from Ohm's law.\n\nExp. 68.\nExp. 69.\n\nVerify experimentally law of Wheatstone's bridge.\n\nExp.\n\nVerify experimentally law of best arrangement of battery cells with a given\n\n70.\n\nVerify experimentally formulas for resistance of group of wires in parallel.\n\nexternal resistance.\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PHYSICS\n\nDepartment]\n\n825\n\nDiscuss distinction between arrangement for best output, and arrange-\n\nment for best efficiency of battery.\nSimple problems.\n\nDeduce formula for currents in branches of divided circuit.\nExp.\n\n71.\n\nVerify formula for current in branches of divided circuit.\n\nTemperature coefficients of resistance.\n\n(Exp. 63, Topic No. 45.)\n\nExp.\n\n72.\n\nExp.\n\n73.\n\nExp.\n\n74.\n\nExp.\n\n75.\n\nExp.\n\n76.\n\nExp.\n\n77.\n\nExp.\n\n78.\n\nExp.\n\n79.\n\nDetermine E. M. F. and internal resistance of Daniell cell with resistance\nbox and standard voltmeter (make corrections).\nDetermine E. M. F. and internal resistance of Daniell cell with resistance\nbox and standard ammeter (make corrections).\nDetermine the E. M. F. and internal resistance of a Daniell cell with a\nvoltmeter and an ammeter (make corrections).\nDetermine internal resistance of Daniell cell by Mance's method.\nDetermine resistance of the galvanometer by Kelvin's 'method.\nDetermine the specific resistance of some electrolyte.\nDetermine capacity of a condenser by comparison with a standard\ncapacity.\n\nDetermine the coefficient of self-induction of a coil by comparison with\na standard.\n\nExp. 80.\n\nDetermine frequency of an alternating current.\n\nUse sonometer and\n\nknown tuning fork.\n49.\n\nLong electro ^magnetic waves.\n\nDem. 84.\n\nAbsorption,\n\nreflection,\n\nrefraction,\n\npolarization,\n\nand\n\ninterference\n\nof\n\nelectro-magnetic waves.\n\nDem. 85.\n\nWireless telegraphy without ground connections.\n\nDiscuss function of conducting surface of the sea in guiding waves in\npractical wireless telegraphy.\n\nExp. 81.\n50.\n\nMeasure resistance of coherer in both stages.\n\nElectric discharges through gases.\n\nDem. 86.\nDem. 87.\nDem. 88.\nDem. 89.\nDem. 90.\nDem. 91.\n\nStudy discharge thru tube of variable vacuum.\n\nCathode rays;\nCathode rays;\nCathode rays;\nCathode rays;\nCathode rays;\n\nheat focus.\n\nmagnetic deflection.\nelectrostatic deflection.\n\nphosphorescence.\ngeneration of Roentgen rays at anti-cathode.\n\nDiscuss in the Ught of the electron theory.\n51.\n\nRoentgen rays.\n\nDem. 92.\nDem. 93.\nDem. 94.\n\nPhotographic action of rays.\nPhosphorescing action of rays.\nDischarging action of rays. Contrast with discharging action of ultraviolet light.\n\nDem. 95.\n52.\n\nRelative penetrability with Roentgen rays.\n\nRadio-activity 0} radium.\n\nDem. 96.\n\nLantern slide showing magnetic deflection of a and /3 rays, and nondeflection of 7 rays.\n\nDem. 97. Self -luminescence of radium-barium-chloride.\nDem. 98. Phosphorescent action on barium platino-cyanide and on Willemite.\nDem. 99. Spinthariscope.\nDem. 100. Photographic action and relative penetration.\nDem. loi. Discharging action.\nFrank M. Gilley, Chelsea, Mass., Chairman.\nDepartment Committee \\ Ernest R. von Nardroff, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nW. E. Tower, Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday, July 5, 1905\nThe meeting was called to order by the secretary, who announced the unavoidable\nabsence of the president; and, upon motion, Harvey H. Hubbert, member of the Board\nof Education of Philadelphia, was selected to preside.\n\nWilliam George Bruce then read a paper on \"Recent Progress in School Administration.\"\n\nIt was discussed by John A.\n\nMcCall, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\nA. L Bixby, member of the Board of Education, Lincoln, Nebr., sent word that he\n\nhad been stricken with illness during the journey and was unable to be present.\nFrank H. Sommer, member of the Board of Education, Newark, N. J., read a paper\non \"Shall the State Regulate Teachers' Salaries?\" The discussion was led by H. H.\nHubbert, followed by E. E. Reed, member of the Board of Education, Camden, N. J.;\nThomas T. Tynan, state superintendent of Wyoming; superintendent George W. Phillips,\nScranton, Pa.; State Superintendent J. W. Olsen, of Minnesota; Mr. A. C. WilUson,\nCumberland, Md.; and Miss Harriet T. Treadwell, Chicago, 111.\nMiss Treadwell moved that this body ask the program committee to make the subject of teachers' salaries one to be discussed before the general sessions next year.\n\nThe\n\nmotion was\" carried.\nAdjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nThe meeting opened with Mr. Charles S. Foss in the chair.\nMr. Seymour Davis, of Philadelphia, read a paper on \"Recent Progress in School\nThe discussion was led by WilHam R. Broughton, Bloomfield, N. J.\nHe was followed by E. Hermann Arnold, New Haven, Conn.\nC. B. J. Snyder, superintendent of school buildings for the Board of Education of\nNew York, read a paper on \"Needed Legislation in School Architecture.\" Discussions\nwere participated in by Messrs. William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis. John A. Hartpence, Trenton, N. J.; J. D. Simpkins; James A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.; Superintendent George W. Phillips, Scranton, Pa., and others.\nE. Hermann Arnold, New Haven, Conn., moved that the subject of school architecture be recommended for discussion at the general sessions next year, and at the meeting\nof the Department of Superintendence next winter.\nCarried.\nThe selection of department officers was referred to the Executive Committee of the\nArchitecture.\"\n\n;\n\nNational Educational Association, with the following recommendations:\n\n—\n\nFor President A. L. Bixby, member of the Board of Education, Lincoln, Nebr.\nFor Vice-President Mrs. Pauline Steinem, member of the Board of Education,\nToledo, Ohio.\n\nFor Secretary\n\n—\n\n—William George Bruce, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\nAfter extending thanks to Messrs. Snyder and Davis, and the local committees, the\n\nmeeting adjourned.\n\nWilliam George Bruce, Secretary.\n827\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n828\n\n[Administration\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nRECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nWM. GEO. BRUCE, EDITOR, \"AMERICAN SCHOOL BOARD JOURNAL,\"\nMILWAUKEE, WIS.\n\nThe history of school administration consists in a succession of tendencies\nand departures which have found their permanent acceptance or rejection, as\ncommon judgment or popular opinion may have dictated.\nThere has been a constant effort to secure thru the aid of legislation such\nlaws as would be Hkely to insure abler, cleaner, and more representative school\nboards. These efforts have from time to time been crowned with success and\nhave resulted in better school buildings, a more serviceable equipment, more\n\n—and, in\n\npractical courses of study, a higher standard of teaching ability\nbrief, better schools.\n\nThus, the administrative side of American popular\n\neducation has experienced the same degree of progress that has characterized\nthe pedagogical side.\n\nAs a system of administratioii, modem school boards represent the achievements of many minds, having grown from the simple to the complex in order\nto adapt themselves to the various and varying demands of education and the\nexigencies of time and locality.\n\nThe past year may be set down as a notable one in the field of school\nadministration.\n\nTendencies which have existed for several years have found\n\nfull expression in the adoption of new measures and laws.\n\nmay be eniunerated in the following order:\nthe business\n\nand professional functions\n\nin\n\n(i)\n\nThese tendencies\n\nA clearer division between\n\nschool administrative labors.\n\nThe recognition of school superintendency labors as a distinctive profession requiring natural and acquired attributes.\n(3) The increasing\ndemand for professionally trained teachers and a more adequate compensation for their services.\n(4) The acceptance of expert service in the adoption\nof schoolhouse plans and state regulation of sanitary requirements for new\n(2)\n\nschool buildings.\n\nPerhaps no state in the Union has ever had to grapple with the subject of\nschool administration on such a large scale as came within the lot of the state\nof Ohio within the past year.\n\nWhen the supreme court of that state wiped\n\nout every school board in the state, as being unconstitutional, it devolved upon\nthe legislature to frame a law which would insure uniformity, and at the same\n\ntime embody the more progressive ideas on the subject of school administration.\n\nThe task, considering that the press, the pulpit, the schoolmaster, and\n\nthe school-board\n\nmember,\n\nto say nothing of the numberless faddists\n\nreformers, all took a hand in framing model school-board laws,\n\nenormous one.\n\nand\n\nbecame an\n\nThe difficult problem, however, was solved, and the following\n\ncontains the principal provisions of the law:\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nThe maximum school levy is fixed at 12 mills.\n\n829\n\nVillages, special districts\n\nand townships shall have a board of five, elected at large.\n\nA subdirector,\n\nwith only suggestive power, is provided for the townships.\n\nIn villages the\n\nboard appoints the teachers upon the recommendation of the superintendent.\nCities are divided into\n\ntwo classes.\n\nThe 66 cities with a population of less\n\nthan 50,000 are organized with a board of not less than three or more than\n\nIn the five large cities, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Colum-\n\nseven elected at large.\n\nThis pro-\n\nbus, Toledo, and Dayton, the elastic or option plan will prevail.\n\nvides for a board of not less than two or more than seven elected at large, and\n\nnot less than two or more than thirty elected by subdistricts.\n\nThis permits\n\nCincinnati to retain its large board of thirty-two, and Cleveland can have a\n\nboard of seven, as now, but at least two must be elected by the subdistricts.\n\nThe city districts are empowered to employ a business director elected by\nThis is permissive. The superintendent is elected for five years.\n\nthe board.\n\nHe appoints the teachers, subject to confirmation by the board.\ncan be elected for a longer term than four years.\n\nThe\n\nNo teacher\n\nsuperintendent\n\ndischarges, but teachers may appeal to the board.\n\nIn cities below 50,000 the present board decides the number of members\n\nThis decision stands until the next federal census.\n\nfor the future board.\n\nIn\n\nthe five larger cities the present boards decide the number, and also what pro-\n\nportion shall be elected at large and how many from wards.\n\nThis means, for\n\ninstance, that the present Columbus board of education decides whether there\nshall be a small board of five, three elected at large and two by subdistricts, a\n\nboard of twelve by subdistricts and two at large, or go the full limit and elect\nthirty by subdistricts and seven at large.\n\nThe city of Philadelphia, which has a general, and a number of so-called\nThe change brings into\n\nsectional, school boards has modified its school law.\nlife\n\nthree distinctive administrative departments, which are headed\n\nby a\n\nsuperintendent of instruction, a superintendent of buildings, and a superintendent of supphes.\n\nThe several boards retain their legislative powers and\n\nare less dependent upon other municipal branches of government in matters\nof pubhc expenditures.\n\nIn the field of school administration, as applied to the larger cities, the\nchange made at Milwaukee from an appointive to an elective school-board\nsystem, is a most interesting one, in that it discards a most unique system, and\n\nThe\nmembers\n\nsubstitutes one which embodies the most modern ideas on the subject.\n\nold system provided for a bipartisan school commission of four\n\nappointed by the mayor.\n\nThis commission in turn appointed the school\n\nThe\nnew system not only reduces the membership of the board from twenty-three\n\nboard, one member from each of the twenty-three wards of the city.\n\nto twelve, but enlarges its powers to an unusual degree.\nis\n\nlengthened to six years.\n\nIts tenure of office\n\nIt will control the architecture\n\nof school buildings as well as the selection of sites.\n\nand construction\n\nBesides this, it will be no\n\nlonger subject to ultimation of a city council or a board of public works in\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n830\n\nfinancial matters.\nwill control the\n\n[Administration\n\nIt will have the authority to inaugurate bond issues.\nIt\nemployment and dismissal of a thousand people and the\n\nexpenditure of a million dollars.\n\nHere is food for speculation! The transformation from an appointive to\nan elective system, from a large to a small membership, from short to long\ntenure, from limited to enlarged authority, suggests the apprehensive question\nof success or failure.\n\nThe answer is found in the experience of other cities.\n\nPublic sentiment alone decides.\n\nIf the progressive citizenship of a community\n\ntakes the lead in the creation of a board of education, the ward-heeler gracefully retires\n\nand success is achieved.\n\nIf the\n\nsame lack of popular discrimi-\n\nnation between candidate and candidate, which now obtains in the selection\nof the average city council or county board, should prevail, failure will be\n\nrecorded.\n\nIt\n\nthen remains to be demonstrated whether the citizenship of\n\nMilwaukee is equal to an intensely modern system of school administration.\n\nThe school board must be assured of a higher type of membership than\nthat found in other local legislative bodies, in order to attain the largest meas-\n\nure of usefulness.\n\nIt deals\n\nwith the practical and theoretical machinery\n\ngoverning popular education, and every duty which it performs must be in\nthe interest of the child\n\n—\n\nthe future citizen.\nTherefore no elective schoolboard system, however well planned as to membership, scope, and authority,\n\ncan become efficient unless founded upon a wholesome pubHc sentiment.\nall\n\nIt\n\nreduces itself to the question of men rather than method, and the public\n\nmust exercise discriminating care in selecting only men who are unselfish,\nhigh-minded, and competent.\n\nThis becomes doubly essential where the membership of a board has been\nreduced in numbers, where the powers have been enlarged and the tenure of\nlengthened. The smaller bodies can remain undisturbedly corrupt for\na longer period than can larger bodies. The larger bodies are usually less\noffice\n\nexclusive, more cumbersome of action, but, owing to their demonstrative and\n\nloquacious character, their labors are more vividly exposed to the public eye.\nIt therefore logically follows that the\n\nmerchant and the manufacturer, the\n\nprofessional man and the mechanic, the class of men who have hitherto paid\nlittle\n\nor no attention to local elective contests, must take the lead in the selec-\n\ntion of a school board that shall be a positive force in the direction of popular\n\neducation.\nI may also point to a bad piece of legislation.\nThe board of education of\nWilmington, Del., under a new law, is now composed of thirteen members\n\n(instead of twenty-four as heretofore).\n\nOne member from each ward is\n\nelected for a term of four years, and the president is elected at large.\n\nmakes the board a partisan one in every particular.\n\nThis\nThere was no legislation\n\naffecting the function of the superintendent.\n\nSalary, term of office, duties,\n\nand authority are to be defined by the board.\n\nThe financial side of the school\n\nadministration is lodged with the city council;\n\nthe board must have all its\n\nbills approved by councils before they can be paid by the city treasurer.\n\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHALL STATE REGULATE TEACHERS' SALARIES?\n\n831\n\nboard also has power to appoint a business manager to take charge of the\nbusiness side of the schools.\n\nMy discussion would be incomplete did I not touch at least upon the\ngratifying impetus which has been to the selection of better schoolhouse plans.\n\nThis subject will be discussed by two of the greatest schoolhouse experts of\nthe country at tomorrow's meeting.\n\nSuffice it for me to say that school boards\n\nhave during the past year not only recognized the importance of preparing a\nfixed program for the construction of a new building, but have also called in\n\nimpartial expert advice on the selection of plans.\n\nSuch experts as Mr. C. B. J.\n\nSnyder, architect and superintendent of school buildings for the board of\n\neducation of Greater\n\nNew York, Mr. William B. Ittner, architect for the\n\nschool board of St. Louis, Mo., and others, have been called to several cities\nto select schoolhouse plans.\nis\n\nExperience has demonstrated that this method\n\ncertain to secure schoolhouse plans that are practical\n\nand economical,\n\nutilitarian in character, and economical in cost.\n\nThe law just enacted by the legislature of Pennsylvania estabh'shes strict\nrules to be applied in the construction of new school buildings in the matter\n\nof heating, ventilation,\n\nand sanitation.\n\nThe state of New York has enacted\n\na similar law.\n\nSpeaking prospectively, it is safe to say that the progress which has been\nmanifested during the past year will continue during the next with increasing\nintensity.\n\nThe new laws enacted may not prove perfect in operation, but a\n\nreadiness to ehminate undesirable improvements will tend to bring American\n\nschool administrative labors to their highest state of efficiency.\n\nSHALL THE STATE REGULATE TEACHERS' SALARIES?\nFRANK H. SOMMER, MEMBER OF BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEWARK, N. J.\nhad in my possession a collection of excerpts from various\nwork of the\nteacher.\nAs I turned page after page, it seemed to me that the chorus of\nappreciation ever grew, and that the resources of all tongues had been exhausted\nI recently\n\nwritings in appreciation of the importance to the state of the\n\nin the effort to give appreciative expression to the importance of the profession\nof the teacher.\n\nIt\n\nseemed to me that here at least was one class of public\n\nservants the value of whose service to the state was unquestioned, and whose\nskillful and faithful performance of its work had met with deserved recognition.\n\nA Httle later, and while the effect of my examination of this collection\nwas still vivid, there came to my hands the report of the Committee on Salaries,\nTenures, and Pensions of School-Teachers of this Association. I turned to\nthis report\n\nwith interest, for there I expected to find that appreciation had\n\nTo my dismay, I found embodied\nmass of statistics this statement, referring to a table contained therein,\n\ntaken a form more substantial than words.\nin a\n\ninvolving a comparison of the earnings of municipal employees\n\n—laborers\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n832\n\non\n\nstreet\n\nand sewer work\n\n—with the earnings\n\nof\n\n[Administration\n\nwomen teachers in the\n\nelementary schools of some forty-eight cities in various parts of the country:\n\nOn the basis of fifty weeks of work during the year, the earnings of the laborers would\nin nearly every city exceed those of the lowest-paid elementary teacher.\n\n— Chicago,\n\nThe exceptions\n\nColumbus, Ga., Meridian, Miss., and Washington,\nD. C. In the cases of Columbus and Meridian, all the laborers are, of course, colored,\nwhile the teachers are white. In many cases the laborer's pay is greatly in excess of the\nto this are only four\n\n111.,\n\nteachers' minimum.\n\nSo astounding seemed this statement that I feared that some grave error\nhad been committed; but as I scanned the figures and compared them with\nother data, the conviction was borne in upon me that here there was no error,\nand that the statement, startUng tho it was, was fully supported by the facts.\nThese few Hnes of this report blotted out for me the pages of words of\nappreciation, and there came before me the picture of a bright-faced child\nentering one of our elementary schools, passing to one of our secondary schools,\n\nand then on into a normal and training school, maintained thruout by the\nself-denial of others; passing again into our elementary schools, and there\ndevoting herself to the work of preparing others to take their places in the\ncitizenship of this republic, until her hair, first lustrous brown, became streaked\nwith gray and later a crown of snow-white; until her head, once proudly held\nerect, was lowered by the burden of advancing years, and the face, once\nglowing with health, took on a startling pallor; compelled, long past the age\nfinally surrendering\nof useful endeavor, to keep up the effort to teach; and\nand seeking provision for the few remaining years of Hfe at the hands of\n\n—\n\nothers,\n\nor petitioning for the state or municipal aid.\n\nanswer echoes and re-echoes.\n\nAnd why?\n\nThe\n\nShe gave to her Ufe's work years of preparation;\n\nupon the faithful performance of that life-work the welfare of the state was\ndependent; in its performance, always on public view, she was obliged to\nlive according to the standards of those about her; and a grateful people\nbestowed upon her, in reward, the munificent compensation of its unskilled\nlabor in street and sewer work, scarcely sufficing for the bare necessities of\nlife, and admitting of no provision for declining years.\nYou who are members of our educational boards must bear testimony\nto the truth of this picture for have you not time and again been called upon\nto deal with a teacher who had served the community well, but whose days\nof usefulness, thru advancing years, was past; whose continuance in the\nschools worked positive harm ? And yet have you closed the portals of the\nAnd was this not due to the fact that your\nschools to her ? I dare say not.\n;\n\nheart revolted at the thought of turning adrift a faithful public servant, who,\n\nthru no falilt of her own, was without means of future sustenance ?\n\nWords of appreciation are not to be decried, but ''actions speak louder\nthan words,\" and in our treatment of the teachers of our common schools it\n\nwould seem that we as a people had been guilty of \"lip-service.\"\nHow comes it that the conditions set forth in this report exist? How\ncomes it that action does not square with word ? Why is it that, with increased\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHALL STATE REGULATE TEACHERS' SALARIES?\n\n833\n\nand steadily increasing requirements in the preparation for the work of the\nteacher, with teaching raised to the level of other professions, with a steady\n\nincrease in the cost of the necessaries of life, with compensation in other occu-\n\npations and professions tending upward, the compensation of the teacher is\n\nmeasured by that paid to unskilled labor ?\n\nRunning over the statutes of our states, I find that, as a general rule, while\nthe fixing of the compensation of teachers is the function of a local educational\n\nboard, yet the funds available for payment are provided and Umited by another\n\nmunicipal body, and that, therefore, this function of the educational board\nis\n\nnot independent, but is Umited.\n\nAs the result of inquiry, I find that local boards of education, as a rule,\nhave been alive to the conditions which have been pointed out, but that ofttimes\ntheir efforts to better these conditions have been rendered futile by the action\n\nof the municipal body intrusted with the apportionment of municipal funds.\n\nWhen the sphere of woman's activity was Umited; when of the professions\nthat of the teacher alone was open to her;\n\nwhen the requirements for teachers\n\nwere of anything but an exacting nature, the standard of compensation for\nteachers was fixed; but as other occupations and professions have been\n\nopened to her, and as the requirements for teachers have become more and\nmore exacting, our municipal bodies, upon which falls the duty of providing\nfunds for payment, have been slow to make provision that would admit of\nincreasing the standard of compensation.\n\n—the\n\nbane of municipal authorities\n\nIn great part this is due to that\n\ntax-rate,\n\nupon the maintenance of which\nand to the\n\nat a low level continuance in power is deemed to be dependent,\n\nfact that, from the standpoint of poUtical expediency, the item \"for teachers\nsalaries \" in a tax budget seems more readily to admit of reduction than some\n\nothers.\n\nIn these conditions we have another iUustration of the verity of the state-\n\nment made by Bryce in his The American Commonwealth:\n\n\"There is no\n\ndenying that the government of cities is the one conspicuous failure of the\n\nUnited States.\"\n\nThe maintenance and regulation of the schools are primarily\n\na function of the state; this function it has in part delegated to the munici-\n\nThey have been remiss in their duty to provide a \"living wage\" for\n\npaUties.\n\nthe maintenance of the teaching corps, and naught seems to remain save for\nthe state to interfere\n\nand enforce the performance by the municipalities of\n\nthis obUgation.\n\nIn several states steps in this direction have been taken.\nland, Mississippi,\n\nIndiana, Mary-\n\nNew York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia have placed\n\nupon their statute-books laws establishing a minimum salary to be paid to\nteachers.\n\nThe statute applying to the city of New York is analyzed in the report\nof the\n\nCommittee on Salaries, Tenures, and Pensions, and suggestions for\n\nthe amendment thereof are made, which are well worthy of study.\n\nThe enactment of statutes merely establishing a minimum salary for all\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nteachers will not suffice to correct the evil conditions which\n\nwe have con-\n\n834\n\nsidered.\n\nSuch\n\nstatutes should contain provisions,\n\nappHcable to the more\n\npopulous municipahties, requiring the payment, at the end of fixed periods\nof\n\nadjudged meritorious service, of a specified minimum salary yearly, in\n\naddition to the prescribed\n\nminimum salary, in order that continuous meri-\n\ntorious service receive recognition.\n\nSuch statutes might also with advantage require the adoption by the local\nboards in the more populous municipalities of regular schedules of salaries?\nwith provision for a fixed regular increase for merit and additional length\nof service; the consideration of the revision of such schedules at the expiration\n\nof stated periods of years at a special meeting, action upon the subject of the\nrevision thereof to be taken only at a subsequent meeting held after the lapse\n\nand that, pending such required periodical action\nupon the question of the revision of such schedules, no alteration be made\ntherein without the consent of three-fourths of the members of the local board\nof a stated period of time;\n\nat a meeting specially called for that purpose.\n\nLegislation along these lines will be of little avail, however, so long as the\n\npower is vested in a local body to limit arbitrarily the funds available for the\npayment of teachers' salaries, and the scheme of legislation requires for its\ncompleteness a statute fixing a minimum sum to be raised annually for the\n\npayment of teachers' salaries, basing this sum upon a percentage of taxratables upon school attendance, or fixing it by other means, as may best\nserve under the varying conditions which prevail in the several states.\n\nFrom the adoption of legislation along these general lines there will result:\nThe fixing of a standard below which compensation cannot fall.\nThe assuring of recognition of continuous meritorious service\n\nin\n\nincreased\n\ncompensation.\n\nThe classification of the teaching force and the adoption of uniform schedules\napplicable to each class.\n\nThe maintenance of these schedules for a fixed period, broken in upon only when\nthree-fourths of the local board shall consent in special meeting.\n\nThe consideration of the revision of these schedules at stated intervals.\nThe separation of funds for the pajonent of salaries from the general educational\nappropriation.\n\nThe protection of salary schedules against relapse owing to other public demands.\nI\n\nam not sufficiently optimistic to believe that this plan, or any other\n\ncalculated to produce these results, will meet with ready acceptance by our\nlegislative Solons.\n\nTo bring about its acceptance, in part or in whole, will\n\nrequire a campaign of education.\n\nIn this connection it has occurred to me that our legislatures may perhaps\nbe persuaded, with comparatively\n\nlittle\n\neffort,\n\nto furnish indirectly\n\nmeasure of relief by the enactment of statutes requiring that\nstate the total amount of the levy,\n\nall\n\nsome\n\ntax-bills\n\nand that the appropriations for payment\n\nof teachers' salaries and for general educational purposes appear as separate\n\nitems.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSHALL STATE REGULATE TEACHERS' SALARIES?\n\n835\n\nSuch statutory requirements cannot but have a wholesome effect upon\n\ncommunity funds, and\nwould incidentally furnish, thru the comparisons made possible, ammunition\nthe officials intrusted with the appropriation of the\n\nfor the campaign.\n\nDISCUSSION\nHarvey H. Hubbert, member of the Board of Education, Philadelphia, Pa.\nquestion of teachers' salaries is one which has from the advent of the more\n\n—The\n\nmodem\n\nschool system elicited profound interest and discussion, agitated both teacher and educational authorities, and, we may assert with entire confidence, has never been adequately\n\nadjusted by any educational system of administration.\n\nFrom the early or primitive days, when the teacher boarded around among the district school trustees or commissioners, and oftdmes relinquished the entire monthly stipend\n\nfor very scanty fare and the privilege of living, down to this year of our Lord, the salary\n\nof the teacher has been the most vexatious and difficult problem which has confronted\n\nschool authorities everywhere;\n\nand this discussion of today is the strongest evidence we\n\ncould present that the question is as problematical as ever, and as far from a satisfactory\n\nWe would not have it inferred that no progress has been made toward a\nmore substantial recognition of the teacher's services and worth; for we must all admit\nthat the years of effort have resulted in a more adequate salary scale. This is particularly\ntrue of our larger cities, where appropriations have been sufficiently munificent to warrant\nadjustment.\n\nliberal compensation for the teacher, enabling those of both sexes to enter the profession\n\nwith the view of making it their life-work;\nexist only in a limited degree,\n\nbut because this liberality and opportunity\n\nwhen considered in relation to the large army of teachers\n\nthruout the land, the obligation is still a very heavy one to use every honorable effort to\nbring the average level more nearly up to that of the best-paid class.\nthe poorer school district\n\nis\n\nThe teacher of\n\njust as important, in the consideration of this subject, as\n\nany other; and when we consider the high\nthe sacrificial spirit which pervade\n\nthe\n\nlife\n\nteacher in every place and station, then, in\n\nresponsibility, the moral obligation, and\nand control the motives of the faithful\nall\n\nreason, why should not the remunera-\n\ntion be as commensurate with the responsibihties in one place as in another?\n\nWe are\n\nexacting more in the way of preparation and training from the teacher of today, and the\n\npedagogical equipment is far greater and more thoro, than ever before\n\n;\n\nand it is therefore\n\nonly logical that the teacher should be exacting in the demand for a more just compensation,\n\nwhich shall be a fitting return for the years devoted to study preparation for the\n\nwork.\n\nMany who are doing noble work in training children for the duties of Ufe, and\n\nimplanting the seeds of knowledge which are to bear the fruit of wisdom in after-life, are\nreceiving for the splendid effort less per day than some of the unskilled toilers in the multi-\n\nform vocations of the busy world. It is because of the negligence and disregard of these\nobligations toward the teacher that we have suggestions hke that presented for our consideration today, and, as in the case of many social problems, which are difficult of solution,\nfor the betterment of the people, the state is appealed to as the last resort of relief, when\n\nother plans fail to bring about better conditions, and legislatures are petitioned and\nimportuned to write into the laws of the commonwealth such imperative provisions and\n\nall\n\nrequirements as shall secure results which individual and collective personal efforts in a\n\ncommunity have utterly failed to accomplish.\nBut state intervention and legislative enactment do not always prove successful as a\npanacea for social wrongs, and we should weigh well any proposition which claims to\nraise the standard of teachers' salaries.\nBefore an appeal is made to that source of\nrelief, and while we fully recognize the need, and admit every claim of the underpaid\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n836\nteacher,\n\n[Administration\n\nwe cannot accept the theory that the only relief rests with the state.\n\nI shall\n\nsubmit, briefly, some of our objections to this plan.\n\nThe state by legislation cannot secure a uniform scale of salaries by the control and\ndistribution of all the school revenues of the school districts therein, so as to give equal\n\npay for a uniform service;\n\nfor by this plan, one can readily perceive, the result would be\n\nthe reduction of the better pay of the teacher in the cities and more populous school districts,\n\nin order to raise the average to a higher level of the whole teaching force of the\n\nstate.\n\nThis plan would work injustice to the class receiving the better salaries, and create\n\na storm of opposition in that quarter which would be almost irresistible.\nIf,\n\non the other hand, an adjustment was to be based upon a graded system whereby\n\nthe claims of the teacher in the more populous district, with a larger school appropriation,\n\nwere to be treated in any way paramount to those in the poorer districts, in point of school\nrevenue, the same disparity which now exists between these two classes would be continued, and a discrimination would be perpetuated by law which would violate the basic\n\nprincipal of all state and national legislation, viz.^ \"Equal rights before the law.\"\nIf it is also proposed to require the state to supplement the school district revenues for\n\npublic education by larger appropriations to the sparsely settled and poorer localities, and\n\nwithholding from cities and more opulent districts a corresponding reduction in the school\ngratuity, then a just charge of unfair discrimination would be held against the authorities,\n\nand, further than this, the outlay would have to be so increased that the state revenues\n\nwould be inadequate to meet the Uabilities, and the financial burden would become a\nserious one in the fiscal operations of the municipality.\n\nFor the reasons which I have enumerated, the regulation of teachers' salaries by\n\nmy judgment, impracticable, and fraught with insurmountable obstacles\nand difl&culties.\nBut you may ask: Can the state do nothing to enforce a more liberal treatment of\nthe underpaid teacher, and put upon the school districts a binding obHgation to pay a\nmore just remuneration to the teacher? I believe there is one practicable method by\nwhich it can, and that is by a legislative enactment which shall fix a good, liberal minimum\nsalary, below which no teacher in the state shall be employed.\nWe have such a law in\nmy own beloved state of Pennsylvania, and it is working with great practicable success.\nNo school district can employ a school-teacher in Pennsylvania below the legal minimum;\nand we advise the representatives present from any state having no such law to put one\non your statute-books without delay, and be sure to fix the minimum high enough to\ncause to fade out the blush of shame which may have become a burning crimson, from\nthe continued injustice to that good and faithful pubHc servant, conservator of juvenile\nmorality, and supreme factor in education the teacher.\nthe state is, in\n\n—\n\nRECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\nSEYMOUR DAVIS, PmLADELPHIA, PA.\n\nThe old ideas of school construction, with the poor ventilation, inadequately\nand their many other inconveniences, are rapidly being discarded. In many of the new buildings are incorporated the scientific principles\n\nlighted rooms,\n\nof modern school architecture.\n\nThis development of recent years has extended\n\nto every part of the civilized world, not only on the vital points just referred\nto,\n\nbut in all points of construction.\n\nWe have but to glance over the prize\n\nessay of Dr. Alcott, written in 1831, to find that his ideal for a schoolroom\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nwas ojie lighted on opposite sides.\n\n837\n\nGeorge B. Emerson, in 1842, advised less\n\nthan 118 cubic feet of air per pupil in schoolrooms.\n\nBurrowes published in\n\n1855 a treatise in which the heating and ventilating of schools was gone into\nin great detail, and for a room to accommodate fifty pupils he allowed vent-\n\nducts only ten by eighteen inches.\n\nThese gentlemen were the authorities of their day, and their suggestions\nin the construction of school buildings were widely circulated and followed;\n\nbut the revolution in all matters pertaining to school construction and administration\n\nhas changed the requirements for the modern school.\n\nA great\n\nfactor in the advance of school work is due to the public demand for better\n\nOur school commissioners require that buildings shall be planned\non correct architectural and sanitary lines; and so long as this educational\nthings.\n\nmovement advances, we can expect still greater progress.\nOur new buildings are being properly equipped, and are hygienically\nand architecturally in keeping with the advance in education. Heating,\nventilation, and sanitation have been reduced to such an exact science that\nthere can be no excuse for an inadequately ventilated, poorly heated, or\n\nunsanitary school building.\n\nThe\n\nsanitary\n\nconditions\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nschoolroom\n\nhaving such an influence for good or bad upon the health and morals of the\nchildren,\n\nand bearing such weight in the success of the teacher, it is to the\n\ninterest of everybody to be satisfied only with the best that science can produce.\n\nThe details of the modern school plan should be as carefully considered\nas the details of a hospital.\nof the present\n\nIt is encouraging to note that the school boards\n\nday make themselves familiar with what is best in school-\n\nplanning, the result being that each year\n\nwe see buildings that are better\n\nplanned, better constructed, and properly designed, at an\n\ninitial\n\ncost not\n\ngreatly in excess of that under the old requirements.\n\nLaws governing schoolhouse construction.\n\n— Certain countries,\n\nstates,\n\nand\n\ncities are fortunate in possessing laws governing the planning and construction\n\nof their school buildings.\nis\n\nTo assure these laws being carried into effect, it\n\nrequired that plans be submitted to competent heads of departments for\n\napproval before any contracts are entered into. These laws are doing much\ngood toward the development of school architecture, and their influence\nextends far beyond their own jurisdiction, neighboring states and cities benefiting by their influence.\n\nFor example:\n\nAn architect who has designed a\n\nbuilding under the foregoing restrictions, or a superintendent\n\nwho under\n\nthem has planned its details, when called upon to assist in the erection of a\nnew building, in communities not possessing such laws, naturally uses his\ninfluence to secure the best.\n\nThe laws controUing school construction succeed in establishing good\nconditions for the safety and health of pupils and teachers.\nthe fireproofing of stairs and other parts of the building;\nstruction,\n\nand number of exits;\n\nfire\n\nThis includes\n\nthe placing, con-\n\ntowers and outside escapes; the square\n\nfeet of floor area and cubic feet of space that shall be allotted to each occupant\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n838\n\nin schoolrooms;\nglass area;\n\nthe\n\nminimum height of ceilings;\n\nthe proper Hghting of the schoolrooms;\n\namount of outside\n\nthe\n\nthe swinging of doors;\n\nheating, ventilation, sanitation;\n\nconstruction of ceilings;\n\n[Administration\n\nand other points\n\nof equal importance.\n\nThe underlying principles of modern school architecture may be divided\ninto several different heads, such as the orientation, planning, construction,\ndesignijig\n\nand equipment.\n\nSelection oj sites.\nin\n\n—The building\n\nsite\n\nmust be well considered, especially\nEvery precaution should be\n\nrespect to proper sanitary surroundings.\n\ntaken to avoid the possibility of dampness.\nting the sunhght,\n\nproximity, should not be overlooked.\nfailure\n\nif\n\nThe future possibility of obstruc-\n\nand the hazard of having surrounding buildings in close\n\nThe best-arranged plan will be a\n\nthese questions are not properly considered\n\nand solved.\n\nIf the\n\nconditions are such that surrounding buildings preclude the proper lighting\nof schoolrooms, then reflecting prisms may be used to advantage.\n\nI do not\n\nrecommend them, however, except as temporary assistance for old buildings.\nIn a new building, if such conditions exist, I would prefer to design the rooms\nnarrower, and place in the rooms lighted from one side a less number of desks.\nThis brings up the old question of the exact number of pupils that should be\naccommodated in the schoolrooms used for the graded pupils. The tendency\nis to make forty pupils the maximum for any one room, especially in primary\ngrades; and there are many good arguments in its favor.\n\nIn arranging a, plan, much depends upon the size of the ground allotted\nto the building, the number of pupils to be accommodated, and their grade.\n\nAn elementary rule is* to avoid light wells, and use light courts as sparingly\nas possible, and never where the sunhght cannot at some hour of the day\nfind its way to each room.\nof coiTidors and rooms.\n\nThe successful plan is the simplest in its disposition\nWhere possible, the entrances for the boys and girls\n\nshould be near the ground level, avoiding the long flights of outside steps.\n\nif\n\nBasement, exits, etc.\n\n—Keep the basement well out of ground. This space,\n\nproperly Hghted,\n\nvaluable for playrooms, manual-training, and other\n\nlike\n\nis\n\nrooms, but is lost for successful use unless this condition is compHed\n\nwith.\n\nWhen the building is two stories in height, a high basement can be\n\nmade to add materially to its dignity and architectural appearance.\nfloor entrances\n\nGround-\n\nshould open into a commodious rotunda, and the rotunda\n\nshould communicate with the principal rooms on this floor, including locker-\n\nrooms, toilet-rooms\n\n(if\n\nto the floors above.\n\nplaced in the building), and also the stairs leading\nBesides these ground-floor entrances, one or more\n\nentrances should be provided from grade direct to the first floor.\n\nAll stairways\n\nshould be so planned that the bottom flights end in close proximity to the\noutside entrances.\n\nThey should be of ample width, easy of ascent, with\njamming or crowding; they\n\nintermediate landings wide enough to avoid\n\nshould be fire-proof and always well lighted.\nCorridors and class-rooms.\n\n— Corridors must be generous in width, bright,\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nRECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nand with as few turns or breaks in the walls as possible.\n\n839\n\nHat- and coat-rooms\n\nfor the lower grades are properly placed when adjoining to and communicating\n\nwith the schoolroom; but for the higher grades it is frequently more con-\n\nCloak-rooms must be ventilated and receive\n\nvenient to centraHze them.\n\nTheir surrounding walls should extend to the\n\ndirect light.\n\nceiling,\n\nand\n\nthe rooms provided with a separate compartment for each pupil.\n\nA schoolroom having its length a little less than one and one-half times\nits\n\nwidth is well proportioned and admits of a good arrangement of desks\n\non the long axis. Thirty-two feet in length allows eight desks to a row and\nample space for the teacher, who can, without effort, speak to a pupil at this\nTwenty-three feet is a satisfactory width, which allows of five\ndistance.\nrows of seats and generous aisles. A room 23 by 32 feet approximates 18\nsquare feet of floor area to each of the forty pupils, and with a story height\nof 12 feet gives 200 cubic feet of air space for each pupil.\n\nThe English, French, and Dutch school laws, published for the guidance\nof architects in planning school buildings, call for a lesser width of room,\n\nsome fixing the height equal to two-thirds of its width plus the thickness of\nTo obtain the best of results,\nthe walls in which the windows are placed.\nthe schoolroom should be 13 feet high.\n\nbut I believe\n\nit\n\ninadvisable,\n\nas\n\nSome advocate a greater height,\n\nunnecessarily adds to the expense of\n\nit\n\nconstruction and increases the distance in traveling from floor to floor.\nLighting.\n\n—Seldom does\n\nit\n\nhappen that too much light is secured.\n\ngreatest amount should unquestionably come from the left of the pupil.\n\nThe\nIn\n\ncorner rooms, where it is desirable to place windows at the rear, they should\n\nbe placed near the angle, in order that teachers may face wall surfaces as\n\nThe upper portions of windows furnish the most desirable\nlight;\nThe glass\nsurface should not be less than one-fifth of the floor area. The inside vertical\n\nmuch as possible.\n\ntherefore the windows should extend close to the ceiling.\n\njambs should be flared, and the windows should be spaced in the walls at\nregular intervals. Transoms and circular head windows are to be avoided,\nas they obstruct the light. A few wide windows are preferable to a number\nof smaller ones.\n\nroom.\n\nWood wainscoting should be eliminated from the school-\n\nBy keeping the window-sills, chalk-tray, and chair-rail at the same\n\nheight, together with the picture-mold, a division of the walls is secured that\nis\n\nboth effective and economical.\n\nA large unobstructed area of slate black-\n\nboard is essential to the schoolroom.\n\nThe space immediately back of the\n\nteacher's desk is especially valuable for this purpose, and should be kept free\n\nfrom obstruction.\nSanitation.\n\n—Double sash and weather stripping are\n\nto\n\nbe recommended\n\nin cold cHmates; while they add somewhat to the initial cost of construction,\n\nthey save in fuel and add to the comfort of those occupying the room.\n\nNo schoolroom is complete without a teacher's book closet, provided\nwith shelves and hooks.\n\nEvery school building should be planned\n\nteacher's room, properly equipped,\n\nused as a temporary hospital.\n\nfor a\nwhere in cases of emergency it can be\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n840\n\n[Administration\n\nThe plumbing should have the most careful consideration, as the health\nof the children may be affected if this work is not properly installed.\nof the plumbing should be made at stated intervals.\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nbuilding,\n\nTests\n\nThe sanitaries, if placed\n\nshould be automatic in their flushing,\n\nand ventilated\n\nindependently of other parts of the building.\n\n—\n\nHeating and ventilation. Pupils in class- and study-rooms should be\nsuppHed with not less than 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute, and an equal\n\namount of vitiated air should be exhausted to the atmosphere at a point most\nextreme from where the fresh\n\nair is\n\nTo do this\n\ntaken into the building.\n\nsuccessfully, and at the same time obtain properly warmed air, a mechanical\n\nsystem of indirect heating and ventilation must be installed in buildings\ncontaining more than four class-rooms with both supply and exhaust fans,\n\nand where steam is used for the motive power the exhaust can be utilized\n0,5\n\nsupplementary heat to temper the air before passing over the heating\n\nsurface.\n\nWhere furnaces are used to warm the fresh air, the exhaust from\n\nthe motive power can be used to advantage by direct radiation, to heat the\n\nrooms used for administration work, which allows of their comfortable use\nwithout starting the fans.\n\nIn designing the heating and ventilating apparatus,\n\neconomical results can be secured by revolving the air in the building until\noccupied, and also by controlling the tempered and\n\nwarm air delivered to\n\nthe rooms.\n\nAssembly rooms.\n\n—In buildings devoted, wholly or\n\nin part, to the higher\n\nbranches of education, the plan naturally becomes more complex, but the\n\nSuch buildings are\n\ngeneral principles of school-planning remain the same.\n\nlarger and more pretentious, the details of which should have the most careful\n\nthought and study.\n\nIt is\n\nnecessary to plan for the assembling of all pupils\n\nat certain intervals, to provide for the diversified class work, together with\n\naccommodations for the society and athletic work, all of which are important.\nIt is in this class of building that you will frequently find accommodated the\n\nadministrative branch of the schools, rooms for the board of education, the\nsecretary, and the superintendent.\n\nThis department should be of easy access\n\nto the public, and provided with toilets,\n\nand fireproof vaults, rooms for the\n\nunpacking, sorting, marking, and storage of supplies.\n\nThe assembly-room,\nThis room should\n\nowing to its large floor area, naturally dominates the plan.\n\nbe placed on the first floor, where it is easy of access, and where any danger\nin dismissing large assemblages is reduced to the\n\nminimum.\n\nThere is also\n\nthe advantage of simplicity of construction and economy of space.\n\nThe plan of the assembly-room depends largely upon the purposes for\nwhich it is to be used.\n\nIt can be of the amphitheater pattern, with galleries,\nwhere commencement and institute meetings may be held; or it may be much\n\nsimpler in form, when used solely for the daily opening and closing exercises.\n\nBy placing the scientific branches and other departments of special work\non the top floor, the lower floors are left for a good arrangement of class-,\nstudy-, and recitation-rooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECENT PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\nThe Reading High School.\n\n— may be\nIt\n\n841\n\nof interest to describe here a high-\n\nnow under construction at Reading, Pa., in which the plan\nhas been most carefully studied. It is one of a very large number of similar\nbuildings that are now contemplated or in course of construction.\nThe Reading building, which is to accommodate eight hundred boys, is\nThe auditorium is\nthree stories and basement in height, thoroly fireproof.\nschool building,\n\nplaced on the\n\nfirst\n\nfloor,\n\ncapacity of fifteen hundred.\n\nwith dividing partitions, giving a total seating\n\nTwo of these divisions may be used for large\n\nand the two center divisions for lecture- and assembly-rooms.\nOn the first floor are also provided rooms for the library, visitors, principal,\nand faculty; also class-rooms and cloak-rooms. The second floor is entirely\ndevoted to class- and recitation-rooms, and the gallery of the assembly-room.\nThe third floor is divided into laboratories, with their class- and lecture-rooms,\ncommercial, banking-, and typewriting-rooms, and professors' private rooms,\ndrawing- and modeling-rooms, and room for photography.\nThe basement accommodates, besides the rooms for manual training,\nlunch, and drill-rooms, and rooms for athletics, the necessary space for the\nheating and ventilating plant, consisting of a double-fan combination steam\nand warm-air heating and ventilating apparatus, with a complete system for\nclass-rooms,\n\nregulating the temperature in all parts of the building.\n\nThe construction thruout is the best.\n\nThe exterior is of granite, brick,\n\nand terra-cotta. The interior is of iron and concrete construction, with metal\nand hollow tile partitions. The floors and walls of corridors, cloak-rooms, and\ntoilets are of white tile.\nThe stairs are built of iron and slate; soapstone is\nused for the finish of walls in class-rooms, and the floors are of narrow maple\nboards. The little woodwork used is of quartered oak. Each corridor is\nequipped with sanitary drinking-fountains, fire-lines, janitor's closets, and\nsupply-rooms.\n\nModes of construction.\n\n—The construction\n\nof the modern school building,\nWhere sufficient funds are not available,\nevery precaution should be taken to make the building slow-burning. This\n\nwhere possible, should be fireproof.\n\ncan be accomplished, to a large extent, by using metal studs and lath in place\nof wood stripping and wood partitions, and supporting the ends of all beams\n\non masonry walls.\nstairs built\n\nWith this construction, together with the use of fireproof\n\nbetween brick walls, the building is made safe; but the many\n\nannoyances due to the shrinking of wood would not be overcome.\n\nThese,\n\nhowever, can be greatly reduced by subjecting the building to a good trial\nof the heating plant for a few weeks before the building is plastered.\nI have stated before that the school building should be as carefully planned\n\nas a hospital.\n\nIt also should be as carefully constructed and finished ; avoiding\n\neverything that is difficult to keep clean, finishing the floors above the basement\nin schoolrooms with narrow hard lumber, and the walls with a smooth tinted\nsurface.\n\nThe walls of cloak-rooms, toilets, halls, and basement rooms should\n\nbe wainscoted with enamel brick.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": "842\n\nThe\n\nfinish\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nbuilding materials should be non-absorbent;\n\ncombustible\n\nmaterials should only be used where absolutely necessary, and all unnecessary\nprojections which catch the dust should be avoided.\n\nA dignified exterior. —As to the exterior, it should be simple and refined\nin design, materials only being used that are substantial and lasting;\n\nand each\n\nbuilding should have that dignity and beauty obtained by simple and straight-\n\nforward means, without sacrificing economy of the requirements of utility.\n\nThe beauty of the building should reside in its proportions, and in the lines\nand grouping of the doors and windows, without superfluous ornamentation.\nIt is not necessary or desirable to go into an elaborate expenditure of\nmoney in the construction or equipment of school buildings. They should\nbe built well and equipped substantially. The desire to surround the children\nwith the beautiful during their receptive age can be materially assisted by\nsupplying each building with a well-selected collection of beautiful pictures\n\nand casts.\nIn closing, I will make a plea for the enactment of more effective legislation\n\nand in this legislation I\nwould suggest that provision be made for a fire-limit of forty feet or over,\n\npertaining to the erecting of our school buildings,\n\nincluding streets and alleys, between the building and the adjoining proper-\n\nSuch a law would not only protect the building from outside fire, but\nwould always assure the proper lighting and air space, and would be the\n\nties.\n\nmeans of adding to the arcliitectural effectiveness of the structure.\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. H. Arnold, director of New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven,\n\nConn.\n\n— Great progress has been made\n\nin the last few years along practically all lines of\n\nam afraid I can not say as much of the advance made in the construction of gymnasia.\nTo be sure, physical training is a newcomer in a great many of\nschool architecture.\n\nI\n\nour schools, and the experience in construction of gymnasia is therefore limited. Most\ngymnasia constructed have been gymnasia in colleges, preparatory schools, Y. M. C. A.'s,\n\nand kindred organizations.\n\nUnfortunately, there has been with the introduction of\n\nphysical training in public high- and grammar-schools, wherein class work in physical\ntraining is the only kind of work practical, and where, therefore, the conditions for teach-\n\ning gymnastics differ greatly from the conditions prevailing in gymnasia of colleges, etc.,\n\nwhere usually individual work\n\nis\n\ndone, imitation of gymnasia of colleges,\n\netc.\n\nThis\n\nimitation without discrimination has not only been unfortunate for the teaching of gymnastics,\n\nbut it has also perpetuated some very grave errors made in the construction of\n\nthe gymnasia of some of our leading universities;\n\nerrors not relating to the adaptability\n\ngymnasium to class-room work, but errors in ventilation, heating, and lighting;\nthat is to say, in the very fundamentals of sanitary construction of gymnasia. Having\npersonally inspected a great many gymnasia thruout the country, and having looked over\nsketch plans of over one hundred gymnasia, I am impressed by the fact that a type of\nhigh- or grammar-school gymnasium has not developed, and does not at the present\nof the\n\ntime seem to be developing.\n\nIf a great deal of\n\nunnecessary expense and failure of the\n\nefficiency of physical training are to be guarded against, it is time that such a type should\n\nbe evolved.\n\nIf school authorities, architects, and directors of physical training co-operate,\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "LEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\n843\n\nthere is no apparent reason why such a result could not speedily be accomplished.\n\nNot\n\nbeing an architect, but a specialist in physical training, I may be pardoned for thrusting\n\nupon you some advice which may not appear to be wisdom. I hold that for grammar\nA spacious school yard is\nschools provision for an outdoor gymnasium is paramount.\nThe ingenuity of the physical trainer and\npractically all that is needed to begin with.\nthe zeal of the children should, with the co-operation of the manual -training department,\ntransform the school yard into an outdoor gymnasium equipped, without expense, with all\nWherever possible, there\nthat is needed for outdoor gymnastics, games, and athletics.\nshould be added to this a sun-and rain-shelter in the shape of a Ughtly constructed shed\nborne by high pillars with a glass side or two, disappearing, if possible, above or under\nground. This will serve the purpose of a gymnasium, except on the very coldest days,\nall the year around and in almost any clime.\nIndoor gymnasia should be spacious, in keeping with the size of the classes that are\nto make use of the gymnasium.\nfeet high,\n\nThey should be unobstructed by pillars, at least fifteen\n\nA running-track is needed in high schools only. A suf-\n\ntwenty if possible,\n\nficiency of light, preferably from all sides, and good provision for ventilating and heating,\n\nare essentials.\nditions.\n\nIt is at once\n\napparent that the basement will usually not offer these con-\n\nA desirable height can usually not be given a gymnasium in the basement.\n\nVentilation and heating, as well as Hghting, of a basement gymnasium are difl&cult.\nlars are practically unavoidable, if very heavy iron truss work is not put in,\n\nPil-\n\nand this will\n\nmake the expense of construction of the schoolhouse a goodly sum higher.\n\nFrom the\n\nstandpoint of economy, therefore, the basement gymnasium is once more undesirable.\n\nThe proper place for the gymnasium in high- or grammar-schools is in the garret. This\nplace offers suflScient space which can usually not be used to greater advantage for any\n\nother purpose.\ntion.\n\nThis situation offers practically ideal conditions for lighting and ventila-\n\nPillars are easily avoided, sufficient height readily obtainable.\n\nThe only objection to\n\nplacing the gymnasium on the top floor of a school building has been the noise attendant\n\nupon gymnastic and athletic practice, and the jarring of the building by class work. With\nthe advance in \"deadening,\" noises can be muffled and the jar abolished. The construction of a gymnasium for school purposes needs practically to pay no attention to\ndisposition of apparatus in it beyond two provisions.\nThe first is that in the rafter- or\nbeamwork overhead, be it of iron or wooden construction, be it open or concealed, sufficient facihties for hanging apparatus, such as rings, poles, ladders, etc., should be given.\n\nIn the second place, round the walls on the side of the gymnasium there should be inlaid\n\nheavy wooden planks; one tier near the base, one about\nThis done, the gymnasium\nmay be turned over to the director of physical training, who, if at all competent, can\nmake use of the unlimited chance to fasten apparatus overhead and on the sides of the\n\ninto the iron- or brickwork\nfive feet,\n\nand, if possible, one about ten feet, from the floor.\n\nbuilding to suit the purposes of his teaching.\n\nNEEDED LEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\nC. B. J. SNYDER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS,\n\nBOARD OF EDUCATION,\n\nNEW YORK CITY\nIs legislation desirable\n\nwhich shall have for its object the estabHshment\n\nof certain minimum requirements which shall be observed in the design and\n\nThose who are aware of the results obtained\nwhen certain fixed principles in schoolhouse design have been carried out,\neither voluntary or otherwise, unhesitatingly answer in the affirmative.\nThe\nconstruction of school buildings ?\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n844\nnegative\n\n[Administration\n\nfrom the non-observant, or those to whom the subject has not\n\nis\n\nbeen fairly presented.\n\nThe last twenty-five years have witnessed a complete change in the design\nand methods of construction of buildings, both public and private, thruout\nthe entire country. Attention became first fixed in the commercial world\nupon the possibility of an increased return on investments thru the reduction\nin fire hazard and of maintenance, thru the free use of fire-resisting materials,\nthe logical development of which was the \"skyscraper\" with its incombustible\nwalls, floors, partitions, and stairways.\nAlmost simultaneously, loss of life\nthru fire in places of public assemblage created the demand that such buildings\n\nshould also be built of fireproof materials, with numerous stairways and exits.\n\nThe influence of this movement was felt by the school authorities of several\nof our larger cities, who reached the conclusion that, if these improved methods\n\nand construction paid from the commercial standpoint, then they\n\nof design\n\ncould also be applied to the pubhc school buildings, not only as an economical\n\nmeasure, but to make more safe and secure the lives of the children who\n\nwere to occupy them.\n\nIn all of these matters private enterprise led the way,\n\nand legislation followed.\n\nThe immediate effect of this change in policy was the placing of the problems involved in the hands of skilled architects, who proceeded to introduce\ndesign as one of the elements entering into modern work.\nProgress in heating and ventilating has been\n\nmuch less rapid.\n\nMany\n\nyears ago the state of Massachusetts enacted a law which applied to the\n\n—inserted an act regu—requiring that such buildings should be\n\nconstruction of pubHc buildings and schoolhouses\nlating the\n\nemployment of labor\n\nin\n\nkept and maintained in a proper sanitary condition, and that they should\n\nbe ventilated in such a proper manner that the air should not become so\nexhausted as to be injurious to the health of the persons present therein,\nprovided\n\nit\n\ncould be done without incurring unreasonable expense, and\n\nplacing the enforcement in the hands of the Massachusetts district police.\n\nThe chief of police, after consultation, issued a notice setting the standard\nof ventilation\n\nminute.\n\nas.\n\nthe supply of 30 cubic feet of fresh air per person per\n\nThe net result to not only the commonwealth of Massachusetts\n\nbut to the entire country, was most beneficial, for it encouraged that great\nclass of intelHgent school people to\n\ndemand that the physical welfare of the\nit had direct bearing upon its mental\n\nchild should also be cared for, since\n\ncapacity for study.\n\nThe word ''legislation\" has a formidable sound, but when it is applied\nto schoolhouse design and construction, there are but three points upon which\n\nI should seek to obtain the undiscriminating power of the all-compelling law:\n1.\n\nRequirements as to the lighting and size of class-rooms; also ventilation of the\n\nsupply of a given number of cubic feet of fresh air per person per minute, and the\n\nremoval of vitiated air.\n2.\n\nStairways, exits, and fire-escapes;\n\ntheir size,\n\nnumber, and construction.\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n3.\n\ntEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nBoiler, heat, and vent flues;\n\n845\n\nsmoke, steam, and hot-air pipes; their location and\n\nconstruction.\n\nHealth is placed of first importance, and this includes the conservation\n\nBoth experience and investi-\n\nof the physical and mental energy of the child.\n\ngation show most clearly that nothing so quickly and surely saps the mental\nvigor of a child at study as bad air.\n\nExtensive experiments have been made\n\nboth here and abroad to determine the correct amount of fresh air per minute\n\nwhich should be supplied to an individual.\n\nThe variations in the findings\n\nwere doubtless caused by the difference in local conditions, but an inspection\nof plants actually installed in this country show uniformly good results with\n\na supply of 30 cubic feet of warmed fresh air per pupil per minute.\n\nIt is a\n\nrequirement which can easily be met, and has been accepted by the arcliitectural and engineering professions as standard practice.\n\nDenial cannot be made but that the first cost of installation and the cost\nof\n\nmaintenance will exceed that of. a system installed for heating purposes\n\nonly, and that there are many who deem ventilation, especially in a schoolroom,\n\nas unnecessary; but the benefit to be obtained by the installation of a proper\n\nheating and ventilating apparatus is so great as rapidly to convert unbelievers,\n\nprovided they do not sit as a school board, thus holding the purse-strings and,\n\nbecause the advantages of a ventilated schoolroom are personally unknown to\n\nthem, refuse to permit its being embodied in the plans.\nClass-rooms should be designed to afford\n\nLegislation is the only remedy.\n\n15 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic feet of air space for each pupil,\n\nwith windows opening to the outer light and air, and of an area equal to not\nless than one-fifth of the floor space.\n\nThe second item, that of stairways, exits, and fire-escapes, comes next\nin importance, and has to do with the security or safety of adults as well as\n\nthe child in case of fire or panic.\nvision\n\nupward\n\nThere has been expended under my super-\n\nof $1,200,000 to correct defective stairways, exits,\n\nand fire-\n\nescapes in the public-school buildings of the city of New York, and it will\nrequire nearly as much more before the job is complete, 90 per cent, of which\n\ncould have been saved if the buildings had been properly planned.\n\nIt is this\n\nknowledge of the enormous expense involved and the danger incurred that\nleads me to dwell so forcibly upon this item, as these same defects are found\nin public-school buildings thruout the country.\nIt is not so much the height of tread and the width of riser in a stairway\n\nthat need cause trouble and apprehension, but it is the presence of circular\nstairs,\n\nwinders, or diagonal steps at the point of change of direction in a\n\nThese in themselves are bad enough, but of equal importance are\nthe number, width, and location of stairways, which should be regulated by\n\nstairway.\n\nthe greatest\n\nnumber of individuals which may be called upon to use them\n\nfrom any one point at a given time.\n\nThe recitation of a simple illustration of the violation of this principle\nwhich I was called upon to correct will bring to the mind of each one a parallel\n\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n846\n\nexample with which he is\n\nfamiliar.\n\n[Administration\n\nA school building was erected three\n\nstories high, of the usual character, with fourteen class-rooms\n\n—\n\nsix\n\neach on\n\nthe first and second floors, and two on the third, the balance of the space on\nIt was designed and used not\n\nthis floor being an assembly hall seating 650.\n\nonly for the pupils of the school, but for lecture or other purposes, whereby\nthe adult population of the neighborhood filled the room at times to overflow-\n\nThe building was non-fireproof, even to the stairways, and while there\n\ning.\n\nwere four of these up to the second floor, yet two had been stopped off at that\nThe exit from this room was\nlevel so as not to \"spoil\" the assembly hall.\npossible only thru one large set of double doors at the rear, giving out upon a\ncentral landing, from which led two flights of wood stairways four feet wide.\n\nThe state law required a fire-escape, which had been supplied, of the usual\ndesign\n\n—open\n\nlattice balconies at the level of the window-sill, with one straight\n\nor vertical ladder.\n\nIt\n\n—the architect had complied\n\nwas the same old story\n\nwith the wishes of his clients, who insisted that he should plan the building\nto suit their ideas or yield the work to another man, they being seemingly\nblind to the realization that a building of such design was a menace to the\nlife\n\nand well-being of every person in its neighborhood.\n\nThe location of stairways with reference to their accessibility in an assembly\nand the rapid dismissal of those gathered there by widely separated\nexits, are of just as much importance as the number of stairways; in fact,\n\n•hall,\n\nWide corridors will not alone cause a\ncalm\nassemblage\nto\nits\nfears;\nit is an unreasoning mass, seeking\npanic-stricken\n\nthe two factors are interdependent.\n\nonly exit to the open, where it beheves safety alone to be had.\n\nThe erection of a fire-escape on the exterior of a school building is to be\ndeplored, since its use is not famihar to the child.\n\nIn fact, in the majority\n\nof cases nothing short of an athlete or a fear-crazed person could make a safe\n\ndescent to the ground.\n\nThey darken the rooms, are exposed to the weather,\n\nstamp the building as improperly designed, or such would not\nand\nbe required. Proper planning and construction will increase the expense\nat once\n\nbut sUghtly, and in return there will be had absolute safety.\n\nEach stairway and its inclosing walls should be of fireproof materials,\nshut off at each floor by fireproof partitions and doors, fitted with automatic\nsprings\n\nand checks.\n\nThe building is not only made safe for use, but the\n\nnoise of operation of the school is reduced to a minimum, and the interior is\n\nmade more comfortable in cold weather, with a smaller consumption of fuel.\nOne of the simplest and best forms of fireproof stair-treads is of oak or\nmaple planking, secured to an iron plate. They will last as long as slate,\nas far as wear is concerned, and will endure fire and water,\n\nand yet give a\n\nsecure footing for the firemen long after slate and other similar materials have\n\nbeen shattered from their effects.\nAll exit doors should open outwardly, and no door should open immediately\n\nupon a stairway, but upon a proper landing, of a width at least equal to\nthat of the door.\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\n847\n.\n\nThese requirements would not bother the school boards where the need\nis only for a one-story building, but when a community has reached that\n\nperiod of growth where two-, three-, or four-story school buildings are required,\n\nhas also reached the point where it can and should be brought to recognize\n\nit\n\nthe advantage of proper design and construction.\n\nThe third item of\n\nlocation\n\nand construction of\n\nboiler, heat,\n\nand vent\n\nflues, smoke, steam, and hot-air pipes, has to do with the safety of the pupils,\n\nbut also goes further and protects the taxpayer against loss of his investment\nin the construction of a school building.\n\nViewed from a purely commercial standpoint, no school board can afford\nassume the risk of erecting a non-fireproof school building of more than\none story in height. But the time is not yet ripe for them willingly to adopt\n\nto\n\nany such idea, save in the three or four of the largest cities in the country.\n\nI\n\ndo not, therefore, propose legislation now even for slow-burning construction,\nbut to confine ourselves to purely preventive measures.\n\nMr. William George Bruce, of Milwaukee, in a letter early this year stated\nthat during the past winter he had kept a record of schoolhouse\n\nfires,\n\nand\n\nestimates the total loss at upward of $1,627,000, which is also a fair estimate\nof the annual loss for several past years.\n\nNearly every one of these fires may\n\nbe traced to a violation of good practice in the installation of the work included\nin this third item.\n\nThe inclosing brickwork of all boilers and furnace flues should never be\nless\n\nthan 8 inches thick at any point, and in almost every case the inside 4\n\ninches should be of firebrick laid in fire clay for a distance of 25 feet from the\n\nsource of heat;\n\nall\n\nother smoke flues should have not less than 4 inches of\n\nbrickwork, and be fined from bottom to top with terra-cotta or cast-iron flue\nlinings.\n\nNo joist, beam, floor, or woodwork of any description should be\n\nplaced within one inch of the exterior of any boiler, furnace, or other smoke\nflue;\n\nwood furring should never be nailed to a chimney breast, but the work\n\nshould be studded off so as to keep a clear space of one inch.\n\nSimilar instruc-\n\ntions and increased distances between the woodwork and steam, hot-air, and\n\nother pipes should also be observed.\n\nThe majority of fires are ascribed to defective flues, when in reafity the\nfrom the character of the brickwork as executed by\nfrom\nthe\nfact that the carpenter insisted on hugging the flues\nbut\nthe mason,\n\nreal trouble arose, not\n\ntoo close with his woodwork, not hesitating to nail furring, sheathing,\n\nand\n\nstudding directly thereto, and at the roof frequently cutting out the brickwork\n\nand inserting blocking for his framing.\n\nThe disaster is sure to come sooner\n\nor later.\n\nThere is a fourth item which might well be made the subject of legislation,\nwere the time ripe\n\n—that\n\nsites absolutely in\n\nthe hands of the school boards, thru either purchase or\n\ncondemnation.\n\nof placing the selection\n\nand acquisition of school\n\nEveryone is famihar with the intense bitterness with which\n\nthe efforts of a school board to accompfish this part of its work is often accom-\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n848\npanied.\nelders\n\nrAdministration\n\nExample after example could be cited where the wrangling of their\n\nrobbed the children of school facilities for months and often years.\n\nThe school board should be vested with absolute power in this respect, and\nwhen it determines that the needs of a community are such that a school site\nshall be selected in a certain neighborhood, it should have the right to purchase,\nif possible, at a price based\n\nyears;\n\nor, if the\n\nupon the assessed valuation for the preceding three\n\nowner will not sell at a reasonable price, or declines to sell\n\nat all, then the board should be vested with the power to lay the matter before\n\nthe nearest court of record, which would appoint commissioners of estimate\n\nwho, after taking the testimony of the owner as to the value, and calling\nexperts, if necessary, in rebuttal, would fix and determine the price to be paid,\nsubject to the approval of the court, which should have power to review the\nfindings, and if necessary to set them aside, if, for any reason, it would appear\n\nto be for the best interests of the public that such should be done.\n\nThe center-\n\ning of responsibihty in a school board would reduce the probability of misuse\nof\n\npower of its members to a minimum, and if there be malfeasance, the\n\ncriminal laws of all communities are such that wrongdoing would meet prompt\n\npunishment.\nAll of these suggestions, excepting that of the purchase or condemnation\n\nof school sites, are probably within the province of every school board to\n\nadopt, and doubtless many would do so, were they at all certain that they\nwould be sustained by the taxpayer. This has been recognized by the legislatures of several states, which have placed laws upon their statute-books with\nthe idea of assisting the school boards in this work, altho the state of New\n\nYork was the first to enact a law which was specific in its requirements.\nwas as an amendment to the school law of the state, and is as follows:\n\nIt\n\nSTATE OF NEW YORK\nAn Act to amend the consolidated school law, relative to proper sanitation, ventilation, and protection\n\nfrom fire of schoolhouses.\n\nNo schoolhouse shall hereafter be erected in any city of the third class, or in any\nincorporated village or school district, of this state, and no addition to a school building\nin any such place shall hereafter be erected, the cost of which shall exceed $500, until\n\nthe plans and specifications for the same shall have been submitted to the commissioner\n\nand his approval indorsed thereon. Such plans and specifications shall\nshow in detail the ventilation, heating, and lighting of such buildings. Such commisof education\n\nsioner of education shall not approve any plans for the erection of any school building\n\nor addition thereto, unless the same shall provide at least 15 square feet of floor space\nand 200 cubic feet of air space for each pupil to be accommodated in each studyor recitation-room therein, and no such plans shall be approved by him unless provision\nis\n\nmade therein for assuring at least 30 cubic feet of pure air every minute per pupil, and\n\nthe facilities for exhausting the foul or vitiated air therein shall be positive and independent\nof atmospheric changes.\n\nNo tax voted by a district meeting or other competent authority\n\nin any such city, village, or school district, exceeding the sum of $500, shall be levied by\n\nthe trustees until the commissioner of education shall certify that the plans and specifications for the same comply with the provisions of this act.\n\nAll schoolhouses for which plans\nand detailed statements shall be filed and approved, as required by this act, shall have\nall halls, doors, stairways, seats, passage-ways, and aisles, and all lighting and heating\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "LEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\n\nDepartment]\n\n849\n\nappliances and apparatus, arranged to facilitate egress in cases of fire or accident, and to\nafford the requisite and proper accommodations for public protection in such cases.\n\nAll\n\nand shall, if double doors be used, fasten with movable\nbolts operated simultaneously by one handle, from the inner face of the door.\nNo stairexit doors shall open outwardly,\n\ncase shall be constructed with wider steps in lieu of a platform, but shall be constructed\n\nwith straight runs, changes in direction being made by platforms.\n\nNo doors shall open\n\nimmediately upon a flight of stairs, but a landing at least the width of the door shall be\nprovided between such stairs and such doorway.\n\nThe passage of this law was only after eight years of unsuccessful effort\non the part of the Engineering Society which was responsible for its introduction, and which next moved on the legislature of the state of Pennsylvania.\n\nHere, as in New York, the hearty co-operation of the members of this Association resulted in the enactment of a law containing the most of the essential\n\nfeatures now under discussion.\n\nThe law is as follows:\n\nAN ACT\nEntitled an Act for the purpose of governing the construction of public-school buildings in order that the health, sight, and comfort of all pupils may be protected.\n\nWhereas, It is of great importance to the people of this commonwealth that publicschool buildings hereafter erected by any board of education, school trustees, or school\ndirectors shall be properly heated, lighted, and ventilated:\n\nSection i\n\n.\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-\n\nwealth of Pennsylvania, in General Assembly met, and it is hereby enacted by the author-\n\ndue care may be exercised in the heating, lighting, and\nno schoolhouse shall be erected\nby any board of education or school district in this state, the cost of which shall exceed\n\nity of the same, that, in order that\n\nventilating of public-school buildings hereafter erected,\n\n$4,000, until the plans\n\nand specifications for the same shall show in detail the proper\n\nheating, lighting, and ventilating of such building.\n\nSec.\n\n2.\n\nLight shall be admitted from the left, or from the left and rear, of class-\n\nrooms, and the total light area must, unless strengthened by the use of reflecting lenses,\nequal at least 25 per cent, of the floor space.\nSec.\n\n3,\n\nSchoolhouses shall have in each class-room at least 15 square feet of floor\n\nspace and not less than 200 cubic feet of air space per pupil, and shall provide for an\n\napproved system of heating and ventilation, by means of which each class-room shall be\nsupplied with fresh air at the rate af not less that 30 cubic feet per minute for each pupil,\n\nand warmed to maintain an average temperature of 70*^ F. during the coldest weather.\nSec. 4.\n\nAll acts or parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed.\n\nNeither of the laws above quoted contains all of the provisions which are\n\ndeemed needful, but, as a beginning, they cannot be regarded as other than\nThey have been quoted in full that the members of this\nAssociation may see what actually has been accompHshed thru the assistance\nof its members, and as indicating most truly that similar results can be obtained\nmost admirable.\n\nin every state in the Union,\n\nnow that two of the leading ones have set their\n\nseal of approval thereon.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n—In the discussion of subject\nto be\n—that the term \"school architecture\" does not\n\nJohn A. Hartpence, Trenton, N. J.\n\n—and,\n\nassumed\n\nI think, correctly\n\nthis\n\nit is\n\nrelate\n\nmerely to form, contour, appearance, and style, but that it embraces everything neces-\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n850\n\nsarily involved in the construction\n\n[Administradon\n\nand equipment of a well-appointed school building;\n\nthat it has reference not only to beauty of form and proportion, but to adaptation to the\n\nends and purposes for which such buildings are erected, as well.\nNow, in my opinion, the legislation which is needed in relation to school architecture\nis\n\nbut little.\n\nIndeed, the only legislative action that is even justifiable is that which is\n\ntaken iA the exercise of the so-called \"police power.\"\n\nThe state is vitally concerned in\n\nthe health and safety of the great group of school children that may exist within its domain.\n\nSuch legislation respecting school architecture as may be necessary to safeguard those\nconditions is a legitimate exercise of the police power, and is eminently proper; but after\nthat it seems to me that the whole matter should be left to the natural intelligence and\ngood judgment of those whose interests are directly concerned, which attributes must be\npresumed to be present in every community to a degree sufiicient to produce satisfactory\nresults.\n\nThe natural tendency of legislative regulation is toward bureaucratic supervision and\nThis is inevitable. Our subject therefore raises fairly and squarely the broad\n\ncontrol.\n\neconomic question of the presence or absence of local control of local administrative\nmatters. There is neither time nor space within the restricted limits of this paper to\ndiscuss the situation, but I cannot refrain from at least this passing reference to its tremendous importance, and to voice a warning against rushing into legislative regulation\nWhile there may be a present apparent advantage, in the end it\nof school architecture.\n\nmay react against us.\nAs I have already stated, the legislation which I deem necessary and desirable is that\nwhich simply throws a safeguard around the health and safety of the pupils in the schools.\nUnder the term \"health\" may be considered: (i) heating; (2) lighting; (3) ventilation;\n(4) sanitation; and (5) comfort and convenience, in so far as they may be regarded as\nbeing conducive to a normal physical and mental condition. Under \"safety\" may be\nclassed: (i) construction and location of stairways; (2) fireproofing; (3) fire-escapes;\nand (4) nature and location of boilers in connection with heating and ventilating systems.\nIn many of the United States there is legislation regulating these matters, notably\nin Massachusetts, New York, Pennslyvania, and New Jersey.\nThe general school law of\nNew Jersey is regarded as being very complete in this respect, and I have therefore used\nThe law provides, inter alia, that, (i) to insure proper\nit as the basis of this discussion.\nheating, lighting, ventilating, and other hygienic conditions of public-school buildings, all\nplans and specifications for any such building shall be submitted to the state board of\neducation for approval; (2) light shall be admitted into class-rooms from the left, or from\nthe left and rear, and the Hght area shall be at least 20 per cent, of the floor space; (3)\nthere shall be at least 18 square feet of floor space, and not less than 200 cubic feet of air\nspace, per pupil, and class-rooms shall be supplied with fresh air at the rate of not less\nthan 30 cubic feet per minute for each pupil; (4) stairways shall be conveniently located\nand easy of ascent and descent; (5) doors leading from class-rooms into corridors and\nfrom corridors into the street shall open outwards; (6) ceilings shall be constructed of\nmetal or of plaster on metal lath; (7) certain sanitary accommodations shall be provided.\nAll these come within the test that has been suggested, and, as a proper exercise of the\npolice power, are uncriticisable.\nOther provisions might be added without violating the\nprinciple involved, and in view of some experience and investigation along this line I\nventure to suggest the following:\nAuthorities agree that a fixed\nto health.\n\nand uniform temperature in class-rooms is essential\n\nIt seems to be the consensus of opinion, also, that this result cannot be attained\n\nwith any system of direct heating, if at the same time proper ventilation is to be secured.\n\nThe provision of the law relating to ventilation would seem to preclude any system of\ndirect heating exclusively, and to establish the indirect, altho the direct may still\n\nsuccessfully to supplement the indirect.\n\nbe used\n\nBut there is no provision regarding a uniform\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\ntemperature.\n\nLEGISLATION IN SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE\nIf this be an essential, and its attainment\n\nshould be legislation to insure its operation.\n\n851\n\nbe possible, then I believe there\n\nI would suggest, therefore, legislative action\n\nrequiring automatic heat regulation, such as may be secured at the present time, for\ninstance,\n\nby the use of the thermostat.\n\nAll stairways should be so located and constructed as to be absolutely safe for use by\n\neven the youngest pupils.\n\nThis may be of minor importance, but should nevertheless\n\nreceive legislative attention.\n\nThe present commercial value of fireproofing materials renders their use in school\nSo far as possible, however, buildings should be fireproof. As\n\nbuildings impracticable.\n\na reasonable compromise I would suggest making the first story, all stairways, and the\nvent flues as nearly fireproof as they can be made.\nAll school buildings should be equipped with safe and practical fire-escapes.\n\nSanitary plumbing is an essential, concerning which there should be direct legislation.\nIt is true that in\n\nNew Jersey these last three matters are to an extent regulated by\n\nmunicipal boards and other state departments.\n\nBut the school legislation is practically\n\nsilent regarding them, and hence it is possible to secure the approval of plans by the state\n\nboard of education without their containing provisions therefor, and it is left to the chance\nof other departments enforcing such regulations as may exist.\n\nIn most heating and ventilating systems boilers are necessary to the operation of some\n\nThese are usually located in the basement of the building. The\nmost disastrous. There should be\nlegislative regulation requiring boilers to be located separately and apart from the main\nbuilding, or in such other manner that no harm could result from an explosion.\nThere are other important matters of school architecture which might be treated here\nto an advantage, but, the discussion being restricted to the subject in its relation to needed\nlegislation, they would hardly be germane.\nIt is to be regretted that the topic itself should\nhave so narrowed the discussion.\nI have endeavored to present in the briefest possible manner but a few simple suggestions along what I conceive to be practical and proper hues of legislative action\nrespecting school architecture.\nI trust the presentation may not have been entirely devoid\npart of the apparatus.\n\nresult of an explosion during school hours would be\n\nof interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Thursday, July 6, 1905\nThe department met in the auditorium of the Public Library of Asbury Park, at\n2 : 30 p. M.,\n\nand was called to order by the president, Charles P. Gary, of Wisconsin.\n\nThe president then read a paper on \"Libraries and Library Privileges for Villages\nand Rural Communities.\"\n\nDiscussion was opened by James H. Canfield, of New York;\n\nfollowed by Miss Dickey, of Chicago; President J. N. Wilkinson, of Kansas; Dr. Tuttle,\nof New York;\n\nW. Scott, of Boston.\n\nA second paper was presented by James H. Canfield, of New York, in the form of a\nreport on \"Instruction in Library Work for Normal and Secondary Schools.\"\n\nDiscussion\n\nwas opened by E. D. Phillips, of Missouri; followed by Dr. Tuttle, of New York.\nThe paper of James H. Canfield is withheld from publication in the volume for\nextension into a special report to be published in pamphlet form.\n\nA third paper was presented by Miss Florence M, Hopkins, Detroit, Mich., on\n\"Method of Instruction in the Use of High-School Libraries.\" Discussion was opened\nby Mr. Halleck, of Louisville, Ky., followed by Mr. Discurt, Pittsburg, Pa., and Miss\nShroyer, of Dayton, Ohio.\n\nTime was given Mr. Scott, Boston, Mass., to present the subject of the \"Library\nPost Law.\"\n\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS\n\nEdwin W. Gaillard, New York, N. Y.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y.\nMartin Hensel, Columbus, Ohio.\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\n\nReuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky.\n\nMiss Signa E. Shroyer, Da3rton, Ohio.\nMiss Helen L. Dickey, Chicago, 111.\n\nThe session then adjourned.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Friday, July 7\nThe department met at the same place, at 9:30 A. m.;\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows:\n\nthe president in the chair.\n\n— —\n—\n\nFor President J. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kans.\nFor Vice-President Edwin White Gaillard, New York, N. Y.\nFor Secretary Miss Grace Sahsbury, Whitewater, Wis.\n\nThe secretary was instructed to cast the ballot for these officers, which was done,\nand they were declared the ofl&cers of the department for the coming year.\nThe first paper of the session was presented by Robert H. Wright, Baltimore, Md.,\non \"How to Make the Library Useful to High-School Pupils.\" This was discussed by\nMiss Jones, of Kansas.\nThe second paper was presented by President G. Stanley Hall, of Massachusetts, on\nthe theme \"What Young People Read and What They Should Read.\"\n853\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n854\n\nFLibrary\n\nThe third paper was presented by Percival Chubb, of New York, on the \"Value and\nPlace of Fairy-Stories in the Education of Children.\"\nIt\n\nwas voted to have no discussion of either of these papers, because of the early\n\nlunch and other arrangements made necessary by the coming of President Roosevelt.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions reported as follows:\nResolved, That the Library Department of the National Educational Association\nearnestly indorses the proposition presented by Mr. Scott in the efforts made to secure\nthe transmission of library books intended for general circulation at a rate not to exceed\none cent per pound for postage.\nResolved, That it is the sense of this department that all teachers should learn at\nleast the elementary essentials of Ubrary administration and circulation.\nResolved, That is is the opinion of this body that all teachers should do some expert\nwork in that branch of child study which leads to ascertaining the reading tastes of children of various ages, and that they should endeavor to minister intelligently to these\ntastes by becoming acquainted at first hand with the contents of as many as possible of\nthe books recommended.\nResolved, That individually and as a body we will do all we can to encourage state\naid to libraries, including the work of Ubrary commissions, interstate Hbrary loans, and\nextension work.\nResolved, That the members of this department urge the officers of the American\nLibrary Association and of the National Educational Association to take measures to\nsecure either a joint meeting of the two associations or meetings which shall be so near\neach other as to time and place as to permit the interchange of members and programs, in\nthe interest of co-ordinating the pubHc schools and the public libraries.\n\nThe resolutions were unanimously adopted, and the department then adjourned.\n\nRuth Yeomans, Acting Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nLIBRARIES AND LIBRARY PRIVILEGES FOR VILLAGES AND\n\nRURAL COMMUNITIES\nC. p.\n\nGARY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MADISON, WIS.\n\nOne of the most important problems in library work at the present time\nis\n\nthat of giving library privileges to the citizens of rural communities.\n\nLibraries have become an essential part of our educational system.\n\nIf it is\n\nnecessary that our people be taught to read in childhood, and thru adult life,\n\nthey should have the opportunity to use this power to the best advantage for\n\nthemselves and the community in which they live.\n\nThe children in the large\n\nand in nearly all of the smaller cities, of the country are given library\nprivileges thru the public libraries, and most of them also have access to school\ncities,\n\nlibraries.\n\nThe children of the rural communities generally have access to\n\nschool libraries only, and most of the latter are very scant.\n\nThe general problem at present seems to me, therefore, to be that of\nsupplying better library privileges to school children and adults in rural\n\ncommunities.\n\nThe United States Census Bulletin No. i6, for the year 1900, gives the\nnumber of people living in unincorporated places in this country as 40,299,060, or 52.9 per cent, of the total population.\n\nCareful observers are agreed\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARIES AND LIBRARY PRIVILEGES\n\nDepartment]\n\n855\n\nthat the people in rural communities, having fewer distractions, read books\n\nmore carefully and thoroly, and talk them over more in the famihes, than\ndo the people in the cities. It is evident, too, that if the books in such communities are carefully selected, the reading of the people may be confined\nto\n\nvolumes that are not only popular, but have great intrinsic merit.\n\nThe\n\nsmaller the community, the greater may be the comparative influence of the\nbest books.\n\nIn spite of these facts, however, nearly all of the milKons of dollars that\nare going annually to the support of libraries are expended in the cities and\n\nand nearly all the wealth of thought and enterprise that is used to\nIt would seem desirable,\n\nvillages,\n\nadvance library interests flow in the same direction.\n\ntherefore, to call attention to the fact of the need of greater effort to aid people\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nrural\n\ncommunities,\n\nand\n\nof\n\nsuggesting\n\na\n\nmethod\n\npracticable\n\nof\n\naccomplishing the results we desire.\n\nIn the cities we have public libraries, and to a greater or less extent school\nlibraries.\n\nAdults do not use the school libraries.\n\nIt often happens that the\n\nenthusiasm of teachers for Hbrary work is so great that good school libraries\n\nmay be found by the side of good public libraries, even in the smaller cities.\nIn the small villages and hamlets we can secure reasonable library privileges\nonly by a union of effort.\n\nBy library privileges I mean not only access to\n\nbooks, but the aid of persons trained in guiding students and readers to the\n\nwealth of matter that is available to all at a slight expenditure of money.\nFederal and state governments, municipal and national organizations and\nlibraries,\n\nhave great quantities of valuable information in printed form,\n\nwhich is freely and cheerfully given to all earnest students who will apply\nfor it thru the usual channels.\n\nIt is not to be expected that the average isolated\n\ncitizen should know of all of this material, but it seems, not to be too much to\n\nask that each community should have some person who could aid inquirers.\n\nThis means a trained librarian, but we cannot at present have public libraries\nwith trained librarians in charge in the smaller places.\nIf\n\nwe can, however, broaden the scope of the school library in hamlets\n\nand districts where the schools have been consolidated to include something\nof the work done by the public libraries of the cities, we can not only magnify\nthe work of the school, but we can make it in the best sense the intellectual\nIt would seem possible so to arrange the building\ncenter of the community.\nand the teaching force that in most places where the schools have from two to\nfive departments, one room may be set apart for a library which shall be both\na pubHc and a school hbrary, and one of the teachers selected with this purpose in view may be able to devote part of her time to the library.\n\nwe meet another problem.\n\nMethods\n\nof\n\nlibrary\n\nAnd here\n\nadministration and the\n\ngeneral principles and details of hbrary economy have been formulated by\n\npeople who are in charge of great libraries.\n\nOur hbrary schools are main-\n\ntained for the training of educated people, and their courses of instruction are\n\nprepared to train such persons to take places in large libraries.\n\nOccasionally\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n856\n\n[Libraxy\n\nstudents are trained nominally to have charge of small Hbraries:\n\nbut by\n\nsmall Hbraries are meant those in smaller cities, and no account is taken of\nthe needs of the still smaller places and rural communities.\n\nIn the few text-\n\nbooks and articles which treat on library economy in small communities, httle\neffort is made, so far as I\n\nam aware, to plan work especially designed to meet\n\nThese library schools have courses which require one or two\nyears of training. There are a few \"summer schools of library science\"\nwhich give brief courses, but these take the methods of classification and\nthese needs.\n\nadministration which are suitable for large Hbraries, and present those points\n\nwhich are considered essential in small libraries.\n\nThe problems of administration which confront the person in charge of a\nUbrary of from 300 to 1,200 volumes, where she can know practically the\ncontents of all the books, and has personal contact with each of the library\npatrons,\n\nknowing frequently not only the patron, but his or her home sur-\n\nroundings, are very different from those in a large library, where no librarian\n\ncan have an intimate knowledge of either the books or the borrowers.\nIt seems to\n\nme that we need a simple system of cataloging and classifying,\n\nof keeping the records and recommended lists of books, made directly for the\n\npurposes of these rural (combination) public and school Hbraries, and that the\ninstruction in Hbrary science given by Hbrarians in normal schools should be\n\nso modified as to fit some of the graduates of the schools to fill the position\nof Hbrarian in such Hbraries.\n\nThe state departments of education are con-\n\nstantly receiving requests from teachers for aid in classification and cataloging\n\nin the school Hbraries.\n\nLibrary commissions are receiving similar requests.\n\nIt is not too much to say that the larger share of advice that\n\nreceive\n\nsuch teachers\n\nfrom trained librarians and from the text-books on library science\n\nbewilders rather than enHghtens.\n\nThere is altogether too much machinery\n\nfor the purpose.\n\nAs I have stated, the small library, whose books are so few that the\nand quite a number of its patrons, can find almost any volume in\nthe dark, makes very different requirements on the organizer from those of\n\nlibrarian,\n\nthe large library.\n\nIt is\n\nvery important, however, that the Hbrarian should\n\nhave an even wider training than the ordinary Hbrarian in the method of\nsecuring information from the great institutions of the country.\n\nAs one instance of available material that would be useful in many rural\ncite the Hterature issued by the Department of\nAgriculture at Washington. Each year this department expends hundreds\ncommunities, allow me to\n\nof thousands of doHars in investigations of subjects of the utmost importance\nto farmers.\n\nThe results of these investigations are published in bulletins,\n\nwhich are sent either without cost, or at a nominal cost, to all applicants.\nis\n\nIt\n\na singular fact that only a small share of the people who would be most\n\nbenefited by this information send for these bulletins.\n\nThe department is\n\nvery anxious to reach the farmers with its publications, and not only supplies\nsets of these bulletins and of its yearbooks to pubHc Hbraries\n\nwhich are free\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARIES AND LIBRARY PRIVILEGES\n\nDepartment]\n\n857\n\nto farmers, but also gives the necessary printed cards to make this Hterature\n\nof the most use.\n\nWhere there is a small library in a rural community which\n\nhas this literature and the printed catalog cards, a farmer can not only examine\nthe literature, but, after finding that which is of the most value for his purpose,\n\ncan secure copies for himself without cost, or at small cost.\nI cite this as only one of the many examples which might be given to show\nhow a person with a few weeks' training might aid the people of her community\nwithout subjecting them to much expense.\nI think this whole subject merits a careful investigation\n\nby this depart-\n\nment, to find some means of providing courses of training for teachers to fill\n\nsuch positions as we have just been considering. Library schools and library\nsummer schools might very properly provide courses for teachers, and the\nlibrarians in normal schools might well provide a somewhat different course\nin library training\n\nfrom that ordinarily given.\n\nIn preparing the system to\n\nbe used in these small libraries, there should be a conference of well-trained\nlibrarians and teachers,\n\nand of librarians who are thereby famihar with the\n\nneeds of the rural districts.\n\nThe report on library training for normal schools, which closes this afternoon's program, is exactly on the Hne of this demand for simple methods, and\nis\n\ntherefore peculiarly timely and interesting.\n\nDISCUSSION\nJames H. Canfield, librarian of Columbia University, New York city.\n\n—Mr. Canfield\n\nspoke briefly of the work done in New York state, in an effort to advance the interests\nof rural libraries and the rural schools.\n\nThe state has been divided into eleven districts,\n\nin each of which library institutes are held each spring.\n\nNew York city, Brooklyn, and\n\nBuffalo each forms a district by itself, and each is able to care for itself.\n\nThe remaining\n\neight districts are under the care of the New York State Library Association.\n\nA library club is organized in each district, officers and members of which devote\nthemselves to the library interests of the district and are especially charged wifh the prepa-\n\nAt these institutes at least three sessions are held, two\nand one of a more public character. The instructional sessions are\ngiven to a discussion and explanation of simple methods, desirable chiefly in the small\nlibraries.\nThe purpose of these discussions and of this instruction is not so much to\nmaster the details of library economy as to secure efficiency and power in the administraAt the evening or popular sessions,\ntion of whatever collection of books has been made.\naddresses are made by local speakers, and by at least one of the institute committee,\nappointed by the State Library Association.\nrations for the library institute.\n\nfor instruction\n\nMiss Dickey, Chicago, 111., spoke of the library institute work in Illinois, recently\nstarted along much the same Unes as those followed in New York, only with fewer meet-\n\nings thus far.\n\nLast year three institutes were held, which were very acceptable to the\nThere is no question but that this work will be extended.\n\nlibrarians in rural communities.\nJ.\n\nN. Wilkinson, of the State Normal School at Emporia, Kans., spoke briefly\n\nof the work done in the normal school, by which all possible library information is carried\nto the teachers of the state.\n\nA nine-week library school is held each summer.\n\neffort is being made to co-ordinate the public library and the public school.\n\nConstant\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n858\n\n[Library\n\nDr. Tuttle, of New York, asked how a public library might be organized in small\ntowns, and spoke of the difficulties encountered in such a village in Missouri.\n\nHe spoke\n\nof many different efforts which had been made, none of them even reasonably successful.\n\nDr. Canfield suggested that an excellent nucleus of both books and interest might\nbe established by the union of the several Sunday-school libraries of the village. He also\ncalled attention to the fact that assistance might be had from the state library commission.\n\nMr. Scott, of Boston, spoke of a town in Connecticut that began its library work\nwith an address by a prominent outside librarian.\n\nThis aroused sufficient interest to\n\nsecure a vote of town aid at the next election.\n\nMETHODS OF INSTRUCTION IN THE USE OF HIGH-SCHOOL\nLIBRARIES\nMISS FLORENCE M. HOPKINS, LIBRARIAN, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL,\nDETROIT, MICH.\n\nThe full importance of the school Hbrary in our educational system has\nThe public is in the habit of considering\n\nnot as yet been generally realized.\n\nthe library simply as a depository for books.\n\nWhen references are desired\n\nby the average user of the library, the librarian is consulted, as one would\nShe is expected to give the best possible\nconsult any bureau of information.\ndirection, whether general or special, on any subject, at a moment's notice,\nHer advice is generally unquesto anyone who takes the pains to inquire.\ntioned by the inexperienced, with never a wistful expression for the power of\nself-direction.\n\nOur thought of the place of the library in education has not\n\nyet included the importance of training students to be intelligent and inde-\n\npendent in the use of these vast collections, when they wish to guide themselves to material\n\non unfamiliar\n\nsubjects.\n\nTo use a Ubrary inteUigently\n\nshould be a mark of good scholarship and general culture.\n\nIts field of use-\n\nfulness is both general and special, and a sharp distinction should be made\n\nbetween the two.\n\nDe Quincey has classified Uterature for us in a clear and satisfactory way,\nby separating it into the literature of power and the literature of knowledge.\n\nThe literature of power, the world's great Hteratures, those expressions of\nthe poet and the seer which awaken and quicken the spiritual power of the\nsoul, is intrusted to\n\na special knighthood for its interpretatwn.\n\nhidden from view, as was the Holy Grail.\nlike Sir\n\nGalahad, be pure in heart.\n\nIt is often\n\nThose who would see it must,\n\nTo these only can it reveal its beauty\n\nand impart its life-giving power.\nThe other and lower division of Hterature, the literature of knowledge,\nembraces our books of science, of history, of statistics, and the many referencebooks necessary to the inteUigent reader. Much of this kind of material is a\nsealed book to many who would gladly profit by it, if they knew how readily\nit\n\ncould be found in our libraries.\n\nSome means should be devised whereby\n\nthe public may be impressed with the fact that specialists are constantly at\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION IN HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\n859\n\nwork indexing the useful knowledge of the world; that national and international support\n\nis\n\ngiven to\n\nmuch of this indexing;\n\nthat our hbraries of\n\nAmerica are associated together, having a well-endowed pubhshing board,\nwhose aim it is to make accessible valuable material otherwise buried; that\nour Library of Congress has a bibliographical division and a printed cardcatalog division.\n\nIt\n\nhas become practically necessary to have an index to\n\nindexes, and a course of lectures on both.\n\nA well-selected and a well-cataloged Hbrary is a university for the public;\nor, to\n\nput it more strongly and quote Carlyle:\n\ncollection of books.\"\n\n'*A university is but a great\n\nHow is the intelligent citizen to be trained to appreciate\n\nthe privileges offered to him by these library universities, unless our schools\ninterest themselves in the matter of systematic instruction in their use ?\n\nEverywhere in the world of affairs we see that the practical problem is to\neducate the people to the point of seeing a need, and then acquaint them with\nthat which is suited to fill the need.\n\nA university sends out extension lecturers;\n\na church sends out missionaries;\n\na book merchant recognizes that if new\n\nbooks are to sell, they must be placed where they will be seen and examined;\nour Hbraries are beginning to open their shelves to the public and, like the\n\nbook merchant, accept the loss from theft and carelessness as incident to a\nwise investment.\nstations,\n\nBut this is not enough, if more can be done.\n\nDelivery\n\nbranch Hbraries, open shelves, are great steps in advance; but now\n\none more step is clearly before us, namely, lectures acquainting the people\nwith the treasures in the library and the opportunity it offers for independent\n\nIn the conference of the American Library Association at St, Louis,\nMr. Jast, of England, said: \"I am incHned to attribute more value to the\nHbrary lecture than to any other kind of extension work, if it be the right\nstudy.\n\nkind of lecture.\"\n\nIn each department of education, except the Hbrary, a special teacher is\n\nemployed to bring the student into direct relation with the subject.\n\nPhysical\n\nculture, manual training, music, art, have all been so recognized.\n\nIs not the\n\ntime now ripe for a step forward in Hbrary work also, with a plea that it, too,\nmay find a place in our curricula, that some provision be made for training\nstudents in the use of guides, and catalogs, and indexes, which shaU serve to\ndirect them through the maze of library classification, and lead them quickly\nto the information desired ?\n\nIt is only within the past few years that special\n\nNow any Hve\ncommunity realizes that the one who is to be steward of the learning of the\nages must have other quaHfications than a mere love of books. In the Hght\n\ntraining has been considered necessary for the Hbrarian.\n\nof prophecy, then, let us state that our educational bodies will soon recognize\n\nthat a pupil's training for independent study requires a deeper acquaintance\n\nwith a Hbrary than the mere method of drawing a book, the author and title\nof which have been given to him by his teacher.\n\nThe University of Michigan is beginning to require that each high school\non its diploma Hst must have a library, with a yearly appropriation for increase.\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe next step should be that the entrance quahfications require an intelligent\nunderstanding of recognized reference guides.\n\nIf\n\nsome such simple and\n\nperfectly possible requirement were to be made by our universities, a course\n\nof instruction in this far-reaching and much-needed work would soon follow\nin our high schools.\n\nThrough the hearty co-operation of the school authorities, and the teachers\nof English in the Detroit Central High School, an effort has been made to sys-\n\ntematize the teaching of simple reference points.\n\nThis work does not require\n\nas much time as at first would seem necessary.\n\nIt requires, rather,\n\nsystem\n\nand care. One Enghsh lesson a term, which can hardly be seriously missed\nfrom the regular work, is entirely devoted to the study of library aids. The\nwork is graded, and is correlated with the regular grading of the English\ncourses which embrace all the students of the school, numbering about two\nthousand. Library talk, Course i, is given to all students taking Enghsh\none; Course 2, to those taking Enghsh 2, etc., throughout the eight Enghsh\ncourses included in the four years of high-school work. As each course is\ngiven, books to be examined for that course are transferred to some room outside of the library, are shown to the class, and their leading characteristics\nexplained. We all know what a help it is in finding a book for ourselves to\nhave seen the outside of it before. All illustrations and lists of books explained\nare printed to save time from note-taking, and to insure correct notes. Each\ntalk is forty-five minutes long, and is given during the student's study period.\nA set of questions, which necessitates the use of the books and points explained,\n\nThe English teacher requires that these questions be\nworked out in the library, by each student. They are handed to her in writing, are corrected, and the whole credited as one recitation.\nThe work thus\nfollows each talk.\n\nbecomes required.\n\nOf course, the books and points given are simple, and\n\nadapted to students of high-school age.\n\nA general outline of the plan is indicated below:\nCourse i, given to students who have just entered the high school, covers\nthe following simple points:\n\nthe use of an ordinary index, including such\n\nabbreviations as ih., seq.; the dash between pages or the heavy type as indicating the prominent pages; different indexes in the same book; an index to\n\na work in more than one volume; an index to an atlas and a city map, together\nwith street guides of a city directory; the use of a concordance; and a brief\nexplanation of the Poole's Index.\n\nCourse 2 explains the use of a card catalog, together with a brief explanation of the general classification of hbraries, simply to make the student more\n\nintelhgent in his thought regarding the necessary arrangement of books for\n\nconvenient use.\n\nThe student is also introduced to a few reference-books,\n\nintended to be of service to him in the first stages of his reference work, such\nas Lippincott's Biographical Dictionary and Gazetteer of the Worlds the Cen-\n\ntury Dictionary of\n\nNames, Harper's\n\nClassical Dictionary^\n\nthe\n\nChamplin\n\nseries of Young Folk's Cyclopcedias, and the Appendix to Webster^ s Dictionary.\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINSTRUCTION IN HIGH-SCHOOL LiBRARiES\n\nS6i\n\nCourse 3, given to students beginning their second year of high-school\nwork, is mainly devoted to periodical indexes.\n\nThe Poole, briefly explained\n\nin Course i , is carefully reviewed, and attention is called to the need of watch-\n\ning dates, especially if the subject is of recent interest.\n\nAn explanation of\n\nthe Reader's Guide, and the Library Index, as indexing current magazines, is\n\nadded.\n\nThe index to Si. Nicholas is also explained as a guide to much\n\nA word of explanation regarding\n\nmaterial often desired by young people.\n\nthe preface, the publisher, and the date of the book is given.\nthe following reference-books is explained\n\n:\n\nThe nature of\n\nHarper's Book of Facts, Wheeler's\n\nFamiliar Allusions, and the Brewer series of reference-books.\n\nCourse 4 is devoted to simple bibliography.\n\nAttention is called to the\n\nvaluable bibliographical references often found in a good text-book of the\nsubject,\n\nand to references at the end of articles in the best encyclopaedias.\n\nThe A. L. A. Index to General Literature is carefully explained as a guide to\nbibliography and as a companion to Poole.\n\nIts value as an index to scattered\n\nmaterial is shown by illustrating its method of indexing by subject the chap-\n\ncomposite books; such reports as those of Smithsonian Institution,\n\nters of\n\nmany of the state government reports, and reports of the meetings of prominent societies. The boy's interest is assured when he learns that his beloved\ndebate may be considered simple bibliography. Never has an explanation of\nBrooking's and Ringwalt's Briefs for Debate failed to bring a number of boys\nto the desk, later, for that ''little yellow book on debates.\"\n\nPros and Cons,\n\nMatson's References for Literary Workers, Baker's Guide to Best Fiction,\nGranger's Index to Poetry; Warner's Library of the World's Best Literature^\nfollow in this course.\n\nLarned's History for Ready Reference is explained as a\n\nbibhography of general history.\n\nIn a note, attention is called to the bibUog-\n\nraphies frequently published in the bulletin of our leading pubHc libraries,\n\nand by the Library of Congress; and to special bibliographies of certain subjects,\n\nsuch as\n\nLamed\n\nfor\n\nUnited States history. Brooks for municipal\n\ngovernment. Yearbook of Social Progress edited by Josiah Strong.\n\nCourse 5, given to students beginning their third year of high-school work,\nconsists of the study of annuals\n\nand similar reference-books.\n\nThe news-\n\npaper annual is explained and illustrated by showing some of the many reference problems answered in the World and other almanacs of our leading daily\npapers.\n\nYearly\n\nreference-books,\n\nsuch\n\nAlmanac, and Statesman's Yearbook, are\nbiographical annuals, Who's\n\nas\n\nHazelVs\n\nillustrated\n\nAnnual,\n\nWhitaker's\n\nand explained.\n\nThe\n\nWho, and Who's Who in America, are added.\n\nThe Annual Literary Index is carefully explained as being a yearly supplement to both the Poole's Index and the A. L. A. Index to General Literature,\nand as a guide to bibliographies and the daily newspaper files. The reports\nof city officers and the city manuel are mentioned, as are the state \" Manuals \"\nor ''Blue Books.\"\n\nCourse 6 includes dictionaries and encyclopaedias, special indexes, and\ncyclopaedias or dictionaries of special subjects.\n\nThe Genealogical Index, the\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n862\n\n[Library\n\nindex to state laws as compiled by the New York State Library, the A. L. A.\nCatalogue of Eight Thousand Volumes, and the A. L. A. Guide to the Study\nand Use of Reference Books are given as special indexes. The Publisher's\n\nWeekly, the Trade List Annual, the\n\nUnited States Catalog of Books in\n\nPrint, and the Cumulative Book Index, are explained as giving the publisher,\nprice,\n\nand edition of books arranged by author, title, and subject.\n\nThe use\n\nof the four volumes of the printed catalog of our public library is carefully\n\nThe\nnew publication of the Book Review Digest is given as a guide to book reviews.\n\nillustrated by dates, and the principle of the card catalog is reviewed.\n\nCourse 7, given to students beginning their last year of high-school work,\nis confined to a few of the reference publications of the United\n\nStates govern-\n\nment, such as the Document Catalogue, the Congressional Record, the Congressional Directory,\n\nStatistical Abstract,\n\nCensus Abstract,\n\nStatistical Atlas,\n\nLabor Bulletins; consular reports, regular and special; some of the publications\nof the departments of State, Agriculture, Interior, and Commerce and Labor.\n\nCourse 8 is given to the graduating class, and is a review of the preceding\nseven courses, with drill in classifying reference points.\n\nThe work has been carried on for two and a half years. Enough has been\ndone to make us feel that the experiment is well worth while, and to hope that\nopportunities may be found for extending the work to include more than mere\nreference points.\n\nTwo plans for future development are fondly cherished.\nsification, in an attractive way, of\n\nOne is the clascommon allusions which every high-school\n\nSome poem, essay, or short story, with the allusion\nTake \" Balder,\" for example; this allusion\nshould be known by the average high-school student. For those who know\nit, well and good.\nFor those who do not, keep it as a good suggestion for\nstudent should know.\n\nas subject, would be mentioned.\n\nand refer them to Norse Stories\nby Mabie, or Arnold's poem \"Balder Dead.\" If the reference is learned\nduring the term, or is known before, some system of credit should be devised.\nThe allusions would be graded, beginning with the most famiHar. A student's\nreading could thus be helped by suggestion, an appeal made to his pride, in\ngeneral culture, and his sense of justice satisfied by recognizing the educational\nvalue of good reading.\nThe other plan longed for is a browsing course. Everyone who has had\nthe privilege while young of browsing in a well-selected home library will\ntestify to the priceless influence unconsciously left upon the mind.\nIt should\nbe our aim to create something of this delicate atmosphere in our school\nlibraries.\nA browsing course would have a twofold purpose: first, to acquaint\nthe student in a very general way with good books in the different branches\nof human knowledge; and, second, to protect his reading habit by giving him\na wide field from which to choose. Think for a moment of what it might\nmean if the excellent selection of eight thousand volumes chosen by the Ameri-\n\ntheir next request for ** something to read,\"\n\ncan Library Association were placed in our high schools, simply for the purpose of encouraging browsing among good books.\n\nLet the student's required\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "INSTRUCTION IN HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n863\n\nwork be so planned that time would be allowed him frequently to visit this\nMuch latitude would be given for individuality, yet, at the sanie\ntime, it should be required that he examine at least the best books in each\nclassification.\nThe surface knowledge of a book has educational value,\"\nprovided surface knowledge and real knowledge are kept in sharp distinction\nby the student himself. It is a matter of general inteUigence to know who\nhas best translated Homer and Dante, who are authorities in American\nhistory, whether or not any remarkable work is being written in geology or\ncollection.\n\nphilosophy,\n\nwho has written the best biography of Lincoln, even if these\n\nsubjects never absorb us.\n\nA student of science is too likely to visit only the\nDarwin regretted\nhad lost the power to enjoy poetry. Browning's\n\nshelves of science; a student of art, only the books of art.\nthat in his later years he\n\noptimism goes so far as to say:\nI want to know a butcher paints,\n\nA baker rhymes, for his pursuit.\nVery few students who pass through our universities have a general\nacquaintance with a wide range of books. Our curricula are so overcrowded\nwith specialities that we have no time for real education. So many definite\nthings are prescribed that the student has no life left with which to find his own\nHours of credit and the commercial value of a degree have\nbecome task-masters to the extent of excluding time and opportunity for the\nstudent to determine the real place for which nature has fitted him. We\nindividuaHty.\n\nhave forgotten that\nTruth is within ourselves. It takes no rise\nFrom outward things, whate're you may believe.\nThere is an inmost center in us all,\n\nWhere truth abides in fulness.\n\nAnd to know\n\nRather consists in opening out a way\nWhence the imprisoned splendor may escape,\n\nThan in eflfecting entry for a light\nSupposed to be without.\n\nA course devoted to the aim of giving an intelligent idea of good books\nin the different branches of human knowledge would not prevent the specialist\n\nfrom the study of his technical subject, nor necessarily encourage dilet-\n\ntantism in literature.\n\nIt\n\nmight guide the dilettante to a specialty, and the\n\nspecialist to broader sympathies.\n\nBut the best results of such a course would not come from the knowledge\nthus gained.\n\nIt would\n\nture of power.\n\ncome rather from the delicate influence of the litera-\n\nThe most fruitful moments of one's education are those\n\nspent with the choice minds of the world, gathering from favorite sources that\n\nwhich quickens the better self and tends to lead one into the life more abundant.\nAfter the working part of such a browsing course was over, and the student\nfree to choose from the many books handled that one with which he wished\n\nspend his leisure time, he would undoubtedly experience the same\nuntrammeled delight as did Aurora Leigh, in the garret of books left her by\n\nto\n\nher father:\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n864\n\n[Library\n\nWe get no good by being ungenerous, even to a book,\n\n—\n\nAnd calculating profits so much help\nBy so much reading. It is rather when\n\nWe gloriously forget ourselves, and plunge\nSoul-forward, headlong, into a book's profound,\n\nImpassioned for its beauty and salt of truth\n'Tis then we get the right good of a book.\n\nAnd when his times are ripe he, too, may chance upon the poets.\nAnd at poetry's divine first finger touch\nLet go convention, and spring up surprised,\nConvicted of the great eternities\nBefore two worlds.\n\nDISCUSSION\nReuben Post Halleck, Louisville, Ky., urged that the pupils in high schools be\ngiven some definite work to do in the library.\n\nThis is the best method of teaching the\n\npupils the place and value and use of the library.\n\nIn the Louisville Boys' High School,\n\nstudents who are especially interested in books are chosen to act as pupil-librarians, and\nare given entire charge of the Ubrary during certain hours of each day.\n\nIn this age of shortened working hours, when the leisure of all men is increasing, it\nis very desirable that the boys and girls be taught\n\nhow to use and how to love books.\n\nThe\n\nlibrary habit should be formed during school life.\n\nMr. Discurt, Pittsburg, Pa., spoke briefly of the high-school library of Pittsburg,\nwhich he said contained 7,000 or 8,000 books which were practically useless. An entire\nclass of pupils will be given the same topic to look up in the library,\n\nand this creates a\n\ndemand so much greater than any possible supply that the majority of the pupils turn\naway discouraged and without securing material or making progress. He said that a\nschool Ubrary handled in this way, without judgment and appreciation of the conditions\nunder which pupils must work, is perfectly useless.\n\nMiss Shroyer, Dayton, Ohio, said that in their high-school library there had been\nthe same difficulty, but a meeting of the teachers and the Hbrarian had been held, the\n\nmatter had been thoroly discussed, and now pupils are assigned different topics and there\nare sufficient authorities for all.\n\nMr. Scott, Boston, Mass., in presenting the subject of the Library Post Law, said\nthat it is hoped that in the near future library books may be circulated thru the mails at\n\na one-cent-per-pound rate, as magazines and newspapers are circulated now.\n\nIn this\n\nway an easy connection with a great library would be possible to any who might desire\nHe detailed at some length the work of the committee, which is now making every\nthis.\npossible effort to secure the passage of an act of Congress providing for these special mail\nrates.\n\nHOW TO MAKE THE LIBRARY USEFUL TO HIGH-SCHOOL\nPUPILS\nROBERT H. WRIGHT, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, BALTIMORE CITY\nCOLLEGE, BALTIMORE, MD.\n\nSo long as education is progressive there will arise new problems, questions\nthat need special study.\n\nThese subjects never come to the front until after\n\nthey have been thought over and talked about for a long time by many teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY USEFUL TO HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS\n\n865\n\nHow to use the library was one of the first problems that presented themme when I entered this profession. I soon found that one of the\nme in stimulating my classes was from the use of outside\nbooks. This set me to thinking, and I admit freely that my thought moved\nvery slowly from how the library may serve the teacher to how it may be\nselves to\n\ngreatest aids to\n\nuseful to the pupils.\n\nThe library stands in a twofold relation to the teacher.\n\nIf he has trouble\n\ncreating interest in his subject, his salvation is in the library.\n\nOn the other\n\nhand, if he can create more interest in his work than the text will satisfy, he\n\ncan send his pupils to the library for collateral reading.\n\nIn either case the\n\nquestion may be the same, to-wit, how the teacher may use the hbrary to get\nI do not mean\nAnd if the man can never advance\n\nthe best results as teacher from the standpoint of teacher.\nthat the pupil is not benefited.\n\nHe is.\n\nto a higher ideal than that, he will still be far superior to the average teacher.\n\nBut there is a higher aim than, How shall I use the library to help me teach ?\nand that is: How shall the pupils use the library to help them grow ? When\nthis point is reached, we lose ourselves in those taught and become real teach-\n\nAnd this is the question that confronts us this morning.\nThe fundamental principle of all pedagogy may be summed up in the one\nword \"interest.\" The teacher must be interested in his subject, the student\n\ners.\n\nin his work; for without these the teacher cannot teach and the student will\n\nnot study.\n\nWe will grant the first; the second often has to be created, and\nThis necessitates an examination\n\nthe library is of untold help in this creation.\n\nIt should contain a collection of books of such a nature that\n\nof the library.\n\nthe pupil can find in it help to him in any of his studies.\n\nThe books should\nTake\n\nbe grouped under their several heads in some such way as follows:\n\nAll the ancient history should be in one collection,\n\nhistory for example.\n\nEuropean in another, English in a third, American in a fourth, biography in\na fifth, etc. There should be a trained librarian who must be familiar with\nall the books.\nYet\nLastly, the students must have free access to the shelves.\n\nwe too often think it is.\nknew an old man who by the means of engines, pipes, and shafting\n\nall of this is not enough, tho\n\nI\n\narranged a machine for perpetual motion.\nbut the power.\n\nHe had everything necessary\n\nBut he did not realize that engines, pipes, and shafting\n\nwithin themselves cannot generate power, and so he died a poor man\nspent his means, energy, and life in a vain endeavor.\n\nus and our hbraries:\n\nmachine go.\n\n—having\n\nSo it is too often with\n\nwe have the equipment and expect that to make the\n\nJust as old Mr. Armstrong failed to take the last step with his\n\nmachinery, just so we too often fail to put in the power.\n\nJust as today you\n\nmay pass his old homestead and find pieces of pipes, etc., scattered hither\nand thither, just so we may pass into many schools and find library books\nscattered about and of no use to anyone.\n\nI have seen fragments of each of\n\nmachines—utterly useless; and in each case it was\nbecause the last and most important step was never taken. The reason is\n\nthese perpetual-motion\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n866\n\nthe same with both inventor and teacher:\n\n[Library\n\nthey think the machine is so con-\n\nstructed that it will generate within itself the motive power necessary to run\n\nand turn out beneficial results. Nothing is useful except as it is used. It\nby doing that we learn to do. We cannot hope to get from our libraries\nany more help than the energy we put into them. We need not expect to\nget students interested in libraries without making them use these libraries.\nit\n\nis\n\nIt is the duty of each teacher so to familiarize himself with the school Hbrary\n\nthat he can assign topics, and,\n\nwhen necessary, give the references.\n\nThis\n\nnecessitates a personal knowledge of every book in the library on his subject.\n\nExperience has taught\n\nme that the high-school teacher has a double\n\nproblem to solve in connection with the use of the library.\n\nPupils come to\n\nus who do not know how to acquire knowledge from books\n\nothers come who\n\ncan acquire knowledge from the\ndescribed in\n\ntext, if the\n\n;\n\nteacher follows the methods\n\nThe Art of Teaching (White); but neither of these classes can\n\nacquire knowledge from books other than their texts.\n\nI think this is an evil\n\nthat should be corrected in the grades; but, so long as it is not, it is a problem\nfor the high schools.\n\nThis problem should be solved in the first year.\n\nWith\n\nthis handicap the teacher will find much trouble in getting his pupils to master\n\nthe details necessary for\n\nthem to get the best results.\n\ninterested in collateral reading.\n\nHe must get them\n\nThis can be done in several ways.\n\nThe best\n\nby assigning to each a subject suited to his stage of mental development.\nIn each case give the title of the book and the author, and in some cases it is\nI have met with very good results from telling some\nbest to give the page.\ninteresting story to the class, then giving reference to the book where the story\nmay be found. This year is the one in which the pupils have to learn how\nto learn in the library, and so they need the librarian.\nThey have to learn\nwhere the books on different subjects are, how to use an index, etc. In short,\nthey have to learn the library, and then how to use it. The librarian should\nbe kept busy with the first-year pupils. I do not object to the method described\nin Dr. White's The Art of Teaching, pp. 127 and 128.\nBut after the first year\nfor the Hbrarian to get the books and open them on tables for the pupils is to\nis\n\ntake from the pupils one of the very things the library is intended to cultivate,\ni. e.,\n\nthe power to find data upon a given subject.\n\nAfter the pupils have acquired the power of using the library, which\n\nshould be done during their first year in the high school, then it is well in the\n\nsubsequent years to use a variety of methods, differing somewhat in each\n\nbranch of their work.\n1.\n\nI shall give the methods I use in history.\n\nGive reference to a book that explains fully some point of the text.\n\nHave it read and a verbal report made.\n\nThis gives a clear setting of the fact,\n\nand explains what is often not clear to the mind of the pupil.\n2. Give reference to some special treatise on some period; say, Fiske's\nThe Critical Period in American History. This has the same general effect\nI do not object to the use of historical novels.\nas the first.\nIn fact, I find\nthem of much value in explaining certain periods of history.\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\n3.\n\nLIBRARY USEFUL TO HIGH-SCHOOL PUPILS\n\nAssign topics, giving references.\n\nletting the pupil find the books\n\nwhat each author says.\n\n867\n\nHave each reference looked up\n\n—and a report made\n\nin which the pupil tells\n\nThis broadens the view and helps the pupil to see\n\nthe point in its many-sidedness.\n\nThis helps wonderfully in teaching American\n\nhistory in connection with the events that led up to the Civil War.\n\nIt enables\n\nthe pupil to see that there are two sides to many questions, and that men may\ndiffer conscientiously;\n\nright.\n\nthat each may believe with perfect honesty that he is\n\nHistory cannot be properly taught without this double point of view\n\nwithout collateral reading.\n4.\n\nAssign topics to look up, but do not give references.\n\nThis leaves the\n\nHere he learns to\nThis is training him in research work\n\npupil to himself and tests his power to get data unaided.\n\nuse books of reference, indexes, etc.\n\nand preparing him for the kind of work he is to do in after-years. It gives\nhim his very best library training.\nLet him choose his\n5. It is well to allow him some choice of subjects.\nown subject. In this way you can see his natural tendency in your subject.\nBy this means I have found some pupils very fond of constitutional history;\nothers, of the social side; while others still who are fond only of the more\nstirring events, such as military and naval exploits.\nThis knowledge is\nnecessary for the teacher in order properly to direct the pupil's reading.\n\nThese, in brief, are the methods I am using, and they have given fairly\n\ngood results.\n\nIt is\n\nnecessary to have reports made;\n\notherwise you do not\n\nknow whether the pupil has done the work; and if every pupil is held responsible for the main points in each report, the best results are attained.\n\nThis\n\nmeans the use of notebooks, and I think this the only satisfactory way to use\nnotebooks.\n\nThere is still one other phase of this question that I must mention.\n\nBesides\n\nthose books needed in connection with the class-room work, there should\n\nbe a collection of newspapers, magazines, and periodicals sufficient for the\npupils to keep\n\nup with all the current events of history, art, science, etc.\n\nThere should be books, too, on all subjects that tend toward the cultivation\nof the fine arts\n\n—music, painting, sculpture, the\n\nsciences, etc.\n\nThe pupils\n\nshould be allowed to use the library for two hours each afternoon as an intel-\n\nwhere they can come and browse about in the alcoves\nand upon the shelves, reading anything that appeals to the passing fancy,\nand in that way take a mental outing. By so doing they become fond of the\nlibrary, and soon learn to spend their spare moments with great minds,\ninstead of loitering upon the streets looking for amusement.\nIt gives an\n\nlectual recreation hall;\n\nopportunity to those who have developed a fondness for some one subject, in a\n\nmeasure at least, to feed that desire.\neral culture and to broaden their\n\nIt enables\n\nthem to add to their gen-\n\nmental concepts, and also to keep up with\n\nwhat is going on in the world. These hours are to some the happiest hours\nof the day, and perhaps as beneficial as any.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n36§\n\n[library\n\nWHAT CHILDREN DO READ AND WHAT THEY OUGHT\nTO READ\nG. STANLEY\n\nHALL, PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY, WORCESTER, MASS.\n\nAs a student of modern hygiene, I am greatly concerned for the stomach\nof the modern girl.\n\nShe has greatly improved, of late, in exercise, but I fear\n\nThose who live on ice-cream, soda water, and bon bons, are victims\nof teaism or cofifeeism, eat irregularly, and, altho their faces are full and their\ncomplexions may be normal, cannot possibly be well. If to this we add the\nmethods of cooking which prevail in too many homes of the poor, the rich, and\nin the hotel kitchen, the case becomes yet graver.\nReading is the food of the mind, and the case here is, I fear, no better.\nThose who batten upon the modern novel, with its highly artificial and conventional treatment of ante-nuptial love, often treated in a somewhat risqu^\nmanner, cannot possibly know life, and the standpoints of romance and of\nactual practice. are very happily now diverging.\nFor five or six years I have\nspent much time in finding out, and in hasty perusal of scores of, the most\npopular books of this class. The sentiment is often mawkish, sometimes\nactually perverted, the situations very remote from real life or history; and\nnot in diet.\n\nnow that we have the rudiments of a real psychology of the tender sentiment,\nthe indictment against the modern novehst is increasingly grave.\nhappily, however, faint signs\n\n—\n\nalas, too faint\n\nThere are\n\n—of a new dispensation in\n\nthis\n\nrespect, and there are already a few healthy girls who can read good things,\n\neven tho they are not the very latest products of the press.\n\nThis apphes largely to the reading of those in the later school age, or already\npast it; but the infection is descending the grades thru the high school even\n\ngrammar school.\n\ninto the\n\nFor a girl in the early teens to be a passionate\n\nreader of what passes for the best of the popular novels is, I believe, calamitous\nfor the\n\ndevelopment of the heart and the sentiment which are the essential\n\nthings in life.\n\nAll this the healthy boy utterly eschews at this age as something\n\nessentially unfit.\n\nThe excuse is often made that there is some dearth of the\nMany censuses lately made of the reading of this\n\nright literature for girls.\n\nclass of people show that they take very kindly to books meant for boys, and\n\nare in danger of accepting for themselves thereby, and all unconsciously, male\n\nand sometimes even wishing that they had been born boys. This,\nis far better, in my judgment, than the gushy love-story of the\nmodern purveyor. The danger, however, is very great that the modern\nschoolgirl will early in fife acquire false views of it, will make excessive and\nimpossible demands upon it, which will cloud her life with discontent in the\nfuture.\nIndeed, there is a sense in which we may say that there is something\nwrong about a girl in the teens who is a gormandizer of books, not only of this\nobjectionable class, but of any kind. Even tales Hke Alice in Wonderland\nand the Water Babies are a good way from the ideal, altho far above the comideals,\n\nhowever,\n\nmon actuaUty.\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nWHAT CHILDREN READ AND OUGHT TO READ\n\nWhen we turn to the reading of boys, the case is very different.\n\n869\n\nThey\n\nmore blood, action, adventure, and practical life in them.\nGirls rarely read books calculated to fit them for domestic life or womanly\nBoys do so far more often at the same age. Statistics\nvocations of any kind.\nlove books with\n\nshow that the average boy reads less Hterature idealizing crime than is sometimes supposed, or than he did a decade or two ago; and even this vicious\nmental diet produces a harmful effect that is more effeminal in its effects than\nBoth sexes have a period in the\nthe gushy, mushy things girls suffer from.\nearher, or perhaps the middle, teens when they are fascinated with reading\na kind of craze or intoxication of trying their wings in the great field of htera-\n\nknow what the great world is about in the pin-feather stage, just\nThe arduous work of tlje high\nschool, as we know, distinctly tends to check this passion sometimes doubtless\nfor good, and sometimes otherwise.\nThe dangers are great, and, I think,\nture, to\n\nbefore they are ready to launch out upon it.\n\n;\n\ncoming to be adequately and truly recognized, so that I will not dwell upon\nthem, but proceed to attempt to answer the great question:\n\nWhat should\n\nour young people read?\nFirst, they ought to be acquainted with the story-roots and leading motives\n\nof all the greatest and best literature in the world.\n\nresumes and epitomes.\nbe freely sacrificed to\ntales\n\nI beheve profoundly in\n\nNo literature is so classic in form that it should not\nits\n\ncontents.\n\nThe Greek grammars, Homer, select\n\nfrom Thucydides, Herodotus, the\n\nNiebelungen, Arthuriad, Dante,\n\nShakespeare, and just a few score others would include\n\nall I\n\nmean.\n\nThe\n\nmodern school ought to hold itself really culpable if children are allowed to\nsatisfy the laws requiring attendance without knowing something of these great\nmoralizing powers in the world.\n\nThey present every chief type of character\n\nand every great generic ethical situation in fife, and thus innoculate the soul\nagainst temptation, and in its stress and strain pre-form right choices. Happily,\nwe now have a choice little body of literature that attempts just this thing;\nfor nearly all the authors need it, and these should form the staple of school\nwork and of reading outside. The maxim, \"Art for art's sake,\" has absolutely\nno place in education; for there is only one standard of merit in the reading\nof school children, and that is its moral value.\nThe good book, and that with\na moral that strikes the child in faith, or indeed that is obvious, never produces\nthe deeper effects.\n\nThese always come by the method of indirection, and are\n\nsubtly insinuated by suggestion.\n\nmade of such material.\n\nMr. Bigg says we should have a school Bible\n\nAgain, statistics show a progressive ignorance on the\n\npart of American school children of the old and the New Testaments, which\nare not known enough even for the purposes of intelligent understanding of\nliterary\n\nallusions.\n\nA Scripture anthology and outHnes of sacred history\n\nshould, and will soon, be provided to meet this need.\n\nHistory means story, and the young child normally approaches it by the\n\npath of the narrative and biography.\n\nThe French have lately shown us how\n\nboth history and morals can be taught at once in their courses for citizenship\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n870\n\nand virtue.\n\n[Library\n\nFrench history has been ransacked for tales of great deeds and\n\ntraits calculated to inspire as well as to interest the young,\n\nand societies have\n\nbeen formed with medals to inculcate and to reward acts of virtue suggested\n\nby this course, which, under the lay system of instruction which now prevails\nthere, as it long has done here, lays upon the school the necessity of teaching\nrighteousness independently of religion.\n\nThe history teacher even in the\n\nhigh school is often too universitized in methods and ideals to recognize this\nneed, so that, in fact, this great topic, the arsenal of all recorded experience\nof the race, is treated in a scholastic\n\nand unfruitful way by those who have\n\nforgotten that the chief object of teaching, not only history, but everything\nelse, to the young, is to improve and strengthen character, without which mere\n\nknowledge is worthless.\nThird, girls, and especially boys, ought to read in the field of nature and\n\nmodern science.\n\nInterest normally begins with life, perhaps with primitive\n\nman under the simple conditions of savagery, and with animals; but in the middle teens the normal boy has almost a passion for frontier questions.\nHe\nwishes to know about the conditions of the sun, moon, stars, boundaries of\nspace, the nature of ether, atoms. X-rays,\n\nand radium; perhaps even the\n\nnature of ions, the origin of life, evolution, the latest discoveries in electricity,\nthe wonders of modern machinery; perhaps the way conjurers perform their\ntricks, the secrets of nature as explored by the microscope, kite, top, battery,\nretort, etc.\n\nThere is no ultimate question in which the most expert mind is\n\ninterested, which the callowest youth of normal parts cannot himself glimpse.\n\nI have tried for some years to collect the popular books, tho not many of the\narticles, upon these topics, out of which a good course of reading for such use\n\ncould be constructed.\nFourth, in our instruction in modern, and even in ancient, languages we\n\nshould strive to focus interest essentially upon the subject-matter; and here\nI have a great heresy to propose, viz., that of rapid cursory reading that is\n\nnot thoro, that slips the chief difficulties at first, but gives the pupil's mind\n\na constant and dominant interest in story, and makes that the motive of\nlearning the vocabulary.\n\nAll novices should be read with and to.\n\nNo lessons\n\nshould ever be .set in any foreign language at first, and the comments of the\nteacher should be directed to the historical, moral, scientific contents of the\nsubject-matter.\n\nI have known university boys to get up a pretty fair knowledge\n\nof ItaHan and Spanish, because they had a special interest in matter which\n\ncould be found only in those languages.\n\nHereto the principle of content is\n\nforever dominant over form, and should never be lost sight off.\n\nThe modern\n\nhigh-school boy or girl who has read thoroly his precious few score or even\n\nhundreds of pages of a modern or an ancient language according to the pre-\n\n—thoro, accurate, leaving nothing unmastered, and with frequent\n—\nlearning the language by the most wasteful and uneconomic\n\nscription\n\nreviews\n\nis first\n\nway, and is therefore more liable to cut it dead afterward, feeling nothing\nof the inspiration of the literature to which it is sought to give him a key.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\nVALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES\n\nDepartment]\n\nwhat shall be said of the now hard-worked method of running\nMuch, I believe, both favorable and\n\nFinally,\n\ndown\n\n871\n\nall kinds of subjects in a library ?\n\nunfavorable.\n\nThe habit of superficial acquaintance with very many subjects\n\nfor theme-writing, debate, or pooHng in class for the benefit of others\nbelieve, an excellent one.\n\nIt gives the student the\n\nis,\n\nI-\n\ncommand of the resources\n\nof a library, and habituates him to make use of it later in Hfe, for all kinds of\n\npurposes.\n\nTo have learned that, if one wishes to know anything\n\n—a process,\n\na political question, something about any aspect of nature, costume, any kind\nof allusion, or even out-of-the-way topic\n\nof itself a precious education.\n\n—one can get help from a\n\nIt is often said that the\n\nlibrary, is\n\nvalue of schooling,\n\neven thru college, is best measured by the number and intensity of interests\ngenerated, and not by the knowledge actually attained; but this is abortive\n\nwithout the habit of feeling.\n\nAs Emerson says\n\n:\n\nIf you have the most fleeting\n\ninterest in anything whatever, you are grieving the Holy Spirit if you do not\n\nrun to the library with all possible speed to feed that interest before it cools.\n\nOn the other hand, the dangers of the new library work are those of distraction.\nPupils who consult shelves for one topic are often led by a\ninterest to gratify lower tastes.\n\nmore superficial\n\nA\n\nBut even here, I think, good predominates.\n\nFrenchman has said that to love the smell of books is one element of education\nto take them in the hand, to glance at the title-page, thumb them thru to see\nthe pictures or chapter-headings, enlarges one's sense of the range of knowledge,\n\nand gives a wholesome and appetizing sense of ignorance.\nI plead, therefore, for a recognition of the value of superficiality as one of\n\nthe goods per se in this field; a knowledge that is all extent, with not much\nintensity.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nthe form in which\n\nall\n\nknowledge begins.\n\nrespectable, then the profession of the librarian itself is not so.\n\nIf\n\nit\n\nis\n\nnot\n\nI have some-\n\ntimes almost wondered if there is not a microbe not yet detected which may\ninfect the pupil with a slow-burning fever of love of learning,\n\nwhich may be\n\ncaught by merely walking thru alcoves, getting a httle of the dust of the shelves\n\nupon the fingers, clothes, and in the nostrils.\nJaeger, says that the soul is a smell.\n\nA German writer. Professor\n\nIf so, perhaps it is the library smell.\n\nTHE VALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES IN THE\nEDUCATION OF CHILDREN\nPERCIVAL CHUBB, DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH, ETHICAL CULTURE SCHOOL,\n\nNEW YORK CITY\nModern pedagogy is often portentously solemn; it needs the wholesome\nand enlivening ministrations of the comic spirit. I would humbly suggest\nthat, as a step in this direction, it should seek saving grace in an investigation\n\nof children's humor.\nattention.\n\n.\n\nThe subject, so far as I can discover, has received little\n\nIt does not seem to have been sufficiently realized by our learned\n\npedagogs what an indispensable key to childhood humor is, and what an\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n872\n\n[Library\n\nindispensable part of the equipment and the defensive armor of the teacher\n\na sense of humor is.\n\nMight not our normal schools and pedagogical semion this subject with the Alices,\nthe Golden Age, Uncle Remus, Midsummer Night's Dream, etc., for texts?\nOf the solemnity of some of our fellow-pedagogs we have periodical evidence in a recurring attack upon fairy-tales, and their frivolous kindred, the\nmyth, the fable, and the legend. We need go no farther back than to that\ninspired scoundrel, Rousseau over whom the comic spirit always waxes\n\n—\n\nnaries consider the possibiHty of a course\n\n—\n\nriotous;\n\nnor farther forward than to that grave Rabbi, Herbert Spencer, for\n\nreminding instances of protest against their use in education.\n\nIn general, we\n\nmay let good Miss Edgeworth speak for this class of protestants: ''Even if\nchildren do prefer fairy-tales, is this a reason why their minds should be\nfilled with fantastic visions instead of useful knowledge ?\"\n\nIn reply to which,\n\nthe following little dialogue from Hans Andersen would seem to be pertinent:\n\n\"Do you know only one story?\" asked the rats.\n\"I heard it on the happiest evening of my life.\"\n\"Can't you tell one about bacon\nor tallow in the storeroom? .... Many thanks to you then\" and off they marched.\n\n\"Only one,\" said the fir tree.\n\n\"We think it a miserable story,\" said the rats.\n\n—\n\nI take it that I\n\nam called upon today not to allow our solemn protestants\n\nto march off without a word or two of defense or counter-protest from those\nof us who consider them mistaken; the more so, as the sturdy utiUtarians who\n\nwould fatten our little ones on this substantial diet of \"bacon and tallow in\nthe storeroom\"\n\"useful knowledge\" is Miss Edgeworth's phrase seem to\n\n—\n\n—\n\nbe numerous and sometimes distinguished.\n\n(I believe that\n\neven President\n\nEliot has placed himself under suspicion.)\n\nI shall, then,\n\naddress myself\n\n—\n\nand chiefly to what comes first in the title assigned to me namely, the\n\"value\" of fairy-stories and folk-stories in the education of children and\nThen\nshall try to show that they have certain specific and important values.\nI shall have a few words to say concerning the practical question of their place\nand use in school work.\nBy way of preliminary, let me remark that, as this is to be a very general\n\nfirst\n\n—\n\ntreatment of my theme, I shall not attempt to differentiate strictly the \"fairystory\" and \"folk-story\" from each other, or from other species of the same\n\ngenus\n\n—the myth, the legend or saga, the nursery\n\nthe droll, the beast-tale,\n\nand so on.\n\ntale or Mdrchen, the fable,\n\nAs Mr. Hartland uses the term in his\n\nScience oj Fairy Tales, a fairy-story is a form of folk-story;\n\nso is a legend.\n\nHis definition is: \"fairy-stories are traditionary narratives not in their present\n\nform relating to beings held to be divine, nor to cosmological or national\nMr. Hartevents, but in which the supernatural plays an essential part.\"\nland's emphasis falls on the word \"traditionary\":\n\nhe excludes the \"literary\n\nfairy-story\" of Andersen, Brabourne, Macdonald, and, I suppose, of Perrault;\nin fact, even\n\nGrimm would not go unquestioned from his standpoint. For\nI am concerned\n\nmy purpose it will be unnecessary to press his distinction.\nchiefly with the\n\none characteristic which all these, as forms of folk-story,\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nVALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n873\n\nhave in common, and seems, more than anything else, to render them objectionable to all virtuous \"sticklers for facts;\"\n\nthat\n\nis,\n\nthe supernatural or\n\nby reason of this that they are held to be untrue\nand unreal, so that they give children a false idea of life and the forces with\n\nmiraculous element.\n\nIt is\n\nwhich they have to reckon in the world.\n\nIf this view is sound, if thru fairy-\n\nstories we are giving children a false conception of life and of their relations\n\nto the world, then all other reasons in favor of the fairy-story are outweighed.\n\nEverything depends in this issue upon our getting a right point of view.\n\nAnd the right point of view here, I contend, is not that of the child, but of the\nhuman being. A child study that is divorced from adult study leads us has\nled us\n\n—into\n\n—\n\ngogical child\"\n\nOur latter-day \"peda-\n\nsorts of pedagogical absurdities.\n\nall\nis\n\njust as misleading\n\nand impossible an abstraction as the\n\n\"economic man\" of an outworn political economy.\n\nFrom this larger point of view the consideration to be borne in mind is that\nthe interest in myths, legends, and fairy-stories is not one that restricts itself\nto childhood, is not a phenomenon of childhood merely.\n\nThe child's dehght\n\nin these things is no merely passing phase of development;\n\nit\n\ncontinues and\n\nrepeats itself in some measure with every adult who enjoys his Homer or his\nVergil, his\n\nKeats or his Tennyson.\n\nThe mythopoeic faculty endures as a\n\nWe are still mytho\"Prometheus Bound;\" Mr.\n\npermanent stratification in the spiritual life of the race.\npoeic.\n\nShelley\n\nis\n\nso in the\n\n\"Cloud\"\n\nor the\n\nMoody (our youngest singer of promise) is in the \"Fire-Bringer.\"\n\nThe\n\nmythopoeic is a continuing mode of poetic apprehension and interpretation.\nOr, to pass from myth to legend, that also endures and flourishes among us\nthe Sagas of the elder world have been retold and resung for us, with all their\n\nsupernatural adhesions by Wagner and Morris and Lady Gregory.\n\nSimilarly,\n\nthe old fairy-stories have been retold and reinterpreted for adult delight by\n\nTennyson, Christina Rossetti, Maeterlinck, and others.\nthat\n\nIt is fair to\n\nsay\n\nGrimm and Andersen, Carroll and Kingsley, Harris and Kipling, are\n\nand young. The proper view, then, is to see in the\nmyth-making and myth-loving propensities of the child rudimentary forms\nof that power of imaginative transfiguration of fact to ideal ends which is the\ngift of the poet and the seer.\nThese forms of expression endure because they\nembody abiding attitudes and moods of the human spirit. In fact, the animistic and anthropomorphic tendency of the myth-maker and fairy storyteller survives in our common habit of personification and metaphorical\ninterpretation whenever we speak of the voice of the sea or the whisper of\n\nthe joy ahke of old\n\nthe woods.\nAll poetry is feigning;\n\nand it is chiefly a matter of degree that distinguishes\n\nthe animism of childhood from that of the adult.\nthe child\n\nThe credulous realism of\n\nwho believes in Lady Moon, becomes\n\nthe basis of our adult\n\nenjoyment of Milton's exquisite humanization of the moon:\nOft as if her head she bowed,\nStooping through a fleecy cloud;\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n874\n\n[Library\n\nor his lovely image of her in \"Comus\" as a sad votarist in palmer's weeds.\nIt is for the delight of us aged children that Shakespeare bids Oberon discourse\n\nto us of how he once\n\n.... sat upon a promontory\nAnd heard a mermaid on a dolphin's back\nUttering such dulcet and harmonious breath\nThat the rude sea grew civil at her song,\nAnd certain stars shot madly from their spheres\n\nTo hear the sea-maid's music;\nor that\n\nMatthew Arnold appeals\n\nto\n\nthe eternal\n\nin\n\nchildlike\n\nus by the\n\nenchantments of his \"Forsaken Merman.\"\nThis anthropomorphizing tendency, we\n\nmay be sure,\n\nis\n\nineradicable;\n\nand men will continue to speak of the \"Father of Spirits,\" tho this is but a\nmetaphor, and of \"Mother Earth,\" because only by such language can he\nput himself on human terms with them and be brought imaginatively near to\nthem.\n\nIn the second place, so far as the supernatural element in these products\nis\n\nconcerned, I contend that fairy-tales do but express in hyperbole those\n\ninnumerable phenomena in nature and in human life that have a fairy-like\nimprobability and waywardness about them.\n\nHe is to be commiserated\n\nwho does not know the mood in which the world seems to be the abode of\nthe fairy-powers which our forbears\nlittle\n\nsaw in the grassy rings in which the\n\npeople footed it featly overnight, and in all the innumerable freaks of\n\nnature's handiwork\ndistortions\n\n—her strange grotesque creatures and growths, her quaint\n\nand arabesques, her miscarriages and misfits;\n\nor, in the\n\nhurnan\n\nworld, the lunatics and lovers of the poet's characterization, the fools (God's\n\nThe mood in which one feels this\nis the mood in which\nShakespeare wrote his Midsummer Night's Dream or The Tempest. It is\nthe mood in which the sculptors adorned the great Gothic cathedrals with\ntheir grotesques.\nIt is the mood which finds its rational outcome in a reverent\nrecognition of the wonder and mystery into which we are born; so that we\ncan say with Prospero that \"We are such stuff as dreams are made of, and our\nfools)\n\nand simpletons of human kind.\n\nfairy-like\n\nappeal of the world to one's imagination\n\nKfe is rounded with a sleep.\"\nTo ehminate it would be to eliminate\nHamlet with its unbeHevable ghosts, Macbeth with its impossible witches,\nThe Ancient Mariner with its phantoms, and Faust with its fantastical scenery.\nThere is another objection sometimes urged against these old myths and\nstories, namely, that they are pagan, and that we ought not to introduce\nchildren to reHgion thru pagan forms.\nThe logical outcome of this position\nwould be that from which our stalwart Puritan ancestors did not shrink\nthe elimination of all our great feasts, which are pagan in origin and still\nlargely pagan in ritual and legend: Christmas and Easter, May Day and\nHallowe'en; in fact, it would involve us in changing the names of our days\nThis anti-pagan argument is not to be\nof the week and of our months.\nlittle\n\ntaken seriously.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nVALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n875\n\nHuman ingenuity has discovered many other perverse reasons for excluding fairy-tales from our education, but I will go no farther in search of them.\n\nHaving dealt with those which are most commonly urged, I shall go on now\nto put briefly, in positive form, the reasons why I should give an important\n\nplace to fairy-stories and legends.\n\nMost writers begin with the argument from recapitulation, which says that\nthe history of the child of today recapitulates that of the race.\n\nThe child in\n\nsame myth-making tendencies as the race exhibited\nin its childhood therefore it should be fed on the food proper to the needs of\nThis naturahstic theory needs supplementing by\nthis myth-making period.\nan ideaHstic one. The child is not only a creature of the past, and swept by\nits impulses; it is a prophet of the future, a fashioner of ideals which breathe\n'Hhe spirit of the years to come.\" This future is the main matter for the\neducator.\nIt is his business to select from the miscellaneous outcroppings\nof the past those tendencies which will issue in the ideal man of his concep-\n\nits early years exhibits the\n;\n\ntion.\n\nSo, then,\n\nwe should in a liberal way select such material out of the\n\nlegacy of the past in myths and legend as will be contributory to the ideal we\n\nhave in mind\n\n—an ideal not too sharply or absolutely defined, but held in a\n\nway to allow for our own shortness of vision.\n\nlarge, free\n\nthen, to indicate\n\nI shall proceed,\n\nwhat I conceive to be the educational ends which fairy-\n\nStories may satisfy.\n\nIn the first place, fairy-tales help the child in taking first steps toward the\nassertion of his own spiritual lordship\n\n—the prerogative of mind over matter.\n\nThese fairy powers and agencies which transcend our ordinary limitations of\ntime and space exhibit the human mind dealing ignorantly, but royally, with\nmaterial facts in the interest of its own hopes and fears, its loves and aspirations.\n\nPsychology explains this triumph of imagination over fact by saying\n\nthat, whereas for memory and perception the meaning of anything\n\nincident\n\n—\n\nis\n\nthe contrary, the process is reversed\nto its\n\n—event or\n\nsubordinated to the existence of the thing, for imagination, on\n\nmeaning.\n\n:\n\nthe existence of the thing is subordinated\n\nThe great princes and potentates that dominate in these\n\nstories, unhampered by material necessity, and with access to unlimited forces,\n\nare the imagination's expressions of the supremacy of human prowess over\n\nbrute fact.\n\nBy and by the child will discover human Hmitations, and the\n\nmaterial necessity which hedges him in; but he may retain in the domain of\nthe spirit the essence of this first spiritual audacity of his in the only conviction that gives meaning to spiritual freedom\nspiritual destiny.\n\n—\n\nhis absolute control of his own\n\nHe need never be spiritually crushed, tho you pile Pelion\n\nupon Ossa to crush him; he has dominion over his own will and acts.\nIn the second place, fairy-stories are an aid not only to the development of\n\n—the passion\n—and they are nearly always worthy fellows\n\na free spirit, but to the idealizing tendency at the heart of man\nfor perfection.\n\nThese heroes\n\nlimn in a large, sahent way certain types of human excellence.\n\nThey bring\nhome the fact that there is something for human courage and skill to strive\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n876\nfor.\n\n[Library\n\nIt is a crude ideal no doubt at first; but imagination steadily works to dis-\n\nsolve out of the hard concreteness of fact and experience the ideal elements with\n\nwhich it is mixed.\n\nI remember how a Uttle girl very near to me responded one\n\nday to her fondling mother's hope that the child might grow up a strong and\nkind-hearted and fearless woman; and might then marry fortunately and\n\nbecome some good man's loving wife. The child was silent a moment;\nand then, looking into her mother's face, she asked wistfully: \"A princess,\nmamma ? \" Yes, bless her heart a princess a right royal-hearted woman,\nwith the high-minded pride and conscious power of old-time heroic princesses; and one would go on to hope that, repeating the experience of the\nSleeping Beauty, all of her slumbering powers might one day be quickened\ninto new life by the kiss of the much-loving prince who should overleap every\nWe all have a prince or a princess lurking someobstacle to win her.\n\n—\n\n!\n\nwhere\n\nin our house of\n\nmany mansions who\n\nat\n\ntimes ventures forth\n\nto\n\nbeckon us to some high enterprise.\n\nBy and by the fairy-prince fades before the hero and heroine of the saga\nand the legend, and, later on, before the audible stride of the great historic\nhero martyr and prophet and sage. The steps are natural Aladdin and\nDick Whittington, Jason and Jack o' the Beanstalk, Roland and Arthur,\nColumbus and the voyaging Pilgrims, William the Silent and George WashOnly by having taken the first steps do the last acquire full signifiington.\ncance, and the veritable heroes of history take on the halo which the idealizing\nhabit throws around admired figures. These heroes of early childhood have\nbeen drawn large, as becomes childhood giants, genii, large-limbed heroes.\nLater on, the child escapes the tyranny of size, which is merely a rude mode of\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nemphasis.\nThirdly, these fairy-tales are art-products which bring before the child\n\n—poetic\n\nThe function of art is to express, not fact,\nThe method\nmay be the natural or the supernatural; the actors may be men or angels,\nuniversal truths\n\ntruths.\n\nbare unilluminated fact, but \"the disimprisoned soul of fact.\"\n\ndwarfs or giants, elves or goblins, witches or genii, animals or trees;\n\nthey\n\nmay one and all be used to the same end of revealing the deeper relationships\n\n—\n\nand truths of life the charm of virtue and manhood, the ugliness of vice,\nthe fascinating power of character, the sway of engaging personality. Those\nwho object to fairy-tales because they are not true are bhnd to the kind of\nWhat is less true to fact than the world to which\ntruth which art expresses.\nShakespeare introduces us men and women speaking as men and women\nnever spoke, the actions of years crowded into a two hours' traffic upon the\nstage ? And yet the great plays carry with them a sense of utmost, inmost\nreality; the facts are all impressively true to the laws of man's spiritual being.\nWith my next and last point I have no time to deal; I can refer only very\nThe supreme service which fairy-tales perform is that of cultibriefly to it.\nvating the emotional and imaginative powers. The imagination is the masterMen are what they are by\nfaculty, according to Wordsworth and Ruskin.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nVALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n877\n\nreason of what the Bible speaks of as \"the imaginations of their hearts\"\nthe images set up in the temple of the heart which\n\ncommand worship and\nand in the interest of which men pass their days and spend their\nenergies.\nI would take time here to express\nI hope for teachers generally\nservice,\n\n—\n\nmy sense of the value of Dr. Stanley Hall's great service in emphasizing the\nneed of more emotion in education.\nruns to brains and cleverness.\nis\n\nIt\n\nThis\n\nOur art manifests an astonishing cleverness mainly;\nOur literature, too,\n\nan era of cleverness.\n\nit is\n\nOur education is over-intellectualized.\n\nIn this it only follows the drift of our age.\n\nnot the outcome of massed and abounding emotion.\n\nis the outcome of the same sort of capacity that is accompHshing great results\n\nin our industrial and commercial activities.\n\nwise lacks emotional richness.\nart, first and foremost;\n\nEducation follows suit;\n\nit\n\nlike-\n\nNow it is art that mediates emotion—literary\n\nhence the special value of fairy-stories for the emotional\n\ndevelopment of children.\nSuch, then, are the values I find in fairy-stories for the young: they embody\n\nand communicate the man-child's first rude assertion of the lordship of mind,\n\nand subserve the development of a later sense of spiritual freedom and\nautonomy; they are expressive, as all art is expressive, of the idealistic\nhunger at the heart of man; again, as forms of art, they select and co-ordinate\nthose facts which bring out the spiritual meanings of fife that is, they release\nfrom the unsifted materials of experience the imprisoned \"soul of fact;\"\nand, not only do they embody the basic moral insights and interpretations of\nchildlike man, but they express the simple and larger emotions, and so feed\n\n—\n\nthe heart of the child;\n\nthey quicken, too, the imagination\n\n—that master-\n\nfaculty without which the imaginative sympathy which is man's highest moral\n\nendowment fails of fruition; they are an aid to culture by giving an outlook\nupon all nations and kindreds, all countries and conditions of life; and,\nfinally,\n\nalong with their allied forms of literary invention, the myth, saga,\n\nfable, etc., they are a condition of understanding the\n\ninnumerable allusions\n\nwith which the literature of the world is studded.\nI\n\nhave here neglected other general values which the teacher of English\n\nwould emphasize in a more speciaUzed treatment of this theme\n\n—language\n\nvalues of various kinds; but the present occasion hardly calls for an excursus\ninto this field.\n\nAnd, nov/, to take what little time is left for a consideration of the utilization of fairy-stories in school life.\n\nThe folk-lorist and anthropologist do not\n\nfind, I have said, any well-defined stratification of the myth, the saga, and the\n\nfairy-story; I think that the educator must acknowledge a similar uncertainty\n\nas regards the child.\n\nChildren vary very much as to their interest in these\n\ndifferent species of imaginative tales, according to their home influence\n\ntemperament.\nI think.\n\nand\n\nThe nursery tale and fairy-story make strongest appeal first,\n\nThey exhibit a ruder artistry and a simpler order of conceptions than\nThe myth seems to yield its best results in the third and\n\nthe classic myth.\n\nfourth years of school Hfe; and because mythology and mythological illusion\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n878\n\n[Library\n\nare so deeply woven into the fabric of our literature, the interest is more con-\n\ntinuous and pervasive than the interest in the fairy-story, which is seldom\n\nvigorous after the eleventh or twelfth year.\nfairy-story, myth, and fable\n\nthe fable\n\nThe simplest forms of all three\n\nfind place in the first three years of school;\n\n—without the pulpit tag upon —finds\nit\n\nthe second year.\n\nwhere.\n\n—may\n\nAlicCj the Jungle Book, Uncle\n\nits\n\ngreatest acceptance in\n\nRemus, seem to \"go\" any-\n\nI know many big boys of forty and upwards who delight in them still.\n\nAs to the way of handling fairy-stories, it would be well to take a hint\nfrom Mr. Hartland's distinction between the traditionary and the literary\nforms of the fairy-story.\n\nLet us handle the traditionary story (which is the\n\nmore important for literary and pedagogical purposes) in the traditionary\nway: let it be something that is told and not read; let its appeal be to the ear\nand eye by all the methods of the old-time story-teller. The stories should\nremain fluid, vital, assuming no set form of language, associated forever in\nthe child's mind with the story circle and the cozy corner or mama's and\npapa's lap.\n\nIn that way we avoid the danger of verbal slavishness on the part\n\nof the child.\n\nThese stories do not exist in any classic form; and most of the\n(The one-\n\nversions one finds in the schoolbooks are poor or intolerable.\n\nmonstrosities are simply murderous.\n\nNo\n\nlibrarian should give them shelf-room, save in his chamber of horrors.)\n\nThe\n\nsyllable versions\n\nand such\n\nlike\n\nmaterial must be worked over by the teacher in accordance with the principles\nof the art of story-telling.\n\nIn the next place, let the characters of the stories be companionable presences for the child: people to be talked about and with, and to be imitated\n\nand resuscitated as children will naturally revive them in dramatic play.\nEncourage what the psychologists call the dissociative imagination by detaching scenes, episodes, characters, from their setting. This is very valuable\ntraining for the imagination.\n\nAs for the telling, we must borrow what we can from the art of the storydays when story-telling flourished. Better than a deal of pre-\n\ntellers of the\n\nscription is this suggestive sketch of Agatuzza Nessia, the old woman\n\nfrom\n\nwhom Dr. Pitre gathered so many stories in his rich collection—seventy years\nold, a mother, grandmother, and great-grandmother, who had never forgotten\n\nthe innumerable tales told by her own mother.\nShe cannot read, but she knows so many things that no one else knows, and repeats\nIf the tale turns upon\nthem with a propriety of tongue that is a pleasure to hear\na vessel that has to make a voyage, she utters, without remarking it, or without seeming\ndo so, sailors' phrases and words which only seamen are acquainted with. If the\nheroine arrives, poor and desolate, at a baker's and takes a place there, Messia's language\nto\n\nis\n\nso completely that of the trade that you would believe the baking of bread had been\n\nHer narration consists, more than in words, in the restless movement of the eyes, the waving of the arms, the gestures of the whole person which rises,\nwalks around the room, bends, and is again uplifted; making her voice now soft, now\nher business\n\nexcited,\n\nnow fearful, now sweet, now hoarse, as it portrays the voices of the various\n\npersonages, and the action which these are performing, i\n»\n\nQuoted by Haxtland, pp. 9-1 1.\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nVALUE AND PLACE OF FAIRY STORIES\n\nDepartment]\n\n879\n\nThat is the ideal method of quickening the emotional and imaginative\nnature of the child.\ntelling\n\na story:\n\nIt suggests that it is a mistake for the teacher to sit when\n\nshe must move, gesture, sing, dance, as occasion demands.\n\nIn short, she must be an imaginative and emotional person herself, and help\nus to get into our lives more of that warmth and color of the impassioned soul\n\nwhich are so depressingly lacking in our schools\n\n—and outside of them; inside\n\nof them doubtless, because outside.\n\nConceived of in this way, I beHeve that the fairy-story and its kindred\n\n—\n\nhave a great future before them. A wondrous wealth\ndrawn from all quarters of the world, especially the Orient, is\nbeing gathered for us and we shall make use of this increasingly as the cloud\ncast upon us by the triumphant reahsm and materialism of the past fifty years\n\nlegend, myth, fable\nof material\n\n;\n\nwithdraws from off our spirits.\n\nOne of our greatest critics has characterized\n\nthe glorious outburst of poetic splendor of the early nineteenth century as the\n\n''renascence of wonder.\"\n\nThere are some signs of another such renascence.\n\nThe so-called \"Celtic renascence\" is of good augury:\n\nthe best work of Mr.\n\nYeats and Miss McLeod, and the classic remaking of the Legends of Cuchullain by Lady Gregory, invest with new magic the fairy way of looking upon\nlife.\n\nFor\n\n—\n\nlet this\n\nbe my last word\n\n—the\n\nfairy-story will always have a place\n\nin the heart of man, because there is so much that is fairy-hke in\n\nlife.\n\nAs\n\nlong as the human race endures, its finer spirits, smitten by the beauty and\n\nwonder of the world, will weave their web of phantasy about it and all those\nwho believe that the vision and the dream have their place in Hfe with the\ngetting and spending, the toiling and striving, will both cherish for themselves all the lovely imaginings and reveries of these spellbound souls, and\nwill see to it that the child enjoys the heritage which comes to it out of the\ngreat unconquered child-heart of the race.\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Wednesday Morning, July 5, 1905\nThe department was opened at 9:30 a. m. with a short introductory speech by Dr.\nHenry J. Off, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nThe address of the president, Miss Margaret Bancroft, of the Bancroft-Cox Training\nSchool, Haddonfield, N.\n\nJ.,\n\nfollowed.\n\n\"Physical Betterment of the Mentally Deficient\" was the subject of a paper given\n\nby Dr. J. H McKee, Philadelphia, Pa.\nDr. Mary E. Pogue, physician in charge of Oakleigh Educational Sanitarium for\nNervous Diseases in Children, Lake Geneva^ Wis., read a paper, \"Concerning Our\nLimitations in Educating Mentally Deficient Children.\"\nThis was followed by a paper by Miss Anna C. Reinhardt, of the Garrett School for\nLittle Deaf Children, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Class Work Instruction of BUnd Children\" was the next number on the program.\nMiss Alice B. Fellows, principal of the National School for Defective Vision, Milwaukee,\nWis., explained briefly the origin and scope of the work done in this school.\nAt the close of Miss Fellows' introductory remarks a class of children representing\nthe school sang very sweetly, to a piano accompaniment by Miss Louise Belongia, also\nblind.\nAn impersonation was then given very effectively by two little blind girls. This\nwas followed by a reading exercise conducted by Miss Belongia, an assistant teacher.\nThe New York point system was employed.\nAs a further demonstration of the quality of work done in the school. Miss Fellows\nconducted an exercise in ear-training.\nThe last number on the program was a paper on \" The Schools for the Feeble-Minded,\"\nby E. R. Johnstone, superintendent of the State Training School for Feeble-Minded,\nVineland, N. J.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was then named by the president:\n\n—\n\nDr. F. W. Booth, Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nMiss Corn^Ua D. Bingham, Chicago, 111.\nMiss Mary D. Carroll, New York city.\n\nThe president called the attention of those in attendance to the exhibit of manual\nand industrial training displayed in the annex of the auditorium. The pupils of the\nMcCowan School for the Deaf (Chicago), the Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind\n(Philadelphia), and the Bancroft-Cox Training School for Feeble-Minded (Haddonfield,\nN. J.) had contributed their handiwork to this exhibit.\nThe meeting was adjourned until 9:30, Thursday morning.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Thursday Morning, July 6\nThe president called the meeting to order at 10 a. m.\nThe first number presented was an informal talk by Dr. Weston D. Bayley, professor\nof nervous diseases in the Hahnemann College, Philadelphia, Pa., on the subject of\n\" Cerebral Localization.\"\n\nNo copy of this address was furnished in form for publication.\n\nThe president appointed as a Committee on Resolutions to report at the close of the\nmeeting:\n\nMiss Mary McCowan, Chicago, 111.\nS. M.\n\nA. J. Winnie, Racine, Wis.\nGreen, St. Louis, Mo.\n\n881\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n882\n\n[Special\n\nThe president introduced Miss M. S. Zane, of the Garrett School for Little Deaf\nChildren, Philadelphia, Pa.\nschool.\n\nThe\n\nMiss Zane had in charge a class of deaf children from the\n\nchildren engaged in conversation and rapid speech-reading under her\n\ndirection.\n\nFollowing this interesting exercise was a recitation by two blind children from Miss\nFellows' school.\n\nA very interesting paper was read by Miss Mary R. Campbell, graduate student in\nphilosophy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., on \"Extracts from a Report on\n\na Recent Investigation in Sociology.\"\n\"All Disease is Crime\" was the next paper, and was read by Arthur B. Linsley,\n\nThe discussion of this paper was\n\nregistrar of Phillips Brooks School, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nled by Dr. E. G. Brown, medical examiner, pubUc schools, New York city, followed by\n\nPrincipal A. J. Winnie, Jefferson School, Racine, Wis.\n\nAn address in memory of Frederick D. Morrison, Maryland School for the Blind,\nwas given by Mr. Michael Anagnos, director of Perkins Institution, Boston, Mass. This\nwas followed by a further tribute from Mr. William B. Wuaite, New York city.\nOwing to the lateness of the hour, the round-table discussion, under the direction of\nMiss Mary T. McCowan, was deferred until the next annual meeting of the department.\nThe president called for the report of the Committee on Resolutions, which submitted\nthe following:\n\nRESOLUTIONS OF THANKS\nResolved, That the members of the Special Education Department of the National\nEducational Association desire to express their thanks to the following: to the Local\nCommittee for their generosity in supplying all that was needful for the successful operation\nof this meeting, and for their unfailing courtesy and kindness; to Miss Bancroft for the\nable program rendered; to Miss Fellows and her class from Milwaukee; to Mrs. Garrett\nand her class from Philadelphia; to Mr. Allen, and others who contributed to the\nindustrial and manual exhibit.\nfeel that the papers given at this meeting are of a high order, and will prove\nof lasting benefit to those who are engaged in any line of special education.\nwould, therefore, thru the committee, express our appreciation of all that we\nhave received and enjoyed at this meeting.\nRespectfully submitted,\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nMary T. McCowan,\nWinnie,\n\nA.\n\nJ.\n\nS.\n\nM. Green,\nCommittee.\n\nThe chair appointed the following committee to select a commission whose business\nit\n\nshould be to consider the question of countersigning diplomas, and conferring with\n\nthe heads of state institutions regarding certain educational matters, and to advance\nscientific investigation\n\nregarding the various lines of special education, a report to be\n\nmade at the next annual meeting:\n\nW. D. Bayley, Philadelphia, Pa.\nE. R. Johnstone, Vineland, N. J.\nMiss M. T. McCowan, Chicago, 111.\nMiss Mary R. Campbell, Baltimore, Md.\nS. M. Green, St. Louis, Mo.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was as follows:\n\n—\n—\n\nFor President Miss Anna E. Schaflfer, Madison, Wis.\nFor Vice-Presidents. M. Green, St. Louis, Mo.\nFor Secretary E. R. Johnstone, Vineland, N. J.\n\nThe report was duly accepted, and the persons nominated were declared elected as\nofl&cers for the ensuing year.\n\nUpon motion, the department adjourned.\n\nAnna E. Schaffer, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS\n\nDepartment]\n\n883\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nPRESIDENTS ADDRESS\nMISS\n\nMARGARET BANCROFT, PRINCIPAL OF BANCROFT-COX TRAINING SCHOOL,\nHADDONFIELD, N. J.\n\nThe physical health of the people of the world we conceive to be in the\nThe physician can,\nof enlightened and conscientious physicians.\n\nhands\n\nby study, by scientific training, by interchange of ideas with others similarly\ninterested, by advocating wise legislation, safeguard the sanitary interests\nof the community, the state, the nation; in just the same way the teachers\nof our land may stand as a great bulwark of strength and protection between\nthe American people and threatening dangers resulting from inherited mental\nand moral weakness and disease. Just in proportion as they realize the\nimportance of their mission and are suitably equipped for carrying it out,\njust in that proportion will the number of really efficient men and women\nincrease, and the number of the inefficient, the incapable, correspondingly\nFor long centuries the problems that face the teachers of normal\ndecrease.\nchildren have been met and discussed, with varying degrees of intelligence,\nand valuable additions have been made to the educational principles that\nobtain in our schools and colleges today. It was reserved for comparatively\nrecent times to direct attention to subnormal types of intellect, and to formulate\nprinciples adapted to the much more complex and difficult task of developing\nthe powers latent in the intellectual and moral constitution of a relatively\nsmall, but numerically large, class of persons who come into the world handicapped by mental and moral deficiency. Moreover, as the importance of\npreventive measures is yearly becoming more fully realized in the medical\nprofession, so in the educational field it is being more clearly apprehended\nthat the general dissemination of certain fundamental principles will lead to\n\na constantly diminishing number of children of defective mentality.\n\nThe\n\nfuture parents of our nations need to know the cause and prevention of mental\n\nweakness and disease\n\n—a matter\n\nof even more vital importance in striking at\n\nthe root of the evil than any or all of the curative agencies that devoted men\n\nand women have spent their lives in bringing to full efficiency in dealing\nwith those who have already come into the world with this terrible handicap\nin the race of life.\n\nAs a result of my own experience and observation, I have ventured to\noffer a\n\nfew suggestions that it may be well to consider.\n\nIn the first place,\n\nto secure the best results from the work in which we are specially interested,\n\nwe should introduce and maintain, as far as possible, strictly scientific methods.\n''Scientific thought,\" says Clifford, ''is not an accompaniment or an addition\n\nto human progress;\nscience,\n\nit is\n\nhuman progress itself.\"\n\nIn pedagogy, as in any other\n\nwe must ascertain our facts by the most careful observation, then\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\ncorrelate and classify them.\n\n[Special\n\nBy so doing we shall secure a fund of knowledge\n\nwhich we can turn as a searchlight, if I may so express myself, upon many\nSurely in no branch of the educational\nof the difficult problems of the day.\n\nwork of our country has there been so great progress during the last five\nyears as in that in the department of special education.\n\nWe have passed the\n\nstage in our history when teachers of normal children, and indeed people in\ngeneral, looked upon us as engaged in inferior educational work.\n\ngreat universities are\n\nEven the\n\nnow wilUng to acknowledge that they have much to\n\nlearn from us, and their departments of psychology look to us for data to help\nthem in solving some of their most interesting problems. Moreover, as a\nresult of just such national meetings as that\n\nwhich now calls us together,\n\nthe world at large more fully appreciates the necessity of the efficient mental\n\nand moral training of the youth of the present generation who will be the\nparents of the next, in order to prevent their offspring from entering the\n\nworld with the heavy handicap of some physical or mental deficiency.\n\nThe\n\ntime is near at hand when our aims and, let us hope, our achievements will\n\nbe seen in their true light as of vital importance to the well-being of the human\nrace.\n\nAs a result of years of experience, I am convinced that no teacher should\nbe intrusted with the care of subnormal children who has not had some years\nof experience in classes of children of the usually healthy mental type,\n\nand\n\nthat such teachers shall have shown special powers of adaptability, insight,\n\nand sympathy, such as are constantly called for in dealing with the class of\nNot inferior ability, not even\nchildren in whom we are specially interested.\naverage ability, but the very best, should be sought out to do the specially\nIn this connection I wish to indorse with\ndifficult work in our schools.\ngreat heartiness an idea for which Miss Campbell, of the University of Chicago,\nis\n\nresponsible.\n\nSuccess in teaching children in our schools for the subnor-\n\nmal should receive the same recognition from the state in the way of testimonials for efficient work as is given to those who have taught successfully\nThis will encourage first-class teachers to seek posiin the regular schools.\nwhich\nthe\nschools\nin\nwe are interested; moreover, this is a matter of\nin\ntions\nsimple justice, and we must work for its accomplishment.\nAnother idea which I think should recommend itself to the fair-minded\nis that state institutions would be provided primarily for the indigent who\nThere are in the\nat the same time are physically or mentally deficient.\n•\n\nUnited States today thousands of feeble-minded children, not to speak of the\ndeaf and the blind, for whom the heads of state institutions refuse to make\n\nYet in these same institutions pay\namounts ranging from $500 to $800. It would be\nfar better, it seems to me, to provide for the indigent first, and divert such\npay pupils to the small private homes where they could get that individual\ncare and attention which will always and inevitably give such home schools\nan advantage over any public institution, where \"herding\" cannot be prevented.\nprovision on the plea of lack of room.\npupils are received for\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nBETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT\n\nwith all its attendant evils.\nfor\n\n885\n\nIn these smaller schools the work is of a character\n\nwhich women are peculiarly fitted, and there will always be a sufficient\n\nnumber of capable women to undertake such training, if only there be a\nreasonable assurance of ability to finance the schools.\n\nAnother fact needs to be impressed on the pubUc mind, especially on the\nwealthy\n\nwho are disposed to be philanthropic:\n\nendowed schools;\n\nthere\n\nis,\n\nthere\n\nis\n\na strong need of\n\nperhaps, an even greater need of endowments\n\nfor the support of investigators in both the private and pubhc institutions\n\ninvestigators who shall study the patients from the standpoint of psychology\n\nand medicine, and from the data thus collected secure knowledge for the\nguidance of future generations.\n\nWe have reason to believe that, with increas-\n\ning knowledge among the masses of our people, there will be a marked decrease\nin the number of children born into the world with the handicap of physical\n\nand mental deficiency. Our private and pubhc institutions for the deaf,\nthe blind, and the mentally deficient must work hand in hand; and money\ncould not be better spent than in scientific research along these lines.\n\nThe\n\nusual method of disseminating information in printed form might well be\n\nsupplemented by stated public meetings at which those with expert knowledge\ncould set forth, in the simplest and least technical language, information\n\nBy such means we\nmay hasten the time when the bitterness and broken hearts consequent on\nessential to those preparing for the duties of parentage.\n\nthe advent of afflicted children shall be rare,\n\nif\n\nnot wholly a thing of the\n\nunenlightened past.\n\nWithout undervaluing the work of our fellow-laborers all over the land in\nschools for normal children, we feel that we can magnify our own office; for\n\nare we not daily called upon to walk in the footsteps of Him who came into\n\nthe world ''to heal the broken-hearted, to preach deliverance to the captives,\n\n—\n\nand the recovering of sight to the blind\" captives to ignorance and incapacity, bHnd to the beauties, the mysteries, the glories of nature and art,\nshut out from the rich realms to which their happier brothers and sisters\nhave free and easy access ? Every wise word you can utter, my friends,\nevery plea you can advance in behalf of these afflicted children of our common\nFather, will be in the nature of a second evangel.\n\nMay all that we say and\n\ndo be prompted by a spirit of clear and reverent appreciation of the seriousness\n\nand importance of the work in which we are engaged.\n\nTHE PHYSICAL BETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY\nDEFICIENT\nDR. J. H. McKEE, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nTho the title of this paper restricts him to the physical aspect of a great\nsubject, the writer wishes to disavow, at the outset, the charge of materiahsm.\n\nIn the higher animals, at least, mind is manifest in the presence of a brain;\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n886\n\n[Special\n\nbut the existence of a brain in no wise explains the presence of mentality.\n\nAs\n\nHuxley says of the brain cells and fibers, \"they are but as the shells and\npebbles upon the seashore, showing where the waves have been.\" Nor is\nthe brain alone concerned in the manifestations of intellection;\n\non the con-\n\ntrary, it is but a latter-day truism to state that mental processes may be con-\n\ncerned in all bodily activities, controlling or influencing them in various ways,\n\nand being in turn inhibited or otherwise influenced by them.\n\nTo illustrate the vast, even causal, influences of physical conditions upon\nmind, one need but cite such instances of mental retardation as obtain in the\nOr, to take a concrete, tho\n\npresence of congenital blindness or deafness.\n\nwholly different example, picture poor\n\nThomas\n\nCarlyle,\n\nhis\n\ngreat\n\nmind\n\nbUghted and distorted by his torments of dyspepsia.\n\nTo do our best work among the mentally deficient, it is not only important,\n\nabsolutely imperative, that we should possess as complete know-\n\nit is\n\nSuch knowledge only\ncomes by the long and arduous route that leads to all exact knowledge.\nBut how interesting is this road from start to finish\nNor is the traveler upon\nit to be compared to an idle tourist; rather to the trained explorer bent on\nedge as possible of our patient's physical condition.\n\n!\n\nnoble quest.\n\nSome authorities have stated that there is no routine method for examining\nevery child\n\n;\n\nthat no method can supplant the trained eye, etc.\n\nSuch are not\n\nthe writer's opinions:\n\n\"Men must have plans.\nWhen these die out of men,\nThey sink then into ruin and decay,\nInto inanity.\"\n\nIn a somewhat extensive experience with children during the past thirteen\nyears he has become convinced that there\nthoroly:\n\ni.\n\ne.,\n\nto\n\nsoles of his feet.\n\nis\n\nbut one way to know a child\n\nexamine him carefully from the crown of his head to the\n\nAnd, having performed\n\nthis task,\n\njudgment must not\n\nseldom be suspended until this gross examination has been supplemented by\nlaboratory studies (the examination of urine, blood, sputum, cultures from\nthe throat, etc.).\n\nIndeed, in studying the physiques of the mentally deficient, such examinations are\n\nmore important than in the case of their more favored brothers.\n\nFor to understand a nervous disease, one must take a careful history, and\n\nmust precede his nervous examination by a careful somatic or physical study.\nTake, for example, three people, each paralyzed upon the same side of the\nbody.\n\nThe nervous phenomena may be identical in all three, and yet the\n\nhistory and physical finds well show that one had a brain hemorrhage (apoplexy), the second a clot within his vessels (thrombosis), while in the third a\n\nportion of a diseased heart-valve has been washed into a cerebral artery\n\n(embolism).\n\nIn the presence of a mental condition, the difficulty of diagnosis may be\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nBETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT\n\nsaid to have reached the third degree;\n\n887\n\nthe psychologic examination\n\nfor\n\nshould be preceded by a careful study of physical and nervous phenomena.\n\nLet us make such an examination together.\n\nIn pursuing it, it will not be\n\nnecessary to call upon authority nor to abstract rare cases from the literature.\nAll that is here presented has come within the realm of the writer's experience.\n\nThe hair.\n\n1.\n\n— One need but mention the\n\nto show the importance of such inspection.\n\nsparse, coarse hair of the cretin,\n\nAgain, the occipital bald spot is\n\noften an early evidence of rickets.\n2.\n\nThe skull.\n\n—Let us\n\nbriefly mention the square or asymmetric skull of\n\nrickets; the large, globular\n\nshaped microcephalic\n\ntically\n\nmembranes, brain, or both\n\n;\n\nhead of hydrocephalus; the small, characterisskull;\n\nthe protrusion thru the skull of brain\n\nthe areas of softened bone (cranio-tabes)\n\n;\n\nor the\n\ndeep syphihtic ulcers or scars of the scalp extending to the bone, and indicating present or former necrosis of it.\n3.\n\nThe face.\n\n—The pasty complexion\n\nof the cretin; the more or less char-\n\nacteristic facial expressions or lack of expressions attending the various forms\n\nof\n\nmental deficiency; the different expressions of the partially blind and of\n\nthe deaf; the enormous cheek bones of akromegaly, are all worthy of notice.\n4.\n\nThe eye.\n\n—The\n\nslant of the eye may bespeak the Mongolian; exoph-\n\nthalmos may mean much; the marked squint may mean that the patient is\nseeing a world distorted\n\n;\n\none may note the ravages of gonorrheal ophthalmia\n\nor the scars resulting from* corneal ulcers;\n\ninequalities of the pupil\n\nmay\n\ndenote meningitis or some focal brain lesions; the congenital cataract or\n\nanomalies of the lens may appear; the eye grounds may tell us of amaurotic\nfamily idiocy, of brain tumor, or of Bright's disease.\n5.\n\nThe nose.\n\n—\n\nIts broadened bridge\n\nand poor streams of air through the\n\nmay direct attention to adenoids. Its broken-down bridge (saddleback nose) may furnish indubitable evidence of congenital syphilis. The\nhemorrhage from one nostril may mean a foreign body in the nose, nasal\ndiphtheria, or syphilis. Bilateral hemorrhage may indicate adenoids, or it may\nhave much the same significance of constitutional or local disease that it\nnostrils\n\npossesses in later life.\n6.\n\nThe mouth.\n\n— Oral breathing, whether\n\nshould always suggest adenoids.\n\nin\n\nwaking or sleeping hours,\n\nSo should the crowded and distorted teeth,\n\nOne may note the characteristic syphilitic teeth.\nOne may likewise detect the dental caries that accounts possibly for the\n\nand the keel-shaped palate.\n\npatient's exacerbations of irritability.\n\nOther oral conditions to be noted\n\nare the large tongue of the cretin; the asymmetric or cleft palate, the latter\nso often associated with other physical anomalies and with mental deficiency.\n\nAcute inflammations of the mouth or throat may also be revealed in this systematic examination.\n\nEnlarged tonsils, particularly of the irregular variety,\n\nare common accompaniments of adenoids; but one should never rest with a\n\nmere inspection of the fauces and pharynx.\n\nComplete the examination by\n\npassing the index finger behind the soft palate, and so determine positively\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nthe presence\n\nor absence\n\nof\n\nthis\n\nimportant connection.\n\n[Spedai\n\nPost-pharyngeal\n\nabscess may be detected in like manner.\n7.\n\n8.\n\n—\n—\n\nThe ear. One should accustom oneself to the use of an aural speculum.\nThe neck. Next the condition of the chains of lymph glands in the\n\nneck should be investigated.\n\nIndeed, the writer finds it rather convenient\n\nat this point to study the important accessible glands of the body (axillary,\n\nOtherwise some chains may be forThe enlarged lymphnodes may tell of syphihs, tuberculosis, Hodgskin's disease, or other infections.\nIt is well known that the mentally deficient are particularly prone to tuberculosis.\nNor should one leave the neck\nepitrochlear, inguinal, pophteal, etc.).\ngotten.\n\nwithout endeavoring to feel the thyroid gland, and,\n\nif\n\nit\n\nis\n\npresent, to note\n\nCretinism, goiter, congenital cysts or fistula*, etc., may also be observed\n\nits size.\n\nIn the cretin the so-called ''pods of fat\" may be found just above the\n\nhere.\n\nclavicles.\n\nThe chest.\n\n9.\n\nand\n\n—Malformations\n\nof the chest may mean much to examiner\n\nThus, the violin-shaped chest of\n\npatient.\n\n(Triebter-brust) of adenoids,\n\nrickets,\n\nthe funnel-shape\n\nboth furnish striking evidence of their causes.\n\nBeading of the ribs (rickety-rosary), be it never so slight, should also be noted\n\nby the examiner.\n\nCongenital heart disease or anomalies of the great vessels\n\nmay be associated with, or indeed the cause of, marked bodily and mental\nLastly, with the mentally deficient\n\ndwarfing.\n\nit\n\nshould never be forgotten\n\nthat the physical signs of acute or chronic illness may be detected by a careful physical\n\nexamination of the thorax, when no symptoms have pointed\n\ntoward the existence of such diseases.\n\nIn making these examinations, one\n\nshould always bear in mind the possible existence of tuberculosis (either\nof lung or pleura), of\n\nInspect, palpate,\n\npneumonia, and of valvular disease of the heart.\n\npercuss,\n\ncombine percussion with auscultation, measure\n\nwhen necessary; and when these preliminary methods have been followed,\nand not until then, listen to the breathing and the heart sounds. Study the\nblood-vessels, pulse, etc., in connection with the heart.\nTo employ such\nmeasures means to minimize mistakes.\n10. The abdomen.\nHere the same diagnostic procedures serve us well.\n\n—\n\nAuscultation, it is true, ceases to be a court of last resort, sinking into relative\ninsignificance;\n\nbut, combined with percussion, it may still yield evidence of\n\nconsiderable value.\nfollows:\n\nSome of the important conditions to be noted are as\n\nthe pot-belly of rickets or of cretinism;\n\nthe retracted or scaphoid\n\nabdomen of meningitis; the pouting umbilicus, enlarged veins, and protruding abdomen of tuberculous peritonitis; hernia of the umbilicus or\ngroin; enlargement of the liver or spleen, as in syphilis, rickets, malaria,\n\nand muscular\nand gurghng of typhoid\nmahgnant growths of the kidney;\n\ncertain anemias, or acute infectious disease;\n\nresistance\nfever;\n\nof\n\nappendicitis,\n\nor\n\nthe\n\nabdominal tumors, particularly\n\ndistension of the lu-inary bladder;\n\nsagging downward of the same.\n\nthe tenderness\n\ntenderness\n\nand enlargement of the hollow organs, or\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\n11.\n\nBETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT\n\nThe hack.\n\nexamined the\n\n—But no examination\n\n889\n\nof the trunk is complete until one has\n\nand the great muscular masses of the back. Spina\nbifida (protrusion of spinal membranes, cord, or both); lateral curvature;\nPott's disease (tuberculous disease of the spine), with angular deformity; and\nthe marked concavity of the lumbar region seen in rickets and in cretinism,\nspine,\n\nare all conditions of great importance.\n\nWhen examining the back, it is well\n\nto study the child's posture, which often throws much light upon diagnosis.\n12.\n\nThe genitalia.\n\n—Many anomalies\n\nof\n\nboth male and female sexual\n\norgans may be observed in studying mentally deficient children; tho, on the\n\nground of technicaUty, you shall be spared their enumeration.\n\nBut one should\n\nmention the great importance of adhesions of either the foreskin, or its feminine analogue, the cHtoris.\n\nAgain, the vaginal discharges of\n\nlittle\n\ngirls\n\nshould be studied bacteriologically, for they may contain the dangerous organ-\n\nThe conveyance of this germ to the genitaha of others\n\nism of gonorrhea.\n\noften takes place in children's wards ; but, what is far more serious, infection\nof the patient's eyes, or of the eyes of others, means that destructive disease\n\ngonorrheal ophthalmia.\n13.\n\nThe limbs.\n\n—Anomalies and malformations\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nlimbs\n\nare not\n\nuncommon among the mentally deficient. One should note the short extremities of\n\nthe dwarf, or the lengthy ones of giantism;\n\nthe distorted limbs of\n\nrickets (bowed legs, knock-knee, bowed radius, etc.) ; the inflammatory conditions, rheumatism, tuberculosis, or syphilis; the large bones of akromegaly;\n\nthe stubby fingers of the cretin; the\n\nbowed little finger of the Mongolian;\n\nand, lastly, the various forms of club-feet.\nclub-feet are quite the rule.\n\nIn the hemiplegic and diplegic,\n\nIn the presence of wasting diseases, the skin\n\nupon the insides of the thighs and arms often hangs in loose folds, suggesting\n\"the lean and slippered pantaloon.\"\n14.\n\nNow that the patient has been fully exposed, make a careful inspec-\n\ntion of the skin surface, searching for scars, the presence of eruptive diseases,\n\nbirth marks, etc.\n15.\n\nTwo photographs of the patient should be taken, one a front view,\n\nthe other in profile.\n\nThis valuable suggestion was made to the writer by\n\nDr. Weir Mitchell, and in the future he intends following it.\n16.\n\nThe physical examination should be supplemented and completed\n\nby a study of the urine; and, if the need appears to exist, by a study of the\nblood, sputum, and stools; or a culture should be made from the throat.\nHaving pursued the physical study thus thoroly, how inteUigently one\nmay enter upon the nervous examination Possibly the cause of the nervous\nor mental disease is already clear, and there remains but the localization of\nthe same. The scheme for the nervous examination here appended has\nproved most useful to the writer. It is practically that of his distinguished\n!\n\nfriend, Professor William G. Spiller:\nI.\n\n(3)\n\nPhenomena of motion: (i) paresis and\n\nmotor irritability (spasm,\n\nreflexes;\n\n(6)\n\netc.);\n\nparadoxical contraction;\n\n(4)\n\nparalysis;\n\n(2)\n\nmuscular co-ordination;\n\nbladder and rectum control;\n\n(7) electrical excitation.\n\n(5) state of the\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "890\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nSensory:\n\nII.\n\n(4) sense\n\n(i)\n\nof locality;\n\nmuscle sense;\n\n(3)\n\nsense of temperature;\n\n(6)\n\nafter sensations;\n\n(8) alterations in vision;\n\n(9) alterations in hearing.\n\nphenomena:\n\nwhere muscular actions\n\nSensory-motor\n\nIII.\n\n(2) sense of pain;\n\ndelayed conduction of sensation;\n\ntactile sensibility;\n\n(5)\n\n[Special\n\nare\n\n(7)\n\naccompanied by\n\npain, etc.\n\nIV.\n\nVaso-motor and trophic phenomena: blushing or pallor; sweating; bed sores, etc.\n\nV.\n\nMental: with these this paper has naught to do.\n\nSpiller also mentions alterations in breathing and in the pulse,\n\nbut these\n\nwould have been noted in our systematic physical examination.\n\nAt the Bancroft- Cox School we endeavor to make one such systematic\nexamination, recording the results at each weekly visit.\nScientific\n\nresults;\n\nknowledge does not always give birth to immediate practical\n\nbut no exact knowledge can be valueless.\n\nfinds as those just\n\nThe direct value of such\n\nenumerated is, however, at once apparent.\n\nKnowledge\n\nconcerning the physical characters of the mentally deficient children means\n(i) that,\n\nwithin certain limits, backwardness and mental deficiency may be\n\nprevented; (2) that we develop the physique and the brain which the deficient\nchild possesses,\n\nand that certain retarding influences may be removed;\n\n(3)\n\nthat we may secure good indices of physical improvement or deterioration;\n(4) that, in the\n(5)\n\npresence of acute disease, exact diagnoses\n\ntho this is a departure from our subject, better prognoses\nI.\n\nPrevention.\n\n—The\n\nresults\n\nof\n\nparental tuberculosis,\n\nmay be made;\nmay be made.\n\nalcoholism,\n\nand\n\nsyphilis (each accredited with a place in the production of deficient progeny)\n\nare largely physical results.\n\nSuch recognition, propagandism, education of\n\nthe masses, and eventual prohibitive legislation\n\n—these chapters we\n\ntrust are\n\nwhat the future has in store for us. It is often stated that states cannot\nshoulder the responsibility and expense of the large army with the ''blot upon\nthe brain;\" but the matter deeply concerns the state, and the knowledge of\nit\n\nonce appreciated should lead to the formulation of wise preventive laws.\n\nThe conduct of a mother during her pregnancy involves not only psychic,\nbut also physical problems.\n\nNever should the mother forget that she is act-\n\ning for the welfare of two.\n\nOf particular importance at this time is the great\n\nquestion of nutrition.\n\nBrain hemorrhage occurring during birth\n\nis\n\nof physical origin.\n\nThe\n\naccoucheur of the future should be a highly trained specialist; and one of the\nthings that he will recognize and teach is that far more harm may accrue from\n\nthe prolonged labor, with its resulting infantile asphyxia, than from the use\nof obstetrical forceps in skilled hands.\n\nThe blindness that results from gonorrheal ophthalmia is again a wholly\npreventable physical condition.\n\nConvulsions in infancy and childhood play an etiologic part; and arising,\nas they usually do, from reflex irritation, should they not be viewed as pre-\n\nventable ?\n\nIt is the writer's opinion that oft-repeated eclamptic (convulsive)\n\nseizures should be vieWed as so many reflections upon parents, physician, or\n\nboth.\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nBETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT\n\nDepartment]\n\n891\n\nAgain, the early recognition of rickets or infantile syphilis may mean that\nthe afflicted subject may become a normal child and adult, or that he may be\nclassed eventually among the mentally deficient.\n\nAs to syphilis, the writer\n\nhas in mind a young woman whose corneal scars render her vision almost nil;\n\nwhose deafness is dependent upon disease of the middle ear; whose perversions, mental and moral, have resulted from her insufficient and faulty educa-\n\nAnd he never sees her, nor hears of her misdoings, that he does not\n\ntion.\n\nthink\n\nAll of this might have been prevented, had the disease been recognized\n\n:\n\nin her infancy.\n\nAnd rickets ?\n\nIt is one of the ironies of fate that this important disease\n\n—\n\nfar and\n\naway the most common malady of infancy\n\nlaymen;\n\nor, if\n\nis\n\nso\n\nlittle\n\nknown by\n\nknown, is regarded as but a disease of the bones.\n\nRickets\n\naffects, or is capable of affecting, every tissue in the infant's body;\n\nbut if the\n\nmodern pediatrist were obliged to say upon what tissue it exerts its most\nmalign influence, he would reply: upon the nervous system. It is largely a\npreventable disease.\n\nIn its early stages it is wholly amenable to treatment;\n\nyet there is little doubt that in rickets we have an important cause of back-\n\nwardness, mental deficiency, and epilepsy.\n\nMany cases might be cited in\n\nsupport of this contention, but the paper's scope forbids.\nAdenoids.\n\n—Since Meyer's recognition\n\nof these important growths, and of\n\nand mental results, the operation for their removal\nhas come to rank as one of the most important in surgery. To be most successful, the extirpation should be most radical, a clean dissection leaving no\nModerate or great accompanying\nvestige of affected tissue (Freeman).\ntheir blighting physical\n\nenlargement of the faucial tonsils should demand their simultaneous removal.\n\nThe early removal of adenoids and enlarged tonsils may mean:\n\n(i) the pre-\n\nvention of the physical deformities and mental disturbances so well known;\n(2) the prevention of middle-ear disease,\n\nin deafness,\n\nand its more dangerous\n\nwith its all too frequent termination\n\nsequelae\n\nbone and brain disease;\n\nof\n\n(3) the prevention of glandular tuberculosis in the neck;\n\n(4)\n\na lessened sus-\n\nceptibility to the contagious diseases of childhood, and also the fact that their\nresults,\n\nwhen contracted, are less dire.\n\nInfectious diseases.\n\n—Almost any contagious disease may leave mental\n\ndeficiency in its wake;\n\nor it may so affect the organs of special sense that\n\nmarked backwardness results.\n\nOf particular importance in this connection\n\nare epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis, scarlet fever, small-pox, pneumonia,\n\nwhooping-cough, measles, and epidemic influenza.\nphysical\n\ndamage to nervous\n\ncenters, pathways,\n\nThe disease may cause\n\nand\n\nspecial\n\nsense-organs.\n\nThe support of all wise measures for their prevention should be viewed as\nbut an essential phase of good citizenship.\nLastly:\n\nLet us never forget the importance of maintaining standard\n\nnutritive conditions thruout infancy and childhood.\n2.\n\nImprovement and alleviation.\n\n—The proverbially short\n\nlives\n\nof these\n\nunfortunates, their often ill-developed extremities, their poor surface circula-\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n892\n\n[Speda\n\ntions, their susceptibilities to temperature changes and infections, all speak for\n\norganisms whose nutrition is below par.\n\nTo better nutrition is really the\n\nmost important physical office that we can perform for them. Nutrition is\nspoken of in its broadest sense; we must increase the nutrient income, and\n\nmust decrease (at least relatively) the output in waste and energy.\n\nTo answer\n\nfully this great problem, one must prescribe as carefully as drugs are prescribed\n\nopen-air life; a nutritious, readily digestible, bountiful diet; proper bathing;\n\nproper games; good gymnastic work, and medicinal gymnastics for special\nconditions;\n\nmanual training, sloyd;\n\netc.\n\nAnd in the securing of this end,\n\nnutritive betterment, drugs play an important r61e.\n\nTo secure the best results, our work must be intensely individualistic.\nThe physical examination (such as that just detailed), supplemented by the\nobservations of teachers and attendants, will point the way. Then results\nmust be carefully noted.\nThere is no room here for preconceived notions or for fads.\n\nThe cold\n\nmain a stimulant to metabolic activities;\nbut the weak child left chilled and depressed by such a measure is harmed by\nbath, shower or sponge,\n\nit,\n\nnot benefited;\n\nis\n\nin the\n\nwhereas, a cool sponge, following his\n\nwarm bath, may\n\nchanges.\n\nand render him less susceptible to temperature\nThat twice-blessed trait, imagination, is needed by the worker in\n\nthis field.\n\nIt insures originality in treatment, and, in the presence of failure,\n\nbetter nutritive conditions,\n\nit spurs\n\non its happy possessor:\n\n\"New worlds to conquer.\"\n\nIn a word, nutritive conditions for these little ones should be ideal, and. it\nis our highest function to see that such conditions obtain.\n\nLet us traverse the patient's body once more, not to recognize disease\nconditions only, but with set purpose to develop, alleviate, and cure.\n\nTo suggest cretinism at the present is also to suggest thyroid-therapy, with\nIt must be said, however, that physical betterment under thyroid is usually in excess of the mental improvement. Such\nchildren must be trained.\nThe administration of thyroid extract should\nalso be resorted to in infantilism. Mongolism, and delayed puberty.\n\nits\n\nwell-nigh theatric results.\n\nHydrocephalus, tho its recognized causes are numerous, is a disease concerning which there remains much to be known.\nits relief\n\nThe measures adopted for\n\nare as numerous as they are unsuccessful.\n\nbeen cured\n\n—enough\n\nStill\n\na few cases have\n\nDuring the past\ntwo years the writer has observed a Httle patient who has apparently been\ntempt us to renewed endeavors.\n\nto\n\ncured by so old a measure as puncture of the lateral ventricle of the brain.\n\nThe operation was done to relieve pressure alone, and at its first performance\nwe withdrew twenty-three ounces of fluid. At its second we removed eleven\nounces, and in the fluid the germ of consumption was found.\n\nYet there has\n\nbeen no recurrence of symptoms or signs for sixteen months.\nLinear\n\n—Lanelougue's operation\n\ncraniectomy\n\nbeen very generally condemned of recent years.\nunscientific principles.\n\nfor\n\nmicrocephalus\n\nIt is certainly\n\n—has\n\nbased upon\n\nYet a few recently reported cases appear to show\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\n!\n\nDepartment]\n\nBETTERMENT OF THE MENTALLY DEFICIENT\n\n893\n\nthat it may possess a small field of usefulness, viz., in cases with increased\nintracranial pressure.\n\nThe scope of this paper prevents more than a mention of operations for the\nremoval of brain tumors, injuries, etc.\nIn like manner a thoro treatment of eye conditions is precluded.\n\nThese\n\nby the skillful speciaUst. The systematic medical\ninspection of schools has served to show the great frequency of eye disturbcases should be handled\n\nances among public-school children, and the proper refraction for them has\nyielded brilliant educational results.\n\nHow much more the possession of this\n\nsovereign sense may mean to the deficient child\nSo, as in the case of the normal child, every acute disease of its ear should\n\nreceive skilled attention.\n\nnounced incurable\n\nNor should a deafness of catarrhal origin be pro-\n\nuntil treatment has extended over\n\nmonths.\n\nAnent\n\nof\n\nmiddle-ear disease and catarrhal deafness, we must again emphasize the\netiologic\n\nimportance of adenoids.\n\nThe subject has been considered, how-\n\never, in deaUng with preventive measures.\n\nThe teeth of these patients should be inspected at rather frequent interat least twice a year\nand treatment should be resorted to when neces-\n\nvals\n\n—\n\nsary.\n\n—\n\nManiacal and other seizures, often apparently inexplicable, may have\n\na tangible explanation in the exposed pulp-cavity of a carious tooth.\n\nAgain,\n\nmay do much to increase the utiUty of the\nteeth, and incidentally to add much to a patient's appearance.\nEnlarged glands, particularly of the tuberculous variety, may demand\ntreatment.\nIn the main, conservative surgery serves us best. The X-ray\nappropriate dental procedures\n\ntreatment of tuberculosis glands has yielded truly wonderful results.\n\nIn the betterment of chest and abdominal conditions the same principles\nmust guide us that direct us in our management of other children. Only\none might add with the Irishman, ''more so.\"\nIn order that vital organs, among them the brain, may functionate properly,\na good circulation is absolutely essential, and every cell in the body must\nbreathe, the higher nervous cells being no exceptions.\n\nThe securance of a daily movement of the bowels in these children should\nbe deemed imperative.\n\nDrugs are very useful here, particularly to act upon\n\nthe upper bowel, but more useful still are flushings of the bowel with a normal\nsalt solution.\n\nThere need be no fear of that old-time \"bugaboo,\" an enema\n\nhabit.\n\n—\n\nThe genitalia. Every mentally deficient male child should be circumcised\nand the earlier this is done, the better. In the little girl, as previously noted,\nadhesions of the clitoris should be prevented, or should be broken up when\nfound.\nsexes.\n\nScrupulous cleanUness of the genital organs\n\nis\n\ndemanded in both\n\nAny mechanical irritation of these parts may mean the beginning or\n\nthe accentuation of bad habits.\n\nThat the epileptic, the mentally deficient, and the confirmed criminal\nclasses\n\nshould not be permitted to propagate their kind few thoughtful\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n894\n\npersons of the present century will deny.\nsibility of\n\n[Special\n\nWith the mentally deficient the pos-\n\nsuch a contingency should be prevented by certain operative pro-\n\nWith physically\nweak children, and those having no bad sexual habits, operations like tying\nand removing a portion of the spermatic cord and Fallopian tubes may be\nperformed. Harm is thus prevented, and yet the patient is not unsexed.\nThat both ovaries and testes secrete important substances (internal secreBut it must\ntions), of value to the whole economy, is an established fact.\nalso be borne in mind that the very possession of sexual sense may spell misfortune arid unhappiness for the patient and his family.\nMere prevention\ncedures before the patient has attained the age of puberty.\n\nof conception does not secure prevention of unchaste crimes against the person\n\nor of disease.\nCan one read history since the days of Troy, and not perceive\nwhat passion unbridled has cost a world of supposedly normal beings ? How,\nthen, may we expect these weaklings to succeed, where even the great ones have\n\nIn the few cases that the writer has observed, nothing but good has\nemanated from either castration or splaying. He heartily agrees with our\nchairman in the views previously expressed before this organization.\n\nfailed ?\n\nOrthopedics.\n\n—The correction\n\ndeformities, particularly of the limbs,\n\nof\n\nmay yield us truly brilliant results.\n\nSuppose that a child is paralyzed upon\n\nboth sides of the body (diplegia).\n\nHis legs are so contractured that walking\n\nis\n\nimpossible.\n\ncharacteristic\n\nHis forearms, hands,\n\nand thumbs are bent in the\n\nfingers,\n\nmanner, and are well-nigh useless.\n\nAfter suitable orthopedic\n\nprocedures he is taught to walk and to use his hands and arms.\n\n\"Wonder-\n\nBut the wonder does not\nIn reality much more has been done for him.\n\nful ! \" one of our forefathers in neurology would say.\nall\n\nappear upon the surface.\n\nIn the first place, his muscles may develop\n\n;\n\nin the second place, function may\n\nbe restored to nerve cells that had not functionated before\n\n;\n\nin the third place,\n\nother cells take up the functions of cells destroyed (vicarious functions); in\nthe fourth place, these renewed activities involve both brain and cord cells;\n\nand, lastly, increased activity in brain or cord is not confined to leg or arm\n\nwe also have irradiation of the stimulus to, and increased blood\nThus, in educating the muscles of the arm and leg,\nit is not hard to perceive that we are bettering the whole nervous system\ncenters:\n\nsupply of, adjoining areas.\n\nliterally educating the patient.\n\nMassage, passive movements, apparatus,\ncedures (tendon-sections, tendon graftings,-\n\nelectricity,\netc.),\n\nall\n\nand operative pro-\n\nplay their respective\n\nparts in securing these truly phenomenal ends.\n3.\n\nThat a careful physical examination furnishes us with the best evi-\n\ndences of physical improvement or deterioration in our patients is self-evident.\n\nPhotographs may show such changes most graphically.\n4.\n\nSo concerning the diagnosis of acute diseases, the value of such objec-\n\ntive studies is obvious.\n\nIndeed, one has the advantage of dealing with the\n\nobjective alone, undeceived by the whims, fancies, and distorted impressions\nof physical being, that which one encounters in normal people.\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmeni]\n\n5.\n\nEDUCATING MENTALLY DEFICIENT CHILDREN\n\nPrognosis.\n\n—In the best-trodden walks\n\n89$\n\nof medicine, prognosis is far\n\nBut that exact knowledge of the patient's\nphysique enables us to prognosticate more accurately is certainly true. In\nfrom being an accurate science.\n\nwork with the mentally deficient one should be most optimistic, even tho his\nexpressed opinions to parents and friends are ultra-conservative. It is the\nold question of aiming at the moon.\nNo one really knows how much improvement may take place until persistent physical and mental training has been\nHuntigdon's chorea, amaurotic\nemployed for months, or even years.\nfamily idiocy, and pseudo-hypertrophic muscular dystrophy are the only\ndiseases that present necessarily bad progress.\nIt is never safe nor fair to\nprognosticate from such types as one sees locked in the single darkened room\nof a private house, and viewed with a mediaeval superstitious fear; nor from\n\nsuch as one may see in some large institutions, neglected perforce because\nindividualism cannot obtain\n\n;\n\nnor from such as are seen in reformatories and\n\nprisons (Jesse Pomeroys and Eddie Hendersons), not only neglected, but con-\n\nfirmed in habits of viciousness.\n\nIn smaller, more model institutions, far more\n\nwonderful results may be obtained.\n\nAnd some may say: \"Is it worth while?\" Yes, we reply, even in the\ncase of him who receives the opprobrious \"idiot.\" If the experiment were\nviewed only as an experiment, tho a psychologic one, it would be worth\n\nBut it is more than that. The whole trend of ethics is to oppose, and\nmust be to oppose, the cosmic process. To spare the consumptive and cure\nhim if we can; to view the criminal more in sorrow than in anger, thinking\nmore of preventing crime than of punitive measures for the criminal; to\nwhile.\n\nelevate the mentally deficient,\n\nand enable them to live (under surveillance,\n\nperhaps), but still to live, happy and perchance useful lives\n\n—\n\nthe spirit of Sparta with the philosophy of Him who taught:\n\nthis is to replace\n\n\"In so much as\n\nye have done it unto one of the least of these.\"\n\nCONCERNING OUR LIMITATIONS IN EDUCATING MENTALLY DEFICIENT CHILDREN\nMARY E. POGUE, M. D., OAKLEIGH EDUCATIONAL SANITARIUM FOR\nNERVOUS DISEASES IN CHILDREN, LAKE GENEVA, WIS.\nDuring the last decade the nomenclature of mental diseases has undergone,\nand it is still undergoing, constant changes. We have reached the advanced\nstate of confusion in which we no longer understand that dementia, associating\n\nthe\n\nword with dementia praecox, may necessarily mean a dementia\n\nat\n\nall.\n\nEvery writer upon this subject feels it incumbent upon himself to do his own\nclassifying.\n\nHe is trying to make a word cover a class with which he is familiar\n\nclinically.\n\nWe are on the threshold of similar changes in our nomenclature in mental\naffections in children.\n\n\"Idiot\" and \"imbecile\" will always stand as scientific\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n896\nterms.\n\n[Special\n\nIdiocy and dementia represent synonymous mental states, a dead\n\nlevel of mindlessness, altho the direction in which they are going may differ.\n\nIdiocy occurs in childhood, before the brain has attained\n\nits\n\ngrowth and\n\ndevelopment; dementia comes at a later period in life, after a definite mental\nstatus has been reached.\n\nIdiocy\n\nis\n\nan absence of significant cerebral processes. Idiots are, with\nsterile; and hence they are not the menace to society\n\nvery few exceptions,\n\nby reproducing their kind that some authorities and most of the laity would\nhave us believe.\n\n\"Imbecile\" is the word which covers by far the largest class, including the\nones just over the boundary line in idiocy, to many children grown to be men\n\nand women who are out in the world today caring for, supporting, and directing\ntheir own lives, and this both with and without any special education or\ntraining.\n\nI\n\nam venturing upon this subject of classification without having anything\n\nbetter to suggest, but feeling a daily need for a\n\nword to give an adequate\n\nmeaning to a type with reference to the etiology, pathology, and prognosis.\nFeeble-minded children, atypical children, subnormal children, mentally deficient children, mentally defective children, arrested mental development, devel-\n\nopmental inhibition, and backward children, are terms used by the laity and\nprofession alike, and they convey no definite meaning as to past, present, and\n\nfuture mental history of the patient.\n\nWe are much farther on in classifying nervous diseases in children. The\nmental condition resulting from the nervous disease may be idiocy, imbecility,\nhimself.\n\nmay find satisfactory to\nThe treatment may or may not be medicinal, but it is always edu-\n\ncational.\n\nIt has\n\nor whatever special term the physician in charge\n\nbeen my experience in both reading and listening to essays\n\nupon this subject that the talker and listener have different types of children\nin their minds and are confronted with different problems in education.\nThe ones who are directing the training of large numbers of children in\nour state institutions are dealing, not with individuals, but with numbers;\nthe men and women who are trying to broaden the educational system of our\n\npublic schools in cities so as to include the backward child; and the physicians\n\nwho are working in this special line of neurology and psychiatry, and have the\n\n—\n\nmanagement of the private schools and sanatoriums these three classes are\ndealing ahke with the same grade of intelligence. The tools they have to\nwork with may be different, but the end to be gained is the same.\nI believe the physician is more apt to see a class that is really suffering\nfrom nervous and mental illnesses. The parents or friends bring the child to\nhim, not so much because they are concerned over the fact that he cannot\nlearn anything, as because they are concerned over his illness.\n\nThey have\n\nto be taught that the treatment is largely educational.\n\nIn my private consultation practice, covering a period of two years, 63 per\ncent, of the fathers of the children that have been brought to me for mental\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATING MENTALLY DEFICIENT CHILDREN\n\n897\n\nexamination have been professional men; 86 per cent, of the patients in our\nprivate sanatorium during two years' time have been the children of professional\n\nmen.\n\nI\n\ndo not take this to mean that the percentage of nervous and mental\n\ndiseases in the children of brain-workers\n\nis\n\nhigher, but they are a class of\n\npeople bound to educate their children in any event.\n\nI do believe, tho, that\n\na man whose nervous system is earning a living for himself and family is more\napt to give to his offspring a nervous system whose resistance is lowered than\n\na man whose muscular system js the wage-earning force.\n\nThis is especially\n\ntrue if a nutritional disturbance be present.\n\nAnyone who is at all familiar with the masses of children seen in our\npublic institutions, and some that, for lack of a better term, we say are back-\n\nward in our public schools, knows that they are not\n\nsufferers\n\nfrom any\n\nnervous or mental disease, nor are they the inheritors of such.\n\nThey are\n\nlargely the offspring of our foreign population.\n\nWe admit them to our country\nWe do not, however, examine\n\nand share our common citizenship with them.\nthem as to their mental status, nor ask them to compete with our American\nWe take their children, we compel them to\ncitizens in an intellectual way.\nsend their children to our public schools, and we have one standard by which\nAfter repeated failures in this, we\nto examine them and our own children.\nsay that they are backward, deficient, etc. And so they are, and so are their\nfathers and their mother^, their grandfathers and grandmothers.\nIt is going\nto take more than one generation to educate their nervous systems to what\n\nwe call normal.\n\nThey are perfectly capable, tho, of doing a large share of\n\nthe hard manual labor of the world.\n\nNeuropathic and psychopathic inheritances, as well as the direct or indirect\ntransmission of nervous and mental diseases, nutritional disturbances either\npre- or post-natal, accidents,\n\nand diseases, especially infectious diseases that\n\nmay or may not attack the encephalon and its covering, are the responsible\ncauses for nervous diseases and mental affections in children. And I believe,\nwith few exceptions, such a history can be made out in time.\nWe have the physical before us to work with, and we know the value of\nimproving the mentality by nutrition; we are learning the value of elimination.\nHaving a distinct picture of the pathology, being able to see the brain\nmacroscopically and microscopically in the Ught of your post-mortem experience, does not dishearten you in any educational attempt, but it rather gives\n\nyou a just understanding of what you are about to undertake.\nI may know, for instance, that the brain of the Mongolian idiot may be too\n\nsmall in all its diameters, the convolutions few in number, the sulci superficially\n\nTo see it and look\nupon it is to fix its Umitations. And yet he is entitled to the very best education\nhe is capable of receiving, and that in the most skillful way. To deny him'\nfurrowed, the number of cells in the cortex diminished.\n\nthis\n\nconcerns our limitations.\n\nSo long as he lives he will improve mentally\n\nand be able more and more to adapt himself to his environment.\nTaking them all as a class, the most satisfactory definition psychologically,\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n898\n\nirrespective of causes,\n\nis\n\n[Special\n\none who does not respond to the conditions of his\n\nyou are actually living this, the force and truth of this\nThe aim of his education is\ndefinition come to you over and over again.\nenvironment.\n\nIf\n\nso far as possible to put him in his environment\n\n;\n\nthe purpose, that he may be\n\nable to care for himself, to support himself, and to direct his own life; that\n\nhe also may be able to do without you.\n\nWe have all learned the value of the organs of special sense in education.\nThe brain receives its impressions from without. We have only to stop and\nthink how much any of us would know if we could not see, hear, taste, touch,\nand feel.\n\nRemoving reflex irritations,\n\neye-strain, etc.,\n\nhave been so\n\nfully\n\nbrought to light that the incompetent have been made competent.\n\nWe are coming more and more to understand the value of our great\nmuscular sense and of its effect upon our intelligence.\n\"Thought is expressed in action;\nMotion comes from the brain.\"\nI judge of what is going on in a child's brain by what he does.\nof\n\nprimary significant cerebral -processes defines itself.\n\nAn absence\n\nIt is the best\n\nand\n\nonly possible thing that could happen that we have this tangible physical motor\ntraining to lay hold of.\n\nthe muscular system.\n\nWe are educating the mind when we are training\nWe have long left the place where any inteUigent\n\nphysician can advise parents to delay in the educatipn of their child until he\n\ncan begin mentally.\n\nMotor and sensory training comes first; it helps not only\nand organs of special sense,\n\nin using both your voluntary muscular system\n\nbut in the higher mental functions, attention, concentration, mental initiative,\n\nmemory, and building general conceptions from simple impressions.\nKindergardening goes a step farther, and in its games and plays tends\n\nTo me this is the turningWhen a child can recognize the rights of others, he is stepping forward\n\nto put the child in a social relation with his fellows.\n\npoint.\n\ninto his environment.\n\nAnything so vital to our interests as taking a child out of his home ought\nalways to receive serious consideration.\n\nIt is done with the hope that he\nWhatever private teaching he may have\nis far better than nothing; it fills the empty hours with occupation.\nBut it\n\nmay return and take his place there.\n\nnever has taught, nor ever can teach, him his social relations, nor take the\nplace of contact with his fellows.\n\nMuch individual work must be done, but\n\nThe day of private tutoring is past. It is bad\nenough with the normal child, who is bound to meet life in a broader sense\nit\n\navails not if it stops there.\n\nsooner or later; but it is fatal educationally to a child of limited inteUigence.\n\nWe can teach children to articulate by motor training. It is a much\nmore complex, but still a motor, process. We give him a language to express\nhis feelings and wants, and educate his brain thereby.\nWe cannot give him\nideas to express, but by association we can help him to form them.\nSloyd, music, physical training, domestic science, all kinds of handwork\nwe are now grown rich in what we have to offer in an educational way to our\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATING MENTALLY DEFICIENT CHILDREN\n\n899\n\nWe are still lost in astonishment at what we find\n\nmentally crippled child.\n\nAssimilation is the part of his individual brain.\n\nFew\n\nof us have outlived the lives of the children we are striving to educate.\n\nWe\n\nhe can be taught to do.\n\nlong to see them grow up, and to know what all this is really going to be to\n\nthem.\n\nWe are confronted with the more subtle thing—a thing that cannot be\ntaught in periods of fifteen or thirty minutes, but that has to be lived.\n\nHis\n\nbehavior in his environment is, over and above all the rest, important.\n\nIt is\n\ntaught only by living it with him.\n\nTo teach him to care for his person and clothing, to attend to the wants\nof his body, to\nciviUties of life\n\ncome to the table and eat in a proper way, to exchange the\n\n—these are\n\nfine things.\n\nIt is no more difficult to teach the recognition of\nis\n\nto recognize a color by its name.\n\na word as such than\n\nit\n\nRecognizing words, tho, does not mean\n\nthat reading is going to be a resource in his life.\n\nWe are finding this out to\n\nour sorrow.\nI stand in distant emulation of anyone who tells us in words how we think.\nThe difficulties of the psychology of childhood are apparent. I am so bold\nas to venture the thought that, as time goes on, we are going to be able to lay\naside some of the things we are holding so tenaciously today, and put in their\n\nplaces things that have grown to be valuable in the light of our experience.\n\nWe have long been familiar with the fact that the special senses in a way\ncompensate.\n\nIf the eyes\n\nattributes of the\n\nThe higher\nThey have their atrophies\n\ngo out, the hearing becomes acute.\n\nmind are also compensatory.\n\nand hypertrophies. In default of the higher reasoning qualities, the brain\ncompensates by imitation. This may deceive the very elect. Languages\ncan be learned, and that without any grammatical foundation; a whole\nsuperstructure of pseudo-knowledge may be built up without enough reasoning\nto know that two and two makes four.\nWhen normal children should begin\nnumber work is without my domain, but I know it should be begun earher\nthan we have been doing it with mentally deficient children.\n\nYou are out of\n\ntouch with the world you are living in, if you do not know the divisions of\ntime and the valuation of money.\n\nThe end to be gained is wholly worthy,\n\nbut that this trains the mind to reason should be written in red letters.\n\nThere are still a few physicians who say to parents:\n\ncome out all right;\" or else:\nis true.\n\n\"Nothing can be done.\"\n\n\"That child will\nNeither statement\n\nAnd, moreover, special education does not mean that the child may\n\nhave to have it for life.\n\nis\n\nThe proper treatment of insanity at puberty and of most juvenile offenders\nAnd prevention is education. To train to reason, to teach\n\nprevention.\n\nself-control,\n\nproper care and respect for your body, and the higher morality,\n\nwhich, whether your hfe be the quiet or strenuous one, will enable you to\n\n—\n\nthis is where education is prevention.\nOne\nwhose nervous system is at the point of lowered resistance is out of his environ-\n\npass safely thru periods of stress\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\npoo\n\n[Special\n\nment in the strenuous life of cities, but he may be within it in many quiet\ncountry places.\n\nThe location of schools and sanatoriums may be educational.\ncountry place and a city are alike to be avoided.\n\nAn isolated\n\nDaily contact with a town\n\nor village', going for the mail and into shops, seeing incoming and outgoing\ntrains, are valuable lessons that can be lived and not taught.\n\nEverything that we are doing now could have been done long ago;\nconcerned the limitations of the ones that went before.\n\nit\n\nThe concept of\n\neducation could have been broadened so as to include the deaf and imbecile\n\na century or more ago.\n\nOur limitations are defined by our failures.\n\nI long\n\nto see the best of all of our workers united in some one of the universities or\n\ncolleges of the world,\n\nand so stand as a foundation for the ones who are to\n\ncome.\n\nWHAT HAS BEEN DONE WITH ONE DEAF CHILD IN HIS\nOWN HOME\nANNA C. REINHARDT, TEACHER IN SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, BALA, PA.\nIt is\n\nmy desire to tell you as briefly as possible what has been done with a\n\nlittle deaf child in his\n\nown home under the most favorable circumstances.\n\nIn\n\norder to do this, it is necessary to quote from his teacher's notes as well as\n\nfrom the child's quaint and original expressions.\n\nHe was born deaf, and his\n\nspeech-training was begun at the age of two.\n\nOf course, with so young a\n\nchild almost everything had to be learned thru play.\nEverything possible\nwas done to keep the child happy, and he was happy all day long; there was\nso much to interest and amuse him.\nAs soon as he found objects had names, he wanted to know the names of\nall the objects that were of interest to him.\nAt the end of four months he\nknew forty-seven words; when I say ''knew,\" I mean, of course, that he read\nthem from the lips and connected them with the objects to which they belonged;\nbut this does not mean that he articulated any one perfectly. Some of them\n\nhe did not even attempt to say.\n\nWe all know that a deaf child learns speech\n\nas a hearing person learns a foreign language, understanding much that is\nsaid before being able to respond.\n\nFrom his teacher's report I quote the following:\nWe get many fine lessons out of readers. In them are the animals with which\nLaddie is familiar, the boys, girls, babies, houses, trees, Santa Claus, and many other\nword» he knows. Where a dog is running after chickens I shake my finger at the dog\nand say: \"No dog, you must not catch the chickens.\" Laddie looks at me and then\nat the picture intently.\nOnce, in a contrary mood, he shook his finger at me, patted\nIn other pictures I can bring in the verbs that he\nthe dog, and slapped the chickens.\nknows. \"The dog fell into the water;\" \"See the horse run;\" and so forth. In the\nzoo catalogue he points out deer, bears, birds, monkeys, and elephants (taking the names\nfrom the Ups). He left the closet door open. I had my back to the door when I said:\n\"Shut the door.\" He went immediately and closed it.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "ONE DEAF CHILD IN HIS OWN HOME\n\nDepartment]\n\n901\n\nAt the end of eight months his teacher again writes:\n\nHe not only reads sentences (from the lips), but tries to form them himself; putting\nFor instance: \"Top fell;\" \"Good-bye, trolley car, away.\"\n\ntogether two or three words.\n\nAt the end of a year and a half he learned fifty-two new words in one\n\nHe was then three and a half years old.\n\nmonth.\nlist\n\nHe did not increase his\n\nper month, however, as there were times after that when a much smaller\n\nnumber was learned in one month. At this time \"Jack and Jill\" and \"Little\nBoy Blue\" were much enjoyed; \"Jack and Jill\" especially, as it gave frequent\nopportunities for tumbling down-hill in the park.\nLaddie was not expected\nto repeat the lines, but he did understand them.\nHow could he help it when\nit was all made so plain to him in his play day after day ?\nThe story of \"Red\nRiding Hood \" was also taken up about this time, and \"Little Jack Horner.\"\nBefore he was four he understood numerous stories told from pictures;\none was sure he understood by his facial expression as well as by the way\n\nThe animals that figured\n\nhe frequently responded in words and sentences.\n\nin pictures or stories began at this stage to have names, and when out of doors\n\nhe named the dogs and horses he saw on the street.\n\nnamed Dick;\" \"Dog named Rover.\"\n\nHe would say:\n\n\"Horse\n\nThe story of Hiawatha's boyhood\n\nwas fascinating after having seen the Indians give the play at the Sportsman's\nShow; wigwam, canoe, bow and arrow, beads, feathers, and war-paint\nenlivened the house for many weeks.\n\nEvery member of the family had to\n\ntake part in the Indian game at some time or other, and the children coming\n\nhome from school were frequently shot at in Heu of wild animals in the forest.\n\"Please tell me another story about Hiawatha,\" was an oft-repeated request.\n\nDuring the first spring spent in the country. Laddie learned to know many\n\nand trees about him. He has always been a lover of\nand never tires of learning new secrets about \"Mother Nature's\n\nof the birds, flowers,\n\nnature,\n\nchildren.\"\n\nWhen his attention was first called to the buds on the trees in the\n\nspring of his third year, he expected to see baby birds hatch out of the buds,\n\nHe was told a great deal\nabout people of other lands, and once, after being told about the beautiful\nbecause he had seen canary birds hatch out of eggs.\nflowers in Japan, he was taken for a drive.\n\ngarden with larkspur, foxgloves,\n\netc.,\n\nWhen passing an old-fashioned\n\nblooming in abundance, he shouted:\n\n\"A Japanese garden!\"\nBible stories were begun as soon as Laddie\n\nunderstand them.\n\nhad sufficient language to\n\nWhen told the story of Adam and Eve, and how they\n\nwere driven out of the garden of Eden, he remarked, after some moments\n\n\"And then the garden was 'for sale.' \"\nBirthdays and hoHdays are made much of in Laddie's family for his special\n\nof deep thought:\n\nbenefit.\n\nHallowe'en offers a\n\ngoblins, fairies,\n\nfine\n\nopportunity for personifying the ghosts,\n\nand witches that have figured in fairy-stories.\n\nIn an old\n\ncountry house, with open fireplaces and Jack-o-lanterns spotted about, all\nthis seems very weird, but Laddie knows little fear.\n\nAfter a snowstorm in the country his attention was called to the footprints\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": ";\n\n902\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nin the snow.\n\n\"Footprints\" was then a familiar term, and he would say:\n\n[Special\n\n\"I do not want any footprints in my garden;\"\n\n''Look at Kittie's footprints;\"\n\nand so forth.\n\nWhen in the city, hearing children frequently come in and have school\nwith Laddie.\n\nThis is a mutual benefit, and everybody has a good time.\n\nThis Uttle fellow has hobbies; sometimes it is one thing and sometimes\nanother.\n\nWhen he was six, his hobby was electricity.\n\nWhile it lasted, he\n\nnot only learned as much language in connection with it as a hearing child\n\nwould have done, but he understood the principle of electricity. He put up\na bell in his playhouse, connecting it with button and batteries, and it worked.\nAt this age Dickens' Stories for Children were much enjoyed. David\n\nTiny Tim, and Poor Jo added their quota to the\n\nCopperfield, Little Nell,\n\nbuilding of character.\n\nTruly there is a psychological period for each phase\n\nof stories for children.\n\nIf they get them too soon or too late, the stories fail\n\nof their purpose.\n\nDuring the past eight or nine months history stories have been in demand\nWar of 1812, the Civil War, and the Spanish-\n\nstories of the Revolution, of the\n\nAmerican\n\nWar have\n\nbeen interspersed with \"make-believe\"\n\nstories.\n\nA\n\nportion of The Crossing by Winston Churchill was told, and for many days\n\nA friend appeared upon the scene with a white\n\nDavy Ritchie was a hero.\nrat,\n\nwhich was promptly named Davy Ritchie McChesney; and the name\n\nwas never abbreviated by Laddie.\n\nIf\n\nanyone else took the Uberty, it was\n\ncause for a reprimand.\n\nGeorge Washington, Abraham Lincoln, and President\n\nRoosevelt have\n\nhelped to create a desire for patriotism; in Laddie's own words, to be a \"loyal\n\nAmerican.\"\n\nIdioms and colloquial expressions have been taught thru play and story.\n\nHe never hesitates to use such expressions as \"Don't let the cat out of the\nbag,\" \"Around Robin Hood's barn,\" \"We are in the same boat,\" \"This is\nmy busy day,\" \"You will learn a lesson,\" \"You put the cart before the horse,\"\n\n\"Is that a good idea ?\" etc.\n\nhim a check for a dollar.\n\nOnce, after having played bank, someone gave\n\nHe asked if he might have it any way he liked.\n\nWhen answered that he might, he said: \"Well, then I will take it in chicken\nfeed.\" When someone suggested that he did not know what chicken feed\nwas, he responded:\n\n\"Why, certainly I do\n\nAt present the hobby is bees.\n\n—pennies,\n\nnickels,\n\nand dimes.\"\n\nAn observation bee-hive, together with\n\nbooks galore which are full of illustrations, to say nothing of the thousand and\none questions which have been asked and answered, have resulted in a complete\n\nknowledge of these little wonder-workers.\n\nManual training also has its place. A five-room playhouse was constructed\nfrom an ordinary wooden box, and was furnished with chairs, tables, and beds\n\nmade of raffia and wood.\nwell.\n\nIn drawing and color- work Laddie does remarkably\n\nThis he takes from a special teacher.\n\nAt the age of seven he had a vocabulary of three thousand words.\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE SCHOOLS FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED\n\n903\n\nA greater part of the year is spent in the country, and while there frequent\nvisits\n\nare made to the rural school, where this little lad is able to enter the\n\nsecond-year class and take questions from the teacher's Hps, answering in\nturn, just as the hearing children do.\n\nThe teachers of this child do not claim all the credit for his remarkable\nOf course, he is bright and has unusual surroundings. The\nrelatives and friends who are about him never lose an opportunity of giving\nprogress.\n\nhim the help he ought to have. All his questions are answered with infinite\ncare and patience.\nIdeal conditions, indeed; and we wish that all our little\nchildren who cannot hear might be blessed in the same way.\n\nTHE SCHOOLS FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED\nE.\n\nR.\n\nJOHNSTONE, SUPERINTENDENT, NEW JERSEY TRAINING SCHOOL FOR\nFEEBLE-MINDED GIRLS AND BOYS, VINELAND, N. J.\n\nMy talk this morning covers much ground, and I have done but little more\nthan touch upon a great many things, but I have tried to be brief, so that I\n\nmay have a few minutes to answer any questions you may wish to ask.\nWhen Henry Ward Beecher was once taken to task for telling so many\nfunny stories in the pulpit, he said: *'If you knew how many I think of and\ndon't tell, you would easily forgive all I do tell.\"\n\nSo if you think I have gone\n\nmy threads, I hope you will forgive\nme, for there are still many more of which I think, but which I am sparing you.\nfar from the institution in gathering up\n\nThe place of the school for the feeble-minded has long been obscure.\n\nOf\n\nthe first one hundred people met upon one of the streets of any of our cities,\n\nprobably ninety would not know there are such people as the feeble-minded,\n\nand possibly only one of the remaining ten would really know anything of\nthem. And yet one in every five hundred of the population is feeble-minded,\nand there is hardly a line of thought into which the feeble-minded person\ndoes not enter, either as an object of love in its truest sense, a spur to greater\nendeavor, a subject of scientific research, a drag upon the progress of the\ncommunity, or a positive menace to society.\nThe institutions of today where the work is done for charitable reasons,\nthose which are in touch with the great educational, medical, agricultural, and\ncharitable bodies of the country, and which are indeed laboratories in which\nmany of the great problems of our civilization may be worked out, hold a\nunique place. There are many such in this country and in Europe, and more\nand more the fact is being felt that here among the \"undeveloped\" are many\nof the greatest problems of development to be solved.\nare, in common parlance,\n\nBecause our children\n\n\"not all there,\" we must find the way to make the\n\nmost of what we have, and we are therefore in a position to tell the \"normals\"\n\nhow to make better use of what they have.\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n904\n\n[Special\n\nOur pupils are found in almost every stage of human development.\n\nBegin-\n\nning with the profound idiot, below whom there is nothing but death, they\n\nadvance thru various stages to the individual who possesses powers which\n\nwould make us cry \"genius,\" were it not that balance is lacking.\n\nAt various\n\npoints we find some so near the insane that the expert cannot tell the difference,\n\nSome are deaf or blind, some are criminals\nsome are consumptives, some epileptics, some paralytics. The\ndevelopment of some is often so great along certain lines that in the world\nthey would be called freaks, and in their ability in music and painting, in their\nuse of language and figures, they go far ahead of normal men and women;\nbut these things cannot always be directed into useful channels, and so they\nare of no value to the world excepting as objects of study.\nunless he knows the past history.\n\nor paupers,\n\nIt is\n\nthen largely as a laboratory that our institutions offer themselves to\n\nFor the medical man we present abnormalities of head, body,\nand limb to be studied abnormalities as to the progress of ordinary sickness,\nunusual developments in contagious diseases, etc. For the lawyer are raised\nquestions of the rights of minors and those stricken by various forms of mental\ndisease, the questions of responsibility, etc.; and it is only by a careful study\nof feeble-mindedness and allied conditions that many of these questions can\nthe world.\n\n—\n\nbe answered.\n\nThe ordinary child's point of view regarding reHgious questions\n\nmay here be studied better than elsewhere, for our child is always a child,\nand the progress of his thought is, as it were, under a microscope.\nsociologist here finds not only the results of the social conditions\n\nThe\n\nfound in\n\nevery community, but often the causes also, and a complete study of social\n\nproblems would be out of the question, without proper consideration of the\nfeeble-minded.\n\nBecause our institutions have farms and shops, kitchens and\n\ncottages, and because the very easiest way of performing the work of making\n\na living must be observed, we are helping in our little way to solve the problems\n\nand general industry.\nBut it is to the educator that our work comes closest. The slow mental\nprocesses are laid bare.\nMethods of teaching any line of work may be studied\nin their minutest details.\nHere we may see the real value of music, of manual\ntraining, of the school garden, of physical training, of the kindergarten, and\nof child study; and here also we see how easily they may become fads or be\nof agriculture\n\noverdone.\n\nThe difference in training normal and feeble-minded children is one of\ndegree, not one of kind,\n\nand our children are found in all grades, from the\n\nprofound idiot up to the high-grade feeble-minded or backward child, indistinguishable from the normal.\n\nTherefore, in this\n\nlittle\n\ncommunity known\n\nas the school for the feeble-minded, where all operations move slowly, where\nthe child spends his entire life, where the object is to teach children of backward\nor feeble minds what they ought to know, and can make use of when they\n\nbecome men and women in years, and where the employees are trained to\nsee and understand the various phases of life here depicted, we must, if we\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE SCHOOLS FOR THE FEEBLE-MINDED\n\n905\n\nare doing our work properly, be able to be at least suggestive along many\nlines.\n\nWhen, in addition, you consider that some of us have boards of con-\n\nsulting physicians, boards of paidologists,\n\nand boards of agriculturists, who\n\nand record their findings, it must be seen that the school for\nthe feeble-minded is no longer an asylum where the incompetents of society\nare to be housed until their death, but it is a home where all of the comforts\nadvise, study,\n\nof civiHzation shall be found;\n\na workshop where, in so far as possible, its\n\nneeds shall be fulfilled; a school wherein shall be taught all that its pupils\nshould learn;\n\nand a laboratory in which even the farmer and doctor may\n\nstudy; but, most of all, a college in which the teacher will find facts and\n\nmethods which she cannot find elsewhere.\nLet me pause for a moment here to say to you that at the last meeting of\nthe International Association of Officers of the Institutions for the Feeble-\n\nMinded, I was authorized to say to the members of the National Educational\nAssociation that our doors are open to all of you. If you wish to study our\nmethods, special arrangements\n\nmay be made with the superintendents of\n\nour institutions to give you every opportunity.\n\nMy own board of directors\n\noffers a special rate to the members of the National Educational Association\n\nfor the six weeks' course in the training of teachers to fit them to teach children\n\nin the special classes of the public schools.\n\nWe are just beginning the second\n\nseason, and I shall be glad to give any information concerning it.\n\nIn view of the fact that there is probably not one teacher of the primary\nclasses who has not at least one feeble-minded or backward child in her class,\n\nwhile many have more, and because there is an increasing number of special\nclasses being formed in the various cities of the country, and expert teachers\n\nare required for these classes, I am going to say a word as to what the schools\nfor the feeble-minded have to offer these teachers.\n\nWe have learned beyond forgetting that we are teaching children—not\nand arithmetic; that the child must be developed morally\nand physically as well as mentally, and in a well-trained child these are inseparable that there is a difference between learning to read and reading to learn,\nbetween learning to use figures and using figures to learn. They creep into\n\nreading, writing,\n\n;\n\neach other almost imperceptibly, but there are periods when they must be\nseparate.\n\nThe teacher who will train backward children must possess more patience,\nresourcefulness, and tact than she who will teach normal children.\n\nShe must\n\nbe able to see the physical defects of head, mouth, hand, and body, and know\n\nwhat they mean. She must learn to recognize at once the poor reason, judgment, and will, the lack of attention, the defective speech, and the want of\nveracity, and know what to do; and she must again and again ask. Why ?\nIn her schoolroom she must realize the great value of music, the place for\nany kind of physical culture, remembering that, as ordinarily taught, physical\nculture is as hard as arithmetic.\nShe must see that the kindergarten spirit\nis always present, and that manual training properly given niay take its place\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9o6\n\n[Special\n\nwith purely mental training right from the beginning; and always she must\nstudy the child as an individual.\n\nThere is one more thing she must find, above all, and that is a new view\na discipline that makes for happiness first, that knows no\nrepression, but rather a guidance of energy from the bad into channels of\nof discipline\n\n—\n\nhelpfulness and good.\ntimes.\n\nChildren are not bad; they only do bad things some-\n\nDo not make corrections the easiest and shortest way, by might, but\n\nrecognize the child and ignore the idea of revenge.\nto the effect upon the others.\n\ndoer himself.\n\nPay but little attention\n\nSeek first ta build up and strengthen the wrong-\n\nYour discipline must recognize that all wrong-doing is the\n\nresult of ignorance or disease, and therefore correction may only be educative\n\nor curative, seeing the wrong only that it may emphasize the right.\n\nThe institution is not a place of bars and tortures, where everything is\ninclosed in stone walls, and gloom and sorrow prevail; a place where driveling\n\nwander thru darkened corridors, cowering under the brutal hand of\nit is not a prison, as so many seem to imagine, in which\nthe world hides its mistakes and crimes; it is not a pest-house to be shunned\nby all; no, it is a school for mankind. It is a beacon Hght set upon the rocks\nto guide the world aright, if the world will but open its eyes and see.\nAnd\nfor the child who, thru no fault of his own, is brought into this world where\nhe finds no place and is too often unwelcome, it is a place of joy, a haven\nwhere this one, who can neither be punished, cured, nor reformed, finds\nfriends and companions of his own class.\nHere he is comfortable and contented, and has training to suit his capacity, and entertainment within his\nunderstanding. He has occupation to keep h'm well and busy, and give him\nthe satisfaction of being helpful to himself and others.\nHere he has all of the\nprivileges it is wise for him to have, being deprived only of the right to reproduce\nhis kind.\nAnd always he is guided by loving hands which shall lead him\n\nidiots\n\na heartless overseer;\n\ninto paths of righteousness for His name's sake.\n\nEXTRACTS FROM A RECENT INVESTIGATION IN SOCIOLOGY\nMISS\n\nMARY R. CAMPBELL, GRADUATE STUDENT IN PHILOSOPHY,\nJOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD.\n\nAs my paper consists of summaries of several investigations, I must necesit to you in a somewhat fragmentary form.\nNo attempt,\n\nsarily present\n\ntherefore, has been made to articulate the various abstracts or digest reports.\n\nThe connection and interdependence of the data obtained are obvious, and\nlead to but one conclusion\n\n—the necessity\n\nbettering of the educational\n\nof taking immediate action in the\n\nwork with the \"abmodal\"\n\nclass of children\n\nrequiring special education.\n\nA number of years ago I undertook, under the direction of Dr. C. R.\nHenderson, of the University of Chicago, to investigate the care and education\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA RECENT INVESTIGATION IN SOCIOLOGY\n\n907\n\nA previous investigation in 1898 \"on\nof the \"slightly subnormal child.\"\nwhat America and Europe have done and are doing for mentally deficient\nchildren\" caused\n\nme to feel that \"mentally deficient,\" \"feeble-minded,\"\n\n\"neurotic,\" \"abnormal,\" \"defective,\" and \"imbecilic\" are\n\nall\n\nmisnomers,\n\nnone of the terms provided for a class^of individuals who were not,\n\"Abnorscientifically speaking, ehgible to any of the named classifications.\nfor\n\nmal\" was too sweeping in meaning\nis\n\n— was too\nit\n\ninclusive.\n\n\"Feeble-minded\"\n\nas unscientific for the class of children in question as is \"insane\" for the\n\ntemporarily neurasthenic patient.\n\nIn seeking to get definite census statistics\n\nshowing a discrimination in terms, the term \"subnormal\" was used.\n\nUnfor-\n\nand educators and census-takers were not ready to\nuse the finely discriminated terms, and therefore no practical data were\ntunately, the physicians\n\nobtained.\n\nThe majority of the persons to whom question blanks were sent\n\ninsisted that the children coming under the term\n\nminded.\n\n\"subnormal\" were feeble-\n\nThe new term, however, found support from three of the leading\n\nneurologists in America and was adopted by us.\n\nIn spite of the fact that the statistical evidence showed nothing upon\nwhich we could compute the total number of sUghtly subnormal children in\nAmerica, enough data were received to cause us to conclude that approxi-\n\nmately i-io per cent, of all school children were sHghtly subnormal.\n\nIn\n\n1902, while the investigation was still under way. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell,\nat the National Educational Association meeting in MinneapoHs, with whom\n\nI had had some conversation, asked me to present a statement to the Depart-\n\nment of Special Education thru the Committee on Resolutions, such a statement\nsetting forth the status of affairs, with\n\ncould best be provided for.\n\nmy opinion as to how such children\n\nBriefly stated, the following is the communication\n\nsubmitted to the Committee on Resolutions:\nThere are many backward and pathological children thruout the United States,\nThe mental\nand physical infirmities of these children are of so slight a nature that, by special training,\nthey may become factors in the family and society.\n\nfor whom no special education is provided either by state or city expense.\n\nIn order to promulgate the educational interests of children that are slightly subnor-\n\nmal and backward, and in need of special instruction, the various sections of the Department of Special Education are asked to co-operate in the establishing of laboratory schools\nfor such pathological children.\n\nThe purpose of these schools shall be:\n1.\n\nTo further the educational interests of children having minor mental and physical\n\ninfirmities.\n2.\n\nTo serve as laboratories for original investigation in the psychology of pathological\n\nand subnormal children.\n3.\n\nTo serve as training schools for teachers and nurses for this particular class of\n\nchildren.\n\nThese laboratory schools should be connected with departments of psychology and\nsociology in the various state universities and state normal schools.\n\nThe nature of the physical infirmities of these children is such that both medical\nand educational treatment must be given; therefore institutions wherein these children\nmay be cared for, medically and educationally, shall be given a name specifically defining\nthe cases to be admitted a name both exclusive and inclusive.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9o8\n\n[Special\n\nThe child attending a state school for the feeble-minded cannot eventually take his\nplace in society without having a stigma rest upon him; he is forever an outcast; hence\nthe\n\nname of these schools should be such that parents need not fear such results, and\n\nwill readily consent to placing their children where they may be benefited by this special\n\ninstruction.\n\nThese institutions may be known as \" hospital schools,\" \"educational sanitaria\" for\nchildren requiring special instruction.\n\nInasmuch as these schools are to educate these children up to the point where eventually they may be returned to their homes and become factors in both the family and\nsocial unit, a\n\nname must be substituted for the term \"feeble-minded,\" \"backward,\"\n\netc., so that upon leaving these special schools no stigma will\nupon the children or affect their position in after-Ufe. The term appUed to this\nclass of pathological children requiring special instruction shall be \"subnormal children.\"\nThese children are to be educated as individuals who in time are to have a part in\nsociety, and therefore ought not to be educated as aUens, and in segregated aggregates.\nSuch children need the stimulus that comes from contact with many personalities;\nthey should be given every possible opportunity for coming in contact with normal perIn addition, the schools for these chilsons and associating with normal children\ndren should be conducted on a purely scientific basis, and to do this there must be a\nco-operation of physicians, psychologists, educators, and trained nurses.\n\n\"arrested development,\"\n\nrest\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions advised that definite authentic statistics\nbe obtained and the statements submitted be incorporated in resolution form.\nAccordingly, a questionnaire, indicating the fine distinction to be made in the\ncensus, was issued.\nfication of defects\n\nIn outlining the question blank, we resorted to the classi-\n\n—physical and mental—that had been formulated from those\n\nof the children who had been brought to the Chicago Hospital School for exami-\n\nnation and treatment.\n\nIn undertaking the statistical investigation imder Dr. Henderson, we had\nin mind obtaining sufficient positive evidence to convince the legislature of\n\nthe various states of the necessity of providing, at state or city expense, special\n\neducation for temporarily and slightly subnormal children.\nIt was then and is now hoped that educational sanitaria, or hospital schools,\n\nshall\n\nbe a part of the public-school system; such institutions to be under\n\nthe direct supervision of the superintendent of public instruction of each city.\n\nTo such schools may a child who needs good medical care be sent for an\nupbuilding of his subnormal physical condition, while at the same time he\n\nmay receive at least a minimum amount of educational work.\nThe questionnaire was sent to the superintendents or head authorities of\npublic or free instruction in the congested areas of Europe and America.\n\nTo get approximately the total number of subnormal children here and\nabroad, the method defined was to compute, from statistics received, the total\npercentage of slightly subnormal in relation to the total school population of\nthe congested areas;\n\nthen with the result thus obtained again to compute\n\nthe relative proportions to the total population.\n\nThe statistical evidence being of a negative nature, it was very nearly\nvalueless, for our purpose.\n\nWhile inadequate for the problem in question,\n\nthe \"positive data of a negative nature\" are herewith nevertheless reported.\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": ":\n\nA RECENT INVESTIGATION IN SOCIOLOGY\n\nDepartment]\n\n909\n\nThe cities in the Romance and Latin countries in submitting reports recognized the value and the necessity of having such data, and stated in their\n\ncommunications that the next census in their respective countries would\nThe northern and middle Eiu-opean countries\n\ninclude such careful records.\n\nalso admitted the wisdom of having such data, but reported that government\n\naction would be necessary to secure it.\n\nThe report from London has been carefully~worked over and is herewith\nsubmitted.\n\nCLASSIFIED STATISTICAL REPORT ON CHILDREN IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nREQUIRING SPECIAL EDUCATION (dATA GATHERED FROM CONGESTED\n\nAREAS OF EUROPEAN AND AMERICAN CITIES)\nLondon\nI.\n\nEUROPEAN CITIES\n\n—\n\nI.\n\nWhat is the gross number (approximately) of school children in your\n\n2.\n\nNumber of deaf children ?\n\ncity requiring special education ?\n\n3.\n\n4.\n5.\n6.\n\n*8,873\n\n307\n618\n\nNimiber of blind children ?\nNumber of backward children ?\n\nUnknown\nNumber of mentally deficient children ?\nAbout 6,000\nNumber of temporarily subnormal children (mentally or physically) ?\nExempt\n\n909\n\nPermanently disabled\n\n7.\n\n8.\n9.\n\ny^p\n\nIn country\n\n2,501\n\n111\n\n4,131\n\nNumber of nervous children ?\nUnknown\nNumber of precocious children ?\nUnknown\nNumber of orthopoedic cases (crippled in arms, legs, or those having\nspinal weakness) ?\n\ni,733\n\n10.\n\nNimiber of epileptic children ?\n\n-j-^oo\n\n11.\n\nNumber of children of poor eyesight (not blind) ?\n\n12.\n\nNumber of children of poor hearing (not deaf) ?\n\n13.\n\nA.\n\n10 per cent, of the children of school age\n5 per cent, of the children of school age\n\nNimiber of children of imperfect speech ?\na) Hearing mutes\nh) Speech hesitation\nc) Slow speech\nd) Stammering\ne)\n\nStuttering\n\nf)\n\nLolling\n\ng)\n\nOther speech defects\n\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\nUnknown\n\nB.\n\nWhat per cent, of speech defect is coexistent with slow mental\n\nC.\n\nNumber of children in whom orthopoedic conditions are coexis-\n\nUnknown\n\ndevelopment?\ntent with imperfect speech ?\n\n•This number is\n\ni\n\nper cent, of the children scheduled of school age\n\nUnknown\nwho are of the elementary\n\nschool class-\n\ntThis is the nimiber of epileptic children, who are reported to be fit for a residential school for epiand does not include cases of slight epilepsy, or epileptics who are also imbeciles.\n\nleptics,\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9IO\nII.\n\nI.\n\n[Special\n\nWhat percentage of the total school population require special education?\n\nI\n\n2.\n\nCan you throw any light on the question of the effect of poor food\nand insanitary habitation, or any of the above?\nCan you give any information regarding the above questions, par-\n\n%\n\n3.\n\nticularly in relation to questions 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 ?\n\nJ\n\n4.\n\nWhat is the bearing of cruelty at home, and constant fright, in relation to questions 4, 5, 6, 7, 13 ?\n\n%\n\nThe above statistics apply to the District of the School Authority for London.\nParis.\n\n—School census\n\nstatistics in\n\nsuch detail as outlined in the questionnaire have\n\nThe head of the educational system strongly advocates the col-\n\nnever been gathered.\n\nlecting of such data, and reports that in all probability such statistics will be forthcoming\n\nfor publication in the near future.\n\nVienna.\n\n—The head of the educational system reports practically the same\n—\" .... For Russia such\nare gathered only from the\n\nfacts.\n\nSt. Petersburg.\n\nstatistics\n\nentire\n\nand not especially from the school population. There are here many and\ndifferent schools for defective children, but it would take too much time to collect the\npopulation,\n\nparticulars, because these schools are\n\nunder the direction of different administrations,\n\ngovernmental and private.\"\n(Signed)\n\nSecretary of the Ministry 0} Public Instruction.\n\n—Report very meager; educable defectives as\n\nfollows: deaf, 177; dumb, 30;\nWith reference to your communication\nof the ist ultimo, I have pleasure in forwarding by this post a copy of the Census Book,\n1901, for the city of Dublin, which contains particulars on some of the subjects mentioned\n\nDublin.\n\nimbecile, 266;\n\nblind, 294;\n\n\".\n\ntotal, 767.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n^y y°^-\"\n\n(Signed)\n\n—Report submitted of no value.\nWith reference\nyour\nGlasgow. —\n\nR. Matheson,\nRegistrar General.\n\nCologne.\n\n\".\n\n.\n\n.\n\nto\n\n.\n\ncircular of ist instant, I\n\nhave to inform\n\nyou that the information you desire cannot possibly be obtained by us with any degree\nof certainty.\"\n\nG. E. Alexander,\n\n(Signed)\n\nSchool Board of Glasgow.\n\nAMERICAN CITIES\n^\n\n*\n\nBoston.\n\n—Report as submitted by the superintendent of public schools: \"I have\n\ngiven considerable thought to the queries made in your circular letter of March 1, 1904,\nfor the purpose of discovering, if I could, some practicable way of getting valuable answers\nthereto.\n\nThe difficulty is that a large proportion of the children referred to in the several\n\nqueries are not in the public schools at\n\nall.\n\nAgain concerning those in school,\n\nI\n\ncan\n\nobtain only the unexpert opinions of the teachers. Indeed, I see no other way of getting\nvaluable information on the points suggested than making a complete door-to-door canvass\nof the whole city by medically expert canvassers.\n\nmy power or resources.\"\n\nSuch an undertaking is far beyond\n\n^g.^^^^^\n\n^^^^ p 5^^^^^^\n\nSuperintendent of Public Schools.\n\nhave ever been taken.\n—No\nhave ever been taken.\n—No\nhave ever been taken.\nSan Francisco. —No\nhave ever been taken.\nDenver. —No\nhave ever been taken.\nOmaha. —^No\nnow being gathered.\nChicago. —\nnow being gathered. General report submitted below.\nNew York. —\nclassified statistics\n\nPhiladelphia.\nBaltimore.\n\nclassified statistics\n\nclassified statistics\n\nclassified statistics\nclassified statistics\n\nStatistics\n\nStatistics\n\nJThe school authorities have no statistics bearing upon these points, but it has been commonly\nobserved that among the physically and mentally defective children there are a large number who have been\nimproperly fed and cared for.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nA RECENT INVESTIGATION IN SOCIOLOGY\n\n911\n\nA part of the investigation was to ascertain approximately the possibilities\nat the present time of utilizing the state charitable institutions as laboratories\nof investigation.\n\nThe first informal inquiry brought to light the fact that few\n\nwell-trained teachers (aggregately speaking,\n\nand comparing special teachers\n\nwith teachers of normal children) go into the work of special education.\n\nTherefore such institutions cannot be utilized as laboratories for educational\nresearch until the workers there are fully trained.\n\nThe data recorded would\n\nbe valueless.\n\nThe results of a very recent investigation furnish proof showing that few\nof the state institutions which have educational features employ normal-school\n\nor university graduates (data on this point in the appended table).\n\nIn pushing\n\nthe investigation to ascertain the cause of this condition of affairs in institutions\nfor individuals who require special education, it was found that a large majority of states\n\ndo not countersign diplomas\n\nof\n\nnormal-school and uni\\ersity\n\ngraduates whose first year of ''experience\" teaching has been gained in state\ninstitutions, the alleged reason being that the respective legislatures\n\nmake\n\nno provision for such cases, and, also, that the state institutions are not under\nthe educational supervision of the state superintendent of public instruction.\n\nThe inquiry also brings to light the fact that normal-school graduates and\nuniversity graduates, as a rule, are anxious to get their diplomas countersigned\n\nas soon as possible, so that the annual examination preliminary to receiving\ncertificates will be\n\ndone away with.\n\nVery few teachers can afford to spend\n\na third or fourth year in further special preparation after the expense of a,\n\nnormal training or a university course.\n\nMany well-prepared teachers are\n\ndeterred, therefore, from going into this\n\nwork of special education.\n\nresult, the pedagogical data\n\nAs a\n\ngathered in such insti utions have practically no\n\npsychological value, for they are not the results of scientific observation.\nIf some\n\narrangement could be effected between the state institutions for\n\nblind, deaf, feeble-minded, insane, incorrigibles,\n\nand dependents, and the\n\nstate normal schools and state universities, whereby a year's instruction given\nin such state charitable and penal institutions would be credited as laboratory\n\nwork to such graduates of state training schools as might wish to take (with\npay) an additional year in the way of special-edu ation preparation, in order\nto acquire knowledge of the physical and mental defects of children, more\nThe returns to the state would\nwell-trained teachers would go into the work.\nconsequently be greater, for the inevitable result would be either that the\neducational work of these state institutions would be brought under the direct\nsupervision of the state superintendents of public instruction, who then could\n\nexact of such institutions the same high standard of pedagogical excellence\nthat they now do of the pubhc day schools under their jurisdiction, or else\n\nthe state universities would control the educational poHcies\n\nand methods.\n\nThe returns to the state and :o society in general can hardly be overestimated. By using these state institutions as laboratories of pedagogical\nexperimentation and as practice schools for the state normal schools, the\npublic-school system would be enabled to supply a long-felt want\n\n—teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n912\n\n[Special\n\nproperlyltrained to handle the many subnormal and peculiar children to be\n\nfound by the hundreds in our public day schools.\n\nThe needs of such children\n\nare seldom understood by the general teacher; in fact, the general teacher\n\nis^so|busy attending to the needs of the child of average mentality that he\n\nhas not the time in the course of the ordinary school routine to take up the\nstudy of the idiosyncrasies\n\n—much\n\nless meet the needs\n\n—of the subnormal and\n\nabnormal children.\nIn view of the fact that the holder of a state diploma wishes to have it\ncountersigned, so as to have tangible evidence that he is a ''licensed pedagog,\"\nin \"good and regular standing\" as it were, it is but fair for the state which\n\nhas given the teacher this prehminary education by which he is enabled to earn\n\na liveUhood, further to equip him so that he may be a \"general\" practitioner,\n\nand that he may not continually be taking examinations to be certificated.\nThe pubUc has a right to expect some returns for the state funds expended\nin the maintenance\n\nprotection,\n\nof\n\nthe state institutions other than the physical care,\n\nThe money expended should be\nThe profits to the publ c will be the\n\nand education of its wards.\n\nmoney invested, not capital sunk.\n\neducating of parents and teachers to prophylactic as well as therapeutical\nmeasures.\n\nThis can best be effected by utilizing the present institution for\n\nchild-study laboratories and for research laboratories in pedagogy, psychology,\n\nand medicine.\n\nWith data thus obtained, a method of educational p: ocedure\n\nmay be defined for those children who cannot and do not get into the institutions\nalready provided.\n\nKnowing theoretically the peculiarities of abnormal children is a vastly\ndifferent proposition from \"being up against the real thing.\"\n\n—these\nwith the group of so-called \"normal\" children—\nthese negative factors of schoolroom Hfe\n\nTo harmonize\n\nhttle, anti-social individuals\nit is\n\nessential that the peda-\n\nsome \"chnical\" experience, and it is imperative\nthat the state institutions, supported at enormous state expense, should be\nsuppHed with properly quahfied teachers.\nBelow is a statistical report showing approximately how the state instiAs a number of the state superintendents did\ntutions rank educationally.\nnot return the inquiry blank, no attempt has been made in the appended\nreport to give anything except an approximate idea. We were obHged to\nestimate roughly only. This we did by computing the total number of trained\nteachers reported, in relation to the total number of pupils reported. The\nreport, of course, is not accurate, but it will give an approximate idea.\ngogical practitioner have\n\nINSTITUTIONS FOR DEAP IN THE UNITED STATES\n\nTotal number of university graduates\nTotal number of college graduates\n\n82\n\nTotal number of normal-school graduates\n\n42\n\nTotal number of special training\n\nTotal nimiber of deaf\nTotal number of teachers\n\nTotal number of not enrolled\n\n32\n125\n\n4>305\n\n39^\ni,ioc\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\nA RECENT INVESTIGATION IN SOCIOLOGY\n\nDepartment]\n\n913\n\nINSTITUTIONS FOR BLIND IN THE UNITED STATES\nTotal number of university graduates\n\nTotal number of college graduates\n\n27\n21\n\nTotal number of normal-school graduates\n\n43\n\nTotal number of special training\n\n15\n\nTotal number of educable blind\n\ni>S98\n\nTotal number of teachers\n\n254\n\nTotal number not enrolled\n\n3>356\n\nINSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED IN THE UNITED STATES\nTotal number of university graduates\n\n2\n\nTotal number of college graduates\n\n4\n\nTotal number of normal-school graduates\n\n35\n14\n\nTotal number of special training\n\nTotal number of educable feeble-minded\n\n5, 600\n\nTotal number not enrolled\n\n.*\n\nTotal number of university graduates in all institutions reported\nTotal number of college graduates in all institutions reported\nTotal number of normal-school graduates in all institutions reported\n\n143\n1 11\n\n....\n\nTotal number of specially trained graduates in all institutions reported\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n57\n120\n\n158\n\n446\nBriefly stated there are 446 specially trained and skilled teachers to every\n\n11,503 children requiring special education in state institutions\n\n—not a large\n\npercentage.\n\nFrom the data collected from authentic sources and herewith presented\nit\n\nobvious\n\nis\n\nThat a higher standard for teachers employed in the state charitable and penal\nmust be exacted. This can be best brought about by\na) Employing only teachers who have diplomas showing their scientific preparation\n1.\n\ninstitutions\n\nfor special work.\nb)\nc)\n\nBy paying higher salaries to teachers in schools of special education.\nBy state boards of control allowing teachers in the state charitable and penal\n\ninstitutions to have every third year for a year of vacation (with salary), this year to be\n\nspent in study or research.\nd)\n\nBy the state universities being given supervision and control of all the educational\n\nand scientific work of such institutions.\ne)\n\nBy the state boards of control in the various states being made up, not of politicians,\n\nbut of educators, scientists, physicians, lawyers, and philanthropists, whose duty it shall\n\nbe to see that the wards of the state receive that for which the pubHc pays high taxes, and\nwhose duty it shall be also to advance the scientific interests of the state charitable and\npenal institutions that have educational features.\n2.\n\nThat there must soon be, in connection with the public day-school system in the\n\n—\n\n—\n\nresidential schools\nwhich shall provide both hospital\nand educational features, such institutions to be used as a sort of clearing-house for\nchildren who require for one, two, or even three years special physical and mental care.\nIn such hospital schools or educational sanitaria may parents place their children, where\n\nlarge cities, special institutions\n\nthey may be carefully studied until it is definitely determined whether such children are\n\ncandidates for state school for feeble-minded, or whether they are only temporarily sub-\n\nnormal, and can by a few years of medical care and special education be brought up\nto the norm.\n\nThat these residential schools must provide for very young deaf, bhnd,\n\nor subnormal children, for the state institutions do not admit children until the eighth\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n914\n\n[Special\n\nmuch valuable time for overcoming his defiThe purpose of the residential schools to be prophylactic as well as thera-\n\nor ninth year, thus losing to the child\nciencies.\n\npuetical.\n3.\n\nThat the universities and state normal schools must include in their curricula\n\nbranches of study that will specially fit teachers to know very definitely that which they\nshould know to handle skillfully all cases and types of defective children that may be met\nin the public school,\n\nand who, because of neural defects, speech defects, mutism, etc.,\n\nor because of physical and mental infirmities, or because of illness, must be re-educated,\n\nand have special care and treatment.\n\nAs was indicated in the statement submitted to the Department of Special\nEducation in 1902, one of the greatest needs in the educational field today is\ngraduate courses in our universities, colleges, and state normal schools, such\ncourses to provide or include a special course of study of ''special\" education,\n\nincluding particularly instruction in the physical care of children\ning of neural defects;\n\n;\n\nthe overcom-\n\ncorrection of speech defects; special method for the\n\ntraining of the deaf; special method employed in the education of the blind;\n\nthe methods to be used in re-educating young invalid children\n\n;\n\nand methods\n\nof handling incorrigibles.\n\nThe state reformatories are putting in educational features, and the time\nis\n\nnot far distant when the re-education of the insane will be a part of the\n\nsystem of sate public instruction and under the joint supervision of educators\n\nand physicians.\n\nALL CRIME IS DISEASE\nARTHUR\n\nB.\n\nLINSLEY,\n\nREGISTRAR OF PHILLIPS BROOKS SCHOOL,\nPHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nThe dying words of the greatest of all the kings of bibhcal history to his\nson, the wisest of all men, express in their literal meaning a caution and a\n\ncommand which may well be the motto and inspiration of every ambitious\n\"Be strong and show thyself a man!\" It may safely be\n\nyouth of today:\nsaid that\n\nno accompHshment in this world, however praiseworthy in itself,\n\ndeserves consideration unless\n\nit\n\nhave virtue as its basis.\n\nIn no system of\n\ngovernment, in no university, in no school, ought rewards of merit or any form\nof appreciation to be given, unless, coupled with the enumeration of other\n\ndeserving qualities, there be also these words: ^^and for exemplary conduct.\"\n\n\"What doth it matter if one gain the whole world and lose his own soul ?\"\nOf what real advantage is it for a man to be a leader in politics, society, art,\nor literature, if his private Hfe be so corrupt that he may never receive the\n\napproval of that most unsparing of critics\n\n—his own conscience\n\n?\n\nThe most\n\ninteresting and the most unsolvable of all the investigations presented to the\n\nstudent of social ethics and of theology is the wonderful duality of the human\n\n—\n\nsoul that which I call \"myself.\"\nYou may never have realized it, but if\nyou will turn the lamp upon your inner consciousness, and scan the process\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "ALL CRIME IS DISEASE\n\nDepartment]\n\n915\n\nwhich goes on whenever you are called to decide upon a matter of moment\nin your conduct, you will hear always two voices speaking;\n\nthose of \"the good angel\" and \"the bad angel\"\n\nnot, I feel sure,\n\n—external monitors—as some\n\ncontend; but the two distinct and powerful elements of your own duality.\nYou are never called upon to meet and oppose a single temptation, to which\nthere\n\nis\n\ndanger of yielding (and, surely, that\n\nis\n\nnot \"temptation\" which\n\ninvolves no danger), that you are not conscious of the better part within you\n\npresenting the claims of duty with unsparing bluntness and pertinacity, and\nfighting vigorously the advances of that other part which extols with enervating\nplausibility and eloquence the expediency and\n\nadvantage of the evil course.\n\nThese two monitors of your inner self actually talk with each other, each\npresenting its own arguments as tho you yourself were the judge; and how\noften, when you have yielded to the tempter, have you Hstened to the upbraidings of that same better self ?\nis\n\nThis knowledge and conviction of the right\n\nthe very last human power to be lost when reason refuses its society;\n\nand\n\nthere is no man so sunken in vice, no woman so depraved, no editor of any\nvile sheet so\n\nprone to cater to the worst elements in society, as not to be a\n\ncompetent, not to say unerring, judge of the hne between right and wrong in\n\nany question of conduct or propriety which is ever brought up. If, then, I\nwere to define character in the briefest and most epigrammatical way, I should\ncall it \"the preponderance in\n\nman of the better self over the worse.\"\n\nThe one goal of all education, of all training, of all trial and tribulation,\nWhen the refining of the last great assay has been made, when\nis character.\nthe metal has been melted in the crucible and the dross has been driven out,\nthe only thing which the Great Judge will select is the pure gold of character.\n\nOf the influences which tend to improve the character and morals of men,\nI maintain that there is none of greater value than judicious physical training.\n\nYou do not believe that even a Paderewski could give his noblest inter-\n\nHow can you expect\n\npretations upon an instrument ill-made or out of tune.\n\nmind and heart, if that most marvelously\nintricate of all machines, the human body, be not kept in perfect order and\nthe best accomplishment of the\n\nat the point of highest efficiency ?\nI\n\nam well aware that for many years athletics and athletes have not been\n\nof the highest repute.\n\nBut there is nothing attractive and entertaining in\n\nthis world that the devil and his minions do not seize upon and monopolize,\nif\n\nyou permit them to do so.\n\nThe time was when a young man would almost\nThe lowest elements\n\nlose his reputation to be seen playing a game of billiards.\n\nof society had seized upon this finest of all games of skill, and surrounded it\n\nwith such associations as made it disreputable, not only to enter a billiard\n\nroom, but even to take part in a game in a private house\n\n;\n\nbut today the billiard\n\ntable is as reputable an adjunct of the city home as a grand piano.\n\nThus I\n\nmight enumerate many kinds of sport and many forms of exercise (which\nare not only absolutely harmless in themselves, but, on the other hand,\n\nextremely beneficial) which have been brought under the ban of the critic and\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9i6\n\n[Special\n\nthe church, because of the evil associations which have been made to surround\n\nBut it is true still that, outside of our colleges and schools, the athlete\n\nthem.\n\nis apt to be regarded as a man of inferior standing, and so long as the brute\n\ninstinct\n\nremains in the human nature, just so long will the crowd, at every\n\nopportunity, flock to see dogs and game-cocks and men fight and kill each\nother,\n\nand that sport will continue to be the most fascinating to the lowest\n\nelements of society which has in it the greatest amount of brutality.\n\nMuch wrong has been done by injudicious opposition to many forms of\nharmless sport and exercise by people who ought to have known better.\n\nFrom\n\nthe time of St. Jerome, who declared that the duty of a monk was not to teach,\n\nbut to weep, and who describes himself as ''weak of digestion, his skin squalid,\n\nand his bones as scarcely holding together,\" down to the beginning of the\npresent decade, a vigorous constitution and exuberant health have always\n\nbeen considered inconsistent with \"spiritual sanctity.\" Only three of the\nfamous Greek and Latin Fathers Ambrose, Augustine, and Athanasius\n\n—\n\nwere able-bodied men.\n\n\"But the permanent influence of these three has been\n\nfar greater, for good or for evil, than that of all the others put together.\n\n\"^\n\nStudents of divinity forty years ago were practically excluded by public\nopinion from participation in any form of athletic sports.\n\nThey were forced\n\nto conform their lives, their dress, and their diet almost to the ascetic standard\n\nMiddle Ages. I have a friend, a clergyman, now fourscore years of\nwho in his youth barely escaped expulsion from the Baptist Divinity\nSchool at West Newton, Mass., for participating in the game of ball called\n\nof the\n\nage,\n\nAnother was driven from his pulpit for swimming the Con-\n\n\"rounders.\"\n\nnecticut and pitching quoits;\n\nand the idea is still rife in most communities\n\nthat the minister of the gospel must be not as other men, but make his life\neccentric\n\nby the practice of excessive self-abnegation.\n\nThe most cursory\n\nglance at the history of the church will,, however, establish the fact that almost\nthe great\n\nall\n\nand permanent reUgious movements have been accompHshed\n\nby vigorous and able-bodied \"saints,\" who have been the exception to the\ngeneral rule of health.\n\nI need scarcely allude to the typical scholar or pro-\n\nfessor in the colleges of the last half-century.\nis\n\nHis description, in a word,\n\nthat of great intellectuality, feeble constitution, chronic indigestion,\n\nand\n\npeevish regret that lack of health had prevented the accomphshment of the\n\nmagnificent undertakings he had always proposed to make.\n\nhas capitally said\nhis path is\n\n:\n\nHorace Mann\n\n\"All thru the fife of a pure-minded but feeble-bodied man,\n\nHned with memory's gravestones, which mark the spots where\n\nnoble enterprises perished for lack of physical vigor to embody them in deeds.\"\nAll this is changed ;\n\nand today the preacher or the scholar may adorn the walls\n\nof his study with the trophies of the chase or the prizes won in the athletic\n\ncontests of his college days, with no alarm lest his piety should be thought the\nless sincere because of his manly physique or his vigorous personaHty.\n\nGuhl and Koner, in their Lije of the Greeks and Romans^ mention first\n»\n\nThomas WentworihiJHigginson.\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n7\n\nALL CRIME IS DISEASE\n\nDepartment]\n\n91\n\namong the public buildings of Greece the gymnasiums, because, as they say,\nthey were the center points of Greek life.\n\nHere, as well as in the open air,\n\nwere maintained all kinds of regulated exercise for the purpose of strengthening\nthe body or single limbs.\n\nThese they called \"gymnastics.\" This training\nwas supplemented by \"agonistic\" exercises, comprising those that tended to\nprepare the athletes for the wrestling bouts, which formed an important part\nof the national festivities, particularly the games of Olympia.\nHere assembled, invited by the peace messengers of Zeus, the delegates from empires\nand cities, with crowds of enthusiastic spectators from distant shores. The flower of\nGreek youth came up to test their skill in the noble competition for the crown of Zeus.\nOnly he whose previous training of at least ten months in the Greek gymnasium, and\nwhose untainted character and pure Hellenic descent had been certified, was allowed to\napproach the silver urn which contained the lots.\n\nSterne says:\n\n\"The body and the mind are like the jerkin and its lining;\n\nyou rumple the one, you rumple the other.\" In this bit of wisdom lies\nThe scholar, the preacher, and the business\nthe gist of the whole matter.\n\nif\n\nman, in our rushing metropoHtan life, will speedily break down unless he\nrecognize the fact that the constant drain upon his nerves and the trituration\nof the tissues of his brain must be balanced by regular and judicious exercise.\n\nCharles Kingsley said of the Greeks:\n\n\"Their notion of education was to\n\n—that\n\nharmony and sympathy and\nand so closely upon a par did\nthey place the action of mind and body that their commonplace definition of\nan \"ignoramus\" was \"a man who could neither read nor swim;\" and the\nPersians swung the balance far to the side of bodily care, for, says Herodotus,\n\"from their fifth year to their twentieth the boys were carefully taught three\nthings only to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth.\"\nproduce the highest type of health\n\nis,\n\ngrace in every faculty of mind and body;\"\n\n—\n\nThe fundamental maxim of the new physical training is this: \"Aim not\nto produce a few great athletes, men who can lift vast weights, hurl a ponderous\nhammer, ride a wheel one hundred miles between sunrise and sundown, or\nwin a six-days' foot race, while the multitudes go untaught and untrained;\nbut rather to raise every individual to the highest symmetrical development\nto the maximum of health and physical beauty of which nature has made him\n\nNot quantity, but quahty—grace of form and efficiency\n— the desideratum. Hercules must yield the palm to Apollo.\n\npersonally capable.\"\nof muscle\n\nis\n\nOne of the greatest eulogies, in a single sentence, which I have ever heard\npronounced upon a human being, was that spoken of the late Dr. Marion\n\"That by his discoveries in the methods of surgery and in the treatment\nSims\n:\n\nof disease\n\nhe had added twenty-seven days to the average life of civilized\n\nwoman \"\n\nAnd if out of all the din and fanfare of the present era of athletics,\n\n1\n\nattention to physical training and hygiene shall become universal in all our\n\nsystems of education, thousands and thousands of years in the aggregate, of\nhealth and strength, of comfort and happiness, may be added to the human\nlife\n\nof thelcivilized world.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9i8\n\n[Special\n\nTo my mind, systematic physical training for children between the ages\nand eighteen, followed by regular daily exercise continued in the\nsame lines, produces fully as important results upon the intellect and the\nmorals as upon the bodily development and comfort. Physicians in charge\nof eight\n\nof prisons\n\nand reformatory institutions agree that they seldom find among\n\nthe inmates perfectly developed physical specimens, and that even here the\n\nexception proves the rule, for such individuals can easily be shown to have\n\nbeen subjected to some enormous strain which they had not the mental or\n\nThere is a limit of tension beyond which every bow\nEven in these instances it is an open question whether the failure\n\nmoral power to resist.\nwill break.\n\nof the moral side did not proceed from weakness of the brain directly traceable\nto a lack of suitable training of the muscles or imperfect nutrition of the\ntissues.\n\nThe big, blond-haired, blue-eyed Gauls, glorious specimens of the best\nnorthern type of the day, sneered at the little soldiers, half a foot shorter than\nthemselves, with whom Caesar came to \"subdue their country to the Roman\n\nyoke.\n\nBut Caesar called a soldier a veteran only when he had had fourteen\n\nyears of incessant and laborious service, had been trained by every imaginable\nhardship, and under all skies and in all climates, by most severe and protracted\n\nmarches, bearing heavy weights upon his back, and laden with armor that\n\nwould almost crush a modern soldier on his first day's march.\n\nBut the\n\nderision was turned to alarm when the trained Roman soldiers had well begun\n\nthe siege of some hitherto impregnable city with battering-ram, testudo, and\n\nand the bigger but more untrained Gaul surrendered with alacrity\nand intelligent enemy, invariably expressing his surprise that\nmen of such little stature could build such mighty engines and work them\nwith such telling effect; and there is no doubt that the athletic spirit which\ncharacterized the bodily education of the Romans in the gymnasium and the\nwrestling fields and in military service thru half a dozen generations, produced\na race who were giants in intellect, and certainly far better than their neighbors\na race which only centuries of luxury and neglect of this same\nin morals\ntormentum\n\n;\n\nto his brave\n\n—\n\nphysical training could overthrow.\n\nIn modern times, or perhaps, I should say in the last twenty-five years,\nthe knowledge of\n\nanatomy has become well-nigh\n\nperfect,\n\nand an ahnost\n\nlimitless variety of apparatus has been devised for the training of each muscle\n\nof the body;\n\nand I confidently believe that, if to every schoolhouse in every\n\nland there were added an extension, or a story, giving a single large sunny\n\nroom, into which a judicious variety of the appliances of a well-equipped\n\ngymnasium could be put, and if every child, from the youngest to the oldest,\ncould receive forty minutes of drill by a competent instructor each day, and\nhave that training supplemented by instruction in the important laws of health,\nthe total of crime and the numbers of the criminal classes would, in the\nfollowing generation, be diminished fully one-half.\n\nWhat is the testimony of the athlete who has subjected himself to system-\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nALL CRIME IS DISEASE\n\nDepartment]\n\natic training ?\n\n919\n\nHe must, in the first place, to win his race or to accomplish\n\nthe task before him, conform rigidly to all the rules of health; he must retire\nearly to secure his full quota of sleep; his diet must be regular, simple, and\nplain;\n\nhe must abstain from the use of tobacco and all alcoholic or malt\nhe must,\n\nliquors, and in many instances even from the use of coffee and tea;\n\nand be free from excitement and\nfrom unnecessary diversion of attention from the object of his pursuit; he\nmust reaHze that cleanHness is next to godhness; and he must be persistent\nin short, avoid every unnatural stimulant,\n\nand industrious in the practice of the special exercises which he has in hand.\nSurely such a training conduces to the best possible morals.\n\nTo develop\n\nstrong arms and chest and legs is the surest way also to produce a clear and\n\npowerful brain.\n\nIn other words, the best forms of physical training must\n\nneeds bring a powerful contribution to the moral and intellectual well-being\nof the subject.\n\nWhat the effect upon the whole community\n\n—men, women, and children\n\nwould be, if in this way they could all come to reverence the laws of health,\nand see that the highest mental accomplishment were attainable only with\nperfectly healthy bodies and well-trained muscles, it is impossible, almost,\nThe testimony of professors and physicians in the universities\nto conceive.\nall over the world estabHshed the fact that hand in hand with the diffusion\nof the athletic spirit goes an improvement in the morals of the students, and\nthat, in\n\na large majority of instances, the men who are most successful in\n\nathletic sports excel also in\n\nmental attainments.\n\nAbuses,\n\nit\n\nis\n\ntrue,\n\nhave\n\ninvariably crept into all great movements for the intellectual, moral, and even\nspiritual\n\ndevelopment of the\n\ninterest in physical\n\nhuman race, and this new and far-reaching\n\ndevelopment in the universities of Europe and America\n\nmay lead to an excess of training in individual cases.\n\nThe chief source of\n\ndanger in this direction consists in the offering of prizes for athletic contests\n\nwhich are intrinsically too valuable, and in the establishment of competitions\n\n—\n\nbetween rival universities which are too fiercely partisan hke the hard-fought\nmatches of football and lacrosse, or the annual boat races between Oxford\n\nand Cambridge, or Harvard and Yale.\n\nThe hero of the olden times who\n\nbore home the simple garland won upon the Olympian plain was far prouder\nof the honor, and deemed himself far better repaid for his four years of training,\n\nthan many a modern athlete bedecked with medals of silver and gold.\nfor honor alone he wrought\n\nIt was\n\n—the highest need of praise.\n\nWhat do I ask you to infer, therefore, from this brief presentation of the\nvalue of athletic training to the morals of men and women?\n\nSimply that\n\nwrong doing and wrong thinking in almost all instances have their basis in\ndisease of one form or another, whether original or inherited.\nJust as the\nmost intelligent breeding and training of the horse thru many generations will\nproduce an animal perfect in disposition as well as in physical attainments,\nso it is certain that, could the propagation of the human race be maintained\nfor several generations\n\nunder arbitrary selection and perfect conditions, the\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nNATIONAL kDVCATtONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n920\n\ntSpedal\n\ndisposition of the subject would be so attuned to right thinking and moral\n\nconduct that crime would become unknown, and the \"right\" would appear\nthe better choice to every human being.\nI hail then with enthusiasm the athletic spirit of the present time,\n\nand\n\nI prophesy that before many years our American young men and women will\n\nshow a robustness and vigor of constitution, and a familiarity with the best\nforms of physical exercise, both for the. training of the muscles and the maintenance of health, unparalleled since the days of Plato the mighty wrestler,\nSocrates the invincible soldier, and the magnificently trained boys and girls\nof the Dorians, in ancient Greece.\n\nThe man oj the future is to be a man oj action, and he must have big lungs,\nbrawny muscles, and a constitution of iron. Already the pessimist is asking:\n\n\"Where today are the counterparts of the great statesmen, orators, poets,\nand painters who have in past days studded the sky of history with the jewels\nMy reply is: \"They are here; but this busy age of\nof their intellect?\"\nevolution has claimed them for other work; they are factors of a new and\nhigher civilization, and art, for the nonce, must yield to utility.\"\nYour Chathams, your Harry Vanes, and your Websters of this age are\nmanaging colossal railroad systems which stretch their lines of steel thousands\nof miles into the wilderness, and demand the best energies of fifty thousand\nmen.\nThe GaHleos, the Newtons, and the Frankhns have chained the lightning\nand are illuminating the world with its majestic energy. The Shakespeares\nand the Miltons, the Raphaels and the Rembrandts, are standing today at\nthe bar of nations, pleading causes whose decisions make the world to tremble;\nor wielding, thru the pages of marvelous newspapers and magazines, a pen\nmightier than the sword of Alexander or Joshua\n\n;\n\nor wearing the bishop's robe\n\nand miter, and exerting a sway potent unto the uttermost parts of a great\nland not as thru the enforced and narrow tenets of former days, but by the\n\n—\n\nsubtle, golden influence of a broad Christianity.\n\nDo we wish to have our land pure in morals, and foremost in letters and\nscience, our citizens law-abiding and progressive, our young men and maidens\n\nmodels of beauty, intelHgence, and purity ?\n\nThen remember that the founda-\n\ntion of all these good things lies in securing for the children of our nation healthy\n\nand well-trained bodies.\nBe thoUy therefore, strong, and show thyself a man\n\nDISCUSSION\nDr. E. G. Brown, medical examiner, public schools. New York city.\n\n—After being\n\nasked to speak upon the topic, \"All Crime is Disease,\" when thinking of the relationship\nbetween crime and disease, I found myself continually asking the question: Is it that\n\"all crime is disease\" or that \" all disease is crime\" ?\n\nIt is certainly so that much disease\n\nthe result of wrong-doing (crime) or of ignorance;\n\nand in these days there is no excuse\n\nis\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nALL CRIME tS DtSMASM\n\nDepartment]\n\nfor ignorance of the laws of health.\n\nconsidered.\n\nway.\n\nis\n\nSuch ignorance is sinful; criminal,\n\nSo, in thinking the matter over, I felt that\n\n\"all disease is crime.\"\n\npSi\n\nit\n\nshould be\n\nit\n\nshould rather be said that\n\nAnd now from the platform I hear the topic announced in this\n\nOn the other hand, there is no doubt that much crime is due to disease —that it\n\na symptom of disease, both in adults and in children.\n\nis itself\n\nBut that disease causing crime\n\nfrequently the result of crime (or what should at least be considered criminal\n\nSo, however we look at it, if we study the subject carefully,\nwe must recognize the intimate relationship between physical condition and mental abiUty\n\nignorance) is none the less true.\n\nor character.\n\nIn the study of crime among adults, we plainly see that at least much crime is due to\ndisease.\n\nWe also see that much disease is due to crime. How much more is this latter\n\nfact true of children\n\n!\n\nYes, in the study of children we find that most wrong-doing (what\n\nin an adult might be considered crime) is due to disease.\nis supposed to be under the guidance,\n\nHe\nAnd it is the fault\ngrowing to be true, strong men\nIt is not the child's fault.\n\ntraining, or education of adults.\n\nof adults if children are not healthy, strong,\n\nand good\n\n—\n\nand women.\nThis subject (the relationship between physical condition and mental\ncharacter) has especially interested me for some years.\n\nability or\n\nThe New York city public schools\n\nrecognize the fact that character, as well as the acquirement of knowledge, should be one\nof the aims of education, and that not simply the average child, but that each child, has\n\na right to an education, and that there is a close relationship between mental ability or\n\nTherefore the New York city public schools are\nworking for the atypical child as well as for normal children. It is my privilege to be\nBoth in public-school work, and in private work I am more\nassociated with the work.\ncharacter and physical condition.\n\nand more impressed with the important relationship between physical condition and\nmental ability and character, and that something definite can be done in the way of character formation and mental development by physical training, or treatment of diseased\nconditions.\nFirst let me speak of the importance of preventive treatment.\n\nWe as teachers can\n\ndo much to educate both adults and children to live so that children still to come may\nhave that heritage of health and strength, both physical and mental, which is the most\nsure preventive of future crime, and which is the right of every child.\nIf young men would fill themselves with high ideals of the value of health and sense\nand true womanhood, then young women with weak bent backs (called \"straight fronts\"),\nmisplaced vital organs, awkward gait, frivolous ways, and lack of mental and physical\nhealth, would mend their ways, or at least not frequently be chosen to become wives\n\nand\n\nAnd young men having real high ideals for womanhood must themselves be worthy. How often may be seen families of delicate children,\nchums\nI know two young men\nthe offspring of weak and worse than silly parents!\none of whom said he would never fall in love with weakness. The other laughed at this.\nThe first was told he would some day fall in love with and marry some young woman\nwithout regard to his \"fussy ideals;\" he would fall in love with the first young woman\nwho pleased him. His reply was that none would please him who had not health, strength,\nand truth. Both these young men moved much in society, ^oth are now married.\nOne has a weak child. One has two happy, healthy little ones. This lesson may be\npossible mothers of\n\nweak children.\n\n—\n\nseen illustrated again and again in real life.\n\nLet us have healthy, strong, and high ideals,\n\nand let us teach them, that weakness, disease, and crime may be as much as possible\nprevented.\n\nAnd now I have already struck my second point\n\n—the\n\npossibility of inspiring youth\n\nThis is mental treatment.\nThird, let me point out the importance of physical activity of all kinds in the forma-\n\nwith high ideals.\n\ntion of character.\n\nA boy, for instance, cannot play good, clean basket-ball without\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n922\n\nbecoming quick, strong, and honest.\n\n[Special\n\nA boy is debarred from school because he is sup-\n\nAs he has no other outlet for his energy, he is learning all\nmanner of wicked tricks, and is undoubtedly growing to be a criminal, owing to his\nphysical weakness.\nHow often do we as teachers realize that we can inspire the adolescent boy with higher ideals, if we will exert ourselves to do so ? When we cut fun out\nof a boy's Hfe, we lose influence with that boy.\nI once knew a boy who wanted to have\nas good a time in Hfe as he could.\nThe jolliest set was the set he chose for his companions.\nBy and by he reaHzed that these boys were a trifle \"off color,\" as the expression is. His\nmother had done everything in her power to persuade him to drop these companions,\nbut to no avail. This boy finally went away to a camp, and there led a different life entirely.\nOne young man, whom he had been looking up to for a long time, talked to him on the\nIndians and their ideal physical life. He went home from camp filled with the idea\nof being strong, healthy, and athletic.\nLet us then inspire our boys and girls with high\nideals, and they will undoubtedly have great influence on their health and character.\nCharacter is very strongly influenced by physical activities. If you tell a boy to sit\nstill and be good, it is almost impossible for him.\nIf we tell him, rather, to do what is\ngood, it is much easier for him. I certainly do believe that character is formed by\nposed to be feeble-minded.\n\nphysical activity.\n\nChildren who could not keep up with their grades in the New York schools were sent\nto me for examination,\n\nand invariably I noticed that their physical condition was very\n\npoor.\n\nLet us remember that much crime, dueto disease, can be prevented.\nber that youth can be inspired with high ideals, to\n\nremember\n\nlive\n\nthat as the youth lives, as he does, so he will\n\nstrong,\n\nnoble\n\nbecome.\n\nLet us rememlives.\n\nLet us\n\nPhysical activities\n\nhave a most important influence upon mental qualities and character.\n\nBe thou, therefore, strong, and show thyself a man. And remember that the greatest\nman is he who works to inspire and train the young to strong, true womanhood and\nmanhood.\nA.\n\nJ.\n\nWinnie, principal, Jefferson School, Racine, Wis.\n\ncussion is \"All Disease is Crime.\"\n\n—The subject under\n\ndis-\n\nTo my mind, the subject admits of two interpretations,\n\neither that it is a crime to be in poor health, or diseased, or that disease is the basis of all\n\nThe subject has been treated from the latter standpoint, and in this -I am somewhat disappointed; for I do not believe that the writer of the paper has demonstrated,\nnor do I believe that anyone can demonstrate, that crin>e is a result of disease; nor do\nI believe that it has been shown that a healthy, well-developed body is in any sense\nWhile I am willing to admit that there is an\nindicative of a strong moral character.\nintimate relation between a strong, healthy body and a strong intellect, I do not believe\ncrime.\n\nthat a strong intellect is necessarily indicative of moraHty.\n\nThe paper seems to have confused moral\n\nattainments with mental attainments,\n\nwhen the attempt is made to prove that \"the highest mental accompHshment is attainable\nonly with perfectly healthy bodies and well-trained muscles.\" All must admit that the\ngreater the intellect a man has, the greater a power he is for good or for evil.\n\nA grafter\n\ntoday, to accomplish his nefarious business, must be possessed of a keen intellect.\n\nThe man of biblical history whose dying words have been quoted, \"who was ruddy\nand withal of a beautiful countenance and goodly to look to,\" and who overcame the\nmighty chieftain of the enemy, Goliath, did not reach that perfection in moraHty that\nhe attained in physical health.\n\nMoreover, he committed the greatest of crimes, murder.\n\nHistory shows that, while Rome excelled in arms, and was noted for her gymnasia\n\nand baths, she did not excel in moraHty, but was dominated by the lower animal appetite\nand passions, which eventually led to her downfall. The name of Nero stands out as a\nsymbol of all that is low and base in mankind.\nI believe that, as the body becomes developed and the whole physical system is working harmoniously, the lower and baser animal nature becomes more active and strives\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "ALL CRIME IS DISEASE\n\nDepartment]\n\nmore vigorously for the ascendency.\n\n923\n\nFrom whatever sources I have been able to secure\n\ninformation I have been unable to find it to be the rule that the leaders in athletic sports\nin our schools have been the leaders in intellect, not to mention the morals.\n\nBesides, it is a well-known fact that a great amount of proselyting is carried on among\n\neducational institutions, in bringing students from one school to another for their excellence in athletics, when very frequently their scholarship is below grade.\n\nI\n\nam informed?\n\nwhen the boys \"break training,\" as it is called, at the close of a season, in a\ngreat many cases their actions fail to show a great degree of moral upUft.\nThe paper admits that the moral and religious classes of the past were of poor health\nand of feeble constitution. If disease begets crime, how are we to account for this\nalso, that\n\nmoraUty?\n\nSt.\n\nPaul, one of the greatest characters of the New Testament, confesses to\n\na thorn in the flesh.\n\nThe fact that statistics show a large percentage of the inmates of our reformatory\ninstitutions to be diseased in some form or another does not prove that their disposition\nto crime is a result of their disease,\n\nany more than it proves that both their disease and\n\ntheir crime are a result of environment and heredity.\nI\n\nbeHeve that education in all its phases, and proper environment, is the cure for\n\ncrime.\n\nEdward D. Mansfield says: \"The general fact is apparent that education is a\n\nforce restraining vice and crime, a moral power over the appetites and passions of men.\"\n\nIn the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1898-99 some very interesting letters\n\nand statistics are given to prove that education dispels crime.\nDisease is defined by Webster as \"a state of the body disturbing the performance of\nthe vital functions,\" and crime as \"a violation of law divine or human.\"\nThe greatest of all lawbooks tells us \"To him that knoweth to do good and doeth\nit\n\nnot, to him it is sin.\"\n\nWe should safeguard the health of our bodies as much as the\n\nhealth of the mind and soul;\n\nif\n\nnot, we violate the law of health,\n\nas it effects posterity, man's law.\n\nGod's law, and, so far\nBut this crime\n\nDisease may then be called a crime.\n\nmay not always rest at the door of the diseased, and often to find the offender it may\nbe necessary to go back two or three generations; for, \"I the Lord thy God am a jealous\nGod, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth\ngenerations of them that hate me.\"\n\nA great amount of study and discussion has been carried on in recent years over\nheredity,\n\nand many interesting facts have been produced.\n\nBut just how much must be\n\ncharged to environment, and how much to heredity, has not been determined.\nIf we unwittingly violate one of the statutes of the state, we are not held guiltless\nbecause of our ignorance of the law.\n\nSo we suffer, and oiir posterity, for our ignorance\n\nof the laws of health.\n\nwould therefore plead as earnestly as does the writer of the paper for observance\nand believe with him that physical culture is to be the agent in\nproducing a stronger and healthier people in the generations to come, when all shall be\nstudents of the rules of health, and shall come to realize the fact that disease, inherited\nI\n\nof the laws of health,\n\nor acquired, is somebody's crime.\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S MINUTES\nFIRST SESSION.—Monday, July 3, 1905\nThe opening meeting of the Department of Indian Education was called to order\nin the Asbury Park Auditorium, on Monday, July 3, at 9:30 A. m., by the vice-president,\n\nR. A. Cochran, superintendent of the Mount Pleasant Indian School, Michigan.\n\nThe Carlisle Indian School band furnished the music.\nGreetings and resume of work from officials and friends were given by Rev. A. E.\n\nOcean Grove Camp-Meeting Association, New Jersey;\nHon. T. Frank Appleby, president of the General Committee of the Local Organization; Hon. John J. Fitzgerald, member of the Committee of Indian Affairs, United\nStates House of Representatives; Hon. Charles J. Baxter, state superintendent of public\ninstruction of New Jersey; Hon. John D. Benedict, superintendent of schools in Indian\nTerritory; Miss Mary R. Campbell, graduate student in philosophy, Johns Hopkins\nUniversity, Baltimore, Md.; Miss Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian Schools.\nA telegram was read from the president of the department. Major William A. Mercer,\nBallard, vice-president of the\n\nSeventh United States Cavalry, superintendent of the Carlisle Indian School, regretting\nhis inability to be present.\n\nSECOND SESSION.—Monday, July 3\nThe Department was called to order in the Asbury Park Auditorium, at 2 30 P. M.,\nby Superintendent R. A. Cochran, the vice-president.\nAn address on \"The Advisability of Conducting Normal Schools to Train Teachers\nfor the Specific Purpose of Instructing Indian Children,\" was given by John D. Benedict,\n:\n\nsuperintendent of schools in Indian Territory.\n\n•\n\nMiss Natalie Curtis, New York city, then presented a paper on \"Music of the\nAmerican Indian.\"\n\"Ethnological Study of Our Indians in the Southwest\" was the topic of a paper by\nMiss Mabelle Biggart.\nThe next paper, \"Indian Characteristics,\" was presented by Miss Mary C. Judd,\nMinneapolis, Minn.\nTHIRD SESSION.—Tuesday, July 4\n\nThe department met in the Asbury Park Auditorium at 8:30 p. m.\nA paper on \"Work of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of\nAgriculture, in\n\nits\n\nRelation to Agricultural Instruction in Indian Schools\" (illustrated\n\nby stereoptican views), was presented by Miss Susan B. Sipe, Normal School, Washington,\nD. C.\nA reception to Indian school-teachers and workers was held in the parlors of the\nAuditorium.\n\nFOURTH SESSION.—Thursday, July 6\nThe department was called to order in the Auditorium, at 2:30 p. m., by Superintendent R. A. Cochran, the vice-president.\n\n\"Indian Education and Methods of Instruction,\" was the topic presented by Mrs.\nAmelia S. Quinton, president of the National Indian Association, New York city.\n925\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n926\n\n[Indian\n\nThe following resolutions were adopted:\nThat we hereby tender our thanks to the president for persuading Hon.\nLeupp to accept the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and that we\n\nResolved,\n\nFrancis E.\n\nfeel under his able guidance a great step forward will be taken in advancing the cause\nof the Indian.\nResolved, That -we hereby tender to the Secretary of the Interior our sincere thanks\nfor the cordial support he has given us in our efforts in behalf of the Indian children;\nand that we are in hearty sympathy with the reforms the Commissioner of Indian Affairs\nis introducing in the Indian school service.\ncommend the good work done by the\nSuperintendent of Indian Schools, and extend our thanks for the helpful suggestions\ntending to better the Indian.\nthank the vice-president of the department, Mr. R. A.\nCochran, for the able and impartial manner in which he has presided over our meetings.\nResolved, That we commend the care exercised and the efforts put forth by the Civil\nService Commission to keep up the standard of efficiency in the Indian field service.\nResolved, That our thanks are due, and tendered hereby, to the ofl&cials and people\nof Asbury Park and Ocean Grove for the cordial welcome extended to us, and the many\ncourtesies we have received from them.\nalso sincerely thank the local press for its\nreports of our proceedings and helpful notices, and the CarUsle Indian School band for\nsupplying the music.\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nWe\n\nThe Department then adjourned.\nEsTELLE Reel, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nGREETINGS AND R^SUM^ OF WORK FROM OFFICIALS AND\nFRIENDS\nHON. JOHN\n\nI\n\nJ.\n\nFITZGERALD, MEMBER OF COMMITTEE ON INDIAN AFFAIRS,\nUNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES\n\nam here today to indicate my sympathy with you in your work.\n\nI\n\nwords of encouragement, and to assure you that there is a\nstrong bond of interest between»all who participate in the work of the Indian\ndesire to speak\n\nYours is by no means an easy task. Carping critics readily\nand never suggest improvement in the service of which ,you are\n\ncivilization.\n\nfind fault\n\nTheir criticisms are often the result of ignorance, some-\n\nimportant factors.\ntimes of prejudice\n\n—frequently\n\nof both, combined with an exaggerated valua-\n\ntion of their own ideas.\n\nDuring the past six years, as a member of the Committee on Indian Affairs\nin the House of Representatives, I have given considerable attention to many\n\nAt various times I have endeavored to point out\nwhat in my opinion were the errors into which those charged with the duty of\ndevising methods to civilize the brown race had fallen.\nAfter considerable\ninvestigation and study, I became firmly convinced that the most essential,\nthe most imperative, need of the Indian service was to devise some scheme\nby which the Indian upon the reservation would be compelled to give up his\nlife of laziness and to take up useful tasks.\nDuring the past few years marked improvement has been noted in the\nmethods followed in the Indian schools, and I desire to congratulate you for\nphases of the Indian work.\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREETINGS AND RESUME OF WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\nthe success that now attends your efforts.\nbest.\n\n927\n\nThe hfe of a teacher is hard at\n\nTo succeed in the profession, besides the usually admitted qualifica-\n\nmust have the pecuHar talent for imparting knowledge\nReally good teachers often succeed in\ntheir work in spite of bad system and improper methods, but when they do\nit, it is only by the greatest sacrifices of time and of health.\nWith advanced,\nor I might say up-to-date, methods the work of the teacher is much simplified,\ntions, the teacher\n\nwhich can hardly be overestimated.\n\nand the successes to be obtained are more numerous and much greater.\n\nTo\n\nfollow out a proper system makes the teacher's work a pleasure, the scholar's\n\nwork a profit.\n\nmethods in the Indian schools are\nperfect, but I do know that they have been immensely improved in recent\nyears,\n\nI shall not say that the\n\nand with the same energetic, systematic, sympathetic, and intelligent\n\nsupervision they will continue to improve.\n\nThe object of all the efforts of\n\nany government in this field is to make good American citizens of those placed\nunder your charge.\n\nSometimes it is thought that all of the Indian traits\nI am of those who believe that the good\n\nshould be completely eliminated.\n\nin the Indian character should be developed\n\nand cultivated, and the bad\n\neliminated.\n\nHON. CHARLES J. BAXTER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION\nFOR NEW JERSEY, TRENTON, N. J.\n\nWe who have charge of the systems of education which have been long\nestabHshed are learning of you, and because of the influence of your example\nare endeavoring to make them more rational and better adapted to the needs\nof the masses.\n\nOur courses of study have been gradually extended on aca-\n\ndemic lines, and not until recent years have we discovered that such develop-\n\nment is not the best. A system of education that is adapted to the present\nmore humane, practical, strenuous, and enlightened age must take into consideration our many-sided existence and provide for the harmonious development of all the faculties, with a view to effective service and right living.\nEthical, aesthetic, intellectual, and practical training and instruction should\ngo hand in hand.\nEducation that is purely academic leads away from and creates an aversion\nto the duties of practical life.\n\nWe cannot hope to keep the pupil in sympathetic\n\ntouch with his environment, and continue to force upon his attention only\nthe unfamiHar things which lead him in thought and purpose away from it.\n\nWhen the school days of the youth thus trained are ended, his thought, interest,\nand energy must be redirected, and a new and usually distasteful education\nbegins.\nLife is so short and human energy so valuable that there should be\nno steps to be retraced or mistakes to be corrected.\nThe most unfortunate heresy ever entertained is that scholarship is, or\never was intended, to be a means of escape from an adequate share of fife's\nduties, or that it alone will ever enable anyone to earn a more leisurely or\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n928\n\nluxurious subsistence.\n\n[Indian\n\nThe child, whether red, white, or black, should not\n\nonly acquire in the school habits of industry, but should also learn that all\nuseful labor\n\nis\n\nhonorable, be taught to respect\n\nall\n\nworthy laborers, and\n\nimpressed with the fact that success can be achieved only thru the personal\neffort\n\nwhich culminates in\n\nresults.\n\nIf thus trained,\n\nhe will rejoice in the\n\nwork which his hands find to do, and in grateful content fill the niche in\nUfe to which his powers, native and acquired, relentlessly assign him.\nOnly\nthose who go out from the school with a purpose to be all they can, to do the\nbest they can, and ever courageously to meet the duty which comes next, will\n\nwin large\n\nsuccess.\n\nTo insure the healthful, symmetrical, and permanent\n\ndevelopment of the class, of a commonwealth, or of a nation, it is necessary\nthat educational and industrial development go hand in hand.\n\nYou teachers of the nation's wards placed industrial education on an\neven footing with academic at the inception of your work, and we of the older\nstates are just beginning to appreciate its importance.\n\nThe addition of\n\nmanual training to the course of study usually pursued in our public schools\nwas a good long step forward, and both its practical and its educational value\nhave been conclusively demonstrated.\n\nWe have learned that, without impair-\n\ning in any degree their academic efficiency, we can establish most valuable\nrelations between our schools and oUr varied industrial interests.\n\nThis dis-\n\ncovery, taken in connection with the fact that our courses of study were already\n\ncrowded, is regarded by many as little less than a revelation.\n\nExperience\n\nhas also proved that this broadening of the school curriculum, with the facilities it has provided for the alternation of study,\n\nful\n\nmuscular\n\nactivity,\n\nand agreeable and purpose-\n\nhas stimulated greater interest in school work and\n\nresulted in an improvement in discipline.\n\nThe different forms of wood- and\n\niron-work taught in our manual-training schools constitute a valuable correlation with many of our manufacturing industries, and the several branches\nof domestic science\n\nmake a most interesting and important connecting link\n\nbetween the home and the school, and, in many instances, have resulted in\n\nimproved home conditions.\n\nThe soil is the chief source of the world's support and the basis of its\nThe product of the mines of our western El Dorados is insignificant\nin value when compared with the wealth locked up in their soil and awaiting\nthe magic touch of industry. Tho much of our national area is uncultivated,\nand much is unskillfuUy cultivated, it is estimated that the agricultural prodwealth.\n\nucts of the United States during the past two years exceed in value the total\n\noutput of the gold mines of the world since the discovery of America.\n\nNot-\n\nwithstanding the magnitude and importance of our agricultural interests and\nthe great possibiUties which they offer, the oldest, most necessary and inde-\n\npendent of occupations, mainly as a result of our faulty education, holds an\ninferior place in the public estimate, and the drift of population is toward the\n\nalready congested cities, and the trend of enterprise is toward other occupations which are not more important.\n\nThis can and should be counteracted\nby the school, thru the agency of the school garden.\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "GREETINGS AND RESUM3 OF WORK\n\nDepartment]\n\n9^9\n\nThe cultivation of fruits and vegetables about the school will not only\nbeautify its surroundings and afford admirable facilities for nature study, but\nalso awaken an interest in rural occupations, and will create a love for rural life.\n\nA few of our districts have established school gardens, and results have\nproved most satisfactory.\n\nThe assignment of individual plots has stimu-\n\nlated independent thought, pride of ownership,\ninitiative.\n\nand resulted in individual\n\nThe interest aroused has been such that the plot at school is\n\nfrequently duplicated at home.\nI am well aware that you who are engaged in teaching our Indian youth\n\nare utilizing every practical industrial agency,\n\nand believe that nothing will\n\nprove more effective in your work than the cultivation of the school garden*\nIt is collaboration with nature, and thus most in harmony with their natures,\nand culminates most quickly in results that minister to their necessities. The\nindividual plot will prove an important factor in preparing them for the\n\nadvantages offered thru the provisions of the land-in-severalty bill.\n\nOnly those who cultivate their allotments of land instead of leasing them\nWinning a\nsubsistence from the soil creates a sense of dependence upon it, stimulates\nlove of locality, and results in home-making, along with its anchoring influ-\n\nto others will reap substantial benefit from the said enactment.\n\nences of home interests, home comforts, home attachments, and home pride.\n\nThis is a consumation devoutly to be wished and earnestly sought, and the\n\nand cHmate conditions should always be such as to make its attainment\n\nsoil\n\npracticable.\n\nwisdom\n\nThru your efforts our red brother is beginning to reaUze the\n\"In the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat\n\nof the divine decree,\n\nbread;\" to experience the upHft and independence of industry; and to learn\nthat charity ennobles only those who give.\n\nMISS MARY R. CAMPBELL, GRADUATE STUDENT IN PHILOSOPHY, JOHNS HOPKINS\n\nUNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD.\n\nA bird's-eye view of the various aspects of \"Indian education\" as it is\ntoday, compared with our memories of it as it was a decade since, causes us to\nbelieve that the problem of educating the red man has been practically solved.\n\nThat is to say, we see the end in view, the why and wherefore; but there are\nsome missing factors that belong to the \"how\" phase of the problem.\nPossibly one of the most difficult phases of the question is how not to\ndivorce the parents and children; how not to make, by reason of superior\neducation, the gap between the Indian parent and the Indian child greater\n\nstill\n\nthan necessity compells us.\n\nOne of the strongest of human characteristics is our great desire to have\nother people do as we do, to act like us; and one of the aims of Indian education, the same as our work in special education, is to train the socially unfit to\n\nbe like us.\n\nWe attempt to reform, to revolutionize, and to modify the lives\n\nand conduct of others according to our mode\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n930\n\n[Indian\n\nI have always felt that the philosophy of the cannibal in disposing of the\n\nHe wastes no time in argument. He sumand neatly disposes of the whole situation by eating\nthe missionary.\nHe and his do not wish to learn the ways of the missionary.\nWhy take time in undoing that which his tradition and religious feeling forbid ?\nThere are not enough\nIt is the most economic adjustment to be made.\nand one\nmissionaries to offset the traditions of the tribe and to revolutionize it\nindividual cannot revolutionize the community, therefore the individual is\nmissionary\n\nis\n\ncommendable.\n\nmarily, expeditiously,\n\n;\n\nsacrificed.\n\nIn some such way the Indian formerly dealt with his officious\n\nwhite brothers who spoiled the evenness and serenity of his existence.\n\nToday, from the Indian's point of view, there is a struggle for existence,\nnot merely as a man, but as an Indian.\n\nThe Indian has his religious feelings\n\nand moral code, some of which have come to him thru the ages\n\n;\n\nand he is so\n\nimpregnated with traditions of his tribal religions that it is not moral for us\nto disturb or to try to convert his customs,\n\nmany of which are a part of his\n\nreligious code.\n\nAfter the young Indian child is sent to school by the government, he is\n\nmade to live a double life; his education develops in him a double personality.\nHe has his life at school and his life with his parents. The Indian child is\ntrained out of much that is \"uncivilized;\" but in so doing we widen the gap\nbetween the parent and child, so that, when eventually the child goes back\nand parents, either he becomes wholly dissatisfied with\nand so can be no great benefit to this Indian community, or he\nnecessarily degenerates somewhat\na condition of affairs which is characteristic of our white college men and women who came from rural communities\nChildren are educated away from their homes; the\nor limtied environment.\nfamily spirit, the family life, so essential to the commonwealth, is destroyed.\nThe success of a family lies in its being as nearly a perfect community as\npossible.\nDestroy the family life, and disintegration of the community is\ninevitable.\nThe obvious need of the Indian, like that of the white man, is\nto be taught how to preserve and maintain the ideal family life.\nIn the education of the Indian he must be trained to see the necessity of\nTo do this, he must first\nhis contributing his share to the commonwealth.\nbe trained to be an integral part of the commonwealth unit. In order to\naccomplish this, the educators of the Indian must help him thru his period\nof transition while he is developing different standards of living, by working\nwith the family. To help solve his social and moral problem, the settlementand neighborhood-house plan of developing the Indian community offers\npeculiar advantages both to the student of ethnology and to the student of\nsociology.\nSuch a plan, developed under the auspices of universities and\ncolleges as research work, is one way of contributing to the general knowledge\nof the Indian so that he may not be handled as an aHen.\nAnother plan to assist students who wish to take up Indian education as\na vocation is to use the present Indian reservation schools as pedagogical and\nto his Indian life\nhis family,\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "^\n\nDepartment]\n\nGREETINGS AND RESUME OF WORK\n\n93\n\nand practice schools.\nWith such a plan in operation, the Indian schools would then become a part\nof the state pubHc instruction system, and under the supervision and control\nof the state superintendents of pubhc instruction.\nAnother -idea concerning the advancement of Indian education is to permit the teachers of Indians to have every third year for rest and study, with\nethnological laboratories, or as auxiliary laboratories\n\nsalary.\n\nIn our department of special education we are endeavoring to bring to\npass\n\nhigher\n\nideals.\n\nFrom your department we have\n\nlearned\n\nmuch.\n\nCo-operation in all fields of work is the method of advancement.\n\nMISS ESTELLE REEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF INDIAN SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C.\nI wish to invite your thoughtful attention to\n\nsome of the policies which\n\nhave been outhned by the new Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Hon. Francis\nE. Leupp, of whom one prominent newspaper says:\n\n\"No commissioner has\n\nand another says: \"The\nnew Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Francis E. Leupp, has been long regarded,\nby all who take interest in the subject, as the highest authority on all matters\nrelating to the present-day descendants of aboriginal Americans.\"\nFor\ntwenty years Mr. Leupp's vacations from arduous journalistic work have\nbeen given to the study of Indian affairs. Most of his summers have been\nspent in visiting the Indian reservations, and their welfare has seldom been\nout of his thoughts in the whole period. Since he assumed official responsiever come to the Indian Office so well equipped;\"\n\nbility for the Indians last January, he has been rapidly putting into effect the\n\nreforms his great experience and fine judgment showed to be immediately\n\nWe want to thank the president for persuading\nMr. Leupp to accept the direction of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and should\n\nnecessary for their betterment.\n\ncongratulate ourselves that\n\nwe have a commissioner who understands and\n\nfeels strongly on the subject of Indian education,\n\nand is anxious to have the\n\nbest and most practical methods used in the schools, from the. kindergarten\n\nup, in training the Indian children to lead useful and industrious lives.\n\nHe wishes the schools to preserve and develop along the right lines the\nbest of the children's inherited traits and attributes, and not attempt to make\n\nthe Indian over and transform him into a white man, with the idea that this\nis\n\nnecessary in order to bring him into harmony with the established order.\n\nHe wishes us to preserve their natural fihal affection, and to guide and direct\nit\n\nwisely and tactfully to the development of proper ambition and a strong\n\nsense of individual responsibility.\n\nThe seeds of self-reliance and self-respect must be judiciously sown, and\nthe children must be taught that the attaining of an independent position in\nlife,\n\nsustained\n\nby the ability to make themselves self-supporting, must be\n\nthe goal toward which all their efforts in school shall attend.\n\nWe all reahze\n\nthat the first and most important step in the training of the young Indian is\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n932\n\n[Indian\n\nhim to speak English. This is the corner-stone in his education.\nBut in teaching him Enghsh which he must learn the commissioner urges\nus to see that no child shall be forced to drop or forget the language of his\nancestors.\nThe child's natural love for his mother-tongue must be respected,\neven while making him recognize the absolute necessity of learning to speak,\nread, and write English as the essential basis of his school training.\nThe\ncommissioner, from his twenty years' experience, knows that it is not well\nto teach\n\n—\n\nto\n\n—\n\nhedge the Indian about with too many or unnecessary restrictions.\n\nHe\n\nbelieves that such reasonable regulations as to their hair-cutting and clothing\n\nas\n\nmay be necessary to preserve proper uniformity in the schools are well\n\nenough; but when a boy leaves, he must not be punished because he exercises his own taste as to the costume he shall wear thereafter; for, as the com-\n\nmissioner so wisely puts it, look at the illustration of the tadpole, whose tail\n\nwe do not chop off; nature arranges that, so that the tail drops off of itself\nwhen the legs are strong enough to enable the frog to hop, and it leaves the\nwater to hve in the air for the most part.\n\nSo the Indian will voluntarily\n\ndrop his racial oddities as he becomes more thoroly imbued with our civilization and breathes our atmosphere as a habit.\n\nThis illustration is strikingly applicable to the condition of the Indian\nin his undeveloped state, and the necessity of using natural and logical methods\nin bringing him to the highest fruition of his power.\n\nThe commissioner states\n\nas follows:\nI wish all that is artistic and original in an Indian child brought out\n\n—not smothered.\n\nInstead of sweeping aside the child's desire to draw the designs familiar to it in Indian\nart, and giving it American flags and shields and stars to copy, the child should be encour-\n\naged to do original, or perhaps I should say aboriginal, work if it shows any impulse thereto.\n\nIn outlining directions for us to follow he says:\nI\n\nam now arranging to bring into the schools a novel element in music — namely,\n\nitself, for the bands and for singing.\nWe are in\ndanger of losing themes and motifs of great artistic value, because of a stupid notion that\n\nthe preservation of the Indian music\n\neverything Indian is a degradation and must be crushed out.\n\nWe might as well crush\n\nout the finest art of ancient Greece and Rome because it was associated with the worship\nof the Olympian deities, or the Egyptian music which Verdi helped revive because it was\n\nassociated with the Pharaoh who played tricks on Moses.\n\nLet me assure all the Indian teachers and workers that the commissioner,\n\nwhose whole heart is in the work of educating and developing the Indian\nnot against it, but along the lines of his natural impulses\n\n—desires us\n\nto preserve\n\nand bring out all that is best in him, and guide and direct his hereditary\ninstincts of personal pride and racial patriotism, utiHzing these in inculcating\nself-reliance and self-respect, which will best second our efforts to mold him\nWe must all\ninto a useful, self-supporting member of our body politic.\nco-operate heartily and without reserve, remembering always that we are\nworking for a common purpose, and that we can best accomplish good results\nby carrying out faithfully and intelligently the policies deemed most practical\nby the head of the Indian service.\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nMUSIC OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN\n\nDepartment]\n\n933\n\nIn order to assist the employees along these lines, the Carlisle School has\nrecently printed,\n\nfor distribution\n\namong the Indian\n\nschools,\n\na pamphlet\n\ncontaining extracts from the New York Sun, Tribune, and the Outlook, embracing some of the commissioner's views on Indian matters, and partly outlining\nthe poHcies he intends to enforce,\n\nand which have already been partially\n\nIt is desirable that these articles should be read and studied\n\nput into effect.\n\nwith care by all the Indian teachers.\n\nMUSIC OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN\nMISS NATALIE CURTIS,\n\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nWe all know how difficult it is to instruct those whom we do not understand.\nAll that we have heard at these meetings brings us to the conclusion that it\nis of inestimable importance for the Indian educator to\nis\n\nknow the Indian.\n\nIt\n\nof value for all who are interested in teaching or studying the Indian to\n\nhave a knowledge of their aboriginal brothers.\n\nOne great avenue to a better\n\nunderstanding of the Indian is a comprehension of their songs, for songs are\nto the Indian all that books are to us.\n\nSongs and ceremonies are the unwritten literature of the race, and as in\nmediaeval times the deeds of heroes and the chronicles of peace and war were\n\nsung by the bards and minstrels, so today in the festivals of the Indians are\nthe great events of the tribe told in song.\n\nBesides its important part as the\n\nexpression of the intellectual, moral, and spiritual life of the Indian, song\noften accompanies even the most menial acts of daily toil.\n\nSuch songs are\n\nspecial songs to fit the task; as, for instance, the songs of the Pueblo Indian\n\nwomen while grinding their corn.\nI paused one day at the door of a Pueblo house where a woman was singing\n\n\"Tell me,\" I asked, \"what\nabout?\" The woman paused in her work. \"Oh,\" she\nanswered with a smile, \"I am singing of the Rainbow Garth who paints the\na flutelike melody to the rhythm of her grinding.\nare you singing\n\nheavens; of the rain that we long for; of our growing corn.\"\n\nSuch songs\n\nare gems of poetic and melodic beauty that would be valuable indeed in our\n\nown American literature and culture.\n\nEuropean musicians, on hearing the\nyou are allowing all this\nYou are stamping out music unhke any other in all the world\n\nIndian songs, exclaimed:\nto perish!\n\nwhy?\"\n\n\"And you Americans\n\n—\n\nWhy indeed, for this music belongs to our own land.\n\nHappily the\n\nprejudice against the Indian songs, as against all things Indian, is waning.\n\nYet, if we are to retain the pecuhar talents of this people, schools must foster\nin the little ones the gifts inherited.\n\nThis song of the Rainbow Garth floated\n\nout from the Pueblo village dwelling, but beyond from the government school\nrose the sound of\n\n\"Marching through Georgia\"\n\nin\n\nshrill\n\nchorus.\n\nThis\n\nbattle-song of ours has its rightful place in our history and in the memory of\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n934\n\n[Indian\n\nour Civil War; but to the sons of the Painted Desert in far-distant Arizona\nare our war-songs as appropriate as their own call for rain ?\nAll Pueblo girls can sing corn-grinding songs in chorus.\n\nthe students were encouraged in their\n\nown songs.\n\nI heard\n\nAt Hampton\nthem singing\n\ntogether as they bent to and fro over their washtubs.\nIt is true, as was said this morning, that the Indian must eat bread in the\n\nsweat of his face.\n\nSo did our fathers.\n\nBut there is nothing sentimental in\n\naffirming that the love of beauty can go hand in hand with toil, and that true\nart transfigures labor, giving\n\nit\n\nthe dignity of the individual's chosen tasks\n\nperformed with joy; and without such joy labor sinks into the lethargy of the\nplodding ox^ or worse, is performed as by a machine instead of a living being.\n\nEveryone who has been in the South knows that the negroes work with ten\ntimes more zest when they sing at their task.\n\nEveryone who has been in the\n\nWest knows that the deserts of Arizona wake into melody when a group of\nIndians set out to their fields. The Indian will not work less but more for\nencouragement of the natural song impulse within him.\n\nment will help to make him what we want him to be\nyoung republic stands the workman with ideals.\n\n—\n\nAnd such encourage-\n\n—that\n\nfor\n\nwhich our\n\nETHNOLOGICAL STUDY OF OUR INDIANS IN THE\nSOUTHWEST\nMISS\n\nMABELLE BIGGART, NEW YORK CITY\n\nThe Navajo and Hopi tribes are probably descendants of the ancient\nThe Navajo reservation extends over two hundred miles one way\nAztecs.\nand fifty another. They as a people are in need of schools\nhundred\nand one\nday schools.\n\nReservation schools, as the boarding-schools far away, should\n\ncome later in life.\ntion.\n\nThe little. children should be educated first on the reserva-\n\nIt is the work of the National Indian Association to start missions and\n\nturn them into different denominations.\n\nIt is the\n\nwork of the government\n\nand with our commissioner, Hon. Francis E. Leupp, who is\ninterested in this work of day schools, a great alliance and reform is promised.\nIf we can unite for day schools, industrial work and evangehzation, we\nmay add some 25,000 Indian people of noble quaHties to our American\nI went on the desert last summer from hogan to hogan with\ncitizenship.\nto start schools,\n\ninterpreters.\n\nI was greatly interested in their customs.\n\nThe Hopi homes are emancipated; that is, they build their own houses\nThe wife also has the right to\nof stone, sand, and water, and own them.\ndiscipline her husband.\n\nIf,\n\nfor instance, he has been away and has not given\n\na good account of himself, she will put his saddle and belongings outside of\n\nher door, and he will not dare to enter.\n\nBut, unlike some of our people, they\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING INDIAN PUPILS TO SPEAK ENGLISH\n\nnever separate.\n\n935\n\nHe will go to her friends and his, and they intercede with the\n\nwife, and a reunion takes place.\n\nThe Navajo children obey from love, and the Navajos have many delightful\ncharacteristics.\n\nTEACHING INDIAN PUPILS TO SPEAK ENGLISH\nREUBEN PERRY, SUPERINTENDENT, NAVAJO INDIAN SCHOOL, FORT\nDEFIANCE, ARIZONA\n\nThe importance of giving Indian pupils a good command of English is\nupon which all further training is based. Enough English\n\nthe foundation\n\nto enable the child to conduct the affairs of ordinary business\n\nlife,\n\nand to\n\ngive him some responsibility and independence when placed in the world to\nshift for himself, is absolutely essential to success.\n\nThe natural method of\n\ngiving a child EngHsh hes in a presentation of objects and the EngHsh names\nto represent them.\nThis should be done in a manner to command his interest\nand attention. The material for such lesson should, as much as possible,\nbe new, and the objects should not be left in sight of the child until he has\nlost interest in them before the lesson begins.\nJust as he becomes acquainted\nwith the object, he should become acquainted with the EngHsh words that\nrepresent and describe it and while he is making his observations and gaining\nThe names\nhis ideas, he should be led into the oral expression of these ideas.\nof the objects and the simple sentences given by the child should be repeatedly\nwritten on the board, until a correct mental picture of the written word or\n;\n\nsentence is formed.\n\nBeginning first with the names of things, as ''ball,\" we proceed to short\nsentences, as, \"Roll the ball,\"\nball\n\nis\n\nround;\"\n\nillustrating in\n\nthe actions enumerated.\n\nwords in concert and\nenunciation.\n\n\"Throw 'the ball,\" \"Catch the ball,\" \"The\neach case by having the children perform\n\nWhen the idea is thoroly grasped, we repeat the\n\nsingly, giving particular attention to clear, distinct\n\nThe rule should be in this work, as well as in all other class-\n\nroom work with Indian beginners, short lessons and repeat, review, repeat,\nand review.\n\nThe articles used in the industrial departments, farm, garden, etc., furnish\nexcellent materials for the lessons in English.\n\nChildren should be required\n\nto give the names of things in the dining-room, kitchen, etc., such as \"table,\"\n\n\"chair,\" \"knife,\" \"fork,\" \"spoon,\" and \"plate.\"\n\nAs pupils give the names,\n\nthe teacher writes them on the board, where they are allowed to remain in\n\nthe sight of the class until the next day's lesson.\n\nThen the pupils are encour-\n\naged to make simple sentences containing these words, as:\n\n\"We eat in the\n\ndining-room,\" \"We sit at the table,\" \"I sit on a chair,\" \"I eat with a fork,\"\n\nThese sentences also may be written by the teacher, and used afterwards by the class as a reading-lesson; also for a copying exercise. I have\netc.\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n936\n\n[Indian\n\nfound it a great help to make kitchen, dining-room, sewing-room, laundry,\nfarm, and shop charts, as suggested by Superintendent Reel.\n\nThe evening hour has been devoted entirely to the acquisition and use of\nEnglish.\n\nmaking\n\nFor this purpose each teacher's pupils were divided in two schools,\nsix\n\nclasses instead of three, and, the children of the kindergarten\n\nretiring before the evening hour, the assistant superintendent, discipHnarian,\n\nand kindergartner took charge of the additional rooms. During the evening\nhour conversational work was indulged in, and some famihar subject connected with the child's home life or school life was selected for the exercise.\nThe subject was generally illustrated by the object itself or by a picture.\nEach child is encouraged to contribute his quota to the general fund of conversation.\nOne child was encouraged to ask questions for the other children\nto answer.\nBy dividing the schools and having smaller classes, more teachers,\nand allowing only thirty minutes for the evening hour, the children have\nrapidly acquired the use of Enghsh, and the evening hour has been a very\nvaluable and pleasing part of our schoolroom work.\n\nINDIAN CHARACTERISTICS\nMISS\n\nMARY C. JUDD, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nThe general belief expressed by the average American traveler in his own\nland is that the Indians as a race have no sense of humor, and rarely laugh\n\neven when with their intimate friends.\n\nBut those whose lives have brought\nthem into close touch with the Indian race know that the keen inteUigence\nwhich can read nature's guide-posts thru trackless\n\nforests or over almost\n\nHmitless plains, which recognizes tlie work of Manitou or the Sun-Father in\n\nthe tempest, the torrent, or the flower on land or lake\n\n—they know also that\n\nthe Indian laughs when the time and place permit him to cast aside his mask\nof stolidity.\n\nAmerican humor depends much upon exaggeration, and so do stories\nNot very long ago a party of white men were\nencamped near an Indian village in the North. Mosquitoes made life a\nmisery, and one of the fishermen from the camp asked an Indian woman\ngoing by if she had ever seen the pests of such size and strength in any other\nplace.\n''These big!\" she answered. \" These are small. Mosquitoes by our\ntepee so long, they must sit down to bite us, and they so tall when they touch\nthe ground their bills stick in our faces.\nYou think little trouble is big.\nYou folks from town easy 'fraid.\" This turned the laugh on the fisherman\nand checked his further complaints.\naround the wigwam fires.\n\nThe woman's wit was much like the tribe stories of lagoo, the Mark\nTwain of Indian lore, whose account of killing a mosquito with a war-club\nand using his wings for boat-sails is equal to any in our Hterature.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS\n\nDepartment]\n\n937\n\nA teacher on a Minnesota reservation thought she would amuse her pupils\non a certain rainy day by playing circus in an original manner. Each child\nwas allowed to choose the animal he desired to see, and he was assured that\n\nwas hidden in a small room across the hallway. One boy, Jack Spratt\nby name, wanted to gaze on a monkey. When his teacher opened the door\nand led him to a mirror, his shout of laughter showed that a full-blood Indian\nboy could see a joke as well as anyone. He begged to be made doorkeeper\nfor the game, and no children had more sport than those whose vivid\nit\n\nimaginations had been trained in the forest.\n\nBlankness of countenance, apparent inability to see or to hear, is, as all\n\nknow, a part of their home teachings.\n\nThey learn early that there is a time to\n\nlaugh and a time to refrain from the quiver of a smile\n\n;\n\nthat gravity increases\n\nthe dignity of a statesmen, a warrior, or a stranger on a new trail;\n\nconceal one's feelings is to show strength of will and purpose.\n\nand that to\nBut it is not\n\ntrue that Indian life is devoid of laughter, jollity, and fun.\n\nNew England people still relate the old story of colonial days when a\ncertain chief with certain\n\ncompanions entered the house of a settler whose\n\nwife had just placed upon a chair her pan of dough covered with a white cloth.\n\nOne of the unasked visitors made haste toward the great cushion, ignorant\nHe sat down on the dough with such good effect that the\n\nof its contents.\n\nhearty guffaw of his chief was the first warning that the good wife had of her\n\nruined bread.\n\nHer vigorous scoldings of the one who made the blunder\n\nadded to the laugh, and the chief left the house in order to regain his com-\n\nWhenever thereafter he made a call at the same house, his smiles\nshowed the remembrance of the accident.\nposure.\n\nYou must have often listened to graphic accounts of monstrous muskelwho failed to bring them to shore, but the\nstory is still told in tepee and wigwam of the fish so huge that it swallowed\n\nlunges lost to greedy fishermen\n\nboth the fisherman and his canoe, and was captured only because there was\n\nroom inside of him to shoot an arrow from the bow that had been a portion\nof his dinner.\nThe hero may be named Menabozho instead of Hiawatha, but\nnames matter little sometimes.\nOf lagoo, the old-time story-teller, it is said that he declared that he had\nseen an ant so large that it could drag a great rabbit to his hole in the ant-hill.\n\nThe eyes of the ant were like coals of fire, and its horns as sharp and fierce\nas those of a buffalo.\n\nSurely, later American jokers have not been able to\n\nenlarge upon details in any better fashion.\n\nThese tales must recall to the minds of many in this audience still better\nstories told by their Indian associates in school,\n\ncamp, or agency, and which\nConway, the artist, who went to western\ncamps and villages before the era of railroads, and has made his name famous\nbecause of his portraits and other well-painted pictures of the now historic\nfaces and places that have vanished with the buffalo, had the good fortune\nto hear, and the pen to preserve, several peculiarly beautiful legends of the\nare full of wit\n\nand rich humor\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n938\nDakotas.\n\n[Indian\n\nTo Conway we owe the rescuing from oblivion of the charming\n\nlegend of \"How the Water-lily Came,\" and some poet should sing its story\nin his verse.\n\nThis is the myth, briefly told:\n\nA young brave dreamed of a star that fell half-way from the sky and then stopped,\nseeking for some place on earth to rest where she might find comfort and companionship.\n\nShe saw the white rose on the hilltops, and hid herself in one of the blossoms; but she\ngrew lonely on the hills. She left the mountain rose and went to the yellow flowers of the\nprairie.\nThe tramping herds of buffalo frightened her, and she trembled with such\nfear that she rose again into the air.\nA soft breeze floated the star maiden over a lake.\nThere she saw her own shadow and that of her sky-sisters, and she rested on a lily leaf.\nThe next morning the lake was covered with the first white water-lilies ever seen by man.\n\nSome of the Arizona Pueblo people believe that the great bowlders scattered over various parts of our country were at one time huge animals who\n\nwere prevented from devouring the few inhabitants of the earth by being\nturned to stone while they sought their prey.\n\nOther rocks were once tepees,\n\nor broken fragments of mountain sides hurled by giants who were hunting\nfleeing tribes, but who by the magic of medicine-men became senseless stones\n\nthemselves.\nI feel assured that\n\nit\n\nwould serve to Hghten the tasks of the teacher of\n\nIndian children, as it has some in the schools of New York city and elsewhere,\nif\n\nshe could write down in her daily journal a few of the funny sayings and\n\nsharp quips of her own pupils.\n\nI have not been able during the past twelve\nmonths to secure any fresh stories showing this native love of humor and of\n\nbeauty, but there must be a fund of them awaiting the pen of him or her who\nis\n\nwilling to take the time and make the effort to preserve them for the public.\n\nIs there not another Schoolcraft or\n\nLongfellow who is able to let the world\n\ndiscover again that hearts are the\n\nsame everywhere, and the soul\n\nloves\n\nbeauty whether the body is hidden by palace walls, or the thin covering of a\ntepee, wickiup, or wigwam ?\n\nTHE WORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, UNITED\nSTATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, IN ITS RELATION TO AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION IN INDIAN\nSCHOOLS\nMISS SUSAN B. SIPE, INSTRUCTOR IN BOTANY, NORMAL SCHOOL,\n\nWASHINGTON D. C.\n\nThe Department of Agriculture is a great university, having in its service\nsome of the noted scientists of the age men who are serving their country\nquietly, unobtrusively, constantly, repeatedly refusing more remunerative\n\n—\n\npositions.\n\nThe story of its duty is, by the experience of its scientists, to help any\nlocality to\n\nan early solution of a problem with which it is struggling, or to\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY\n\n939\n\nrender aid when an undertaking is beyond the means at the disposal of the\npeople interested.\n\nTo accomplish these ends, many specialists must be\n\ntrained, so that\n\nhas become a postgraduate institution where groups of\n\nit\n\nsciences are taught and appHed,\n\nSince 1897, 496 students have been admitted\n\nto the department, 40 per cent, of\n\nwhom have gone elsewhere to teach, experi-\n\nment, or demonstrate in private enterprise what they have learned there.\nis\n\na great university for you.\n\nYou do not have to matriculate.\n\nreceive its benefits for any period of time.\n\nIt\n\nYou may\n\nIt furnishes you special informa-\n\ntion at any time, by correspondence or otherwise, in lines of work in which\n\nyou are interested.\n\nYou are interested in the teaching of the Indian. The Indian question\nThe problem will be how to teach him\n\nof the future is an agricultural one.\n\nbetter\n\nmethods of agriculture,\n\nof stock-raising,\n\nnatural advantages which he possesses.\n\nand of the utilizing of the\n\nYou who are charged with the\n\nbetterment of the Indian by teaching in Indian schools should get thoroly\nin touch with the entire work of the Department of Agriculture, in order to\n\nMore especially should you come\nBureau of Plant Industry. Its fields of investigation\ncover the entire question of crop-growing and crop production; studies of\ndiseases of crops and the remedy for the same; the improvement of crops by\nbreeding new plants; the securing of seeds and plants from foreign countries\nfor the purpose of adapting them to special conditions existing here; and the\nutilize the results of its investigations.\n\nin contact with the\n\nmovement of crops from one section of this country to another for the purpose\nof better adaptation and improvement.\n\nIn his last report to the Secretary of Agriculture, the chief of the bureau,\nDr. B. T. Galloway, says:\n\nto\n\nThe great interest now being manifested in nature study has prompted the bureau\nencourage the movement by such means as might legitimately be within its power.\n\nIt seems proper that the\n\ndepartment as a whole should recognize the work, as its underencouragement of rural life and rural pursuits. There can be no\nquestion that this new movement, in addition to its other advantages, will greatly aid\n\nlying principle is the\n\nagriculture by implanting in the plastic mind of the child a love for agricultural pursuits\n\nIn the introduction to a bulletin on school gardens, now in press, he says:\n\nit\n\nAgriculture in its broadest sense is the primary basis of wealth in this country, and\nseems essential that efforts should be made in our educational system to bring early\n\nto the mind of the child the facts which will be of value in emphasizing the importance\n\nand necessity of agricultural work. There is no better way to do this than thru a wellmanaged and well-conducted system of school-garden training. The Bureau of Plant\nIndustry has been much interested in this movement through the contact of its workers\nwith educators. Efforts have been made to arouse interest in school gardens through\nbulletins\n\nand distribution of seeds.\n\nMore and more evident it is becoming, in all lines of its work, that publications are not sufficient to arouse that interest in agricultural advancement\n\nwhich the necessities of the times demand.\n\nAn active demonstration of the\n\nsuperiority of certain crops and certain methods over others is always a striking\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nobject-lesson,\n\nand never fails to attract attention.\n\nof\n\n[Indian\n\nAn active demonstration\n\na school garden planned to correlate the outdoor work with that of the\n\nschoolroom is in active and successful operation on the grounds of the depart-\n\nment at Washington.\n\nRealizing that the progress of this work must necessarily\n\nbe slow, from the fact that public-school teachers have no practical training\n\nand horticulture, the bureau is urging the establishment of\nall normal schools.\nThe co-operation\nof the Normal School at Washington has been gained, and thru them it is\ndemonstrating its ideas. These experiments form the subject of this paper.\nNo set rule can be made for the management of a school garden. It rests\nwith you to find what is valuable for your own school, and adapt that to it.\nTwo years ago Normal School, No. i in Washington, was assigned a small\ngreenhouse, and last year one was assigned to Normal School No. 2 the\ncolored normal school.\nFrom October to May the students of both schools,\nunder the direction of the instructors of botany of the schools, by means of\nsimple experiments, receive lessons in the preparation and fertilizing of soil;\nin the conservation of soil moisture; in the methods of plant propagation\nby cuttings, budding, and grafting; in the methods of seed-planting; in the\nrequirements of common plants in regard to food,- moisture, and light; in\nwindow-box gardening; in tree culture; in planning school gardens. Two\nhours a week are given to the work, one hour in the class-room and one in\n\nin agriculture\n\nelementary courses in these lines in\n\n—\n\npractice of plant propagation.\n\nNecessarily for practice\n\nmuch material is\n\nraised, but with a little planning this can be selected so that it is suitable for\n\nschool-ground decoration\n\nment for the city schools.\nshops\n\n—\n\n;\n\nso the two schools have become the supply depart-\n\nThe practice exercises of the boys in the carpenter\n\ndovetail joints, T-joints, beveled-edged blocks, etc.\n\n—are\n\nbut for practice, and are usually consigned to the furnace.\nexercises in\n\nof\n\nno use\n\nThe practice\n\ngardening grow, adding beauty and pleasure to our school\n\nbuildings Or schoolrooms.\n\nGreenhouse work is not sufficient.\ntice in\n\nThe student must have actual pracThe\nclasses in outdoor work.\n\nmaking a garden and in handling\n\nplace for a student in the city to obtain his practice in making a garden is at\nhis own home.\nlost in class\n\nHe has there a chance to exercise judgment which is frequently\nHe can there follow the garden to its full fruit. There\n\nwork.\n\nhe can become familiar with the human virtues necessary to produce success\nin a garden or in life.\n\nHe can take to the home a practical piece of work.\n\nAs the home garden is legitimate school work, it must be inspected by the\nSince the establishment of this course in home gardenNormal School No. i have taken it, their gardens have\nbeen inspected, and suggestions given when necessary. Statistics taken\nbefore the work begins show that two-thirds of the students, ranging from\n\nteacher in charge.\n\ning, 175 pupils of\n\neighteen to twenty years of age, have never put a seed into the ground, and\n\nfew have any knowledge of the preparation of the ground.\n\nOne, with a small\n\ntrowel, endeavored to dig all of her garden three feet deep.\n\nThese facts\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "WORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY\n\nDepartmeat]\n\n941\n\nalone prove that the teacher must have training before the children can be\nreached.\n\nSome of the students cultivate the entire yard, some but a small portion.\nIn case of asphalted yards, or lack of space thru living in apartments, the\nefforts are confined to\n\nThe work has become so popular\n\nwindow-boxes.\n\nseldom that the entire yard is not cared for by the student.\n\nIn\nno other way could such genuine interest have been aroused among these\nthat it\n\nis\n\nUsually all of the family co-operates, particularly the children, and\n\npeople.\n\nthere are\nchild\n\n—\n\nhomes where every member of the family\n\n—has a portion\n\nof his\n\nfather, mother, and\nSometimes a whole neighborhood has\n\nown.\n\ncaught the gardening fever from the normal student.\nis far-reaching.\nIt stretches beyond the immediate home.\nbeyond the neighborhood. The student gardeners gather so\nmuch pleasure from their own gardens that they are generous enough to want\nthe children with whom they come in contact to have the same.\nThey have\n\nThis work\n\nIt\n\nstretches\n\nunderstanding of the subject\n\n—\n\nat least enough to start the children on their\n\nThey have enthusiasm sufficient to enter into childish accounts of\nsuccess or failure; and it is not unusual for them to visit the gardens,\nthus making the tie stronger between home and school. It produces indiway.\n\nviduality, originality,\n\nand\n\nIt calls for patience, industry, per-\n\ngenerosity.\n\nsistency, attention to instruction, and power to surmount obstacles, all of which\n\nare required of a good teacher.\nI\n\nhave stated that an active demonstration of school-garden work is in\n\nprogress now on the grounds of the Department of Agriculture.\n\nThis is also\n\nunder the direct care of the normal school.\nBeginning in March, the boys report at the normal school greenhouse once\na week, while the girls are at the cutting andf.fitting school.\n\nTo make this a\n\npractice department for the normal, the students are in charge of the work,\n\ntho they are carefully supervised.\n\nBy simple experiments that can be per-\n\nformed in any schoolroom, the boys are taken along elementary lines in the\nstudy of\n\ncommon soils and their water-retentive power; the value of cultiva-\n\ntion; the use of fertilizers and methods of seed-planting.\n\nAbout the middle of\n\nThen the outdoor work\nbegins.\nThe department plows and fertilizes the land. The normal school\nplans the garden. The boys do the rest. By means of tape-line, a string,\nApril the ground in our vicinity is ready to work.\n\nand pegs, the entire garden is laid off.\ntraining.\n\nThis is of most practical value in their\n\nThe cultivation of the habit of accuracy is one of the strong claims\n\nfor gardening as an educational factor.\n\nEach of sixteen boys was given a plot 1 1 by 20 feet.\nleave a path 2 feet wide on the long side\nfeet.\n\n;\n\nHe was required to\n\nso the plots for planting are 9 by 20\n\nHe was also given a Dutch or scuffle-hoe and a rake. These tools are\n\nThe rake handle is marked\nby paint in six-inch spaces to aid in planting. He thoroly spaded and raked\nhis plot, and tho the land had been plowed, wheelbarrow loads of brick and\ntrash have been removed from the plots.\nnumbered, so that he is responsible for them.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n942\n\n[Indian\n\nTo produce a pleasing effect, the sides of the plots bordering the main\nwalls are edged with flowers;\n\nthe remainder\n\nis\n\nplanted with vegetables.\n\nSuch vegetables are selected as will mature quickly, as children are impatient\n\nand such as require the minimum of attention;\n\nfor results,\n\nfor,\n\nbeing a\n\npart of school work, the gardens can be cultivated but once a week.\n\naverage city child has\n\nlittle\n\nknowledge of seed-planting.\n\nThe\n\nUsually he does\n\nnot follow the instructions given in the first seed-planting lesson, for he does\nnot s^em to realize that where a seed falls there it will grow.\n\nIt is only neces-\n\nsary for the first row of radishes to appear above the ground to teach him\n\nEvery boy's row is the subject of much criticism\n\nthis lesson.\n\nadverse\n\n—from\n\n—favorable or\n\nhis neighbor.\n\nThe planting is always done by garden line; for much training is needed\nby the oldest of us in following a straight line. The boy who has not kept\nstrictly to it finds himself so busy making excuses that the next planting is\n\nA seed is a gentle teacher of accuracy.\n\nmost carefully done.\nis\n\nCultivation\n\nFollowing the advice of Professor L. H. Bailey, of\n\nthe secret of success.\n\nCornell, the watering-pot is discarded and the rake used in its place.\n\nWith\n\nhis hoe and rake the gardens are so well cultivated that last year from\n\nMay\n\nto\n\nOctober no water was put upon them.\n\nBy simple experiments they are\n\ntaught the value of conserving water by cultivation.\nare satisfactory\n\nas gathered.\n\nAn acre would have produced $900 for the season.\n\nthe outlook is better.\n\nweeks\n\nFinancially the results\n\nLast year current market prices were placed on the produce\n\nThis year\n\nFrom April 15 until school closed on June 21\n\n—they have gathered two and one-half bushels\n\n—nine\n\nof beans, 500 bunches\n\nof radishes, 600 heads of lettuce, thirty bunches of beets, some peas, nastur-\n\nand verbenas. Everything a boy raised is his own. I know of no\nhappier day in the year than when he takes home his first radishes. They\ndo not care to sell what they raise; they seem happy only in taking it home.\nThe educational side appeals more strongly, however, than the financial.\nA city boy has little opportunity to become familiar with the growth of the\ncommon products of the United States; yet his geography requires him to\nTo make the sixth-grade geography of vital\nrecite at length upon them.\n\ntiums,\n\ninterest, plots of\n\nplants,\n\nflax,\n\n—corn, wheat,\n—and the commonest products\n\nour common grains\n\nand cotton\n\n—have been planted. A fund\n\ntobacco and peanuts\nis\n\nrye, oats, barley, fiber\n\nof our locaHty\n\nof general information\n\nobtained about the plants as they grow that could not be obtained by any\n\nother means.\n\nA storm beats the rye and oats to the ground. The boys dis-\n\ncover for themselves the extra growth that takes place at the joints when\n\nthey\n\nlift.\n\nThe lengthening of the flower stem in the peanut has been of\nThese plots have furnished much valuable material for talks\n\ngreat interest.\n\non the manufacturing processes. Their value is limited only by the abiUty of\nthe teacher. This should be suggestive to you as teachers. Life should be the\nkeynote in geography as well as in botany and zoology.\nThe whole garden has given material for practical arithmetic. Under\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "WORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY\n\nDepartment]\n\n943\n\nthe direction of their regular grade teacher, as part of their schoolroom work\n\nthey have calculated the part of an acre they are cultivating; what part of\nthe whole garden each boy has; the cost of fertihzing; the amount of fertilizer\n\nneeded to cover the entire area an inch deep; the cost of the fence; the cost\nof each boy's plot;\n\nand the cost to the department of the entire experiment.\n\nAfter a heavy storm, the rainfall to the square inch was got from the daily\npaper, and a calculation was made of the amount that fell on each boy's plot,\nand how many times he would have carried the three-gallon watering-pot\nto put the same amount on.\nThe garden has been correlated with the English\nwork in composition and letter-writing.\n\nIn many cases the boys have made similar garden plots in the back yards\nof their homes, again bringing the school and the home into closer relation.\n\nThe question of summer care of a garden in connection with a school has\nbeen a troublesome one.\n\nWe have had httle trouble in that regard.\n\nresolves itself into a volunteer vacation\n\nmovement.\n\nIt\n\nAll the boys who stay\n\nwho do not go to work retain their plots, coming twice a\nweek thruout the summer for work. The 95 per cent, attendance during\nlast July shows it is popular, particularly when a baseball field and bathingbeach in the vicinity are so attractive. Three plots were given up at the close\nof school, for the reasons given.\nThere were fifty applications for these.\nWithout doubt, the experiment had proved of great educational value.\nThe recent widespread movement for civic improvement has awakened\n\nin the city or\n\nthe teachers to the fact that the surroundings of school buildings should be\n\nhomes should\nand not the forlorn spots that they so frequently\nare.\nIt has taken us in Washington one hundred years to learn this.\nThe\nyear 1905 is our centennial year, and it will also mark the introduction of\nschool gardening for civic improvement for at present that is the main thought\nFor this work the Bureau of Plant Industry is responsible,\nof the authorities.\n\nthe neighborhood ideal, that from which the neighborhood\nreceive their inspiration,\n\n;\n\nbut it could not have accomplished the marvelous results that have been\ngained without the hearty co-operation of our progressive superintendent\n\nThe bureau has taught us to recognize oppor-\n\nof schools, Mr. A. T. Stuart.\n\nThe superintendent has given us every encouragement to use them.\n\ntunities.\n\nAgain, to start the work it was necessary to present an object-lesson to the\nteachers of what could be done by children, with no available means on hand\n\nexcept belief in one's work.'\nlocated\n\n—the Franklin—was\n\nThe building in which the normal school is\n\nselected.\n\nIt is also the administration building.\n\nIt is in one of the best resident portions of the city, opposite a beautiful park,\n\nwith everything about\n\nit\n\ncharming but its own surroundings.\n\nYears ago\n\nthere had been a lawn, but, as no attention had been paid to it, not a vestige\nremained. We begged two loads of manure from the school authorities.\n\nWe offered a half-day hoHday to every boy of the building who would bring a\ntool with\ndesire.\n\nwhich to work.\n\nIn one afternoon\n\nThe response was more than one teacher could\nall of our ground was\n\nspaded, raked, seeded, rolled\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n944\n\nwith a roller that the boys pulled two miles to use.\n\n[Indian\n\nThe normal students\nThey were\n\nin their course of instruction are taught to plan school gardens.\n\nasked to submit plans for the improvement of our grounds, following these\n{a) Keep a free central lawn.\n(Jb) Mass the shrubbery against\n\nsimple rules:\n\nthe building, placing the\n\ntall\n\npermanent plants at the rear, reserving space\n\nfor seed- and bulb-planting by the children in front,\n\n(c)\n\nAvoid straight lines\n\nThe best plan was adopted, and has been closely adhered to.\nSections of the garden were appointed to the grades of the building. The\n\nif\n\npossible.\n\nprimary grades received first attention.\nteachers\n\nA consultation on the part of the\n\nmade the color scheme harmonious.\n\nTo impress the lesson that\n\nwhat is worth beginning is worth pushing, and still further to promote civic\nEach school\npride, it has been necessary to carry this work thru the summer.\nappointed four volunteer vacation committees.\n\nEach committee served one\n\nhour a week for three consecutive weeks, mowing the lawn, weeding and\nOne hundred children volunteered to serve on these\ncultivating the soil.\ncommittees this summer.\n\nOf course, there is a supervision of the work.\n\nDuring the first season we were troubled by vandals. The flowers were\nAt the beginstolen, and the plants were torn up and thrown upon the lawn.\nning of the second season we gave talks to the children on ''ownership,'*\nemphasizing ''our garden.\" Little ones have scarcely anything to which\n\n\"my\" or \"mine\" may be attached, so we encouraged this idea, particularly\nrelated to the garden; the hard work necessary to accompHsh it;\n\nits\n\nbeauty\n\nand its harmony with the park opposite; the protection of rights of others.\nThere has been no vandaUsm at the Franklin School for two years.\nThat our object-lesson was sufficient is shown by the fact that last year\nthirty-two buildings followed our example, and this year 120 of the 124 buildings in the city\n\n—every school in the\n\ncity practically joining the\n\nmovement.\n\nWe have the full co-operation of the board of education, the parents, the\npublic, the press.\nis\n\nunlimited.\n\nIt is superfluous to\n\nmention the children.\n\nThey stand ready, waiting to be guided.\n\nTheir interest\n\nRecently one of\n\nour daily papers published a series of short letters from the principals of\nschools which had done particularly good work, stating how this work had\n\nbeen accomplished.\n\nOne\n\nbuilding whose front grounds are very pretty\n\nreceived no notice, for the reason that the children had not done the work,\n\nbut it had been done by a wealthy resident.\nchildren:\n\nThis was too much for the\n\nthey insisted upon being allowed to cultivate something.\n\nThe\n\nprincipal, with many misgivings, allowed each grade a small portion of the\n\nAn apartment house was being erected on an adjoining lot.\nrear yard.\nHoping to receive some assistance, but fearing refusal, she approached the\ncontractor to borrow a wheelbarrow. Imagine her surprise when she saw\na second-grade boy ahead of her step up to the contractor and say: \"Mister,\nI want to borrow eight wheelbarrows.\"\n\"What can you do with eight?\"\nhe asked. \"The big boys want them to haul away the stones from the garden.\"\nThe eight barrows were loaned, and shortly after eight picks, with occasional\nassistance from the workmen in the heaviest digging.\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORK OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY\n\n945\n\nA garden with decoration as its purpose would not seem to give much\nWe have added another room\n\nopportunity for schoolroom work, but it does.\n\nto the Franklin building, equipped with living things\n\ninstead of blackboards, chalk, desks, and chairs.\n\n—plants,\n\nbirds, insects,\n\nHere we take our children\n\npromoting a freedom of speech that is\nand furnishing abundant material for written\nEngHsh exercises. The Httle ones have measured the lawns which the older\nones made, marked it off into sections, and studied, pulled, and counted the\nweeds in a section. The older ones have calculated the square feet in the\nlawn, and allowing so many feet to a dandelion. They have found how\nmany dandelion plants it is necessary to grow to fruit before the lawn will be\nEvery child put a bulb into the ground last fall. The\nin their possession.\nfor work, the observation lessons\ndifficult\n\nto obtain indoors,\n\nThe younger\nThe first-grade children, in addition\n\nolder children solved practical problems in regard to them.\n\nchildren cut the tools used in paper.\n\nand hyacinth bulbs in moss\nand manure in glass dishes. These were buried until January, when they\nwere brought in to add life to the winter schoolroom. Mohammed said that\nif he had but two loaves of bread, he would sell one and buy a hyacinth for\nto planting gardens out of doors, planted tuhp\n\nhis soul.\n\nOur influence has been strong in the homes.\n\nFollowing the example\n\nof Cleveland, Ohio, a local seedman arranged to sell penny packages of seed\nto the children for home planting.\n\ninstructions were issued to\n\nThey bought 120,000 packages.\n\nSimple\n\nthem thru the teachers' leaflets on the planting\n\nand care of them.\n\nWhat has been accomplished by the teachers of Washington can be done\nWe have no money for the purpose, and we are not allowed\nTrue, we have the Bureau of Plant Industry,\nto raise it among the children.\nby any teachers.\n\nbut I quote from an editorial in a local paper:\nIt is evident that Washington is on the upgrade in its external experience, but more\n\nimportant has been the demonstration that this work is from a genuine love of the soil\n\nand its products, and that work is the result of the diligent, self-sacrificing work of the\npublic-school teachers, the fruits of whose labors are far more substantial than the season's\noutput of flowers. For, in consequence of this propaganda, there are now af work in the\ndistrict thousands of young gardeners who will never lose their fondness for the soil,\nand will be better citizens in later years for their instruction in gardening. The general\nverdict from these hard-working, enthusiastic men and women is that the work has been\na pleasure and a help to them as teachers, and an inspiration to their charges.\n\nThruout the country the movement is widespread.\nexperimental stage in many places.\n\nIt\n\nhas passed the\n\nCourses of study are being adjusted,\n\nso that studies formerly theoretical may now be practical in the garden.\nbest instance of correlation with school work that I know of\n\nis\n\nat\n\nThe\n\nHyannis\n\nMuch practical arithmetic is derived\n\nNormal School\n\nin\n\nfrom the work.\n\nThe produce is sold, the money being deposited in the bank.\n\nMassachusetts.\n\nAll expenses are paid by check, the boys learning banking methods first hand.\n\nBusiness letters are written to seed firms for catalogs and for seeds.\n\nDrawing,\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n946\n\nmanual\n\ntraining,\n\nhistory,\n\n[Indian\n\ngeography, spelling, and reading are connected\n\nwith the garden wherever possible.\n\nAt Hartford, Conn., thru the generosity of Rev. Francis Goodwin, and under\nthe direction of Mr. Hemenway, the ideal school-garden plan may be studied\nat the school of horticulture.\n\nThis school offers to the children and to the\n\nteachers of the pubHc schools a course at a nominal rate in theoretical\npractical work.\n\nand\nAt Hartford also is the largest movement for kindergartners.\n\nThe Boston State Normal gives a course in elementary horticulture and\nagriculture.\n\nIt\n\nis,\n\nhowever, an optional course.\n\nOn a lot adjoining the\n\nschool forty boys are given instruction by the students.\nof Boston are being used wherever it is possible.\n\nare incorporated with the vacation schools.\n\nThe school yards\n\nDuring the summer they\n\nLast year five normal graduates\n\nwere employed at $50 per month to conduct the work.\n\nIt is hoped, by those\n\ninterested in this movement in Boston, that the effort will result in thinning\n\nout the crowded portions of the city by directing attention to the country.\n\nThe strongest effort for the promotion of the work in rural schools has\nbeen made by Cornell University thru its nature-study bureau.\nthousands by its leaflets.\n\nIt has reached\n\nThe children in the cities of New York state have\n\nOne of the most remarkable efforts is in Rochester, in connection\nGrammar School No. 26. Colonel S. M. Moulthrop, the principal,\n\nbeen active.\nwith\n\nguided the children in creating public sentiment, until the street upon which\nthe school stands was graded and paved.\nThe strip between the sidewalk\nand the curb, which is reserved for tree-planting and grass in so many places,\nwas entirely neglected by the city authorities. Permission was obtained\nfor the children to do this work.\nSod was brought by them from a pasture\nin the vicinity to edge the curb, and the remainder of the strip was planted in\nflowers.\nThese curbstone gardens furnished twelve clothes-baskets filled\nwith flowers for the flower show in the fall.\nMrs. Henry G. Parson's work in New York city has attracted international\nattention.\nThru the most marvelous energy and perseverance, her school\nfarm has become a recognized part of the DeWitt Chnton Park, with an\nappropriation of $3,000 a year to carry it on. Three hundred children of\nthe West Side tenement region have individual plots, 3 by 11 feet, receiving\n\neverything that they raise.\n\nOn Rivington street. Public School No. 4 has conducted a small garden.\nThe school is unique in that every child of the 2,400 attending it is of Jewish\nparentage.\n\nNature-study\n\nstatistics\n\ntaken before the work began showed\n\nthat two-thirds of the 2,400 had never seen grass nor a plant growing outside\nof a flower-pot.\nTo one thousand of them a tree was but a name. They\nhad never seen one. For sanitary reasons, the annex connected with the\nschool was condemned and torn down. The principal obtained permission\nto use the\n\nground for a season as a garden.\n\nanother, grass;\n\nanother, pansies.\n\nOne school planted radishes;\nThe enthusiasm and pleasure brought\n\ninto these nature-starved lives were immeasurable.\n\nIn Yonkers the Woman's Industrial Union conducts a garden for 250\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION\n\nchildren during vacation. Each boy has 190 square\nenough to make it worth while to cultivate it.\n\nfeet\n\n947\n\n—a space large\n\nPhiladelphia has followed Mrs. Parson's example by establishing a school\n\nfarm, but it has the honor of being the first place where a board of education\n\nhas recognized its educational value and made a specific appropriation for it.\n\nTwo large tracts of land, one in West Philadelphia and the other in one of\nits\n\ncrowded foreign quarters, are cultivated by 250 children each, under the\n\ncare of the board of education.\n\nA supervisor, at $600 for the summer season,\n\nwith three assistants, is employed.\nCleveland, Ohio, reaches more homes and more children than any other\ncity at the present time.\n\nBy the sale of the penny packages of seed, the Home\n\nGardening Association enters the slums thru the settlement houses, and the\nbetter homes of Cleveland thru the public schools.\n\nA nature-study lecturer,\n\npaid jointly by the association and the board of education, gives lectures to\nthe children in the schools on nature-study subjects.\n\nPresident Patterson of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio,\n\nconducts a garden for boys of the factory neighborhood as a business invest-\n\nment.\n\nThe idle, loafing boys of the neighborhood, he claimed, caused his\n\nfactory property to decrease in value.\n\nHaving been raised on a farm, he\n\nrealized the habits of industry, attention to business, and clearness of judgment\n\nHe set aside four and one-half acres of land, and\n\nthat farm work produces.\n\nemployed Frederick Law Olmstead to plan the garden.\ngathered eight tons of vegetables last season.\n\nFifty-seven boys\n\nA gardener is eiriployed to\n\nsupervise the work.\n\nA summary of the work is not necessary.\n\nIf it has not\n\nyour locaHty, study your needs and be a pioneer.\nfor Hterature and advice,\n\nbeen started in\n\nWrite to Dr. Galloway\n\nand to your congressman for seed; and remember\n\nthru it all that it is the child itself that is to reach the greatest growth in this\n\nwork.\n\nHe is the most active factor.\n\nwithout a garden\n\nis\n\nlike\n\nA noted educator has said\n\na stag without water.\"\n\nAnother:\n\n:\n\n\"A school\n*'Not trees,\n\nshrubs, grasses, and herbs alone do we offer the children in a school garden,\n\nbut the love of nature, labor, and home.\"\n\nLet me close as the Bureau of Education closed its report on the subject\nin 1898:\n\nThe idea of school gardens is so simple and natural that the coming century will\nwonder how educational institutions could have existed without them and been true to\ntheir purpose.\n\nINDIAN EDUCATION AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION\nMRS. AMELIA\n\nS.\n\nQUINTON, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL INDIAN ASSOCIATION,\nNEW YORK, N. Y.\n\nI am very glad to be with you and to give testimony of what I have observed\nin the field, of the interest\n\nand devotion of the teachers in the government\n\nIndian schools, and of the progress in methods and spirit during the past\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n948\n\ntwenty-five years\n\n;\n\n[Indian\n\nalso of the earnest endeavor to enlist the interest of pupils,\n\nand to find and touch the spring of greatest power in their minds and hearts.\nI was deeply impressed with the methods employed by one teacher, who in\nher reading class was instructor, inspirer, and preacher. This was done by\nreading, in the class, the story of some hero, philanthropist, artist, or other\nsuccessful worker, to arouse ambition, to incite to patriotism, etc.;\n\nplan included all needed details of school instruction as well.\n\nand the\n\nThis method\n\naroused enthusiasm in pupils, awakened patriotism and noble resolves, and\n\nappealed to conscience as king of the soul.\n\nIndian boys and girls returning\n\nto their homes and to sections of small civilization could thus be lifted above\n\ndiscouragement by reading the life, e. g., of Frederick Oberlin and his Ban\n\nde la Roche, and would realize that any wilderness could be made to blossom,\nindustriously, socially,\n\nand morally.\n\nI believe that the reading of well-\n\nselected, brief articles in class on the oppressions of Russia and their outcome\n\nwould foster hatred of tyranny and make champions for freedom and just\ngovernment. Indian children are very sensitive to moral and religious teaching, and it is important that they be impressed with the truth that conscious-\n\nness of God is the basic, all-including inspiration for all right living and best\nhuman achievement. Other inspirations are limited, temporary, and may\nfail in time of disaster; but to feel the presence of God, and to know him as\n\nhe is, and to love him, is to possess the loyalty of love which includes all that\nis\n\nnoble,\n\nstrong,\n\nand which secures the motive\n\nfor\n\nhighest service\n\nand\n\nattainment.\n\nTRE ADVISABILITY OF CONDUCTING NORMAL SCHOOLS\nTO TRAIN TEACHERS FOR THE SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF\nINSTRUCTING INDIAN CHILDREN\nJOHN\n\nD.\n\nBENEDICT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS IN INDIAN TERRITORY\n\nDr. Richard Edwards, who was one of the pioneers in the normal-school\nwork of the United States, says:\n\nWhen normal schools were first proposed as an educational agency in the United\nStates, they were objected to in many ways.\n\nPersons who were thinking more of money\n\nthan of the culture of the people objected to them on account of their cost.\n\nThey affirmed\n\nthat to establish normal schools for the training of teachers\n\nwould be simply to throw\naway so much money; and this objection was a very popular one. It was claimed that\n\npeople who offered themselves for teachers ought before doing so to be sure of their own\nfitness,\n\nand the public ought not to incur any expense in securing that fitness.\n\nof the most plausible objections came from the cultured class.\n\nBut one\n\nThe graduates of colleges\n\nconsidered themselves to be well qualified to instruct young people in schools, and they\nresented the thought that by these special institutions a class of persons whose literary\n\nand scientific education might be limited should become the educators of the young.\n\"Do you know Latin? If you do, you can teach it.\" And\nthe same of any other subject that might be named.\nAccording to that view, the teacher's\nwork was simply to impart information, and anyone possessing the required information\nTheir logic was very terse:\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNORMAL SCHOOLS TO TRAIN TEACHERS\n\n949\n\nwas assumed to possess all the skill necessary for instruction. To us in these days those\nWe are surprised that any time in the world's history scholarly\npersons should ever have adopted so shallow a philosophy. The worth of normal schools\nThe people have come to\nin training teachers is now quite thoroughly appreciated.\nunderstand that the work of the teacher is not merely to convey information. He is to\nideas seem very crude.\n\nHe is to know how moral forces\n\nknow something of the structure of the human mind.\n\nare to be adjusted so as to influence the after-lives of children.\n\nAccording to the require-\n\nments of our time, knowledge is to be used by the teacher as a means, and not merely as\nan end. The methods of the schoolroom should be adjusted to the mental and moral\nneeds of the pupil.\n\nNotwithstanding the strong opposition which for years existed against\nthe state normal idea, it is now a very generally accepted proposition that no\nstate is doing justice to its children that does not support one or more well-\n\nThe propo-\n\nequipped normal schools for the training of its young teachers.\n\nsition to establish one or more normal schools to train teachers for the specific\n\npurpose of instructing Indian children is far more plausible, and the argu-\n\nments in its favor far more numerous and unanswerable, than were ever produced in favor of the state normal school.\n\nThe young man or woman who\n\nhas passed thru the eight grades of an ordinary public school, and has completed the course in an average public high school, has thru his daily and\n\nhourly contact with teachers acquired some knowledge of educational methods,\n\neven without training in a normal school.\n\nHis or her experience as a pupil\n\nhas been, in some degree, a preparation for the work of public-school teaching.\n\nBut when such a person is called to teach in an Indian school, he or she is\nconfronted by new conditions, by new and strange environment.\n\nThe Indian pupil has peculiarities of his own.\n\nHis home life and training,\n\nhis language, his habits of thought, his surroundings, his interests, his ambitions, his motives to action, his accumulation of ideas, are all new and strange,\n\nand often incomprehensible to such a teacher.\n\nWe receive many applications\n\nfrom such teachers to come to the Indian Territory to teach.\n\nThey seem to\n\nimagine that they are \"specially called\" (altho not specially trained) by some\nmysterious providence to teach the Indians. The majority of them would\nbecome homesick and disgusted with their surroundings within a month after\nentering an Indian school, and would resign, leaving no impressions upon the\nminds of the pupils, save possibly a sense of unrest and dissatisfaction with\nA young lady, belonging to this class of teachers, who\ntheir surroundings.\ninsisted upon trying to teach the Indians, and who had unbounded confidence\nin her ability to succeed, was sent out to teach in one of our typical Indian day\nAfter having stood the ordeal for three weeks, she wrote: ''What in\nschools.\nthe world did you send me to such a place as this for ? I can't possibly spend\nThe house is cold and poorly furnished. The pupils are\nthe winter here.\nI have to walk a mile to school, and have a miserable\ndull and stupid.\nboarding-place.\" A few days later, a letter came from an old Indian of the\nsame neighborhood, saying: ''Miss Johnson gone home. She nice lady, but\nno teach children. Please send good teacher.\" Miss Johnson's successor\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "!\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n950\n\n[Indian\n\nwas pleased with the neighborhood and succeeded, not because she possessed\nmore book knowledge, but because she possessed more Indian knowledge,\nthan her predecessor. Numerous similar cases might be cited where teachers\nfresh from the public schools, having high examination grades and excellent\n\nrecommendations, have failed as Indian teachers, while others with less knowledge of grammar, but knowing something of the work which they were expected\nto do, and something of the difficulties which they would have to encounter,\n\nhave succeeded.\nIn this connection it is well to remember that education is by no means\nconfined to schoolroom or to schoolbooks.\ntinues as long as life lasts.\n\nIt begins with the cradle, and con-\n\nThru the exercise of its five senses, the infant is\n\nconstantly receiving impressions which sooner or later develop into concepts,\n\nand at the age of six, upon entering school, every child is already partially\neducated. It then becomes the duty of the true teacher to take an inventory\nof the child's mind.\n\nmust first find\n\nIf we are intelligently to direct his\n\nmental growth, we\n\nout what his mind already contains, what its likes and dislikes\n\nare, its inclinations or tendencies, its weaknesses or defects, its surroundings\n\nor environment.\n\nHow widely must an accurate inventory of the mind of the\n\naverage six-year-old child born in Boston or New York differ from that of the\n\nIndian born and reared on the reservation\nIf, as Herbert Spencer says, \"it is the purpose of education to fit one to live\ncompletely,\" how different should the education of the Indian boy of the plains\n\nbe from that of the city boy or girl; for any system of education is a failure\nwhich neglects to take account of the immediate environment, the home life,\n\nand the probable future vocation of the person to be educated.\nA city school board would be regarded as foolish and impracticable if it\nwere to employ as its teachers persons who were totally unacquainted with\nthe home life and environment, the habits of thought, the prevaihng methods\n\nemployed in its own particular locaHty. It may be truly said that it seems\nno less absurd or ridiculous to send the young city girl or boy to the reservation\nto teach the Indian child, to whose home life and surroundings he or she is a\ntotal stranger, and for which he or she, perhaps, has no love or sympathy.\n\nThe greatest need of Indian education today is a corps of teachers trained\nto understand Indian life and environment, its habits of thought, its possibilities, its\n\nprejudices, its peculiarities, and its tendencies; trained in the kind of\n\nknowledge which the Indian needs to know; trained to do the things which\nthe Indian should learn to do; and trained in methods of imparting needed\nknowledge in such a manner as will appeal to the mind of the Indian child.\nThey should also be trained in such a manner as to enable them to excite and\npromote the Indian child's interest in those things by which he is ever surrounded, and which he should be taught to control and make contribute to\nhis own happiness and prosperity.\n\nAnd, above all, we need a body of teach-\n\ners possessed of a sympathetic, missionary spirit that will enable them to give\n\nadvice, assistance, and encouragement, not only to the young Indians, but to\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "NORMAL SCHOOLS TO TRAIN TEACHERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n—the simple-minded\n\nthe older ones\n\n951\n\nwho do not understand or\n\nfull-bloods,\n\nappreciate the new life which the abolition of tribal laws and the individual\n\nallotment of lands are gradually forcing upon them.\n\nWe hear much nowadays of nature study and miniature gardens in connection with public-school work.\n\nIf\n\nsuch knowledge and training are of\n\nworth to the city-bred child, how much more important is a practical knowledge of nature and agriculture to the Indian child, the child of nature\n\n1\n\nlives close to nature, and loves her with a spontaneous, sympathetic love.\nis\n\nin close touch\n\nand sympathy with nature.\n\nHe\nHe\n\nInstead of trying to make a\n\nlogician of him, we should strive to make him an accurate observer of the laws\nof nature.\n\nInstead of trying to feed and foster his mind upon the dry formulas\n\nand abstract ideas of books, we should first bid him open his eyes and ears to\nthe opportunities for bettering his condition which immediately surround him.\nInstead of his school life and work being entirely foreign to his home and\nsurroundings, there should be a closer bond of intelligent sympathy between\nthem. Instead of educating him away from his home life, the school should\ntrain him to a better appreciation of his home advantages, and should inculcate\nTo\nin him a desire to improve, to beautify, to elevate, and to enjoy his home.\ncarry out this work successfully, it would not be necessary to build and maintain separate normal schools, but normal departments might be established in\none or more of the Indian boarding schools, not too far from reservations.\nBesides furnishing a normal course for teachers, it might be advisable to\nestablish training classes for prospective matrons, nurses, seamstresses, cooks,\n\nand possibly for farmers and horticulturists. These professional courses\nwould attract many of our bright Indian boys and girls, giving them an\nopportunity specially to qualify themselves for positions of usefulness among\ntheir own people.\n\nThe following are enumerated as being among the reasons for establishing\nnormal schools to train teachers for the specific purpose of instructing Indian\nchildren:\n\n(i)\n\nThe Indian child needs to be studied and understood.\n\nHe is\n\nnot a white child with a copper-colored skin and straight hair, but a child of\nquite another and a different mental foundation.\n\ninheritance have given\n\n—\n\nanother variety\n\nif\n\nGenerations of aboriginal\n\nhim an entirely different type of mind.\n\nnot another kind\n\n—\n\nof\n\nschool.\n\nHe needs\n\nTherefore he needs a\n\nteacher with quite another training than the one that would fit for teaching\nthe white child.\n\n(2)\n\nThe inherited tendencies of the Indian child, his aspira-\n\ntions, his motives for action, all are so different from those of the white child\n\nthat his teacher should have a training in a special school where all these\npeculiarities\n\ncan be studied and made the pedagogical basis for methods of\n\n(3) The Indian race is\nThey are an old race, a mature race, a race of fixed habits.\nThese things should be understood by those who are to be their teachers, that\n\nteaching as well as the subject-matter of teaching.\n\nnot an infant race.\n\ntheir teaching may be fitted to those to be taught.\n\n(4)\n\nBecause all Indians\n\nare land-owners, it goes without saying that along those lines their teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n952\n\n[Indian\n\nJ\n\nshould have a special training, which at present no normal, nor other school\nwithin my knowledge, now gives.\n\nThis alone is an entirely sufficient argument\n\nfor the establishment of Indian normal schools.\n\nDISCUSSION\nS.\n\nM. McCowAN, superintendent,\n\nChilocco Agricultural School,\n\nOklahoma.\n\n—In\n\nmy opinion, special normal schools should be established to train teachers for instructing\nIndian children, (i) because Indian youths are born and reared close to nature, and\nher ways; (2) because they have land, and should be taught to cultivate it with a\n\nlike\n\nview to making a living thereby;\n\n(3)\n\nbecause they will not hold their land and work it\n\nunless taught to love the work and to make a profit from their toil;\n\n(4)\n\nbecause the vast\n\nmajority of our teachers know nothing about farming in any of its branches, and care\nless,\n\nthereby consciously or unconsciously instilling a dislike for the farm in the highly\n\nimpressionable minds of their pupils, thus defeating manifest destiny.\n\nIt is a true peda-\n\ngogical axiom that a child should be educated along the Hne of his prejudices or genius.\n\nThe chief educational function is to prepare for complete living. The Indian child Hkes\nHe loves the smell of the soil. He gets his living from his garden largely.\n\nthe land.\n\nHe is partial to horses, and loves the outdoor life. His mind is eager to grasp nature's\nHe detests the irksome labor of poring over abstract theories in books.\nHe is a good observer; his senses are keen to detect, and his mind to grasp and retain.\nEvery child of any race hungers for knowledge. He glories in the acquisition of selfhidden secrets.\n\nfound information.\n\nBut when he goes to school, in ninety-nine cases out of one hundred\nHis mind\non cold facts, or imagination and theory jostle and crowd\n\nhis entire nature is warped, his ambition is crippled, his hopes are frustrated.\nis\n\neither starved or feeding\n\nout observation and the practical.\n\nInstead of doing the things he likes and does best,\n\ninstead of developing his brightest talents, he is made to do the things he detests,\n\nand\n\nendeavor is persistent in striving to develop talents possessed in the smallest measure.\n\nWhy, why, when a child loves the farm, should he be made to study law ? Why, why,\nwhen a child finds his chiefest joy in the fields, should he be trained to live in town ?\nThe fault lies with the teachers. We all agree that Indians should be taught to make\na good living right from the land they own, and yet we send them to teachers who do\nnot know the difference between a section of land and a section house.\nOur Indian schools are happily arranged on the half-school, half-work basis. Now\ngive us teachers in our class-rooms who,\n\nby precept and practice, will stimulate the chiland we shall find them e^ger\n\ndren's natural talents and bring them to proper fruition,\n\nand successful farmers. A teacher properly trained will rejoice in her school garden.\nShe will be able to open nature's sealed books, and translate her hieroglyphics into beautiful stories more fascinating than JEsot^i's Fables or the Arabian Nights.\nShe will be able\nto explain the why and the wherefore.\nAnd her teaching will promote wisdom, industry,\njudgment, skill, self-reliance. The boys will go back to their farms knowing how to do,\nwhat to do, and why; and girls will glory and expand in knowledge.\nIf a normal be established that will prepare teachers to impart to their pupils, in a\nway easily assimilated by them, the beauteous and profitable truths of growing things,\nwhich can inspire and stimulate a love for the garden, the farm, horticulture, animal\nhusbandry, then, it seems to me, there will be nothing left in the educational world to be\ndesired.\n\nI\n\ndo not mean in all this that every boy should be a farmer, but I do mean\n\nthat the education that should be given boys who are to be farmers will make the best\n\nkind of foundation upon which to rear the structure of any calling or profession\n\n—a great\n\ndeal better than the crumbHng bones of dead languages.\n\nThe kind of teacher we want and must have is the one who can gather the class\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNORMAL SCHOOLS TO TRAIN TEACHERS\n\nDepartment]\n\n953\n\nabout her, as a hen her brood, and interest them in the conception, the growth, and the\nfruiting of\n\nthings.\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nstudy of\n\nthe\n\nlife.\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nrevelation\n\n—\n\nlife\n\nrevealed.\n\nIt is\n\nmastering step by step God's creative processes in the sweetest, simplest manner.\n\nIt\n\nbegins at the genesis of things, when the world was young, and follows by easy, enthralling\nstages the series of evolutionary actions in the making of the world.\n\nIt is\n\na continuous\n\nperformance of living, moving pictures.\n\nNow, let us pioneer a normal system based on nature study.\nline;\n\nWe cannot be the first\n\nworld in this grand work, because other countries are already at work along this\n\nin the\n\nbut we can be the first in our own land, and this will be glory enough.\n\nIn France\n\na course in gardening and horticulture.\n\nMen are\n\na feature of the normal schools\n\nis\n\ntaught gardening and agriculture,\n\nwomen gardening and horticulture; and graduates\n\ntake this knowledge and experience with them to their rural schools.\n\nwere adopted in 1882.\n\nThese courses\n\nIn one province in southern Russia 257 of the 504 rural schools\n\npossess small model gardens divided into sections for grain, vegetables, and fruits.\nof these schools possess nurseries and bee colonies.\n\nSome\n\nSwitzerland has had school gardens\n\nin connection with both normal and rural schools for more than twenty years.\n\nmakes the study of horticulture in her schools compulsory.\n\nBelgium\n\nA royal decree of 1897 called\n\nspecial attention to the necessity of instruction in the cultivation of vegetables.\n\nAll\n\npublic elementary schools in Belgium have gardens, and the government grants annually\n\n6,000 francs as prizes among pupils who excel in this study.\nof school gardens, having established them in 1869.\n\nSweden leads in the matter\n\nAustria, Germany, and a few other\n\nupon instruction being given in gardening and horticulture,\nand prepare teachers in their normal schools for this work; A normal school for the\n\nforeign countries insist\n\nbeHeve this\n\nspecial training of teachers for the Indian service should be established.\n\nI\n\ndepartment should be established at one of our non -reservation schools.\n\nI believe, too,\n\nthat this department should be for both Indians\n\nand whites, and that all teachers in\n\nIndian schools should be required to take this course,\n\nBenjamin S, Coppock, school supervisor for Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory.\nI think a normal for the teachers in the Indian service would improve the personnel and\n\nthe work accomplished.\n\nStrong leaders would inspire many workers with confidence in the\n\nIndian character and in his aV)ility to succeed in life.\n\nVery much is lost to the service\n\nthru a feeling among some of the workers that the Indian will not amount to much any-\n\nway, and that extra effort and work for him is lost at best.\n\nThis feeling should be corThere would result acquaintance, knowledge of the general service and its\nmanagement, and -sympathy that would be restful to many overworked and underpaid\npeople. The teacher needs a quick perception of known conditions and a ready understanding of practical known methods, and suggestions from those who know the real\nIndian, his worth, his possibilities, his difficulties, and his handicap of thinking in his\nnative tongue while all things come to him in English.\nThese things are in addition to\nwhat would be learned in other normal schools, and are some of the reasons for holding\nspecial normal schools for the service.\nrected.\n\n—\n\nW. M. Peterson, superintendent. Fort Lewis Indian School, Oklahoma. It has\nbeen the aim of all educational effort in behalf of the Indian to lessen the gap between\nhim and the average American citizen, and, in fact, to make him such a citizen in as full\nBut while we think of doing this in a generalized way, and speak\nIndian\" when we mean the race, we have to accomplish the result by dealing\n\na sense as is possible.\nof the\n\n**\n\nand tho these individuals differ from an equal number of white indimany differences among the minds of different\nindividual Indians as there are among the minds of different individual whites, and these\ndifferences lie along similar lines.\nAnd the principal differences between the Indian\nmind and the white mind (if such an expression be allowed) modify very materially when\ngiven a continuous environment; but this environment must be continuous thru the formawith individuals;\n\nviduals in most respects, there are as\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n954\n\ntive period of several generations.\n\nfrom our point of view\n\n[Indian\n\nIt is not reasonable to give a child the advantages\n\n—of school, and expect him\n\nto\n\ndemonstrate that he has had\n\nthese advantages, while his parents are living and ridiculing every eflfort on the part of\n\nthe boy or girl to adopt so-called civilized ways.\n\nNevertheless, since\n\nit is\n\ncertain that\n\nthese ways must ultimately be adopted, not because we are convinced that they are funda-\n\nmentally better than many of those of the Indian, but because they seem to be the inevitable product of our social evolution,\nliving to a degree.\n\nit is\n\nneedful that the Indian modify his mode of\n\nWe mistake when we try to remove the whole of the Indian life, for\n\nthere are many excellencies in it.\n\nNo one will question the fact that the average full-blooded Indian who goes to school\nmust learn to read and write an ordinary letter, to figure out the number of cords in a\npile of wood or the number of tons in a stack of hay, or to reckon the value of so many\npounds of grain, or wool, or hops, at so much per pound, and to know how much cloth\nat so much per yard he ought to get for his dollar.\n\nTHE NECESSITY FOR MORE AND BETTER-EQUIPPED DAY\nSCHOOLS\nJ. J.\n\nDUNCAN, DAY SCHOOL INSPECTOR, PINE IQDGE AGENCY, SOUTH DAKOTA\n\nTo give the Indian youth a plain, common English education, and teach\nhim to do the common, ordinary duties of life, is now the most popular policy.\nThis is declared to be the policy of the present commissioner.\n\nThe Depart-\n\nment of Indian Affairs is determined to put the Indian to work, and the kind\nof schools that will help him to do his best, and so prepare him to find his own\nwork, should not only be increased in number, but should also be allowed\na reasonable expenditure for their better equipment. Of the three kinds of\ngovernment Indian schools, the day schools would come the nearest to fulfilling\nthis mission.\nThey are the largest in number and the least known. These\nschools are common country schools as in the white settlements, and yet they\nare more so.\n\nTo the inestimable value of the district schools to the white\n\nsettlements I need scarcely refer, but the Indian day schools have even a\ngreater mission.\n\nMany of the day schools (and they all should be) are neatly\n\nand this, too, in the midst often of squalor\nsuppose that good people, to\nteach these people at their homes, should be equipped to do a work for both\nSome of the good\nchildren and parents that no other school can possibly do.\nkept, model. Christian homes;\n\nand an uncivilized people.\n\nIt is natural to\n\nthings in connection with these schools are as follows:\n\nweekly baths; practical home\n\nbathhouses, with\n\ncooking, laundry work, and sewing;\n\nchil-\n\ndren going back and forth to school, cleanly clad; the well-cooked noonday\nluncheon; the Lord's Prayer; patriotic songs; the sound of the school bell\n\nand the daily floating of the flag; evening entertainments at the school;\nvisiting of the teachers and housekeepers at the homes of the parents; the\ndistribution of simple medicines, and the opportunity to give advice individual\ncontact with the children and their homes; these and many others might be\nmentioned as mighty and silent influences, unconsciously and unobtrusively\n;\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nDepartment]\n\nMORE AND BETTER-EQUIPPED DAY SCHOOLS\n\n955\n\ndrawing children and parents together nearer to civilization, and removing\nprejudice and opposition to education. In this natural process the Indian\n\nhomes are not being broken up, and parental ties are not being severed.\n\nThe\n\nchildren are being educated in the midst of the environments in which at\nleast 95 per cent, will be better off to Hve, away from the temptations of city\n\nand amidst their large possessions of land, which if many a poor white\nboy had it would make him prosperous.\nIn the day schools should be placed the best. Christian teachers and\n\nlife,\n\nhousekeepers, of whom much should be required.\n\nkept well painted.\n\nThe buildings should be\n\nPlaygrounds should be well provided, so that the children\n\nbelow school age will look with longing eye to enter, as they do to some schools\nnow.\n\nSmall irrigation plants should be put in where needed, as at Rosebud\n\nand Pine Ridge, South Dakota.\n\nFruit trees, plants, and shrubbery, suitable\n\nto the climate, should be planted.\n\nA few cows, pigs, chickens, etc., should\n\nbe allowed in order to create a love for the domestic fowls and animals.\n\nBy\n\nbuilding day schools up and down the valleys where the Indians live, there\nwill be a saving from the economical standpoint as well.\n\nDISCUSSION\nC.\n\nJ.\n\nCrandall, superintendent, Santa Fe Indian School,\n\nNew Mexico. —The\n\neducation of the Indian is no longer a question to be disparaged, as it has proved the\ncorrect and humane way of settHng the Indian question.\n\nThe little red schoolhouse is the foundation of our great school system in the United\nStates,\n\nand so should the day schools for the Indian be the foundation for the system of\n\nIndian schools.\n\nWe too often forgot that the Indian parent loves his child with a love\n\nThru his love for the child we should work to improve and change\nThis can best be done thru the day school. The best blood\nand the best children are the last to leave the reservation as a rule. Then why not try\n\nthat is akin to worship.\n\nthe condition of the Indian.\n\nto reach them thru the local or day school?\n\nToo often this school\nThe teacher's quarters may consist of one or two rooms;\n\nThere is need for more and better-equipped day schools.\nconsists of a single schoolroom.\n\nthe roofs may keep out the sunshine, but not the snows and rain;\n\nthe yards, instead of\n\nbeing neat grass plats or gardens, are often unfenced, and a gathering-place for the Indian\n\ndogs and burros. There should be, in addition to the regular schoolroom, a sewingroom, a workshop for the boys, a dining-room and kitchen; the teacher should be provided\nwith comfortable quarters; the school should have its bathhouse and wash-room.\n\nThere\n\nshould be a school garden; the grounds should be fenced; and flower gardens and lawns\n\nshould take the place of unkempt and untidy yards.\nwill add to the school.\n\nSome poultry, a cow, and a horse\n\nIn addition to the regular teacher, there should be a housekeeper,\n\nand there may be a matron and industrial teacher. The Indian parent should at all times\nbe made welcome at the school, and thus will he take an interest in the school and what\nis being done for his child.\nThe noonday luncheon is important. Above all, the employees\nin the day school must have an interest in their work and the Indian. The day school\nwill thus become a feeder and a help to the more advanced Indian schools.\n\nWalter P. Squires, day-school inspector. Standing Rock Agency, North Dakota.\nThere has been no time in the history of Indian schools when the necessity for more and\nbetter-equipped day schools was as urgent as at the present time. The recent decision of\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n956\n\n[Indian\n\nthe supreme court on the selling of liquor to allotted Indians not only has its influence on\nthe liquor question, but on the school question as well.\nare alloted.\n\nThese\n\nOn many reservations the Indians\n\nallotted Indians, being citizens, cannot\n\nbe compelled to put their\n\nchildren in boarding-schools, nor in any school longer than the compulsory term of the\nstate in\n\nwhich they reside, which usually is not longer than three or four months; and\n\nto overcome this the Indian must be interested in his own day school.\n\nThe Indian has\n\nand his tendency is naturally toward the\nday school, where his child is in school only from nine to four, and has his Saturdays and\nSundays to himself. In my experience, the Indian in nearly every instance has preferred\nto have his child in the day school rather than in the boarding-school.\nA properly equipped day school, in charge of a competent teacher and housekeeper,\nimproves the moral condition of the camp where the school is situated, and by example\nof a good garden shows the advantages to be derived from agricultural pursuits.\nIn following the plan for individual gardens, as given in the \"Course of Study for\nIndian Schools,\" the pupil becomes interested in his garden at school, and talks it over\nat home in the evening; the Indian parents become interested; and it is a common occurrence to see the pupil bring the parents to school, to show them with pride the results of\ninherited a disposition for a free, outdoor hfe,\n\nhis labors.\n\nFrom these individual gardens the pupil is allowed to take home at least\n\nhalf of the produce, which not only increases the interest of the pupil, but by its influence\n\nhas caused the parents to enlarge the gardens at home.\n\nNot only along the line of gar-\n\ndening can the homes be reached, but in other lines of industrial work, such as cooking,\nsewing,\n\netc.\n\nThis dual plan of educating the parents as well as the child makes the\n\nproperly equipped day school one of the most civilizing factors in the Indian work.\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n.\n\nGENERAL INDEX\nA t indicates a memorial sketch.]\n\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.\n\nAct of Incorporation, 4.\nAddams, Jane Child Labor, 259.\nAddress Theodore Roosevelt, 146.\nAddress of Welcome James M. Green,\n57; Response, Albert G. Lane, 58.\nAdequate Leadership, Progressive Teachers,\nand Fewer Subjects Carroll G.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPearse, 184; Discussion, 188.\nAdministration, Standards of Local, 86.\n\nAiken,\n\nWalter H.\n\nHave Been Found Useful in the\nTeaching of Music in the Schools, 662.\nAims of Drawing as a Subject of HighSchool Instruction Frank H. Collins,\nthat\n\n—\n\n610; Discussion, 611.\nAims of Drawing as a Subject of InstrucMiss\ntion in the Primary Grades\nM. Church, 603.\nAims of Drawing as a Subject of Public\nSchool Instruction in Grammar Grades\n\nEmma\n\nJames Hall, 605.\nAims of English Teaching, The\n\n—Philo M.\nGeorgia— On the\n\nBuck, 454.\n\nAlexander,\n\nMiss\n\nStudy\n\nEnglish\n\nof\n\nComposition\n\na\n\nas\n\nMeans of Acquiring Power, 407; Discussion, 412.\n\nAlgebra\n\nand\n\nGeometry,\n\nIndividual\n\nIn-\n\nstruction in, 466.\nAll Crime is Disease\nArthur B. Linsley,\n914; Discussion, 920.\nAmerican Educational Exhibit, Exclusive\nEliphalet\nof Elementary\nEducation\nOram Lyte, 167.\nAmerican Indian, Music of the, 933.\nAncient History, What Facts Should Be\nTaught, 461.\nApplied Design, The Teaching of, 615.\nAppointing and Advancing Teachers, 244.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n244.\n\n—\n\nBancroft, Miss Margaret President's\nAddress, Department of Special Educa-\n\n—Newton C. DoughBaxter, Charles — Greetings and Resume, 927.\nBenedict, John D, —The Advisability of\n\nBateman, NEWTONf\nerty, 329.\n\nJ.\n\nConducting Normal Schools to Train\nTeachers for Indian Children, 948.\nInternational Drawing Teachers'\nCongress at, 597.\nBiggart, Miss Mabelle Ethnological\nStudy of Our Indians in the Southwest,\n\nBerne,\n\n—\n\n934Biology, Teaching with Projection Microscope, 814.\n\nBlake, Miss Katherine D.\n\n—\n\nResponse to\nAddress of President lloosevelt, 152.\nBlewett, Ben Lessons from the United\nStates Exhibit of Elementary Education,\n173; The Merit System in St. Louis,\n\n—\n\n241.\nBlodgett, A. B.\n\n—Discussion, 252.\n—\n—\nBrown, E. G. — Discussion, 920,\nBrown, Miss Marion— piscussion, 435.\nBrown,\nStanley— Discussion, 443.\nBruce, William George— Recent Prog-\n\nBotany—A. T. Schauffler 806.\nBrady, Miss M. J. Discussion, 396.\nBrooks, Edward Discussion, 541.\n\nJ.\n\nress in School Administration, 828; Secretary's Minutes, Department of School\n\nAdministration, 827.\n\n—\n\nThe Excessive Expansion in the Course of Study, 482.\nBruner, Frank G. Discussion, 749.\nBuck, Philo M. The Aims of English\nTeaching, 454.\nBureau of Plant Industry in Its Relation\nto Agricultural Instruction in Indian\nSchools Miss Susan B. Sipe, 938.\nBurnham, William H. Education from\nthe Genetic Point of View, 727.\nBusiness Education, Department of, 669.\nBusiness Man, What Should Be the EduBryan, William L.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\n842.\n\n—\n\nArt Education, Department of, 591.\nArts and Science, Congress of, 305.\nA Short Review of the Educational Progress\nof the Year, and a Discussion of Some\nPhases of the Curriculum of the Elementary School Miss N. Cropsey, 374.\nAthletics, School and College, 293.\nBaccalaureate and Professional Courses,\n\n—\n\n—Discussion, 5S0, 61\n\n—The Teaching of Arith-\n\nmetic in Elementary Schools, 380.\nBaltimore Method of Appointing and Advancing Teachers James H. Van Sickle,\n\nAppointing and Promoting Teachers, The\nMerit System of, 241.\nArithmetic in Elementary Schools, 380.\nArnold, E. H. The Importance of the\nSchool- Yard for the Physical Weil-Being\nof School Children, 756; Discussion, 351,\n\n299.\nBailey, Henry Turner\n\nM. A.\n\ntion, 883.\n\n—Some Type Forms\n\n—\n\nBailey,\n\n—\n\ncation of a, 674.\n\nBusiness Methods vs. Educational Methods,\n320.\n\nBy-Laws, 4.\nCalendar of Meetings, 6.\n\n1\n\n957\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n9S8\n\nCampbell, Miss Mary R.\n\n—Extracts from\n\nCity Superintendents, Round Table of, 241.\nClark, Mrs. Ida Hood Discussion, 390,\n\n—\n\na Recent Investigation in Sociology, 906;\nGreetings and Resume of Work, 929.\n\n623.\nClassics Conference, 470.\n\n—\n\nCanfield, James H. Does Wide Election,\nand Do Minute Courses, Weaken UnderDiscussion, 857, 858.\nCarlisle, Miss Ellor E.\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 251.\nCarnegie's Gift, 297.\nCarr, J. W. Providing Better Teachers,\nMinutes,\nNational\nSecretary's\n180;\nCouncil of Education, 281 Discussion, 78.\n\n—\n\n;\n\nCarroll, Clarence F.\n\n—How Far Should\n\nBe Educational and\nHow Far Recreative in High Schools ?\n\nPhysical\n773;\n\nTraining\n\n.\n\n—\n\n610.\n\nCharles M.\n\n—Lessons to Be\n\nDrawn from the International Drawing\n\nin,\n\n—\n\nSchool Curriculum, 637.\nChairs of Pedagogy in Universities\n\n—Albert\nChamberlain,\nArthur Henry—The\nProblems that Perplex, 558.\nChanging the View-Point—^William\nRoss Hill, 512,\n\nCommercial Teachers,\n\n—\n\nH. Maxwell, 214.\nCharter Provisions as Related to the Reorganization\nof\nSchool Systems F.\nLouis Soldan, 231.\nChicago Plan for Appointing and Advancing Teachers Charles D. Lowry, 246.\nChild, The Immigrant, 113.\nChild Labor Jane Addams, 259; Dis-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nport of, 240.\n\n815.\n\nCommittee on Proposed Investigations on\nthe Culture Element and Economy of\n\nTime in Education, Report of the, 279.\nCommittee on Public Libraries and Public\nSchools, Report of, 278.\nCommittee on Resolutions, Department of\nSuperintendence, 160.\n\nCommittee on Resolutions of General Association, names of, 22; Declaration, 42;\nResolutions of Thanks, 44.\nCommittee on Secret Fraternities, Report\nof,\n\nIII,\n\nChild Labor and Compulsory Education\nThe School Aspect George H. Martin,\n\n—\n\n103.\n\nChild Study, Department of, 707.\nChild Study in Normal Schools Frank\nWebster Smith, 714; Discussion, 719.\nChild Study in Special Clubs Miss Harriet\nA. Marsh, 721.\nChild Study in the University and College\nG. Stanley Hall, 710.\nChild Study, Notes on a Few Books in, 751.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nChildren, The Group MoraHty of, 214.\nChild's Development and Control, 734.\nChild's Physical Development and the\nSchool, 742.\n\n—The Value and Place\n\nChubb, Percival\n\nthe\n\nChurch, Miss Emma M.\n\nEducation of\n\n— Aims of Draw-\n\ning as a Subject of Instruction in the Primary Grades, 603.\n\nof.\n\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, Report of, 277.\nCommittee on Music in the Grades, 667.\nCommittee on Nominations, Members of,\n23; Report of, 24.\nCommittee on Physics Courses, Report of,\n\ncussion, 261.\n\nChild Labor and Compulsory Education,\n\nQualifications\n\nCommittee on Interstate Recognition of\nHigh Grade Teachers Certificates, Re-\n\nI.\n\nCrane, 190; Discussion, 195.\nCharter Provisions as Related to the Organization of School Systems William\n\nin\n\na,\n\n678.\n\n—\n\nFairy Stories\nChildren, 871.\n\n698, 703.\n\nCommerce, Universtiy Course in, 689.\nCommercial Course, Science Work of\n\nTeachers' Congress at Berne, 597.\n\nGary, C. P. High School Privileges for\nCountry Pupils, 236; Libraries and Library Privileges for Villages and Rural\nCommunities, 854.\nCasterton, Mrs. Elizabeth Correlation\nof Music with Other Branches of the\n\nof\n\n—\n\nColhns, Joseph V. Discussion, 468.\nCommerce, Organization of Higher Courses\n\nDiscussion, 188, 250, 351.\n\nCarter,\n\n—\n\nAaron Hodgman Teaching Biology from Living Plants and Animals\nwith a Projection Microscope, 814.\nCollege Requirements and the SecondarySchool Work, The—John C. Kirtland,\nJr., 470; Discussion, 473.\nCollins, Frank H. The Aims of Drawing\nas a Subject of High-School Instruction,\nCole,\n\ngraduate Courses in Universities? 494;\n\n445.\n\nCommittee on Simplification of Spelling,\nReport of, 157; Report of Advisory, 281.\nComparison of Modern Business Methods\nwith Educational Methods George H.\n\n—\n\n.\n\nMartin, 320.\nComposition, The Teaching of, 458.\nCompulsory Education and Child Labor,\n103, III.\n\nCompulsory Education and Juvenile Courts,\n304-\n\n—\n\nCoMSTOCK, Clarence E. Correlation of\nMathematics and Science, 788; Discussion, 469.\n\nConcerning Our Limitations in Educating\nMentally Deficient Children Mary E.\nPogue, 895.\n\n—\n\n^\n\nConferences, Classics, 470; English, 454;\nHistory, 460; Mathematics, 466; Modern Language, 475; Principals, 452.\nConference, Round Table, Department of\n\nArt Instruction, 603.\n\nCongdon, C. H.\n\n^\n\n—Discussion, 656.\n\nCongress of Arts and Science, 305.\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nINDEX\n\n959\n\n—\n\nConstitution of General Association, i.\nConway, Clara! W. T. Harris, 334.\n\nDavis, Seymour Recent\nSchool Architecture, 836.\n\nCook, John W.\n\nDay Schools, The Necessity for More and\n\n—\n\n—Memorial Address on\n\nEdwin C. Hewett, 335;\n532.\n\nDiscussion, 387,\n\n—Reading\n\nCooLEY, Mrs. Alice W.\n\nin the\n\n—\n\nCooLEY, Edwin G. President of Department of Superintendence, 155.\nCo-operation of Universities and Normal\nSchools in the Training of Elementary\nTeachers I, Frank M. McMurry, 540;\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 541; II, Guy E. Maxwell,\n542.\nCo-operation of Universities and Normal\nSchools in the Training of Secondary\nTeachers I, E. N. Henderson, 546;\nII, Z. X. Snyder, 551.\nCoppock, Benjamin J. Discussion, 953.\nCorrelation of Mathematics and Science\nClarence E. Comstock, 788.\nCorrelation of Music with Other Branches\nMrs. Elizaof the School Curriculum\nbeth Casterton, 637; Discussion, 642.\nCountry Pupils, High School Privileges for,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n236.\n\nCounty Superintendents, Round Table of\nState and, 236.\n\nCourse of Study, Excessive Expansion of\nthe, 482.\n\nHow Should it Be Di-\n\nvided ? 428.\nCraig, Oscar J.\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Education, 482.\nCrandall, C. J.\nDiscussion, 955.\nCrane, JuHa E. Discussion, 654.\nCrane, William Albert Discussion, 445.\nCrane, William I. Changing the ViewPoint, 190.\n\n—\n—\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nCrawford, Miss Caroline\n\n—How Far\n\nShould Physical Training Be\n\nEduca-\n\nHow\n\nFar Recreative in Coltional and\nleges and Universities, 775.\n\nCrime is Disease, 914.\nCropsey, Miss N. A Short Review of\n\n—\n\nthe Educational Progress of the Year,\nand a Discussion of Some Phases of the\nCurriculum of the Elementary School,\n374.\n\n—\n\nCrosby, W. E. Discussion, 396.\nCulture Element and Economy of Time in\nEducation, Report of Committee on Pro-\n\nposed Investigations on the, 279.\nCulture of Teachers, Professional, 325.\nCurrent Criticism of the Kindergarten\nM. V. O'Shea, 365; Discussion, 370.\n\nCurriculum of the Elementary School, 374.\nCurtis, Miss Natalie Music of the\nAmerican Indian, 933.\nDavey, Vernon L. Discussion, 252.\n\n—\n\n—\nDavidson, Wm. M. — The Omaha Method\nof Appointing and Advancing Teachers,\n246.\n\nBetter-Equipped, 954.\n\nHim in His Own Home, 900.\nDe Garmo, Charles Discussion, 533.\nDenver Method\n\nDavis, Allan The Science Work of a\nFour- Year Commercial Course, 678.\nDavis, Sarah Brinton Discussion, 656.\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nof Appointing and Advancing Teachers L. C. Greenlee, 245.\nDepartment of Art Education, 591; of\nBusiness Education, 669; of Child Study,\n707; of Council of Education, 271; of\nElementary Education, 373; of Higher\nEducation, 481; of Indian Education,\n925; of Kindergarten Education, 341;\nof Library, 853; of Manual Training,\n557; of Music Education, 627; of Normal Schools, 517; of Physical Education,\n755; of School Administration, 827; of\nScience Instruction, 781; of Secondary\nEducation, 423; of Special Education,\n881; of Superintendence, 155.\nDepartmental Teaching in Elementary\nSchools, 293.\n\nDepartments, list of, i.\n\n—\n\nDexter, Edwin Grant Discussion, 740.\nDickey, Miss Discussion, 857.\nDirect Method of Teaching a Modern\nLanguage Ernest Wolf, 475; Discus-\n\n—\n—\n\nsion, 477.\nDirectors, Board of, 2.\nDiscussion, 864.\nDiscurt, Mr.\nDoes Wide Election, and Do\n\n—\n\nMinute\n\nCourses, Weaken Undergraduate Courses\nJames H. Canfield, 494.\nin Universities ?\nDopp, Katherine E. Forms and Limitations of Handwork for Girls in the\nHigh School, 580.\nDougherty, Newton C. Memorial Address on Newton Bateman, 329.\nDraper, Andrew S. The Nation's Educational Purpose, 89.\nDrawing and Constructive Work in Public\nSchools as Shown by Exhibits at the St.\nLouis Exposition Robert Ashton Kis-\n\n— —\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nsack, 612.\n\nDrawing, The Educational Value of, 592.\n\nDrawing in Grammar Grades, 605.\nDrawing in the High School, 610.\nDrawing in the Primary Grades, Aims of,\n603.\n\nDrawing Teachers' Congress at Berne, 597.\nDuncan, J. J. The Necessity for More\nand Better-Equipped Day Schools, 954.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nLida B. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\n\nEarhart,\n\nznEconomic Importance of Trade Schools,\nThe Frank A. Vanderlip, 141; Dis-\n\n—\n\ncussion, 145.\n\n—\n\nEdmund, Miss Gertrude The Lowell\nMethod of Appointing and Promoting\nTeachers, 248.\n\n—\n\nin\n\nDeaf Child, What Has Been Done with\n\nFirst School Year, 393.\n\nCourse of Study,\n\nProgress\n\n—\n\nEducation for Efficiency William\nMaxwell, 59.\nEducation for the Industries, 294.\n\nH.\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": ".\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n960\n\nEducation from the Genetic Point of View\nWilliam H. Burnham, 727; Discus-\n\n—\n\nsion, 732.\n\nEducation, Insular, 307; Foreign, 309.\nEducation in the South, 296.\nEducational Exhibit at the St. Louis Ex-\n\nFelmley,\n\nDavid\n\n—The Modern High-\n\nSchool Curriculum as Preparation for a\nTwo-Year Normal Course, 524.\nFerguson, W. B. Discussion, 435.\nFithian, Powell G.\nDiscussion, 656.\nFitzgerald, John J. Greetings and Re-\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nsume of Work, 926.\n\nposition, 305.\n\nEducational Exhibits, The Foreign, 161.\nEducational Literature, 306.\nEducational Methods vs. Business Methods,\n320.\n\nEducational Progress of the Year, 286, 374.\nEducational Purpose, The Nation's, 89.\nEducational Value of Drawing, The F.\nLouis Soldan, 592.\nEfficiency, Education for, 59.\nEfficiency of Our Public School Work,\n\n—\n\nMeans of Increasing, 180.\nEfficient Teachers of Elementary Branches ?\n\nHow Can Normal School Produce, 533.\nElementary Education, Department of, 373.\nElementary Education, Lessons from the\nUnited States Exhibit of, 173.\nElementary School, Curriculum of the, 374.\nElementary School, Manual Training in\nthe, 253.\n\nForeign Education, 309.\nForeign Educational Exhibits,\nThe\nHoward J. Rogers, 161.\nForms and Limitations of Handwork for\nGirls in the High School\nKatherine E.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nDopp, 580; Discussion, 586.\nFoshay, J. A.\n\n—Discussion, 655.\n\nReport of Committee on Se-\n\nFraternities,\n\ncret, 445.\nFrederick, J. M. H.\nDiscussion, 145,\nFULMER, C. A. Relation of the Grade\nTeacher to Music Instruction in the Pub Uc Schools, 650.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nFuture of Teachers' Salaries, The—W. T.\nHarris, 67;\n\nDiscussion, 78.\n\n—\n\nGantvoort, A. J. Discussion, 656.\nGeneral Sessions, 57.\nGenetic Point of View, Education\n\nFrom\n\nthe, 727.\n\nElementary Schools, Departmental Teach-\n\nGeography and History, Right Methods of\n\ning in, 293.\nElementary Schools, Science Teaching in,\n\nGeometry and Algebra,\n\nStudying, 391.\nstruction in, 466.\n\n798.\n\nElementary Schools, Teaching of Arithr\nmetic in, 380.\nElementary Teachers,\n\nIndividual\n\nIn-\n\n—\n\nGibson, Miss A. Grace Relation of Drawing to First- Year Reading, 397.\n\n—\n\n540,\n\nGiDDiNGS, Franklin H. The Social and\nLegal Aspect of Compulsory Education\n\nEliot,\nEdward C. A Non-Partisan\nSchool Law, 223.\nEllis, A. Caswell\nDiscussion, 732.\nEnglish Composition, The Study of, 407.\nEnglish Conference, 454.\nEnglish Teaching, The Aims of, 454.\nEntrance to the Professions, 301.\nEssential Elements of Study in a University Course in Commerce: I, From the\nPoint of View of the University of Michi-\n\nand Child Labor, in.\nGiddings, Margaret Discussion, 371.\nDiscussion, 362.\nGilbert, Charles B.\nGiLLEY, Frank M. President's Address,\nDepartment of Science Instruction, 782.\nGoodwin, Edwin J. Discussion, 510.\nGordy, Wilbur F. Discussion, 413.\nGove, Aaron Discussion, 251.\nGrades, Manual Training in the, 121.\n\n542.\n\nTraining\n\nof,\n\n—\n\n—\n\ngan\n\n—Edward D. Jones, 689;\n\nII,\n\nFrom\n\nthe Point of View of Dartmouth College\n\nFrom the\n—Harlow Person, 692;\nPoint of View of the University of Pennsylvania—James T. Young, 696.\nEthnological Study of Our Indians\nthe\nSouthwest—Miss Mabelle Biggart, 934.\nEvans, Lawton B. —Discussion,\nIII,\n\nS.\n\nin\n\n261.\n\nEvening Schools, Industrial Training in\nPublic, 570.\n\nExcessive Expansion in the Course of\nStudy, The—William L. Bryan, 482.\nExecutive Committee, Who Shall Constitute, 2.\n\nExhibit, The American Educational, 167.\nExhibits, The Foreign Educational, 161.\nExtracts From a Recent Investigation in\nSociology Miss Mary R. Campbell, 906.\nFairy Stories, Their Value and Place, 871.\nFarrand, Wilson Secretary's Minutes, Department of Secondary Education, 424.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nFeeble-Minded, Schools for the, 903.\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n—\n—\n—\n\n—\n—\n\nGreen, James M. Address of Welcome, 57.\nGreenlee, L. C. The Denver Method of\nAppointing and Advancing Teachers, 245\nGreenwood, James M. The Kansas\nCity Method of Appointing and Pro-\n\n—\n\nmoting Teachers, 248; The Professional\nCulture of Teachers After They Have\nBeen Regularly Employed in School\n\nWork, 325.\nand Resume of Work from\nOfficials and Friends, Indian Depart-\n\nGreetings\n\nment, 926.\nGregory, Christopher\n\n—Discussion, 433.\n—\n\nGriffiths, Miss Fannie B. The Relation of Writing to Reading, 397.\nGriggs, Herbert Discussion, 656.\n\n—\n—\n\nGriswold, W. L. Discussion, 435.\nGroup Morality of Children, The George\nE. Vincent, 214.\nGunnison, Walter B. Should the Entire Energy of a High School Principal\nBe Given to Matters of Administration ?\n\n—\n\n—\n\n452-\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nHall, James\n\n—The Aims of Drawing as\n\na Subject of Public School Instruction\nin Grammar Grades, 605; Discussion,\n623.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nRemain ? 436; Discussion, 864.\nHand-Work in Primary Schools Wilhelmina Seegmiller, 387; Discussion, 389.\nHaney, James Parton Manual Training\nThe\nin the Elementary School, 253;\nto\n\n—\n\n—\n\nTeaching of Applied Design, 615; Discussion, 569, 570.\nHandwork for Girls in the High School, 580,\n\nAda Van Stone\n\n365, 389-\n\n—Discussion,\n\n—\n\nW. T. Memorial Address on\nClara Conway, 334; Some of the Conditions which Cause Variation in the\nRate of School Expenditures in Different Localities, 195;\nThe Future of\nTeachers' Salaries, 67.\nHart, Maynard M. Discussion, 473.\nHartpence, John A. Discussion, 849.\nHarvey, H. Clay Discussion, 469.\nHartwell, Charles S.\nDiscussion, 436.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D. Manual Training\nin the Grades, 121.\nHastings, William W.\nDiscussion, 766.\nHarris,\n\n—\n—\n—\n—\n\n—\n—\nHayden, Philip C. — Report of Committee\n\non What Results Should Be Obtained in\nthe Study of Music in the Eight Grades\nof the Public Schools, 667; Secretary's\nMinutes, Department of Music Education, 630.\nHedges, Miss Anna C. Discussion, 586.\nHenderson, E. N. The Co-operation of\nUniversities and Normal Schools in the\nTraining of Secondary Teachers, 546.\n\n—\n\nHewett, Edwin C.f\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJohn W. Cook, 335.\nHigher Education, Department of, 481.\nHigh School Curriculum a^ Preparation\n\nfor Normal Course, 524.\nHigh School Principal, Should His Entire\nEnergy Be Given to Matters of Administration ? 452.\n\n— C. P. Cary, 236.\n— Chairs\n\n—\n\nManual Training ? F. M.\nMcMurry, 563; Discussion, 567.\nHow Can the Normal School Best Produce\nthe Value of\n\nTeachers of the Elementary\nBranches? Grant Karr, 533; DiscusEfficient\n\n—\n\nsion, 539.\n\nHow Does the Routine of the Kindergarten\nDevelop\n\nthe\n\n—\n\nPhysically? Mrs.\nDiscussion,\n\nChild\n\nAda Marean Hughes, 347;\n351-\n\nHow\n\nFar Should Physical Training Be\nEducational and How Far Recreative in\nColleges and Universities ? Miss Caroline Crawford, 775; R. Tait McKenzie,\n\n—\n\n778.\n\nHow\n\nFar Should Physical Training Be\nEducational and How Far Recreative in\nRebecca\nMiss\nGrammar Schools ?\nStoneroad, 768; Discussion, 772.\nHow Far Should Physical Training Be Educational and How Far Recreative in High\nSchools ? Clarence F. Carroll, 773.\nHow to Make the Library Useful to HighSchool Pupils— Robert H. Wright, 864.\nHowe, Agnes E. Secretary's Minutes, De-\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\npartment of Normal Schools, 519.\nHubbert, Harvey, H. Discussion 835.\n\n—\n\nHughes, Mrs. Ada Marean\n\nPedagogy\n\nin Colleges, 512.\n\n460.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nman, 113.\nImportance of the School- Yard for the\nPhysical Well-Being of School Children\nE. H. Arnold, 756.\nIndian Characteristics Miss Mary C.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJudd, 936.\nIndian Children, Normal School Teachers\nfor, 948.\n\nIndian Education, Department of, 925.\nIndian Education and Methods of Instruction\nMrs. Ameha S. Quinton, 947.\nIndian, Music of the American, 933.\nIndian Pupils, Teaching Them to Speak\n\n—\n\nIndians in the Southwest, Study of, 934.\nIndividual Instruction in Algebra and\nGeometry Frankhn Turner Jones, 466;\nDiscussion, 468.\nIndustrial Training in Public Evening\nSchools Charles F. Warner, 570.\nIndustry and Trade, The Study of Local,\n682.\n\n—\n\nIndustries, Education for the, 294.\n\nHow Can Children Study, 807.\nInsular Education, 307.\nInternational Drawing Teachers' Congress\nat Berne, 597.\nInvestigations and Appropriations, Report\nInsects,\n\nHoitt, Ira\n\nG.f— Charles C. Van Liew,\n\n331in\n\nStudent Life in Colleges and\nCharles Alphonso Smith,\n\nUniversities\n486.\n\n—\n\n—How Does\n\nthe Routine of the Kindergarten Develop\nthe Child Physically? 347.\nHughes, James L. Discussion, 253.\nHumphreys, S. P. Discussion, 436.\nImmigrant Child, The Miss Julia Rich-\n\n—\n\nof\n\nHistory Conference, 460.\nHistory and Geography, Right Methods of\nStudying, 391.\nHistory, What Facts Should Be Taught?\n\nHonor\n\nLibraries, 858.\n\nEnglish, 935.\n\nHigh School Privileges for Country Pupils\nHigh Schools, 294,\nHill, Albert Ross\n\n—\n\nHopkins, Miss Florence M. Methods\nof Instruction in the Use of High-School\n\nHow Can Class Teachers be Educated to\n\nHall, G. Stanley Child Study in the\nWhat\nUniversity and College, 710;\nChildren Do Read, and What They\nOught to Read, 868.\nHalleck, Reuben Post Why Do So\nMany First- Year Pupils Leave the High\nSchool ? Hovi^ Can They Be Induced\n\nHarris, Miss\n\n961\n\nof Committee on, 277.\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n962\n\n—Memorial Ad—\nEmma\n—\n—\nFeeble-Minded, 903.\nJones, Edward D. —The Essential EleJacobs,\n\nWalter Ballou\n\ndress on Horace Sumner Tarbell, 332.\nDiscussion, 588.\nJessup, Mrs. Annie L.\nL. Discussion,\nJohnston, Miss\n412.\nJohnstone, E. R. The Schools for the\n\nments of a Course in Commerce, from\nthe Point of View of the University of\nMichigan, 689.\nJones, Franklin Turner Individual Instruction\nin Algebra and Geometn%\n466.\nJournal of Proceedings, 21.\nJUDD, Miss Mary C. Indian Character-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nistics, 936.\nJuvenile Courts and Compulsory Education, 304.\nKansas City Method of Appointing and\n\n—\n\nAdvancing Teachers James M. Greenwood, 248.\nKarr, Grant How Can the Normal\nSchool Best Produce Efficient Teachers\nof the Elementary Branches ? 533.\n\n—\n\n—Discussion,\nKern, Walter M. — Discussion, 435.\nKeyes, Charles H. —The Necessity\nKeating, J. F.\n\n195.\n\nSpecial Manual-Training\n576.\nKilpatrick, Mr.\n\nfor\n\nHigh Schools,\n\n—Discussion,\n\n772.\n\nKindergarten Education,Department of, 341.\nKindergarten, How Does it Develop the\nChild Physically? 347; Current Criticism of the, 365.\nKindergartens,\nSupervision\nof\nPublicSchool, 354.\n\nKirk, John R.\n\n—Response\n—\n\nto\n\nAddress of\n\nPresident Roosevelt, 150.\nKiRKPATRiCK, E. A. Some Simple Methods of Recognizing Physical Fitness and\nUnfitness of School Children for School\nWork, 760; Discussion, 719.\nKiRTLAND, John C, Jr. The College\nRequirements and the Secondary-School\n\n—\n\nWork, 470.\n\n—Drawing and\n\nKissACK, Robert Ashton\n\nConstructive Work in Public Schools as\nShown by Exhibits at the St. Louis Exposition, 612; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Art Education, 592.\nLancaster, E. G. President's Address,\nDepartment of Child Study, 708; Dis-\n\n—\n\ncussion, 372.\n\n—\n—\n\n—Discussion, 579.\n—\n—\n\nLarkins, Charles D.\n\nLawrence, Miss Isabel A Problem for\nWomen's Clubs, 724.\nLeavitt, Frank M.\nSecretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Manuel Training, 558;\n\nBerne\n\nDrawn from the Interna-\n\nDrawing Teachers' Congress\n\n— Charles M. Carter, 597.\n\nHigh School, 858.\nLibraries and Library Privileges for Villages\nand Rural Communities C. P. Cary,\n854; Discussion, 857.\nLibrary Department, 853.\nLibrary, How to Make It Useful to HighSchool Pupils, 864.\nLiNSLEY, Arthur B. All Crime is Disease, 914.\nLiterature, Educational, 306.\nLocal Administration, Standards of, 86.\nLocke, Charles Edward Music as a\nFactor in Culture, 644.\nLord, Livingston C. Discussion, 541.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n—\nmund,\nLowRY, Charles D. —The Chicago Plan\n\nLowell Method of Appointing and Promoting Teachers Miss Gertrude Ed248.\n\nfor Appointing and Advancing Teachers,\n\n246.\n\n—\n\nLukens, Herman T. Discussion, 539.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram The American\nEducational Exhibit, Exclusive of Elementary Education, 167.\nLyttle, E. W. Should the Twelve-Year\nCourse of Study Be Equally Divided\nBetween the Elementary School and the\nSecondary School ? 428;\nDiscussion,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n436.\n\nMacdougall, Robert\n\n— On the Psychol—\n\nogy of Reading and Writing, 399.\nMacLean, George E. The Western\nMethod of Admitting to Colleges by\nCertificate vs. the Eastern Plan of Admitting only by Examination, 501.\nManual and Technical Training, The\nPractical Utility of, 134.\n\nManual\n\nDepartment\n\nTraining,\n\nof,\n\n557;\n\nHow Can Class Teachers be Educated\nto the\n\nValue of, 563.\n\nManual Training High Schools, The Necessity for, 576.\n\nManual Training in the Elementary School\n\n—James Parton Haney, 253. —Lorenzo\n\nManual Training in the Grades\nD. Harvey, 121.\n\nManual Training in the Secondary Grades\nand in Colleges Calvin M. Woodward,\n\n—\n\n262.\n\nMarsh, Miss Harriet A.\n\n— Child Study\n\n—\n\nMartin, George H. Child Labor and\nCompulsory Education The School Aspect, 103; Comparison of Modern Business Methods with Educational Methods,\n320;\n\nat\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 195.\n\nMathematics Conference, 466.\nMathematics and Science, Correlation of,\n788.\n\nMaxwell, Guy\n\nDiscussion, 569.\ntional\n\n—\n\n173Libraries,\n\nin Special Clubs, 721.\n\nLane, Albert G. Response to Address of\nWelcome, 58.\nLang, Ossian H. Discussion, 363.\n\nLessons to Be\n\nLessons from the United States Exhibit of\nElementary Education Ben Blewett,\n\nE.\n\n—The Co-operation\n\nof Universities and Normal Schools in\nthe Training of Elementary Teachers,\n\n542.\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "——\n\n.\n\nINDEX\nMaxwell, William H.\n\n— Charter Provi-\n\nsions as Related to the Organization of\nSchool Systems, 214; President's Address:\nEducation for Efficiency, 59;\nRemarks as Retiring President 44,; Re-\n\nport on Advisory Committee on Simplification of Spelling, 281; The New York\n\nMethod of Appointing and Promoting\nTeachers, 250.\n\n—\n\nMay, Mary C. Discussion, 389.\nMcClellan, George B. Standards\n\n—\n\nMcKee, J. H.—The Physical Betterment\nof the Mentally Deficient, 885.\n\n—How Far Should\n\nBe Educational and\nColleges and\n\nHow Far Recreative in\nUniversities? 778.\n\nMcMuRRY, Frank M.\n\n—How Can Class\n\nTeachers Be Educated to the Value of\nManual Training? 563; Right Methods\nof Studying History and Geography by\nChildren,\n\nDiscussion,\n\n391;\n\n532,\n\n541,\n\n569, 570-\n\nMeans of Increasing the Efficiency of Our\nPublic School Work: I, Providing Better\nTeachers, J. W. Carr, 180; II, Adequate\nLeadership, Progressive Teachers, and\nFewer Subjects Carroll G. Pearse, 184;\n\n—\n\nIII,\n\n—William\n\nChanging the View-Point\n\nCrane, 190.\nMeetings, 3.\nMembership, Classes and Conditions of, i.\nMemorial Addresses, National Council, 329.\nMentally Deficient Children, Our Limitations in Educating, 895.\nMentally Deficient, The Physical BetterI.\n\nment of the, 885.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nJenny B. Discussion, 364.\nMethods of Appointing and Advancing\nTeachers in Various Cities, 244.\nMethods of Instruction in the Use of HighSchool Libraries Miss Florence M.\nHopkins, 858; Discussion, 864.\nMethods of Supervision of Public-School\n\n—\n\n—\n\nHarriette Mehssa Mills,\n354; Discussion, 360.\nMicroscope, Teaching Biology with a Projection, 814.\nMighell, Miss Ida Discussion, 420.\nMiller, Miss Mary Jean President's\nAddress, Department of Kindergarten\n\nKindergartens\n\nModern High-School Curriculum as Preparation for a Two-Year Normal Course\nDavid Felmley, 524; Discussion, 531.\n\nModern Languages Conference, The, 475.\nModern Language, The Direct Method of\n\n—\n\nEducation, 342.\n\n—\n\n—Methods of\n\nMills, Harriette Melissa\n\nof Public School Kindergartens, 354.\nMinutes of Annual Business Meeting of\n\nSupervision\n\nActive Members, 23.\n\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,\nfor 1904-5, 46, 47; Adjourned Meeting,\n48; for 1905-6, 52.\n\n•\n\nMoral and Rehgious Training, 291.\n\nCommittee on Secret Fraternities, 445.\nMosely Commission, 287.\nMosher, Charles L. Discussion, 434.\nMurray, May Secretary's Minutes, De-\n\n—\n\n—\n\npartment\n\nof\n\nKindergarten\n\nEducation,\n\n342.\n\nMuseums, The Uses of Educational, 80.\nMusic of the American Indian Miss\n\n—\n\nNatalie Curtis, 933.\nMusic, Correlation with Other Branches,\n637-\n\nMusic Education, Department of, 627.\nMusic as a Factor in Culture Charles\n\n—\n\nEdward Locke, 644.\nMusic in the Grades, Report of Committee\non, 667.\nInstruction in New York City\nSchools, 657.\nMusic Instruction in the PubUc Schools,\nRelation of Grade Teacher to, 650,\nMusic a Major Study, Some Questions In-\n\nMusic\n\nvolved in Making, 633.\nMusic in the PubHc Schools, Mission of, 630.\nMusic, Teaching of, 662.\nMuzzEY, David Saville What Facts of\nAncient History Should Be Taught to\n\n—\n\nPupils of the\n\nMerit System of Appointing and Promoting\nTeachers, The, 241.\nMerit System in St. Louis Ben Blewett, 241\nMerrill,\n\n—The Teaching\n\nof Composition, 458.\n\n—\n\n— Discussion, 773.\nM. — Discussion, 952.\n\nPhysical Training\n\nMitchell, Theodore C.\n\nMorality of Children, The Group, 214.\nMorrison, Gilbert B. Report of the\n\nLocal Administration, 86.\n\nMcKenzie, R. Tait\n\nMission of Music in the PubUc Schools,\nThe—A. E. Winship, 630.\n\nTeaching, 475.\nof\n\nMcConkey, Miss\n\nMcCowan, S.\n\n963\n\nSecondary Schools that\n\nThey May Better Understand the World\nThey Live in? 461.\nNational Council of Education, 271; Constitution of, 271; Officers of, for 1905-6,\n273;\n274;\n\nCommittee of, 274; Members of,\nSecretary's Minutes, 276.\n\nThe\nEducational Purpose,\nAndrew S. Draper, 89.\nNecessity for More and Better-Equipped\nDay Schools, The J. J. Duncan, 954;\nNation's\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 955.\nNecessity for Special\n\nManual Training\nHigh Schools, The— Charles H. Keyes,\n576;\n\nDiscussion, 579.\n\nNeeded Legislation in School Architecture\n\n— C. B.\n\nJ.\n\nSnyder, 843; Discussion, 849.\n\nNewark Method of Appointing and Pro-\n\n—Addison B. Poland,\nNewman, Hugo—Science Teaching in\nmoting Teachers\n249.\n\nElementary Schools, 798.\n\nNew York City Schools, Music Instruction\nin, 657.\n\nNew York Method of Appointing and Promoting Teachers\n250.\n\n—WilHam H. Maxwell,\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n964\n\nA— Edward C.\n\nNonpartisan School Law,\nEliot, 223.\n\nNornial Schools, Child Study in, 714.\n\nNormal Schools, Department of, 517.\nNormal Schools for Training Teachers for\n\n—\n\nIndian Children John D. Benedict,\n948; Discussion, 952.\nNotes on a Few Books in Child Study\nLouis N. Wilson, 751.\nNoyes, Ernest C. Discussion, 444, 459.\nNoyes, William Discussion, 589.\n\n—\n—\n\nOfficers,\n\nConstitutional Provisions for, 2;\n\nMethod of Election, 2.\nOfficers of General Association, 1904-5, 8;\n\n1905-6, 12.\n\nOmaha Method of Appointing and Advancing Teachers\n\n—Wm. M. Davidson,\n\n246.\nthe Psychology of Reading and Writing\n\nOn\n\n—Robert Macdougall, 399; Discussion,\n405-\n\nOn the\nas a\n\nStudy of\n\nEnglish\n\nComposition\nMiss\n\nMeans of Acquiring Power\n\n—\n\nGeorgia Alexander, 407.\n\nOppenheim,\n\nNathan\n\n—The Recognition\n\nof the Physical Development of the Child\nin the Training of Kindergartners, 344.\nOral Practice, 417.\nO'Shea, M. V. Current Criticism of the\n\n—\n\nKindergarten, 365.\nOutlines of Methods of Appointing and\nAdvancing Teachers in Various Cities,\n244; Discussion, 250.\nParsons, William Barclay The Practical Utility of Manual and Technical\nTraining, 134.\nPatterson, I. FrankHn Discussion, 445.\n\n—\n\nPearse, Carroll G.\n\n—\n—Adequate Leader-\n\nProgressive Teachers, and\nSubjects, 184; Discussion, 370.\nPensions, Teachers', 297.\nship,\n\nFewer\n\n—\n\n—\n\nResults\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nOrganization\n\nof\n\nHigher Courses in Commerce in Dart-\n\nmouth College, 698.\nPeterson, W. M.\nDiscussion, 952.\nPhysical Betterment of the Mentally Deficient,\nJ. H. McKee, 885.\nPhysical Development of the Child in the\nTraining of Kindergarteners, 344, 347.\nPhysical Education, Department of, 755.\nPhysical Training in Colleges and Univer-\n\n—\n\nThe—\n\nsities,\n\ners, 249.\nPractical Utility of Manual and Technical\n\nPhysical Training in\n\nGrammar\n\nThe\n\nTraining,\n\n—WiUiam Barclay Par-\n\nsons, 134.\n\n—Discussion, 531.\n— Discussion, 396.\nPresident's Address—William H. Maxwell,\nPray, T. B.\nPrentiss,\n\nMr.\n\n59-\n\nPresident's Address, Department of Business Education, 671; of Child Study,\n708; of Elementary Education, 374; of\nGeneral Association, 59; of Higher Education, 482; of Kindergarten Education,\n342; of Library, 854; of Manual Training, 558; of Normal Schools, 519; of\nPhysical Education, 756; of Science Instruction, 782; of Secondary Education,\n424; of Special Education, 883.\nPrimary Schools, Hand-Work in, 387.\nPrincipals' Conference, 452.\nProblem for Women's Clubs, A. Miss\nIsabel Lawrence, 724.\nProblems that Perplex, The Arthur Henry\n\n—\n\n—\n\nChamberlain, 558.\nProfessional and Baccalaurate Courses, 299.\nProfessional Culture of Teachers After They\nHave Been Regularly Employed in\nSchool Work James M. Greenwood,\n\n—\n\n325Professions, Entrance to the, 301.\nProjection Microscope in Teaching Biology,\n\n814.\n\nPromoting Teachers, The Merit System of\nAppointing and, 241.\nProposed Bill of Incorporation, 26; Same\nas Amended, 34.\n\nProposed By-Laws, 37.\nProviding Better Teachers\n\n—\n\nJ.\n\nW.\n\nCarr,\n\nPsychology of Reading and Writing, 399.\nPublic Evening Schools, Industrial Training in, 570.\nPubHc Libraries and Public Schools, Report of Committee on, 278.\nPublic Library as Integral Part of Our Educational System, 302.\nPublic School Work, Means of Increasihg\nthe Efficiency of, 180.\nDiscussion, 642, 666.\nPutt, W. A.\nQualifications of Commercial Teachers\n\n—\n\nWilliam C. Stevenson, 671.\n\n—\n\nQuinton, Mrs. Amelia S. Indian Education and Methods of Instruction, 947.\nReading in the First School Year Mrs.\n\n—\n\nAlice\n\n775, 778.\n\nSchools,\n\n768.\n\nPhysical Training in High Schools, 773.\nPhysics Courses, Report of Committee on,\n814.\n\nW. Cooley, 393;\n\nDiscussion, 395.\n\nReading, Relation of Drawing to FirstYear, 397.\nReading, The Relation of Writing to, 397.\nReading and Writing, The Psychology of,\n399-\n\nPhysics for High Schools, 817.\nPOGUE, Mary E. Concerning Our Limi-\n\n—\n\ntations in\n\n—\n\nPoland, Addison B. The Newark Method of Appointing and Promoting Teach-\n\n180.\n\nPerry, Reuben Teaching Indian Pupils\nto Speak English, 935.\nPerson, Harlow S. The Essential Elements of a Course in Commerce, from\nthe Point of View of Dartmouth College,\n692;\n\n—\n\nEducating Mentally Deficient\n\nChildren, 895.\n\nRecent Progress in School Administration\nWilliam George Bruce, 828.\nRecent Progress in School Architecture\n\nSeymour Davis, 836; Discussion, 842.\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\nINDEX\nRecognition of the Physical Development\nof the Child in the Training of Kinder-\n\n—\n\ngartners Nathan Oppenheim, 344.\nReel, Miss Estelle Greetings and Resume of Work, 931; Secretary's Minutes\n\n—\n\nof Indian Education, 926.\nReigart, J. F.\nDiscussion, 360, 395, 396.\nReinhardt, Anna C. What Has Been\nDone with One Deaf Child in His\nHome, 900.\nRelation of the Child's Development to\nControl of Him Dr.\nE. Tanner,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nOwn\n\nAmy\n\nDiscussion, 740.\nRelation of Drawing to First- Year Reading\nMiss A. Grace Gibson, 397.\nRelation of the Grade Teacher to Music\nInstruction in the Public Schools\nC. A.\nFulmer, 650; Discussion, 654.\nRelation of Writing to Reading Miss\nFannie B. Griffiths, 397.\nReorganization of School Systems, Charter\nProvisions as Related to the, 231.\nReport of Advisory Committee on Simplification of Spelling\nWilliam H. Maxwell, 281.\nReport of Committee on Interstate Recognition of High Grade Teachers' Certifi734;\n\n—\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\ncates, 240.\n\nReport of Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations, 277.\n\nReport of Committee on Physics Courses,\n815.\n\nReport of the Committee on Proposed Investigations on the Culture Element and\n\nEconomy of Time in Education, 279.\nReport of Committee on Public Libraries\n\nand Public Schools, 278.\n\n—\n\nGilbert B. Morrison, 445.\nReport- of Committee on Simplification of\nSpelling, 157.\n\nReport of Committee on What Results\nShould Be Obtained in the Study of\nMusic in the Eight Grades of the PubHc\nSchools Chairman, Philip C. Hayden,\n\n—\n\n667.\n\nReport on the Educational Progress of the\n\nYear Howard J. Rogers, 286.\nResponse to Address of Welcome\n\n—Albert\n\nG. Lane, 58.\nResponse to the Address of President\nRoosevelt, John R. Kirk, 150;\nMiss\nKatherine D. Blake, 152.\nResults of the Organization of Higher\nCourses in Commerce: I, In Dartmouth\nCollege Harlow S. Person, 698; II, In\n\n—\n\nthe University of Pennsylvania,\n\nJames\n\nT. Young, 703.\nReview of the Educational Features of the\nUniversal Exposition at St. Louis: I, The\nForeign Educational Exhibits Howard\nJ. Rogers, 161; II, The American Educational Exhibit\nEliphalet Oram Lyte,\n167; Lessons from the United States Ex-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nof Elementary\nBlewett, 173.\n\nhibit\n\nRice, Charles I.\n\nRichman,\n\n—Discussion, 656.\nJulia—The Immigrant\n\nMiss\n\nChild, 113.\n\nRight Methods of Studying History and\nGeography by Children Frank M.\n\n—\n\nMcMurry, 391.\n\n—\n\nFrank R. Some Features of Music\nInstruction in the Schools of New York\n\nRix,\n\nCity, 657.\n\nRobson, Frank H.\n\nRogers,\n\n—Discussion, 433.\n\nHoward J. —The Foreign Edu-\n\ncational Exhibits,\n\n161;\n\nReport on the\n\nEducational Progress of the Year, 286.\nRoosevelt, Theodore Address, 146.\n\n—\n\nRound Table Conferences, Department of\nElementary\n\nEducation,\n\n387;\n\nDepart-\n\nment of Art Instruction, 603.\n\nRound Table Conferences, Secondary Department, 452.\n\nRound Table of City Superintendents, 241;\nof\n\nState\n\nand County Superintendents,\n\n236.\n\n—\n\nThe School and the\nChild's Physical Development, 742; Discussion, 405, 533.\nRural Schools, 296.\nSchauffler, A. T.— Botany, 806.\nSchool Administration, Department of,\n827; Recent Progress in, 828, 836.\nSchool Architecture, Needed Legislation in,\nRowE, Stuart H.\n\n843-\n\nSchool and College Athletics, 293.\nSchool and the Child's Physical Development, The Stuart H. Rowe, 742; Discussion, Frank G. Bruner, 749.\nSchool Expenditures in Different Localities,\n\n—\n\n195-\n\nReport of Committee on Secret Fraternities\n\n—\n\n96s\n\nEducation\n\n—Ben\n\nSchool Law, A Nonpartisan, 223.\nSchool Legislation, 289.\nSchool Systems, Charter Provisions as Related to the Organization of, 214.\nSchool Systems, Charter Provisions as Related to the Reorganization of, 231.\nSchoolmaster, The William Schuyler, 424.School-Yard, The Importance of, for School\n\n—\n\nChildren, 756.\nSchools for the Feeble-Minded, The E.\nR. Johnstone, 903.\nSchuyler, William The Schoolmaster,\n424; Discussion, 579.\nScience and Arts, Congress of, 305.\nScience Instruction, Department of, 781.\nScience and Mathematics, Correlation of,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n788.\n\nScience Teaching in Elementary Schools\nHugo Newman, 798; Discussion, 806.\nScience Work of a Four- Year Commercial\nCourse, The Allan Davis, 678.\nScott, W. Some Questions Involved in\nMaking Music a Major Study, 633.\nSt. Louis Exposition, Educational Exhibit\n\n—\n\n—\n\nat the, 305.\nSt.\n\nThe Merit System in, 241.\nThe Future of Teachers', 67.\n\nLouis,\n\nSalaries,\n\nSalaries, Shall the State Regulate Teachers,\n\n831.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n966\n\nSalaries, Teachers', 298.\n\n—Discussion, 772.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C. — Remarks as\nPresident Elect,\nSchaffer, Anna E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Special Education, 882.\nMr. — Discussion, 858, 864.\nSearson,\nW. — Discussion, 444.\nSavage, Ray K.\n\n45.\n\nScott,\n\nJ.\n\nSecondary Education, Department of, 423.\nSecondary-School Work and College Re-\n\nEducation, 591; of Business Education,\n669; of Child Study, 707; of Council of\nEducation, 276; of Elementary Education,\nof General Association, 21; of\n373;\nHigher Education, 481; of Indian Education, 925; of Kindergarten Education,\n341; of Library, 853; of Manual Training, 557; of Music Education, 627; of\nNormal Schools, 517; of Physical Education, 755; of School Administration, 827;\nof Science Instruction, 782; of Secondary Education, 423; of Special Education, 881; of Superintendence, 155.\nSecret Fraternities, Report of Committee\non, 445.\nSeegmiller, Wilhelmina Hand-Work in\nPrimary Schools, 387,\nSenter, H. A.^Secretary's Minutes, Department of Science Instruction, 781.\nShall the State Regulate Teachers' Salaries ?\nFrank H. Sommer, 831; Discussion, 835.\nShould the Entire Energy of a High School\nPrincipal Be Given to Matters of Administration ? Walter B. Gunnison, 452;\nDiscussion, 453.\nShould the T?welve-Year Course of Study\nBe Equally Divided Between the Elementary School and the Secondary\nSchool? E. W. Lyttle, 428; Discussion,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nShroyer, Miss Discussion, 864.\nSimplification of Spelling, Report of Advisory Committee on, 281.\nSipe, Miss Susan B.—The Work of the\nBureau of Plant Industry as Related to\nIndian\nAgricultural\nInstruction\nin\nSchools, 938.\nSkiff, Frederick J. V. The Uses of\n\n—\n\nEducational Museums, 80.\nSmith, A. F. Discussion, 436.\nSmith, Charles Alphonso Honor in\nStudent Life in Colleges and Universities,\n\n—\n\n486.\n\nSmith,\n\nFrank Webster\n\n— Child Study in\n\nNormal Schools, 714.\nSome of the Commoner\nInsects, and How the Children Can\n.Study Them, 807.\nSnyder, C. B. J. Needed Legislation in\nSmith, John B.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nSchool Architecture, 843.\nSnyder, Z. X. The Co-operation of Universities and Normal Schools in the\nTraining of Secondary Teachers, 551.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nH. Giddings, iii.\nSociology, Recent Investigation in, 906.\nSoLDAN, F. Louis Charter Provisions as\nRelated to the Reorganization of School\n\n—\n\nThe Educational Value\n\nSystems, 231;\n\nof Drawing, 592.\n\nSome of the Common Insects, and How the\nChildren Can Study Them—John B.\nSmith, 807.\n\nquirements, 470.\n\nSecondary Teachers, Training of, 546, 551.\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Art\n\n—\n\nand Legal Aspect of Compulsory\nEducation and Child Labor FrankUn\n\nSocial\n\nSome of the Conditions Which Cause Variation in the Rate of School Expenditures\nin Different Localities\nW. T. Harris, 195.\nSome Features of Music Instruction in the\nYork City— Frank R.\nSchools of\n\n—\n\nNew\n\nRix, 657.\n\nSome Questions Involved in Making Music\na Major Study W. Scott, 633.\nSome Simple Methods of Recognizing\n\n—\n\nPhysical\nFitness\nand Unfitness of\nSchool Children for School Work—E. A.\nKirkpatrick, 760; Discussion, 766.\n\nSome Type Forms That Have Been Found\nUseful in the Teaching of Music in the\nSchools Walter H. Aiken, 662; Dis-\n\n—\n\ncussion, 666.\n\nSommer, Frank H.\n\n— Shall the State Regu-\n\nlate Teachers' Salaries, 831.\n\nSound and Sound Physiology, 416.\nSouth, Education in the, 296.\nSpecial Clubs, Child Study in, 721.\nSpecial Education, 303; Department of, 881.\nSpelling, Report of Committee on Simplification of, 157.\nDiscussion, 955.\nSquires, Walter P.\nStandards of Local Administration George\nB. McClellan, 86.\nState and County Superintendents, Round\nTable of, 236.\nState Graded Schools, 238.\nStatement of the Issues Before the Department Charles C. Van Liew, 519.\nDiscussion, 567.\nStetson, W. W.\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nStevenson, William C. QuaUfications\nof Commercial Teachers, 671.\nDiscussion 656.\nStewart, N. Coe,\nStone, Miss Discussion, 772.\nStoneroad, Miss Rebecca How Far\nShould Physical Training Be Educational\nand How Far Recreative in Grammar\nSchools, 768; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Education, 755.\nStraubenmuller,\nGustave Teaching\nOur Language to Non-English Speaking\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\n—\n\nPupils, 413.\n\nStudent Life in Colleges and Universities,\n\nHonor in, 486.\nStudy of Local Industry and Trade\n\n—John\n\nL. Tildsley, 682.\nSubjects for Investigation of the National\nCouncil, 320.\nSullivan, James What Facts of History\nShould Be Taught Pupils in Secondary\nSchools That They May Better Understand the World They Live In ? 460.\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "—\n\n—\n\nINDEX\n\n967\n\n;\n\nSummer Schools, University, 302.\n\nUniversity Summer Schools, 302.\n\nSuperintendence, Department of, 155.\nSuperintendents, Round Table of City, 241\nof State and County, 236.\nSupervision of Public School Kindergartens,\n\nUses\n\nMethods of, 354.\n:\n\nof Modern Business Methods with Educational Methods\nGeorge H. Martin,\n320; II, The Professional Culture of\nTeachers After They Have Been Regularly Employed in School Work\nJames\n\n—\n\nM. Greenwood, 325.\nTanner, Dr. Amy E.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nRelation of the\nChild's Development to Control of Him,\n734.\n\n—Walter Bal-\n\nTarbell, Horace Sumnerj\n\nlou Jacobs, 332.\nTeachers' Certificates, Report of Committee on Interstate Recognition of, 240,\nTeachers' Pensions and Carnegies' Gift, 97.\nTeachers, Professional Culture of, 325.\nTeachers, Providing Better, 180.\nTeachers' Salaries, 298; The Future of,\n67; Shall the State Regulate, 831.\nTeaching of Applied Design, The James\nParton Haney, 615; Discussion, 623,\nTeaching of Arithmetic in Elementary\nSchools, The—M. A. Bailey, 380; Dis-\n\n—\n\n—\n\nVanderlip, Frank A. The Economic Importance of Trade Schools, 141.\nVan Liew, Charles C. A Statement of\nthe Issues Before the Department, 519;\nMemorial Address on Ira G. Hoitt 331.\nVan Sickle, James H. The Baltimore\nMethod of Appointing and Advancing\n\n—\n\n—\n\nTeachers, 244.\nView-Point, Changing the, 190.\nVincent, George E. The Group Morality of Children, 214.\nWaddle, Charles A. Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Child Study, 707.\n\n—\n—\n\n—\n\nWalker, John Brisben What Should\nBe the Education of a Business Man ?\n674.\n\n—\n\nWarner, Charles F. Industrial Training in PubUc Evening Schools, 570,\n\n—\n—\nWestcott, O.\n—Discussion, 477.\n\nWaterhouse, A. H. Discussion, 453.\nWebster, C. I. Discussion, 445.\nS.\n\nWestern Method of Admitting to Colleges\nby Certificate vs. the Eastern Plan of Admitting Only by Examination George\n\n—\n\nE.\n\nMacLean, 501;\n\nDiscussion, 501.\n\nWhat Children Do Read, and What They\nOught to Read— G. Stanley Hall, 868.\n\nWhat Facts of Ancient History Should Be\n\ncussion, 387.\n\nTeaching Biology from Living Plants and\nAnimals with a Projection Microscope\nAaron Hodgman Cole, 814.\nTeaching of Composition, The Theodore\n\n—\n\nC. Mitchell, 458; Discussion, 459.\nTeaching Indian Pupils to Speak English\nReuben Perry, 935.\n\nTeaching Our Language to Non-English\nSpeaking Pupils Gustave Strauben-\n\n—\n\nDiscussion, 420.\n\nTeaching of Music in the Schools, 662.\n\n—\n—\n\nThomas, Isaac Discussion, 443.\nThomas, Mrs. Discussion, 655.\n\n—\n\nTiLDSLEY, John L. The Study of Local\nIndustry and Trade, 682.\nTrade and Industry, The Study of Local,\n682.\n\nTrade Schools, The Economic Importance\nof, 141.\n\nTraining of Elementary Teachers, 540, 542.\nTraining of Kindergartners, 344.\nTraining of Secondary Teachers, 546, 551.\nTreasurer, Annual Report of, 16.\nTrustees, Annual Report of, 18; Board\nof, 3-\n\n—\n\n871.\n\nSupplementary Education, 304,\nSymposium What Are at Present the Most\nPromising Subjects for Such Investigations as the National Council of Education Should Undertake ?\nI, Comparison\n\nmiiller, 413;\n\nof Educational Museums, The\nFrederick J. V. SMff, 80.\nValue and Place of Fairy Stories in the\nEducation of Children Percival Chubb,\n\n—\n\nTuttle, Dr.\nDiscussion, 858.\nUnited States Exhibit of Elementary Education, Lessons from, 173.\nUniversity and College, Child Study in the,\n710.\n\nUniversity Course in Commerce, Essential\nElements of Study in a, 689.\n\nTaught\n\nto Pupils of the Secondary\nSchools, in Order That They May\nBetter Understand the World They Live\nIn? David Saville Muzzey, 461.\nWhat Facts of History Should Be Taught\nPupils in Secondary Schools That They\nMay Better Understand the Worid They\nLive in ? James SuUivan, 460.\n\n—\n\n—\n\nWhat Has Been Done with One Deaf Child\nin His\n\nOwn Home—^Anna C. Reinhardt,\n\n900.\n\nWhat Should Be the Education of a Busi-\n\n—\n\nness Man John Brisben Walker, 674.\nWhite, John Alfred Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Business Education, 670.\nWhitney, Evangeline E. Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence,\n\n—\n\n—\n\n161.\n\nWhy Do So Many First- Year Pupils Leave\nthe High School? How Can They Be\nInduced\n\nto\n\nRemain ?\n\nReuben\n\nPost\n\nHalleck, 436; Discussion, 443.\nWilkinson, J. N. Discussion, 857.\n\n—\n—Notes on a Few Books\nin Child Study, 751.\nWiNSHiP, A. E. —The Mission of Music in\nthe Public Schools, 630.\nWright, Robert H. —How\nMake the\n\nWilson, Louis N.\n\nto\n\nLibrary Useful to High-School Pupils,\n864.\n\nWriting and Reading, The Psychology of,\n399-\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\n968\n\n—\n\nWolf, Ernest The Direct Method of\nTeaching a Modern Language, 475.\nWomen's Clubs, A Problem for, 724.\nWoodward, Calvin M. Manual Training in the Secondary Grades and in\n\n—\n\nCoUeges, 262.\n\nYeomans,\n\nRuth\n\n—Secretary's Minutes,\n\nLibrary Department, 854.\n\nYoung, James T.\n\n—The Essential Ele-\n\nments of a Course in Commerce, from\n\nView of the University of\nPennsylvania, 696; Results of the Organization of Higher Courses in Commerce in the University of Pennsylvania,\nthe Point of\n\n703.\n\n"}
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{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n13\nN3A13\n1905\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings.,.\n\nPLEASE DO NOT REMOVE\n\nCARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY\n\n"}
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