{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nMicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1904natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "\"I\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCAT10^^i^ ASSOCIATION\n\noi \"\n\nJournal\nOF\n\nSpecial\n\nProceedings and Addresses\nOF THE\n\nFORTY-THIRD\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETtNG\n\nHELD AT\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMISSOURI\n\nIN CONNECTION\n\n■\n\nWITH\n\nTHE LOUISIANA PURCHASE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nJUNE 27-JULY\nI\n1904\n\n1904\npubllBbcO b« tbc B00Odatlon\nsecretary's\n\noffice,\n\nWINONA,\n\nMINN.\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\nId\n\nTHE\n\nPRINTED\nAT\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CHICAGO\nCHICAGOj ILLINOIS\n\n•\n\nr.»\n\n•\n\nPRESS\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCONTENTS\nPAGE\n\nConstitution\n\n.\n\nI\n\nBy-Laws\nAct of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\nOfl&cers for 1903-4 .\nOfficers for 1904-5 .\nReport of Treasurer\nReport of Trustees .\n\n4\n4\n6\n8\n16\n12\n18\nGENERAL\n\nSESSIONS\n\nJournal of Proceedings\n......\nMinutes of Annual Meeting of Active Members\nReport of Committee on Resolutions\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1903-4\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors for 1904-5\nAddresses of Welcome — Carrington, Woodward, Soldan, Wells, Francis, Rogers,\nCJiapUn\n........\n43-54\n55.59\nResponses — Harris, Mclver\nPresident's Address: The Need of a New Individualism — Cook\n104\nRelation of the Church to Higher Education — James\n62\n114\n68 127\nPopular Education in England — Atkin\n....\nEducational Possibilities for the Country Child in the United States — Kern\nEducational Needs of the South — Phillips\nEducation in the Philippines — Bryan\n134 145\n100\nOur Educational Creed — Snyder\nNew Departure in Secondary Education — Sheppard\nEducation in the American Navy — Goodrich\n94\n120\nEducation in Porto Rico — Lindsay\n.\n157\n163\nEducation of the Southern Negro — Washington\n128 167\nThe Place of the Small College — Gates\nPreparation of Teachers in Germany — Bahlsen .\n140\nWhy Teachers Should Organize — Haley\n.\nLimitations of the Superintendent's Authority and of the Teacher's Independence —\nGove\n.......\n173\nArt Exhibits in the Exposition — Ives\n152\n179\nSculpture and Decoration at the Exposition — Zolnay\nArchitecture of the Exposition — Zolnay\n183\nDEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\n(Atlanta Meeting, 1904)\nSecretary's Minutes .\n.\n•\n•. •\nEducation at the Universal Expositions^'\nI. From the View-Point of the Chief of the J^ep&Ttment— Rogers\nII. Exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education— JIarm\nHI. Some City Exhibits: Their Purpose and Plan—\nA. St. Louis — Soldan ....•••\nB. City of New York — Edson\n\n185\n184\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "IV\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n194\n\n223\nCourse of Study in Elementary Schools —\n214\nI. The Superintendent's Influence on the Course of Study — Elson\n188\nII. What Omissions Are Advisable in the Present Course of Study — McMurry\n202\nDiscussion — Mark, Phillips, Marsh ....\n206\nAthletics and Collateral Activities in Secondary Schools — Boynton\nHerbert Spencer (A Symposium) —\nI. Herbert Spencer and His Influence on Education — Harris\n242449\nII. Herbert Spencer's Four Famous Essays — Cook\n226 259\nIII. Herbert Spencer's Individuality — Sutton\n230\nIV. Herbert Spencer as an Educational Force — Winship\n231\nV. Herbert Spencer as a Philosopher — Rose\nEducational Principles for the South — I, Dahney; II, Mclver\n.\n.\n.\n235. 24624 27\n7\nThe Factory Child — Evans\n.\n,\n.\nThe Ethical Element in Education — Hill\n....\nAdministration and Supervision —\nI. The Superintendent as a Man of Affairs — Maxwell .\n284\nII. The Assistant to the Superintendent — Miss Reynolds\n294\n271\nIII. The Management of Special Departments — Kendall\nDiscussion — Bass ......\nExtension of Public-School Privileges —\n278\nI. The Organization of a System of Evening Schools — Balliet\nII. Adult Education — Leipziger ......\nIII. University Extension for Teachers in Service — Halsey\nIV. Vacation Schools, Playgrounds, and Recreation Centers — Miss Whitney\n303\n298\nDiscussion — Nelson\n........\n\nROUND\n\nTABLES\n\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents —\nRecognition of Certificates and Diplomas — Wolfe ....\nDiscussion — Nash\n........\nIncreasing the Efl5ciency of Rural Schools — Lefevre\nConsolidation of Schools — Joyner .......\nImprovements in Course of Study and System of Grading — Fall\nHigher Standards in the Employment of Teachers — V enable, Brittain\nExpert Supervision — Hill ........\nRound Table of City Superintendents —\nExpediency of Importing Teachers of Approved Merit — Button\nShould Teachers Present Evidences of Increasing Scholarship — Small\nDiscussion — Van Sickle .......\nNATIONAL\n\n• 307\n• 309\n• .306\n313\n• 316\n• 321\n3i9»\n320\n• 322\n• 326\n• 330\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nConstitution\n......\nOflScers and Members\n.\n.\n.\nSecretary's Minutes ....\nThe Lessons of the Exposition — Rogers\nThe Swedish Educational Exhibit — Lagerstedt\nThe Japanese Exhibit — Matsumura .\nMemorial Addresses —\nWilliam B ram well Powell — Cook\nFrank Alpine Hill — Hatch\nReuben S. Bingham — Cooper\nPreliminary Report of Committee on Salaries, etc. — Wright\n\n333\n335\n\n345\n349\n\n354\n36s\n\n338\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nDEPARTMENTS\nSecretary's Minutes\n\nOF\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n379\n\n•••.....\nJOINT SESSION\n\nAddress of Welcome — Mrs. Lachmund\n......\nThe Kindergarten and the Elementary School as Illustrated in Their Exhibits—\nI. From the Kindergarten Standpoint — Miss Hill\n-Hager\nII. From the Standpoint of the School — Gilbert\nDiscussion — Ellis ......\nThe Philippine Teacher and the Philippine Educational ExhibitThe Kindergarten in Japan — Miss Howe ....\nFrench and German Elementary Schools — Farrington\nKindergartens in Southern States and in Countries South of the United States— If J55\nWaldo\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n383\n389\n395\n404\n\n415\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nGreeting — Madame Bondy\n.......\nHygiene of the Kindergarten Child — Burnham\n....\nThe Individual Child — Miss Payne ......\nWhat is Kindergarten Discipline ?— Miss Miller\nDiscussion — Miss Harrison, Miss Lawson, Miss Merrill, et al.\nValue of Animal Pets in the Kindergarten — Miss Harvey\nELEMENTARY\n\n381\n\n427\n\n396\n398\n\n411\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n416\n\nNatural Activities of Children as Determining Industries in Early Education — I,\n422\nMiss Dopp; II, Hall; III, Harvey\n437, 443, 447\nAvenues of Language-Expression in the Elementary School — I, Chubb; II, Miss\n431\nLong; III, Cooley\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.452, 459, 464\nA Filipino's View of Education in the Philippines — Senora Zatnora\n.\nDEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\n.\n\n.\n\n468\n\n432\n\n473\n475\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nWhat May Secondary Schools Learn from French Secondary Education ?— Lyttle .\nWhat May Secondary Schools Learn from German Secondary Education? — Bolton\n484\nSecret Fraternities in High Schools — Morrison\n.....•■\nDiscussion — Schuyler, Johnson, Lyttle, et al. ......\n495\nModification of High School to Meet Twentieth-Century Demands —\nI, Brown; II, Bryan; III, Buck\n49 1>\nDiscussion — Buchanan, et al .\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nI. English Conference —\nEnglish as an Art Study — Schuyler\n....•••\nDiscussion of Report of Subcommittee on Course of Study — Holland\nLaboratory Method in Enghsh Composition — Buck\n....\nDiscussion — Bishop, Richeson, Miss Wilde, etal\nII. Mathematics Conference —\nWhat Study of Mathematics Is Needed for Practical Liie?— French .\nWhat Mathematics Should Be in Every Secondary School Course?—\nTinsley ....■■•••\n.\n-i— Tower\nWhat Mathematics Should the Physics Teacher Teach\nThe Real Problem of the Teacher of Mathematics— C0&5\nUnification of Secondary Mathematics — Comstock\nDiscussion — Chessin, Burrill, Howe, Hedrick, et al.\n■\n■\n■\n\n478\n\n505\n496\n\n490\n\n502\nS14\n519\n\n506\n508\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "VI\n\n.NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIII. Modern Language Conference —\nAim of Modern Language Study in our Secondary Schools — Smith\nDiscussion — Moore\n.\n...\nFunction of Grammar in the Teaching of Modern Language — Aldrich\nDiscussion — Wieland\n.......\nRapid Reading in Teaching a Modern Language — Johnson\nDiscussion — Miss Brooks, Worden, Johnson\n.\nConversation in Teaching Modern Language — Batt, Smith, Neal\nIllustrated Aids to the Teaching of a Modern Language — Worden\nDiscussion — Moore, Gideon ......\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\n524\n525\n\n533 522\n\nEDUCATION\n537\n\nSecretary's Minutes ...........\nCoeducation — Hall\n...........\nCoeducation in State Universities — Jesse\n........\nAdvantages of the Co-ordinate (Annex) Method in Education — Thwing\n- .\nCoeducation in Relation to Other Types of College Education for Women —\nAngell ............\nGeneral Tendency of College Athletics — Andrews\n......\nCharacter in Athletics — Faunce .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n•.\nEffects of Athletics on the Morale of the College — Strong\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\n-I, Hall;\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART\n\ni^\n\n538\n\n548\n\n568, 575\n583\n\n558\n\n603\n606507\n\n593\n\n571\n\n6\n600 567\n594\n19\n614 8\n65283\n627\n610\n612\n\n637\n643\n\n659\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes ........\nInfluence of a Great Exposition as an Art Educator — Hopkins\nInfluence of the Art School and Art Museum on Civic Life — Wuerpel\nThe Republic of France— A Nation of Art— Marduel .\nArt Education for the People of Germany — Bahlsen\n.\nArt Education for the People — Mrs. Riley\nOrganization for Art Education in Engla.nd—Atkin\n.\n\n542\n\n567\n\nTRAINING\n\nSecretary's Minutes ..........\nThe Constructive Idea in Education — Jackman, ......\nManual Training in Sweden — Lidman\n.......\nReports on Manual Training as Shown by Exhibits —\nI. Exhibits from the Teachers College, New York City — Miss Hyde\nII.\nExhibits from Indianapolis, Ind. — Bacon .....\nIII. Exhibits from Pacific Coast — Miss Dobbs\nIV.\nExhibit from New York City — Meleney .\n.\n.\n.\n.\nV. Exhibits from the Bradley Polytechnic Institute — Bennett .\nManual-Training High Schools and Manual Training in High Schools — Gilbert\nDiscussion — Woodward\n.........\nWhat May Be Done for Manual Training in Country Schools ?— Bayliss\nProgress of the South, as Shown by Exhibits — Ayres\n\n532\n536\n\n549\n\n564\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes .........\nChild Psychology versus Adult Psychology in the Training of Teachers\nII, Russell\n........\nDiscussion — Ellis\n.......\nRecent Investigations in Psychological Psychology — Van Liew\nOut-of-Door Work in Geography — Jefferson\nDiscussion — Ridgley, Miss Hastings\n....\n\n547\n\n528\n528\n531\n\n654\n631\n632\n\n648\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "Vll\n\n67s\n\nCONTENTS\nEducational Influence of Public Outdoor Art — Gay\nEducation for Artistic Handicraft in Sweden— Lidman\nArt Education for the American People, as Shown at the Exposition— Jl/m Henkel\nDEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes •••....,\nPresident's Address — Wetzell ......\nPrimary Music Methods — Mrs. Parr .....\nRote-Singing and its Proper Place in the Public Schools — Hodgdon\nMusic in the Public Schools as a Means of Culture — Miss Robinson\nMethods versus Results — Pommer\n......\nThe Public-School Music Supervisor — Nagel\n.\nReport of Co-operative Committees on a High-School Music Course\nDEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\n699\n\n692\n696\n\n709\n\n717\n714\n719\n\n702\n\n725\n710\n\n737\n\nSecretary's Minutes .........\nThe Diagnosis of the Capabilities of School Children — MacMillan\nSome Laboratory Investigations of Subnormal Children — Miss Campbell\nEducation of Atypical Children in Public Schools-^Groszmann\nTypical Child-Study Methods at the St. Louis Exhibit — Monroe\nQuestionnaire Methods of Child Study — Chambers\nLaboratory Tests as a Means of Child Study — Miss Williams\nContributions of Zoological Psychology to Child Study — Kline\nUnsolved Problems of Child Study and the Method of Their Attack— iJa//\n-Methods of Teaching Child Study in Normal Schools — Miss Buckbee\nTABLE\n\n670\n\n68718\n\nSecretary's Minutes •••.......\nPresident's Address : Old Wine in New Bottles — Herrick\n....\nWork of Private Commercial Schools, as Illustrated in the Exhibits — Marshall\nDiscussion — Spencer, Brown, Walker, James .....\nResources of the United States, as Illustrated by the Exposition — Miss Branson\nReview of the Report of the Committee of Nine — Sheppard\n....\nReport of the Committee of Nine, as Related to the General High School — Parker\nReport of the Committee of Nine: a Discussion — Bishop\n....\nDiscussion — Springer\n.........\nDEPARTMENT OF CHILD STUDY\n\nROUND\n\n68s\n\n716\n\n744\n759\n754\n\n730\n736\n\n738\n787\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nA. Round Table Conference on Child Study in Kindergarten and Primary GradesTopic: Comparison of Methods and Results in Child Study —\nI. Introduction — Miss Winchester\n....•••■\nII.\n\nStudy of Children by Means of Their Hand-Work— ikfw5 iJarmow\n\n762\n770\n776\n782\n\n.\n\nIII. Method of Child Study in the Kindergarten— If *'55 Pa/mer\nIV. Child Study in the Grades— Horn\nB. Round Table Conference on Child Study in Grammar and Secondary GradesTopic: Waywardness in Children of from Ten to Eighteen Years—\nI. Criminal Tendencies and the Juvenile Court— Waddle\nII. Relation of the Home to the Wayward Child— CAmwaw\nDiscussion — Kline, Groszmann, Dexter, Miss Campbell\nDEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n.....••••\n.\n.\nMinutes\nSecretary's\nImportance of Walking as a School Exercise — Arnold .\n.\n•\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training in Primary and Grammar Schools—\n■\n.\n.\nI. From the Standpoint of the General Teacher— Chalmers\nII. From the Standpoint of the Physical Training Teacher— 5/gcA^r .\n\n797 803\n794\n804\n797 80\n7\n800\n791\n801\n792\n\n•\n810\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nObject and Methods of Physical Training in Normal Schools — Affleck\n.\n.\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training in Colleges and Universities — Jesse\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training in High Schools — Mrs. Ludlum .\nPhysical Training Exhibits of the Exposition —\nI. In the Physical Training Department — Miss Pohl\n.\n.\n.\n.\nII. In the Education Building — Miss Mann\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nSecretary's Minutes .,..,.....\nComparative Study of the Methods of Science Instruction as Shown by Exhibits —\nBryan ............\nNature and Educational Value of the Scientific Exhibits of High Schools and Colleges— Knox\n..........\nApplied Geography, Illustrated from the Louisiana Pxirchase — Clement\nDiscussion — Curtis ...\nThe Microscope in the Biological Laboratory of the High School — Thompson .\nDiscussion — Coulter ..........\nSubject-Matter of High-School Physics — Foley ......\nDiscussion — Foerste ..........\nValue of Chemistry in Secondary Education — Blanchard\n....\nDiscussion — Senter .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n...\nTeaching of the Scientific Method — Forbes ......\nNature Study as an Aid to Advanced Work in Science — Whitney .\nDiscussion — Caldwell .........\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\n.817 843\n. 822\n.827\n.832 844\n. 836 88459\n3\n857\n859\n\n863\n865\n-871\n879\n889\n\n894\n\n872\n878\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes .\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nRetrospective and Prospective School Administrations — Hunsicker .\n.\nThe School Architecture of St. Louis — Ittner\n.......\nLessons in School Administration to Be Gained at the Exposition — Woodward\nLIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSecretary's Minutes .\n.\n.\n.\nLibrary Work in Normal Schools — Noss\n.......\nDiscussion — Miss Salisbury, Salisbury, Canfield .....\nDuty of the Normal School in Relation to District School Libraries — Wilkinson\nDiscussion — Miss Reynolds ........\nPlace of the Library in School Instruction — Meleney\n.....\nDiscussion — Miss Milner, Schaeffer, Cook, Crunden\n....\nDEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes ..........\nPresident's Address — Jones\n.........\nWhat Teachers May Learn from the Model School for the Deaf and Blind, and Their\nExhibits — Green\n..........\nSight and Hearing in Relation to Education — Chrisman\n....\nReport of Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hearing of Public-School\nChildren — Booth ..........\nThe Chicago Hospital School for Nervous and Delicate Children — Miss Campbell\nDEPARTMENT OF INDIAN EDUCATION\nSecretary's Minutes ...........\nAddresses\nof Welcome — Dockery, Francis, Rogers, Woodward,\nSoldan,\nFruchte, Glennon\n..........\n\n.897\n-897\n901\n. 907\n\n917\n919\n923\n\n924\n933\n\n911\n912\n\n934\n937\n30\n939 9\n\n963\nMiss\n964-971\n\n946\n952\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "IX\nCONTENTS\nResponses— McGee, Doyle, Chubbuck, McCowan\nEfl&ciency in the Indian Service — Doyle\nIndian Music and Indian Education — Miss Curtis\nROUND TABLE CONFERENCES\n\n972-976\ngyy\nq7q\n\nReview and Discussion of Points Gained from the Educational Exhibits and the\nModel Schools of the Exposition — Coppock, Nardin, Sinclair, Winslow,\nCampbell, Julian, McKoin, Miss Cook, Buntin, Hinshaw, McCowan,\nLemmon, Wright\n.\n.\n982-985\nStatistical Tables of Membership\nInventory and Price List of Publications\nReprints from the Annual Volumes of Proceedings\nGeneral Index\n\n986-987\n988\n989\n991\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPREAMBLE\n\nTo elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of\nteaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States,\nwe, whose names are subjoined, agree to adopt the following\nCONSTITUTION\nARTICLE\n\nI— NAME\n\nThis Association shall be styled the National Educational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nII— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. It shall consist of eighteen departments: first, of Superintendence;\nsecond, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business\nEducation; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural\nScience Instruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; and eighteenth,\nthe National Council of Education.\nSec 2. Other departments may be organized in the manner prescribed in this\nconstitution.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. There shall be three classes of members, namely, active, associate, and\ncorresponding.\nSec 2. Teachers and all who are actively associated with the management of educational institutions, including libraries and periodicals, may become active members. All\nothers who pay an annual membership fee of two dollars may become associate members.\nEminent educators not residing in America may be elected by the Directory to be\ncorresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed\nfifty.\n\nSec 3. Any person ehgible may become an active member upon application indorsed\nby two active members, and the payment of an enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual\ndues for the current year.\n\nmembers only have the right to vote and to hold office in the general AssociaActive\ntion or in the several departments.\nAll active members must pay annual dues of two dollars, and wiU be entided to the\nvolume of Proceedings without \"coupon\" or other conditions. The annual membership\nSecrefee shaU be payable at the time of the annual convention, or by remittance to the\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntary before September i of each year. Any active member may discontinue membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before September i, and may restore the same\nonly on payment of the enrollment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current\nyear.\n\nAll life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall\nenjoy all the powers and privileges of such members without the payment of annual dues.\nAssociate members may receive the volume of Proceedings in accordance with the\nusual \"coupon\" conditions, as printed on the membership certificate.\nCorresponding members will be entitled to the volume of Proceedings without the\npayment of fees or other conditions.\nSec. 4. The names of active and corresponding members only will be printed in\nthe volume of Proceedings, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses,\nthe list to be revised annually by the Secretary of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— OFFICERS\n\nSection i . The officers of this Association shall consist of a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, a Board of Trustees, and an\nExecutive Committee, as hereinafter provided.\nSec. 2. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, chairman of the Board\nof Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected\nby the Association for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of\nall life directors elected previous to July 10, 1895.\nAll past Presidents of the Association now living (July 10, 1895), and all future\nPresidents at the close of their respective terms of office, and the United States Commissioner ofEducation, shall be life directors of the Association.\nThe President of the National Educational Association, First Vice-President, Treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen\nannually by the Board of Directors, which member shall hold office for one year, shall\nconstitute the Executive Committee.\nSec. 3. The elective officers of the Association, with the exception of the Secretary,\nshall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, unless otherwise\nordered, on the third day of each session, a majority of the votes cast being\nnecessary for choice. They shall continue in office until the close of the annual session\nsubsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\nSec. 4. Each department shall be administered by a president, vice-president, secretary, and such other ofiicers as it shall deem necessary to conduct its affairs; but no\nperson shall be elected to any office of the Association, or of any department, who is not,\nat the t-ime of the election, an active member of the Association.\nSec. 5. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and of the\nBoard of Directors, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon a presiding\nofl&cer. In his absence, the First Vice-President in order, who is present, shall preside;\nand in the absence of all Vice-Presidents, a pro-tempore chairman shall be appointed on\nnomination, the Secretary putting the question.\nSec. 6. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate report of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors, and\nshall conduct such correspondence as the directors may assign, and shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors. The secretar>'\nof each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his\noffice, keep a list of the members of his department.\nSec. 7. The Treasurer shall receive, and under the direction of the Board of Trustees\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONSTITUTION\nhold in safe-keeping, all moneys paid to the Association; shall expend the same only upon\nthe order of said board; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, with\nvouchers for the latter, which accounts, ending the ist day of July each vear he shall\nrender to the Board of Trustees and, when approved by said board, he shall report the\nsame to the Board of Directors. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful\ndischarge of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees; and he shall continue\nin office until the first meeting of the Board of Directors held prior to the annual meeting\nof the Association next succeeding that for which he is elected.\nSec. 8. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own\nbody; shall have in charge the general interests of the Association, excepting those herein\nintrusted to the Board of Trustees; shall make all necessary arrangements for its meetings,\nand shall do all in its power to make it a useful and honorable institution. Upon the\nwritten apphcation of twenty active members of the Association for permission to estabhsh\na new department, it may grant such permission. Such new department shall in all\nrespects be entitled to the same rights and privileges as the others. The formation of\nsuch department shall in effect be a sufficient amendment to this constitution for the\ninsertion of its name in Art. II, and the Secretary shall make the necessary alterations.\nSec. 9. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board\nof Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall\nbe a member ex officio during his term of office. At the election of the trustees in 1886,\none trustee shall be elected for one year, one for two years, one for three years, and one\nfor four years; and annually thereafter, at the first meeting of the Board of Directors\nheld prior to the annual meeting of the Association, one trustee shall be elected for the\nterm of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and\nthe absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit\nhis membership therein. The Board of Trustees thus elected shall constitute the body\ncorporate of the Association, as provided in the certificate of incorporation under the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the\nDistrict of Columbia, dated the 24th day of February, 1886, at Washington, D. C, and\nrecorded in Liber No. 4, \"Acts of Incorporation for the District of Columbia.\"\nSec. 10. It shall be the duty of the Board of Trustees to provide for safe-keeping\nand investment of all funds which the Association may receive from donations; and the\nincome of such invested funds shall be used exclusively in paying the cost of publishing\nthe annual volume of Proceedings of the Association, excepting when donors shall specify\notherwise. It shall also be the duty of the board to issue orders on the Treasurer for the\npayment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; and, when\npracticable, the trustees shall invest all surplus funds exceeding one hundred dollars that\nshall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association\nfor the previous year.\nSec. II. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who\nshall also be secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and\nthe term of office for a period not to exceed four years.\nARTICLE\n\nV— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. The annual meeting of the Association shall be' held at such time and\nplace as shall be determined by the Board of Directors.\nSec. 2. Special meetings may be called by the President at the request of five\ndirectors.\n\ntime\nSec. 3. Any department of the Association may hold a special meeting at such\nand place as by its own regulations it shall appoint.\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall hold its regular meetings at the place and not\nless than two hours before the assembhng of the Association.\nSec. 5. Special meetings may be held at such other times and places as the board\nor the President shall determine.\nSec. 6. Each new board shall organize at the session of its election. At its first\nmeeting a committee on publication shall be appointed, which shall consist of the President and the Secretary of the Association for the previous year, and one member from\neach department.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— BY-LAWS\n\nBy-laws not inconsistent with this constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote\nof the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— AMENDMENTS\n\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting by the unanimous\nvote of the members present; or by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided\nthat the alteration or amendment has been substantially proposed in writing at a previous\nmeeting.\n\nBY-LAWS\nT. At the first session of each annual meeting of the Association there shall be\nappointed by the President a committee on resolutions; and at the third session of such\nmeeting there shall be appointed a committee on nominations, consisting of one member\nfrom each state and territory represented, the same to be appointed by the President on\nthe nomination of a majority of the active members from such state or territory present\nat the meeting called for the purpose of making such nomination; provided, however,\nthat such appointment shall be made by the President without such nomination, when the\nactive members in attendance from any state or territory shall fail to make a nomination.\nThe meetings of active members to nominate members of the nominating committee\nshall be held at 5 : 30 p. m. on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at\nsuch place as shall be announced in the general program.\n2. The President and Secretary shall certify to the Board of Trustees all bills approved\nby the Board of Directors.\n3. Each paying member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of its\nProceedings.\n4. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of its\ndepartments in the absence of its author, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be\npubUshed in the volume of Proceedings, without the consent of the Association, upon\napproval of the Executive Committee.\n5. It shall be the duty of the President, Secretary, and Treasurer of the Association\nto appoint annually some competent person to examine the securities of the Permanent\nFund held by the Board of Trustees, and his certificate, showing the condition of the said\nfund, shall be attached to the report of the Board 'of Trustees.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAt a meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association, held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 14, 1885, the following resolution\nwas passed:\nResolved, That a committee of three be appointed to secure articles of incorporation\nfor the National Educational Association, under United States or state laws, as speedily\nas may be.\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\n5\n\nN. A. Calkins, of New York; Thomas W. Bicknell, of Massachusetts; and\nEU T. Tappan, of Ohio, were appointed such committee.\nUnder the authority of the resolution quoted above, and with the approval\nof the committee, and by competent legal advice, the chairman obtained a\nCERTIFICATE\n\nOF INCORPORATION\n\nWe, the undersigned, Norman A. Calkins, John Eaton, and Zalmon Richards, citizens\nof the United States, and two of them citizens of the District of Columbia, do hereby\nassociate ourselves together, pursuant to the provisions of the Act of General Incorporation, Class Third, of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, under the name of\nthe \"National Educational Association,\" for the full period of twenty years, the purpose\nand objects of which are to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States\nTo secure the full- benefit of said act we do here execute this our certificate of incorporation\nas said act provides.\nIn witness whereof, we severally set our hands and seals this 24th day of February,\n1886, at Washington, D. C.\nNorman A. Calkins.\n[l. s.]\nJohn Eaton.\n[l. s.]\nZalmon Richards. [l. s.]\nDuly acknowledged before Michael P. Callan, Notary Public in and for the District\nof Columbia, and recorded in Liber No. 4, Acts of Incorporation for the District of\nColumbia.\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1857.— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized.)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n\n1864.— OGDENSBURG, N. Y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\n\n'1858.— CINCINNATI, O.\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n\n1865.— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\n1859.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. Pennell, Treasurer.\n\n1866.— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. WiCKERSHAM. President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates, Treasurer.\n\ni860.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1867. — No session.\n1868.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\n\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n\nJames Cruikshank, Treasurer\n\n1861, 1862. — No session.\n\n1869.— TRENTON, N. J.\nL. Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber, Treasurer.\n\n1863.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n\n1870.— CLEVELAND, O.\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby, Treasurer.\n\nNAME\n\nNATIONAL\n1871.— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PiCKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nCHANGED\n\nTO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n-BALTIMORE.\n1876.1877.\n\n1872.— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nMD.\n\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n-LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond\n\nWilson, Treasurer\n\n1873.— ELMIRA, N. Y.\nB. G. Northrop, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1878. — No session.\n\n1874.— DETROIT, MICH.\nS. H. White, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\n\n1875.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n\n1880.— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\nJ. Ormond\n\n6\n\nWilson, Treasurer\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "CALENDAR\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\n1881.— ATLANTA, GA.\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan, Treasurer.\n\n1893.— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education.)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1882.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nG. J. Orr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n\n1894.— ASBURY PARK, N. Y.\nAlbert G. Lane. President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. T, Tappan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1895.— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1884.— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1896.— BUFFALO, N. Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1885.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nF. I.OUIS SoLDAN, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\n1897.— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1886 .— TOPEKA, KAN.\nN. A. Calkins, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1898.— WASHINGTON, D. C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1887.— CHICAGO, ILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canfield. Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1899.— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin ShepaRd, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\n1888.— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAaron Gove, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1900.— CHARLESTON, S. C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n\n1889.— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n\n1901.— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasiurer.\n\n1890.— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasiurer.\n\n1902.— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWiLLUM M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes, Treasurer.\n\n1891.— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1903.— BOSTON, MASS.\nChari.es W. Eliot, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n1892.— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1904.— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood,\n\nTreasurer.\n\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\nW. M. Davidson\n\nTreasiu-er.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL' EDUCATIONAL\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\nJOHN W. COOK\nIRWIN SHEPARD\nMcHENRY RHOADS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1903-1904\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nDe Kalb, lU.\nWinona, Minn.\nOwensboro, Ky.\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nEdwin A. Alderman, New Orleans, La.\nJ. W. Searson, Wahoo, Neb.\nWilliam L. Prather, Austin, Tex.\nGeorge B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark.\nHenry R. Sanford, Perm Yan, N. Y.\nBOARD\n\nGeorge M. Smith, Vermh-ion, S. D.\nH. Brewster Willis, New Brunswick, N. J.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nFrank. B. Dyer, Cincinnati, O.\nDelos Fall, Albion, Mich.\nMiss Ellor E. Carlisle, Boston, Mass.\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n(See Art. IV, sec. g, of the Constitution.)\nNewton C. Dougherty\nF. Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman\nJohn W. Cook\n\nPeoria, 111\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nChicago, 111\nDe Kalb, 111\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires July, 1904\nTerm expires July, 1905\nTerm expires July, 1906\nTerm expires July, 1907\nEx-officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the Constitution.)\nJohn W. Cook\nCharles W. Eliot\nMcHenry Rhoads\nAlbert G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\nIrwin Shepard\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman of the Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\nDe Kalb, 111.\nCambridge, Mass.\nOwensboro, Ky.\nChicago, 111.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex oflacio\n(See Art. IV., sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Owensboro, Ky.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona. Minn.\n\nLife Directors\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nBiCKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nButler, Nicholas Murray.Ncw York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Boulder, Colo.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, O.\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111,\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife \"Dir&ctoTB— continued\nHarris, W. T.. Washington, D. C.\nHunt. Mrs. Mary H.. Boston. Mass.\nJEWETT, A. v., AbUene, Kan.\n\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, lU.\nLyte. Eliphalet Oram, MiUersviUe, Pa.\nMarble. Albert P., New York. N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker. Charles I.. South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps. W. F.. Duluth. Minn.\n\nPickard, Josiah L.. Brunswick Me\nPike, Joshua, JerseyviUe lU\n'\n*\n• Skinner, Charles R.. Albany N Y\nSoldan, F. Louis. St. Louis Mo ' *\nStratton, C. C, University Park Ore\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur 111 '\n'\nTeachers' Institute. Philadelphia Pa\nWhite, Charles G., Lake Linden Mid,\nWn,soN. J. Ormond. Washin^on^D C\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\n\nJohn S. Locke\nChanning Folsom\n\nyf™°°t\nMassachusett\ns\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\nWalter\nRanger\nLouis P. E.\nNash\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyes\nAugustus S. Downing\nJohn Enright\nJohn W. Lansinger\n\nSaco\nDover\n'^^'''''^J'. Montpelier\nHolyoke\n,\\\\\\ Providence\nHartford\nNew York\nFreehold\nMillersville\n\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\nJ. L. Jarman\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nMiss Lydia A. Yates\nW. K. Tate\nB. C. Graham\n\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nS. L. Frogge\nD.J. Johns, Jr\nW. F. Slaton\nJohn W. Abercrombie\nE. E. Bass\nWarren Easton\nA. Caswell Ellis\nAndrew R. Hickam\nJ. H. Hinemon\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nW. H. Kirk\nT. A, Mott\nMiss Catharine Goggin\n\nEast Cleveland\nRichmond\nChicago\n\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n\nD. W. Springer\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\nW. F. Kunze\nBen Blewett\nW. E. Hoover\nGeorge W. Nash\nE. J. Bodwell\nJ. W. Spindler\n\nAnn Arbor\nMenomonie\nCherokee\nRed Wing\nSt. Louis\nPark River\nPierre\nOmaha\nWinfield\n\nXiWlmington\nBaltimore\nWashington\nFarmviUe\nWheeling\nWihnington\nCharleston\nTampa\n\nSouth Central Division\nFrankfort\nNashville\nAtlanta\nMontgomery\nGreenville\nNew Orleans\nAustin\nAlva\nLittle Rock\nMuskogee\n\nNorth Central Division\n\nKansas\n\nWestern Division\n\nMontana.\n\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\n\nOscar J. Craig\nMiss Estelle Reel\nLewi's C. GreEENLEE\nA. B. Stroup\n\nMissoula\nWashington, D. C.\n\nDenver\nAlbuquerque\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by Election — continued\n\nA.J.Matthews\nW. J. Kerr\nJ- E. STimss\nM.1SS May L. Scott\nFrank B. Cooper.\nE. D. Ressler\nLyman Gregory\n\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCaUfornia\n\nDEPARTMENT\nNational\nFRANK A. FITZPATRICK\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\nRICHARD G. BOONE\nNICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER\nMiss ANNA TOLMAN SMITH\n\nTempe\nLogan\nReno\nBoise\nSeattle\nMonmouth\nLos Angeles\n\nOFFICERS\nCouncil\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nBoston, Mass.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\nBaUimore, Md.\nYonkers, N. Y.\nNew York, N. Y.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nKindergarten\nMiss JENNY B. MERRILL\nPresident\nMrs. MARGARET J. STANNARD. . . . Vice-President\nMrs. O. S. CHITTENDEN\nSecretary\n^\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nBoston, Mass.\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nElementary\n\nMiss ADA VAN STONE HARRIS\nCALVIN N. KENDALL\nMiss EMMA G. OLMSTEAD\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nSecondary\n\nRochester, N. Y.\nIndianapoUs, Ind.\nPotsdam. N. Y.\n\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nWILBUR FISK GORDY\nWILLIAM H. SMILEY\nWILLIAM SCHUYLER\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nLouisville, Ky.\nHartford, Conn.\nDenver, Colo.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nBENJAMIN IDE WHEELER\nGEORGE HARRIS\nJOHN H. MacCRACKEN\n\nHigher\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nBerkeley, Cal.\nAmherst, Mass.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nLEWIS H. JONES\nGRANT KARR\nMiss MONTANA HASTINGS\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nYpsilanti, Mich.\nOswego, N. Y.\nKirksville. Mo.\n\nHENRY P. EMERSON\nEDWIN B. COX\nJOHN W. ABERCROMBIE\nJOHN H. HINEMON\n\nSuperintendence\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\nManual\n\nBuffalo, N. Y.\nXenia, O.\nUniversity, Ala.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\n\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN\nCHARLES L. KIRSCHNER\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nArt\n\nPasadena, Cal.\nNew Haven, Conn.\nBoston, Mass.\n\nJAMES FREDERICK HOPKINS\nCHARLES M. CARTER\nMiss LILLIAN S. CUSHMAN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nMusic\n\nBoston, Mass.\nDenver, Colo.\nChicago, 111.\n\n*STERRIE A. WEAVER\nW. A. WETZELL\nP. C. HAYDEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nWestfield, Mass.\nSalt Lake City, Utah\nKeokuk, la.\n\nNormal\n\n* Died April 20, 1904.\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nBusiness\n\nII\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nValparaiso, Ind,\nBoston, Mass.\n\nCHEESMAN A. HERRICK\nH. B. BROWN\nTHOS. H. H. KNIGHT\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. A. KIRKPATRICK\n\nPresident\n\nMiss JENNY B. MERRILL\nA. H. YODER\n\nVice-President\nSecretary.\n\nE. HERMAN ARNOLD\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\nBaroness ROSE POSSE\n\nPresident\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nNew Haven. Conn.\nWashington, D. C.\nBoston, Mass,\n\nWILBUR A. FISKE\nFRANK M. GILLEY\nA. S. PEARSE\n\nPresident\nVice-President.\nSecretary.\n\nRichmond, Ind.\nChelsea, Mass. ■\nOmaha, Neb.\n\nChild Study\nFitchburg, Mass.\nSeattle,\nWash.\nNew\nYork,\nN. Y.\n\nPhysical\n\nScience\n\nSchool Administration\nB. F. HUNSICKER\nGRAFTON D. GUSHING\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nChairman of Executive Committee\nSecretary\nLibrary\n\nReading, Pa.\nBoston, Mass.\nAlbany, N. Y.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\nREUBEN POST HALLECK\nMiss MARY EILEEN AHERN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nLouisvUle, Ky.\nChicago, 111.\n\nJ. W. JONES\nF.W. BOOTH\nMiss ELIZABETH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nSpecial Education\nVAN ADESTINE\n\nColumbus, O.\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nDetroit, Mich.\n\nIndian Education\n\n0\n/\n>\n\n6\n\nR. A. COCHRAN\nH. B. PEAIRS\nMiss ESTELLE REEL\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTalklai, Arz.\nLawrence, Kan.\nWashington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\nOFFICERS\n\nFOR\n\nGENERAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n1904-1905\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nWILLIAM H. MAXWELL\nIRWIN SHEPARD\n\nPresident\nSecretary\n\nNew York, N. Y.\nWinona, Minn.\n\nJAMES\n\nTreasurer\n\nPeru, Neb.\n\nW. CRABTREE\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nJohn W. Cook, DeKalb, 111.\nC. P. Carv, Madison, Wis.\nGeorge B. Cook, Hot Springs, Ark.\nJ, N. Study, Fort Wayne, Ind.\nJ. M. H. Frederick, Lakewood, O.\nMiss Alice M. Robertson, Muskogee, Ind. Ter.\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nE. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky.\nHenry H. Swain, Dillon, Mont.\nA. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz.\nB. C. Caldwell, Natchitoches, La.\nA. B. Poland, Newark, N. J.\nCharles D. McIver, Greensboro, N. C.\nTRUSTEES\n\n(See Art. IV, sec. g, of the Constitution.)\nF. Louis Soldan\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman\nNewton C. Dougherty\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\nSt. Louis, Mo\nNew York, N. Y\nChicago, 111\nPeoria, 111\nNew York, N. Y\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires July, 1905\nTerm expires July, 1906\nTerm expires July, 1907\nTerm expires July, 1908\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n(See Art. IV, sees. 2 and 11, of the Constitution.)\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\nPresident\n\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nJohn W. Cook\nJames W. Crabtree\nAlbert G. Lane\nW. T. Harris\n\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman of Board of Trustees\nMember by election\n\nDe Kalb, 111.\nPeru, Neb.\nChicago, lU.\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSecretary\n\nWinona, Minn.\n\nIrwin Shepard\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\n' Directors\n\nDIRECTORS\nex ofllcio\n\n(See Art. IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nWn-LiAM H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nJames W. Crabtree, Peru, Neb.\nJohn W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chicago, 111.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nLife Directors\n(See Art, IV, sec. 2, of the Constitution.)\nBicknell, Thomas W., Providence, R. I.\nBoard of Education, Nashville, Tenn.\nButler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N. Y.\nCanfield, James H., New York, N. Y.\nCook, E. H., Boulder, Colo.\nCook, John W., De Kalb, 111.\nCorson, Oscar T., Columbus, O.\n\nJewett, A. V., Abilene, Kan. '\nLane, Albert G., Chicago, 111.\nLyte, Eliphalet Oram, Millersville, Pa.\nMarble, Albert P., New York, N. Y.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Glenville, W. Va.\nParker, Charles I., South Chicago, 111.\nPhelps, W. F., St. Paul. Minn.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": null, "text": "DIRECTORS\nLife HiTectoVB\n\n— continued\n\nDougherty, Newton C, Peoria, 111.\nPickard, Josiah L., Brunswick, Me.\nEliot, Charles W., Cambridge, Mass.\nPncE, Joshua, Jerseyville, HI.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nSkinner, Charles R., Albany, N. Y.\nGraham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich.\nSoldan, F. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.\nGreen, J. M., Trenton, N. J.\nStratton. C. C, University Park Ore\nGreenwood, J. M., Kansas City, Mo.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, lU.\nHarris, W. T., Washington, D. C.\nTeachers' Institute, Philadelphia Pa\nHunt. Mrs. Mary H., Boston, Mass.\nWhite, Charles G.. Lake Linden. Mich.\nWilson. J. Ormond, Washington. D. C.\n\nDirectors by Election\nNorth Atlantic Division\n\nMaine\n\n;\n\nJohn S. Locke\nJames E. Klock\nWalter E. Ranger\nWill S. Monroe\nWalter Ballou Jacobs\nCharles H. Keyes\nAugustus S. Downing\nJohn Enright\n\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\n^\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\n\n'.\n\nSaco\nPlymouth\nMontpelier\nWestfield\nProvidence\nHartford\nAlbany\nFreehold\n\nJohn W. Lansinger\nSouth Atlantic Division\n\nMillersville\n\nDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nFlorida\n\nGeorge W. Twitmyer\nM. Bates Stephens\nAlexander T. Stuart\nJoseph L. Jarman\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nMiss Lydia A. Yates\nW. K. Tate..\nMiss Clem Hampton\n\nWilmington\nBaltimore\nWashington\nFarmville\nWheeUng\nWilmington\nCharleston\nGainesville\n\nKentucky\nTennessee\nGeorgia\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\nTexas\nOklahoma\n\nS. L. Frogge\nD.J. Johns, Jr\nW. F. Slaton\nIsa.a.c W. Hill\nRobert B. Fulton\nWarren Easton\nAlexander Hogg\nAndrew R. Hickam.\n\nFrankfort\nNashville\nAtlanta\nMontgomery\nUniversity\nNew Orleans\nFort Worth\nAlva\n\nArkansas\nIndian Territory\n\nJ. H. Hinemon\nJohn D. Benedict\n\nLittle Rock\nMuskogee\n\nOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\n\nEdmund D. Lyon\nT. A. Mott\nJ. A. Mercer\nWilliam H. Elson\n\nSouth Central Division\n\nNorth Central Division\n\nMichigan\n\nMadisonville\nRichmond\nPeoria\nGrand Rapids\n\n.'\n\nMenomonie\nCherokee\n\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\nKansas\n\nL. D. Harvey\nA. V. Storm\nW. F. Kunze\nBen Blewett\nW. E. Hoover\nGeorge W. Nash\nGeorge L. Towne\nJ. W. Spindler.\n\nMontana\n\nRobert G. Young\n\nButte\n\nWyoming\nColorado\n\nMiss Estelle Reel\nJohn F. Keatdig\nHugh A. Owen\n\nWashmgton. D. C.\n^^^^\\.\nSUver City\n\nWisconsm\nIowa\nMinnesota\n\nRed Wing\nSt. Louis\nPark River\n, • • • • Pierre\nLincohi\nWinfield\n\nWestern Division\n\nNew Mexico\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": null, "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDirectors by 'Ejlection — continued\nA. J. Matthews\nA. C. Nelson\nJ. E. Stubbs\nMiss May L. Scott\nFrank B. Cooper\nE. D. Ressler\nArthur H. Chamberlain\n\nArizona\nUtah\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\n.California\n\nTempe.\nSalt Lake City\nReno\nBoise\nSeattle\nMonmouth\nPasadena\n\nDependencies\nAlaska\nPorto Rico\nHawaii\n\nMiss Cassia Patton\nSamuel McCune Lindsay\nCharles B. Dyke\n\nSitka\nSan Juan\nHonolulu\n\nPhilippine Islands\n\nC. H. Maxson\n\nIloilo, Panay\n\nDEPARTMENT OFFICERS\nNational Council\nELMER\n\nE. BROWN\n\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\nJ. W. CARR\nJAMES M. GREENWOOD\nMiss ANNA TOLMAN SMITH\nHOWARD J. ROGERS\n\nPresident\n\nBerkeley, Cal.\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\nExecutive Committee\n\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nAnderson, Ind.\nKansas City, Mo.\nWashington, D.C.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nKindergarten\nMiss ANNA\n\nM. STOVALL\n\nPresident\n\nSan Francisco, Cal.\n\nMiss MARY\nMiss ANNA\n\nJEAN MILLER\nELISE HARBAUGH\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMarshalltown, la.\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nElementary\nMiss N. CROPSEY\nJAS. H. VAN SICKLE\nMiss LIDA B. EARHART\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nIndianapolis, Ind.\nBaltimore. Md.\nWhitewater, Wis.\n\nSecondary\nWILLIAM SCHUYLER\nJAMES H. VAN SICKLE\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\n\nJAMES SULLIVAN\nWILSON FARRAND\n\nSecond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nBaltimore, Md.\n'\n\nNew York, N. Y .\nNewark, N. J.\n\nHigher\nRICHARD H. JESSE\nWILLIAM L. BRYAN\nJOSEPH SWAIN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nColumbia, Mo.\n\nBloomington, Ind.\nSwarthmore, Pa.\n\nNormal\n\nC. C. VAN LIEW\nJESSE D. BURKS\nMiss ANNA BUCKBEE\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChico. Cal.\nPaterson, N. J.\nCalifornia. Pa.\n\nSuperintendence\n\nE. G. COOLEY\nLAWTON B. EVANS\nJ. W. CARR\nMiss ELIZABETH E. WHITNEY\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nSe-.ond Vice-President\nSecretary\n\nManual\nARTHUR H. CHAMBERLAIN\nCHARLES L. KIRSCHNER\nFRANK M. LEAVITT\n\nChicago, lU.\nAugusta, Ga.\nAnderson, Ind.\nNew York, N. Y.\n\nPresident\nVice President\n\nPasadena Cal\nNew Haven Conn\n\nSecretary\n\nRoxbury, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\n^^\n\nArt\n\nMrs. matilda EVANS RILEY\nFRANK COLLINS\nMiss STELLA TRUEBLOOD\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nMusic\n\nWM. A. WETZELL\nMrs. MARIE BURT PARR\n\nPresident.\n\nP. CHAYDEN\n\nSecretary\nBusiness\n\nW. C. STEVENSON\nH. B. BROWN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nDecatur, 111.\nValparaiso Ind\n\nJOHN ALFRED\n\nSecretary\nChild Study\n\nMoline. lU.'\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nOUvet, Mich.\nChicago, 111.\nWorcester, Mass.\n\nWHITE\n\nELLSWORTH G. LANCASTER\nD. P. MACMILLAN\nMiss THEODATE L. SMITH\n\n!\n\nSt Louis Mo\n!!!!!!!!!!!.! New York NY\nSt. Louis Mo\n\nVice-President\n\nSalt Lake City, Utah\n\nCleveland O\n;;'.; Keokuk. la. *\n\nScience\nFRANK M. GILLEY\nARTHUR G. CLEMENT\nH. a. SENTER\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. HERMANN ARNOLD\nMiss REBECCA STONEROAD\nG. B. AFFLECK\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nChelsea, Mass.\nAlbany, N. Y\nOmaha. Neb.\n\nPhysical\nNew Haven, Conn.\nWashington, D. C.\nCedar Falls, Iowa.\n\nSchool Administration\nB. F. HUNSICKER\nGRAFTON D. CUSHING\nWILLIAM GEORGE BRUCE\nHARLAN P. FRENCH\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\nChairman, Executive CommiUee\nLibrary\n\nReading, Pa.\nBoston, Mass.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nAlbany, N. Y.\n\nC. P. CARY\nJ. N. WILKINSON\nMiss MARY EILEEN\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMadison, Wis.\nEmporia, Kan.\nChicago, lU.\n\nSpecial Education\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nHaddonfield, N. J.\nJacksonville, LI.\nMadison. Wis.\n\nAHERN\n\nMiss MARGARET BANCROFT\nJ. H. FREEMAN. . . ;\nMiss ANNA E. SCHAFFER\n\nIndian Education\nR. A. COCHRAN\nMiss ESTELLE REEL\nNo Election.\n\nPresident.\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTalklai, Anz.\nWashington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nTO THE\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nJuly i, 1903, to June 30, 1904\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nMcHenry\n\nMEETING\n\nAT BOSTON,\n\nMASS., 1903, AND\nYEAR\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nENSUING\n\nBhoads, Treasurer, in acct. with the National Educational Association\nBALANCE\n\nON HAND\n\nJULY 1, 1903\n\nCash received from Treasurer Davidson, as per last annual report ...\nRECEIPTS\nFrom transportation lines:\nAccount of Minneapolis meeting:\nChicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway\n$ 455 .00\nChicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad\n391 .00\nChicago Great Western Railway\n24.00\nMinneapolis & St. Louis Raiboad\n810 . 00\nChicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha Railway\n395- 00\nAccount of Boston meeting:\nNew York, New Haven & Hartford Raihoad\nBoston & Maine Railroad\nNew York Central & Hudson River Railroad\nEastern Steamship Co\nMerchants & Miners Transportation Co\n\n$2,075.00\n\n$21,458,00\n14,895,00\n8,831 , 00\n110.00\n420 . 00\n$45,714-00\n\nTotal from transportation lines\nFrom Board of Trustees:\nInterest on Permanent Fimd\nFrom annual meeting (Boston) :\nAdvance memberships:\nBoston committee\nNew York committee\n\n$13,766.00\n1,004.00\n\nFrom registration bureau (Boston) :\nFormer active memberships\nNew active memberships\nAssociate memberships\n\n542.00\ni ,947 . 00\n4,839 . 00\n\n$47,789.00\n6,573.98\n\n$14,770.00\n\nLess refunds for duplicate payments of memberships\n\n7,328,00\n$22,098.00\n1,166 . 00\n\nTotal from annual meeting\nFrom memberships Atlanta meeting of Department of Superintendence\nFrom Secretary's office during the year:\nMemberships, enrollments, etc\nSale of back volumes\nSale of committee reports, etc\nExchange\nRoyalty\n\n$ 346.36\n\n20,932.00\n\n408 . 00\n4,292.00\n200.22\n831.62\n78.35\n19.22\n\n'.\n\n$81,470.75\n\nTotal receipts for the year\n\n16\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": null, "text": "TREASURER'S\n\nREPORT\n\nDISBURSEMENTS\nBoard of Trustees:\n\nFor permanent investment\nFor expenses (premiums and accrued interest on bonds, etc.)\n\n$30,000 00\n1,418. 08\n\nExecutive Committee expenses:\nFor President\nFor Treasurer\nFor chairman, Board of Trustees\nFor member by election\nGeneral Secretary's ofi&ce:\nSalary of Secretary\nPostage\nTelegrams\nFreight and express.\nClerical services\nExchange\nStationery and office supplies\nTraveling\nOffice rent\n\n$40,418.98\n\n$185.18\n\n86.86\n343.00\n126.00\n\n641.04\n\n'\n\n$4,000.00\n1.303.5s\n126.92\n61.25\n1^485.41\n30.27\n180. 20\n267.57\n600.00\n\nMiscellaneous (refunds, etc.)\n\n97.00\n\n8,152.17\n\nPrinting:\nVolumes of Proceedings (18,250 copies)\nReprints from volume\nSpecial reports\nExecutive Committee bulletins\nMiscellaneous (letterheads, blanks, envelopes, circulars, program^, etc.)\n\n$11,791.80\n1,253.96\n66.00\n1,011.89\n609.90 •\n\nExpress and freight :\nDistribution of volumes\nMiscellaneous (express and freight)\n\n14,674- IS\n\n$5i34i • 45\n199-43\n\nSpecial appropriations:\nDepartment of Superintendence\nCommittee on Economic Status of the Teacher\nCommittee on Rural Schools\nCommittee on Taxation\nCommittee on Educational Doctrine\n\n$73-6o\n39o. 71\n187.95\n290. 75\n493-65\n\nAnnual Convention:\n\nS.S40.88\n\n1,436.66\n\nDepartment expenses\nState directors and managers\nClerical services:\n\n$847.80\n732 . 77\n\nStenography and typewriting\nRegistration\n\n$121 . 90\n1.152-83\n\nBadges\nPrinting:\n\n1,274.73\nI.9S3-7S\n\nPrograms\nMiscellaneous\n\n•\n\n$618.80\n194-00\n\n12 . 30\n\nExpress and freight\nStationery.\nTelegrams\nExpenses of speakers, Boston\n\n812.80\n\n/\n\nConference meeting of department presidents, St. Louis\nMiscellaneous\n\n72.64\n«>'^3\n10.00\n\n728 . 96\n^ '^\n\nUnclassified disbursements :\n\nExamining securities, bonds. Treasurer and Secretary, and auditing accounts\nMiscellaneous\nTotal disbursements for the year.\n\n132 .84\n^^^\n\n6,644-38\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": null, "text": "18\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSUMMARY\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF DISBURSEMENTS\n\nTotal amount transferred for investment (as per vouchers Nos. 92, 124, 154, 222) . .\nTotal expenses as per vouchers Nos. i to 228, inclusive (except Nos. 92, 124, 154,\n222)\n\n$39,000.00\n38,956. 46\n\nTotal amount paid out\n\n$77.9S6 . 46\nGENERAL\n\nSUMMARY\n\nTotal receipts\nTotal disbiursements\n\n$81,470. 75\n77,956.46\n\nBalance in treasury June 30, 1904\n\n$3.Si4. 29\nMcHenry\n\nOwENSBORO,\n\nKy., June 30, 1904.\n\nRhoads, Treasurer.\n\nSt. Louis, Mo., June 26, 1904.\n\nThe imdersigned, trustees of the National Educational Association, have this day examined and\napproved the accounts of Mr. McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer, with all statements of receipts and vouchers\nfor disbiu-sements.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman.\n(Signed)\n\n1\n\nJohn W. Cook.\n-{ Nicholas Murray Butler.\nNewton C. Dougherty.\nF. Louis Soldan.\n\nChicago, July 13, 1904.\nExecutive Committee, National Educational Association of the United States:\nGentlemen: In accordance with instructions received from Mr. A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, we have examined the books and accounts of the National Educational Association of the United\nStates, as kept by the Secretary, Irwin Shepard, the Treasurer, McHenry Rhoads, and the chairman of the\nBoard of Trustees, A. G.Lane, for the year ending June 30, 1904.\nWe have verified the Treasurer's report, and the report of the Board of Trustees, submitted at the meeting\nof the Association at St. Louis, Mo., and we certify both reports to be in accordance with the books.\nWe noticed an error in one of the vouchers for the Treasurer's Cash Disbursements as follows: Voucher\nNo. 179, Irwin Shepard, Secretary, $104.95. Various items in this voucher amount to $1 14.95, leaving a balance\ndue to Dr. Shepard of $10.00.\nWe are pleased to be able to report that the books are correctly and carefully kept, and are, in our\nopinion, well suited to the needs of the Association.\nYours respectfully.\nThe International Audit Company,\nRobert Nelson,\nBy John McLaren, President.\nCertified Public Accountant, Manager.\n\nEIGHTEENTH\n\nANNUAL\nREPORT\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nThe Board of Trustees presents the following report of the Permanent Fund of the National Educational\nAssociation and its income for the year ending June 30, 1904:\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1903:\nMortages on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois and Indiana school bonds\nCash on hand for investment\nTotal.\nReceived from McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer, from proceeds of Boston meeting\nand income from Permanent Fund\nTotal\nPermanent Fund, July i, 1904:\nMortgages on real estate\nKansas school and municipal bonds\nIllinois bonds\nTotal\nCash on hand for investment\n\nTotal\n\n$78,000\n11,200\n18,000\n800\n$108,000\n\n$39,000\n$147,000\n\n$69,500\n10 100\nc, eoo\n!\n\n$133,100\n\n13,900\n$147,000\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nINVESTMENTS\n\nInvestment, July i, 1903\nPaid during the year :\nMortgage, 1201 Irving Park boulevard, Chicago\nMortgage, 418 and 420 West Adams street, Chicago\n226 Central avenue, Chicago\n230 Central avenue, Chicago\nEudoi'a City, Kansas, Bond No. 12\n<Lemont, 111., Bond No. 12\nSharp's Creek, McPherson county, Kan\nChicago improvement bonds\nFirst Universalist Chiurch, Englewood, Chicago\nWadham's estate\nTotal.\n\n$107,200\n\n$ 10,000\n500\n\n100\n3,000\n4iOOo\n1,000\n2,000\n\n10,000\n\nSoo\n\nAfioo\n\nBalance of investments\nInvestments during the year :\n\n35,100\n$73,100\n\n726 and 728 W. Adams street, Chicago, first mortgage\n5239 and 5241 Cornell avenue, Chicago, first mortgage\nChicaga drainage bonds\nTotal\n\niipoo\n$10,000\n61,000\n40,000\n\nTotal investment, July i, 1904\n$133,100\n\nINCOME\n\nSTATEMENT\n\nReceipts from interest:\nCity of Eudora, Kan\nHodgeman county, Kan\n\n$54.00\n60.00\n\nMcPherson county, Kan., Sharp's Creek township\nMorgan Park, 111\nLemont, 111\nFirst mortgage, 1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 5136 Hibbard avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 5603 Madison avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage. First Universalist Church\nFirst mortgage, 4762 Lake avenue, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 726 and 728 W. Adams street, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 226 and 230 Central avenue, Chicago\nChicago improvement bonds\nFirst mortgage, 312 N. LaSalle street, Chicago\nFirst mortgage, 1201 Irving Park boulevard, Chicago\n418-20 W. Adams street, Chicago\n5526-28 Jefferson avenue, Chicago\n2268 Kenmore avenue, Chicago\nWadham's estate, demand\nChicago drainage bonds\nInterest on bank deposits\nTotal interest tran.sf erred to McHenry Rhoads, Treasurer\n\n30.00\ni5S-6s\n2 12 . 50\n251 .08\n250.00\n250.00\n432 . 50\n383. 57\n11 .26\n313-89\n600.00\n250.00\ni7S-oo\n700.00\nS5o.oo\n125.00\n600.83\n800.00\n368. 70\n\nEXPENSE\nPremium on bonds\nAccrued interest on loans\nRent of box in National Safe Deposit Company\nRecord book\nExpense examining loans:\n\nAttorney's fees\nAppraiser's fees\nR. R. fares\nTotal\n\n$6,573.98\n\nACCOUNT\n$650.00\n698.63\n1300\n^■°°\n\n20.00\n35 -oo\n'35\n$1,418.98\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n20\nSTATEMENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF SECURITIES\nBELONGING\nTO\nTHE\nPERMANENT\nNATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL\nASSOCIATION. JUNE\n30,\nKANSAS\n\nCounty\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nMUNICIPAL,\n\n6% SCHOOL\nAND\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nBONDS\n\n6%\n\nAmount\n\nKind of Bond\n\nFUND\n1904\n\nBond Due\n\n6%\n\nDouglas\n\nEudora City\n\nGarfield'\nGrant'\nHodgeman\nI^ane'\nNess'\nReno'\nSeward'.\n\nSchool District 24\nCounty\n\n.\n\n...\n\n$\n\n'\"\"\"^\"■^'-'\"^\n?^2,s; March\n\n800\n800\n\nJan. and July\nTan nnH Tiilv\n\n2,000\n1,000\n\nCounty\nSchool District 70\nCity of South Hutchinson.\nWith Bentley & Hatfield,\nWichita, Kan\n\n6%\n6%\n\n1,000\n3,000\n\nBONDS\n\nAND\n\nAmount\n\nBonds\n\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\nVillage of Morgan Park, 111\nLemont, 111., School, Nos. 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24.\n30, 32\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nInterest Payable\nJan. and July\n\nBond Due\n\n4i%\n4^%\n\nMay and\nand July\nNov.\nJan.\n\nNov. I, 191 T\nJuly I,1904\n1913\n\nJune and Dec.\nDecember\nDec. and June\n\n6,000\n\nTotal\n\nJuly I,1903\n1918\nJuly,\nApril, 1908\n\nMORTGAGES\n\n$ 2,500\n1,000\n\nChicago imj)rovement bonds\nChicago drainage bonds\n\nFebruary, 1920\nJuly I, 1919\n\nJudgment obtained\n\n1,000\nSoo\n$10,100\n\nTotal\n\nILLINOIS\n\nj Jan.\nTan. and\nand July\nTulv\nJan. and July\nFeb. and Aug.\n\nOne due each vear\nMarch i\n\n$1,000 yearly\nDec. 1917\nI\nDec.\nDec.\n\n40,000\nSS3,Soo\nREAL\n\nFirst Mortgages\n\nESTATE\n\nAmount\n\nRate of\nInterest\n\nInterest Payable\n\n$ 5.000\n\nS %\n5 %\n\nMay and Nov. i\nMay and Nov. i\nJuly and January\nOct. and April\nMarch and Sept.\n\n1919 Wabash avenue, Chicago\n5603 Madison avenue, Chicago\nFirst Universalist Church, Englewood, 111\n\n5.000\nS.ooo\n7,000\nS.ooo\n10,000\nS.ooo\n10,000\n3.000\n1,000\n2,500\n11,000\n\n312 LaSalle street, Chicago\n726-28 W. Adams street, Chicago\n5526 and 5528 Jefferson avenue, Chicago\n5526 and 5528 Jefferson avenue, Chicago\n2268 Kenmore avenue\nTotal\n\n5%\n\nli\n\nApril and Oct.\nJanuary and July.\nFeb. and August\nApril and Oct.\nApril and Oct.\nMay and Nov.\nJanuary and July\n\nMortgage Due\nMay I, 1908\nNovember i, 1908\nJuly\nI, 1904\nOctober,\n1904\nMarch, 1905\nOctober, 1906\nFebruary\n1907\nJuly,\n1906i,i, 1907\nOctober\nOctober i, 1904\nNovember 15,1907\nJanuary, 1909\n\n$69,500\n\nApproved by the Board of Trustees and ordered transmitted to the Board of Directors.\nAlbert G. Lane, Chairman.\nJohn W. Cook.\nNicholas Murray Butler.\nNewton C. Dougherty.\nF. Louis Soldan.\nINVESTOR'S\n\nAUDIT\n\nCOMPANY\nChicago, III., June 2-?, 1004.\n\nJohn W. Cook, Esq., Normal School, DeKalb, III.:\nDear Sir: Pursuant to your instructions, I have this day examined the following securities belonging\nto the permanent fund of the National Educational Association.\n(Here follows detailed list of securities as\nper the above statements.)\n'Interest or principal in default.\n\n"}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\n21\n\nWith regard to the above Kansas bonds, no mterest has been paid on the Garfield County Bonds since\nJuly, 1892; on the Grant County Bonds, since July, 1895-, on the Lane County Bonds, since July, 1896. The\nDistrict No. 70 Ness County Bonds are overdue, and Mr. Lane informs me that negotiations are pending for\nsettlement.\nThe City of South Hutchinson, Reno countv, Bonds have not paid interest since August, 1896. Mr. I^ne\ninforms me that a bond for $1,000, Seward county, Kansas, is in the hands of Bentley & Hatfield, Wichita,\nKan., and that judgment has been obtained on same.\nThe July coupons for interest on the Hodgeman County Bond and the Village of Morgan Park Bond\nwere found to be in the hands of the First National Bank for collection; also mortgage note on property 5603\nMadison avenue, Chicago.\nDocumentary proof of this was submitted.\nI have not examined the books of account or inquired into the titles in the case of the above, but have\nsimply verified the physical possession of the securities detailed above, which are in accordance with a list given\nme by Mr. Lane.\nRespectfully submitted,\n(Signed)\nF. J. Howell, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFORTY-THIRD\n\nANNUAL\n\nCONVENTION\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\nHELD\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nIN CONNECTION\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nASSOCIATION\nPURCHASE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nST. LOUIS, MO., June 27-JuLY i, 1904\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nOPENING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 9:30 A. m.\n\nThe forty-third annual convention of the National Educational Association was\ncalled to order by President John W. Cook, of De Kalb, 111., at 9:30 A. M., in Festival\nHall, on the Exposition grounds.\nAfter several selections by Banda Rossa, of Italy, prayer was offered by Superintendent\nNathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania.\nA letter was read by the President from Governor A. M. Docker}' of Misso\\iri, regretting his inability, by reason of unexpected and important official business, to be present\nat the opening session of the convention to welcome the convention to the state.\nAddresses of welcome were given by Hon. W. T. Carrington, state superintendent\nof public instruction of Missouri; Dr. C. M. Woodward, president of the board of education of St. Louis; Dr. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction of the public schools\nof St. Louis; Hon. Rolla WeUs, mayor of the city* of St. Louis; Hon. David R. Francis,\npresident of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; Hon. Howard J. Rogers, chief of the\nDepartment of Education and director of Congresses, Louisiana Purchase Exposition;\nand Chancellor W. S. Chaplin, of Washington University, chairman of the Local Executive Committee of the National Educational Association for St. Louis.\n\nResponses to the addresses of welcome were made by Hon. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States, and Charles D. Mclver, president of the\nState Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C.\nThe annual address of the President of the Association was dehvered by President\n\nJohn W. Cook, of De Kalb, 111., on the subject, \"The New IndividuaUsm.\"\nFoUowing this address. President Edmund J. James, of Northwestern University,\nEvanston, 111., addressed the convention on \"The Place of the Church in American\nEducation.\"\nThe Committee on Resolutions was announced as follows:\n23\n'\nCOMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS\nN. C.\nGreensboro,\nCollege,\nIndustrial\nand\nNormal\nState\nof\npresident\nMclver,\nD.\nCharles\nJohn W. Carr, superintend\nof schools, Anderson, Ind.\nMiss Amelia C. Fruchte, first assistant in Normal and High School, St. Louis, Mo.\n111.\nMiss Margaret A. Haley, president of the National Federation of Teachers, Chicago,D. C.\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith of the United States Bureau of Education, Washington,\nY.\nAugustus S. Dovming, assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.\nof Educatum, Milwaukee, V\\ is.\nS. Y. Gillan. editor of the Western Teacher and the American Journal\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": null, "text": "24\n\n•\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\n— co»/i««ed\n\nStuart H. Rowe, supervising principal of city schools, New Haven, Conn.\nMiss Mary S. Garrett, principal of Training School for the Deaf, Philadelphia, Pa.\nSamuel M. Lindsay, commissioner of education for Porto Rico, San Juan, P. R.\nW. S, Sutton, professor of the science and art of education, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\nJohn D. Benedict, superintendent of schools for Indian Territory, Muskogee, I. T.\nC. C. Van Liew, president. State Normal School, Chico, Cal.\n\nAfter announcements by the Secretary, the convention adjourned to meet at 9 : 30 A. M.,\nWednesday, June 29.\n\nSECOND\nSECOND\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 9:30 a. m.\n\nThe convention was called to order in Festival Hall by President John W. Cook,\nat 9:30 A. M.\n\nTwo musical selections were rendered by Weil's Band, of St. Louis, Mo.\nRev. D. S. Phelan, of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Catholic Church, led the convention\nin prayer.\nThe President then introduced Captain Percy Atkin, commissioner in charge of the\nBritish education exhibit, who addressed the convention on \"Popular Education in\nEngland.\"\n\"The Educational Possibilities for the Country Child in the United States\" was\nthe subject of a paper by O. J. Kern, superintendent of schools of Winnebago county,\nRockford, 111.\nJohn Herbert PhilHps, superintendent of schools of Birmingham, Ala., read a paper\non \"The Educational Needs of the South.\"\nMr. Scott Brook, the organist of Leland Stanford Junior University, of California,\nwas introduced and favored the audience with two selections on the great Exposition\norgan.\nAn address on \"Education in the Philippines\" was delivered by E. B. Bryan, former\nsuperintendent of education of the Philippine Islands, now connected with the Indiana\nState University, Bloomington, Ind.\n\"Our Educational Creed,\" by Z. X. Snyder, president of the State Normal School,\nGreeley, Colo., was the closing address of the morning session.\nAnnouncements were then made by the Secretary of a special invitation to visit the\nPhihppine education exhibit, and of various receptions and entertainments tendered to\nthe members of the Association.\nThe convention then adjourned to 5 : 30 p. m.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 5:30 p. m.\n\nThe first vesper meeting of the Association was called to order at 5 130 p. m,. President\nCook in the chair.\nHalsey C. Ives, chief of the Department of Art of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\nwas introduced by the President, and addressed the Association on \"The Art Exhibits\nof the Exposition.\"\nThe following Committee on Nominations was announced by the President, having\nbeen appointed by him in accordance with By-Law No. i:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nJ. H. Phillips, of Alabama, Chairman\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCalifornia\n\nJ. H. Phillips\nJ. B. Jolly\nJ. H. Hinemon\nDavid Snedden\n\nMontana\nNebraska\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\n\nH. H. Swain\nIrving S. Cutter\nVacant\nVacant\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nCOMMITTEE\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\nIdaho\nIllinois\nIndiana\nIndian Territory\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\n\nON NOMINATIONS -c(m/w»««i\nNew Jersey\nNew Mexico\nNew York\nNorth Carolina\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nD. F. Shirk\nTennessee\nJohn B. Taylor\nTexas\nEveUne A. Waldo\nUtah\nM. C. Femald\nVermont\nJames H. Van Sickle\nC. H. Ames\nVirginia\nWashington\nW. H. Elson\nC. R. Frazier\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nJ. C. Fant\nWyoming\nF. D. Tharpe\nL. C. Greenlee\nE. H. Arnold\nVacant\nAnna Tolman Smith\nJ. M. Guilliams\nW. F. Slaton\nMartha Keenan\nJ. H. Collins\nHenry B. Brown\nJohn D. Benedict\nSamuel H. Sheakly\n\n'\n\nLangdon S. Thompson\nA. B. Stroup\nHoward J. Rogers\nCharles D. Mclver\nC. C. Schmidt\nw. H. Kirk\nDavid R. Boyd\nVacant\nAddison L. Jones\nVacant\nVacant\nWilliam P. Dunlevy\nA. C. Webb\np. w. Horn\nRosaUe PoUock\nVacant\nE.E.Jones\nW. G. Hartranft\nJohn C. Shaw\nC. G. Pearse\nEstelle Reel\n\nFollowing various announcements, the convention adjourned to 9:15 a. m., June 30.\n\nTHIRD\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.— Thursday,\n\nJune 30, 9:15 a. m.\n\nThe convention was called to order by President Cook at 9 : 15 A. M.\nRev. Samuel J. Niccolls, of the Second Presbyterian Church, St. Louis, led the convention in prayer.\nThe first address of the session was delivered by Hon. Samuel M. Lindsay, commissioner ofeducation for Porto Rico, on the subject of \"Education in Porto Rico.\"\nThe second address, on \"The New Departure in Secondary Education,\" was delivered\nby J. J. Sheppard, principal of the High School of Commerce, New York city.\nA brief organ recital followed, by Professor Charles R. Galloway, the ofl5cial organist\nof the Exposition.\nIn the absence of M. Georges Lamy, of France, who was appointed to read a paper\non \"Elementary Education in France,\" Rear-Admiral Casper N. Goodrich was introduced, and addressed the Association on the subject of \"Education in the Navy.\"\nBooker T. Washington, president of the Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee,\nAla., then addressed the convention on \"Education of the Southern Negro.\"\nAfter announcements by the Secretary, the convention adjourned, and the annual\nmeeting of active members of the Association assembled at 12:30 P. M.\nMINUTES OF THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEETING OF ACTIVE MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION HELD IN FESTIVAL HALL, EXPOSITION GROUNDS.\nTHURSDAY, JUNE 30, 1904.\nThe meeting was called to order by the President, John W. Cook, at 12:30 P. M.\nThe President: The first item of business is the reading of the minutes of the last\nannual meeting of active members. Is it your pleasure that these minutes be read?\nThey are already printed in the annual volume of Proceedings of the Boston meeting.\nOn motion, the reading of the minutes was dispensed with, and the same were approved\nas printed.\nThe President: The second item of business is the annual report of the Treasurer.\nShall the report of the Treasurer be read ?\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": null, "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nN. C. Dougherty, of Illinois: In order to expedite business, I move that the report\nof the Treasurer be received and approved without reading, and that it be printed in the\nannual volume of Proceedings.\nThe motion was duly seconded, and carried without dissent\nThe President: The next item of business is the annual report of the chairman\nof the Board of Trustees, Mr. A. G. Lane, of Chicago.\nA. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees: The report, which I have had\nprinted, is now being distributed to the members. Is it desired that I shall read it in\ndetail?\nOn motion, the reading of the report was dispensed with, and the report was received\nand approved, and ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe President : The next item of business is the report of the Committee on Nominations, through its chairman, J. H. Phillips, of Alabama.\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nTo the President and the Active Members of the National Educational Association:\nOn behalf of the members of the Committee on Nominations, I beg leave to report the follovmig nominations for officers of the Association for the year 1904-5, as follows:\nFor —\nPresident\n\nWilliam H. Maxwell\n\nNew York.\n\nFirst Vice-President\nSecond Vice-President\nThird Vice-President\nFourth Vice-President\nFifth Vice-President\nSixth Vice-President\nSeventh Vice-President\nEighth Vice-President\nNinth Vice-President\nTenth Vice-President\nEleventh Vice-President\nTwelfth Vice-President\nTreasurer\n\nJohn W. Cook\nC. P. Cary\nGeorge B. Cook\nJ. N. Study\nJ. M. H. Frederick\nMiss Alice Robertson\nE. H. Mark\nHenry H. Swain\nA. J, Matthews\nB. C. Caldwell\nA. B. Poland\nCharles D. McIver\nJames W. Crabtree\n\nIllinois\nWisconsin\nArkansas\nIndiana\nOhio\nIndian Territory\nKentucky\nMontana\nArizona\nLouisiana\nNew Jersey\nNorth CaroUna\nNebraska\n\nDIRECTORS\n\n.\n\nAlabama\nArizona\nArkansas\nCahfomia\nColorado\nConnecticut\nDelaware\nDistrict of Columbia\nFlorida\nGeorgia\n\nIsaac W. Hill\nA. J. Matthews\nJ. H. Hinemon\nArthur H. Chamberlain\nJ. F. Keating\nCharles H. Keyes\nGeorge W. Twitmyer.\nAlexander T. Stuart\nMiss Clem Hampton\nW. F. Slaton\n\nMontgomery\nTempe\nLittle Rock\nPasadena\nPueblo\nHartford\nWilmington\nWashington\nGainesville\nAtlanta\n\nIdaho. . '.\nIlUnois\nIndiana\nIndian Territory\nIowa\nKansas\nKentucky\nLouisiana\nMaine\nMaryland\nMassachusetts\nMichigan\nMinnesota\nMississippi\nMissouri\nMontana\nNebraska\n\nMiss May L. Scott\nJ. A. Mercer\nT. A. Mott\nJohn D. Benedict\nA. V. Storm\nJ. W. Spindler\nS. L. Frogge\nWarren Easton\nJohn S. Locke\nM. Bates Stephens\nWill S. Munroe\nW. H. Elson\nW. F. Kunze\nRobert B. Fulton\nBen Blewett\nRobert G. Young\nGeorge L. Towne\n\nBoise\nPeoria\nRichmond\nMuskogee\nCherokee\nWinfield\nFrankfort\nNew Orleans\nSaco\nBaltimore\nWestfield\nGrand Rapids\nRed Wing\nUniversity\nSt. Louis\nButte\nLincoln\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nNOMINATIONS\n\n— DIRECTORS\n\n(.continued)\n\nNevada\nNew Hampshire\nNew Jersey\nNew York\nNorth Carolma\nNorth Dakota\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\n\nJ. E. Stubbs\n\nReno\n\nJ. A. Klock\nJohn EnrighTi\nAugustus S. Downing\nMiss Lydia Yates\nW. E. Hoover\nE. D. Lyon\nAndrew R. Hickam\nD. H. Grout\nJ. W. Lansinger\nW. B. Jacobs\nW. K. Tate\nGeo. W. Nash\nD. J. Johns, Jr\nAlexander Hogg\nA. C. Nelson\nJ, L, Jarman\nF. B. Cooper\nMiss Lucy Robinson\nL. D. Harvey\n\nPlymouth\nFreehold\nAlbany\nWilmington\nPark River\nMadisonville\nAlva\nPortland\nMillersville\nProvidence\nCharleston\nPierre\nNashville\nFort Worth\nSalt Lake\nFarmville\nSeattle\nWheeling\nMenomonie\n\nWyoming\n\nMiss Estelle Reel\n\nWashington, D. C.\n\nSUPPLEMENTARY\n\nREPORT\n\nYour committee begs leave to recommend that Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands be\ngranted representation in the National Educational Association, and that directors be elected as follows for\nnext year:\nAlaska\nPorto Rico\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nMiss Cassia Patton\nSitka\nSamuel McCune Lindsay\nSan Juan\nCharles B. Dyke\nHonolulu\nC. H. Maxson\nIloilo, Panay\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. H. Phillips, Chairman.\nW. G. Hartranft, Secretary.\n\nAfter the reading of the report, attention was called to the fact that the territory of\nNew Mexico was not represented by a nominee for director.\nOn motion of A. S, Downing, of New York, the report was amended by the insertion\nof the name of H. A. Owen, of Silver City, N. M., for director of the territory of New\nMexico.\nOn motion of F. Louis Soldan, of Missouri, the report of the Committee on Nominations, as amended, was received, and the Secretary was instructed by unanimous vote to\ncast the ballot of the members for the nominees, as read.\nThe Secretary reported the ballot as cast in accordance with the motion of instructions,\nand the President announced the nominees as officers of the National Educational Association for the ensuing year.\nThe President: The next item on the docket is new business. The chair will\nawait the pleasure of the meeting.\n\nBen Blewett, of Missouri: Mr. Chairman, I have a resolution to offer, an explanation of which I presume is not necessary for those who have been active members of this\nAssociation for any considerable length of time; but to those who have recently become\nmembers it may be due to say a word before the resolution is read. The Board of Trustees,\nwhich, before the law, is the corporate body of the Association, 'was incorporated some\nnineteen years ago, to have a corporate existence of twenty years. That incorporation\nwill expire by limitation in February, 1906. The important business in the charge of\nthe Board of Trustees makes it necessary at this time to look forward toward its reincorporation, and to the proper attention to the interests of the Association. With your permission, and the permission of the active members, I offer the following resolution :\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": null, "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nResolved, That, in view of the early expiration, thru limitation by law, of the certificate of incorporation\nof the trustees of the National Educational Association, the Board of Trustees is hereby authorized and requested\nto take such steps as may be necessary to continue their corporate existence, and to protect the interests of the\nAssociation thereby.\nResolved, That, in case existing provisions of law as to the incorporation of associations for educational or\nfinancial purposes require any change in the terms of the existing Constitution and rules of the Association, the\ntrustees be, and are hereby, directed to report to the Board of Directors, and to the next annual meeting of the\nactive members, such changes, if any, as they may recommend for adoption.\n\nIn answer to a request by a member that notification of any proposed changes in the\nConstitution under the resolution be sent by the Secretary to the active members, Mr.\nBlewett asked permission to add the following :\nResolved, That due notice by the Secretary, under the terms of the present Constitution, be given to active\nmembers of any changes that shall be proposed by the Board of Trustees in pursuance of the above resolutions.\n\nThe resolutions, as thus amended, were carried by a unanimous vote.\nS. Y: GiLLAN, of Wisconsin: Mr. President, I rise to offer a resolution to amend\nthe Constitution and By-Laws of the Association as follows:\nResolved, That sec. 2, Art. IV, of the Constitution be amended by adding the following words to the first\nparagraph :\n\"The active members from any state, territory, or district, in attendance at the meeting for electing a\nmember of the Committee on Nominations, may elect the additional member of the Board of Directors for\nsuch state, territory, or district.\"\nResolved, That the By-Laws be amended by inserting the following paragraphs immediately after the\nfirst paragraph of By-Law No. i :\n\"The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the second day of each annual session and nominate candidates for President, first Vice-President, Treasurer, and a director for each state, territory, or district whose\nmembers shall not have reported the election of a director as provided in sec. 2, Art. IV, of the Constitution;\nand the Committee on Nominations shall report to the active members at their meeting the following day a list\nof the nominations.\n\"WTien the vote is taken by the Committee on Nominations for candidates for President, first VicePresident, and Treasurer, the committee shall report the persons having the highest number of votes, not\nexceeding two persons, as candidates for each ofiice. But if, after two formal ballots, any person shall receive\na two-thirds majority of the votes cast by the Committee on Nominations for any one of the aforesaid offices,\nthen the person receiving such two-thirds majority shall be reported as the only candidate for such office.\"\n\nMr. President, I believe that, under the rules, a proposed amendment must lie over\nfor one year, in order to give opportunity for deliberate consideration of the proposed\namendment. I, therefore, move that the Secretary be instructed to print these proposed\namendments, and any others that may be proposed at this meeting, in the ojQ&cial program\nof next year, so that they may be intelligently taken up at the next annual meeting in\n1905.\n\nThe motion of Mr. Gillan was seconded and carried by unanimous vote.\nA count of the number of active members present was made. The Secretary reported\n576 members present, and stated that the number was more than twice the attendance\nat any former meeting of active members.\nAfter notices by the Secretary, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30, 5:45 p. m.\n\nThe second vesper meeting was called to order in Recital Hall of the Festival Hall\nbuilding. In the absence of Carl T. F. Bitter, director of sculpture of the Louisiana\nPurchase Exposition, Mr. George JuHan Zolnay, instructor in architecture of St. Louis\nSchool of Fine Arts, addressed the convention on \" Sculpture and Decoration at the Exposition.\"\nAfter Mr. Zolnay's address, a few announcements were given, and the convention\nadjourned to Friday, at 9:15 a. m.\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nFOURTH\nSIXTH\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nDAY'S\n\n20\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION.—Friday,\n\nJuly i, 9:15 a. m.\n\nAn introductory musical program was rendered by Weil's Band, of St. Louis.\nThe convention was called to order by President Cook at 9: 15 a. m., and was opened\nby prayer by Rev. Robert A. Holland, D.D., of St. George's Episcopal Church, St. Louis.\nThe first\naddress ofofPomona\nthe morning\nwas Claremont,\non \"The Place\nCal. of the Small CoUege,\"'by George\nCollege,\npresident\nA. Gates,\nThe convention was honored in a visit by his eminence Cardinal Francis Satolli,\naccompanied by his associates.\nHaving been introduced to the Association by President\nCook, Cardinal Satolli addressed the convention briefly, as follows:\nREMARKS\n\nBY\n\nCARDINAL\n\nSATOIJJ\n\n[stenographic report]\nI am very happy this morning to pay my respects and to offer congratulations to you, the members of the\nNational Educational Association of America. I come here, not only as a simple Christian underpriest of the\nCatholic church, but also as a cardinal of the Holy See, to tender a tribute of sincerest respect.\nYesterday evening I spoke in this place on that most interesting subject, education. The results of your\ncongress will not only remain for the honor of this glorious Universal Exposition, but will also be continued in\nits salutary influence thruout the United States, and, in its highest consequences, will affect also the people in\nall countries of the Christian world.\nThe future of humanity does not depend on the strength of nations or on their material prosperity, but the\ncorner-stone of civilization, and the welfare of the greatest world-nations, are founded on public Christian\neducation. Therefore, the United States of America in civil and political liberty leads in the progress of humanity, for which reason, also, special congratulations are tendered on behalf of your Republic and your Christian\nand universal education.\n\nFollowing the address of the cardinal, Rt. Rev. Monsignor D. O'Connell, rector\nof the Catholic University of America, at Washington, D. C, was introduced and spoke\nas follows:\nREMARKS\n\nBY\n\nRT. REV. MONSIGNOR\n[stenographic report]\n\nD. O'CONNELL\n\nMr. President, Teachers of the Schools in America:\nTho something of a stranger in St. Louis, I feel myself quite at home here. I have spent much of my\nUfe, and I suppose I shall spend the rest of it, doing just what you are doing — carrying on the work of education,\nI look with a great deal of interest and admiration at aU of the many objects placed here on exhibition by the\nseveral states of the Union and the different nations of the world, but nothing of all that the Exposition presents\nto me impresses me as the audience now before me.\nWhat is the great power in the world today, in civilization ? It is the soul of America. Who is it controls\nthat mighty soul ? You; you who create, teach, and inspire that mighty soul that is charged with the destinies\nof humanity. Oh, what a mighty responsibiUty to shape that future ! All priests and priestesses of humanity 1\nReally, I should like to get into your souls, to know what you think. And I suppose you would like to get into\nmine. How I should like, for a moment, to be in your place, to be able to breathe impulses into that mighty\nsoul of America ! Were I a teacher of a school, what would I say to the soul of America ? What would be my\nfirst lesson ? This, above all : To thy God be true; next : Love honesty above all things else; thirdly : Put your\nliberties above your interests, and spend your lives to make yourselves and your fellow-men better.\n\nThe second paper of the session was read by Dr. Leopold Bahlsen, commissioner of\nthe German educational exhibit, on \"The Preparation of Teachers in Germany.\"\nThen followed a brief organ recital by Professor Charles R. Galloway.\nMiss Margaret A. Haley, president of the National Federation of Teachers, Chicago,\n111., addressed the convention on \"Why Should the Teachers Organize ?\"\n\"The Limitation of the Superintendent's Authority and of the Teacher's Independence\" was the subject of the closing address of the morning, by Aaron Gove, supenntendent of the city schools, Denver, Colo.\nAfter announcements, the convention adjourned to meet at 5:45 p. m.\nSEVENTH\n\nSESSION.—Friday,\n\nJuly i, 5^45 p- ^■\n\nThe convention assembled for the closing vesper meeting at 5:45 p- m., and was\ncalled to order by President Cook.\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": null, "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMr. George Julian Zolnay, instructor in architecture of the St. Louis School of Fine\nArts, and superintendent of the Division of Sculpture of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, was introduced and addressed the convention on \"The Architecture of the Exposition,\" supplying the place of William S. Eames, president of the American Institute of\nArchitects, vs^ho had been appointed to speak at this session, but who was unable to fill\nthe engagement on account of illness.\nFollowing the address of Mr. Zolnay, the President called for the report of the Committee on Resolutions, which was presented by Mr. Charles D. Mclver, of North CaroHna,\nchairman of the committee.\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nThe members of the National Educational Association, assembled in this their fortythird convention, make the following resolutions :\nDECLARATION\n\nI. We cannot emphasize too often the educational creed first promulgated more than\na century ago, that \"religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government\nand the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.\" This declaration of the fathers must come to us now with newer and more solemn\ncall when we remember that in many parts of our common country the fundamental questions of elementary education — local taxation, consolidation of weak schools, rational\nsupervision, proper recognition of the teacher as an educator in the school system, school\nlibraries, and well-trained and well-paid teachers — are still largely unsettled questions.\n2. We would direct attention, therefore, to the necessity for a supervisor of ability\nand tact for every town, city, county, and state system of public schools. Not only are\nleaders needed in this position who can appreciate and stimulate the best professional\nwork, but quaHties of popular leadership are also demanded to the end that all classes of\npeople may be so aroused that every future citizen of the Republic may have the very best\nopportunities for training in social and civic efficiency.\n3. The very nature of the teacher's task demands that that task be entrusted only to\nmen and women of culture and of intellectual and moral force. Inadequate compensation\nfor educational work drives many efficient workers from the schoolroom and prevents\nmany men and women of large ambitions for service from entering the profession. It is\ncreditable neither to the profession nor to the general pubHc that teachers of our children,\neven tho they can be secured, should be paid the paltry sum of $300 a year, which is about\nthe average annual salary of teachers thruout the country.\n4. The Bureau of Education at Washington- should be preserved in its integrity, and\nthe dignity of its position maintained and increased. It should receive at the hands of our\nlawmakers such recognition and such appropriations as will enable it not only to employ\nall expert assistance necessary, but also to publish in convenient and usable form the results\nof investigations; thus making that department of our government such a source of\ninformation and advice as will be most helpful to the people in conducting their campaigns\nof education.\n5. We would emphasize the necessity for the development of public high schools\nwherever they can be supported properly,in order that the largest number possible of those\nwho pass thru the elementary grades may have the advantage of broader training, and for\nthe additional reason that the public elementary schools are taught largely by those who\nhave no training beyond that given in the high schools.\n6. As long as more than half of our population is rural, the rural school and its problems should receive the solicitous care of the National Educational Association. The\nRepublic is vitally concerned in the educational development of every part of its territoiy\nThere must be no forgotten masses anywhere in our Union of states and territories, nor in\nany one of its dependencies.\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": null, "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n31\n\n7. We believe that merit and merit alone should determine the employment and retention of teachers; that, after due probation, tenure of office should be permanent during\nefficiency and good behavior; and that promotions should be based on fitness, experience,\nprofessional growth, and fideUty to duty. We especially commend the efforts that are\nbeing made in many parts of the country whereby teachers, school officials, and the general\npublic working together for a common purpose are securing better salaries for teachers and\ndevising a better system for conserving the rights and privileges of all and for improving\nthe efficiency of the schools.\n8. We declare further that, granted equal character and efficiency, and equally successful experience, women are equally entitled with men to the honors and emoluments of\nthe profession of teaching.\n9. We advocate the enactment and rigid enforcement of appropriate laws relating to\nchild labor, such as will protect the mental, moral, and physical well-being of the child,\nand will be conducive to his educational development into American citizenship.\n10. The responsibility for the success or failure of the schools rests wholly with the\npeople, and therefore the pubHc schools should be kept as near to the people as practicable;\nto this end we indorse the principle of popular local self-government in all school matters.\n11. Since education is a matter of the highest public concern, our public-school\nsystem should be fully and adequately supported by taxation; and tax laws should be honestly and rigidly enforced both as to assessment and collection.\n12. We congratulate and thank the management of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition for giving education first place in the scheme of classification, for the location and\ngrandeur of its building, and for the extent and arrangement of the educational exhibits.\nSuch recognition of education is in harmony with the genius of our democracy and will\nstimulate interest in popular education thruout the world.\nCharles D. McIver, of North Carolina, Chairman;\nJohn W. Carr, of Indiana;\nAmelia C. Fruchte, of Missouri;\nMargaret A. Haley, of Illinois;\nAnna Tolman Smith, of District of Columbia;\nAugustus S. Downing, of New York;\nS. Y. GiLLAN, of Wisconsin;\nCommittee on Resolutions.\nThe resolutions as presented were then adopted by the convention by a unanimous vote.\nFollowing this action, a series of resolutions was passed expressing the thanks of\nthe Association to the teachers and other citizens of St. Louis; to Chancellor W. S. Chaplin,\nchairman of the Local Executive Committee of the National Educational Association,\nand his associates, for the generous reception and entertainment of the Association; to\nthe officers of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company, and especially to Howard\nJ. Rogers, chief of the Department of Education and director of Congresses; to the Missouri\nState Commissioners, for the use of their beautiful building for headquarters; and to the\npress of the city and the Associated Press, for their reports of the convention.\nA special resolution of thanks was tendered by the Association to the retiring President, John W. Cook, of Illinois; and to the retiring Treasurer, McHenry Rhoads, of Kentucky, for their year of skillful and effective services.\nPresident Cook then read a telegram from President-elect W. H. Maxwell, of New\nYork city, accepting his election as President of the Association for the ensuing year,\nand expressing his gratitude for the honor conferred.\nForty-third\nPresident Cook then briefly addressed the Association, and declared the\nAnnual Convention of the National Educational Association adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETING\n\nDIRECTORS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nFOR 1903-1904\n\nSt. Louis, Mo., June 27, 1904\nThe annual meeting of the Board of Directors was called to order in the Model Library\nof the Missouri State Building, Louisiana Purchase Exposition grounds, St. Louis, Mo.,\nat 5:30 p. M., June 27, 1904, by President John W. Cook.\nThe following directors answered to roll-call:\nJohn W. Cook, Illinois-, McHenry Rhoads, Kentucky; Albert G. Lane, Illinois; Nicholas Murray Butler,\nNew York; James H. Canfield, New York; Newton C. Dougherty, Illinois; Aaron Gove, Colorado; J. M.\nGreen, New Jersey; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri;\nJohn S. Locke, Maine; Augustus S. Downing, New York; John Enright, New Jersey; M. Bates Stephens,\nMaryland; Miss Lydia A. Yates, North Carolina; S. L. Frogge, Kentucky; D. J, Johns, Jr., Tennessee; W.\nF. Slaton, Georgia; E. E. Bass, Mississippi; A. Caswell Ellis, Texas; David R. Boyd, Oklahoma; John R.\nBenedict, Indian Territory; W. H. Kirk, Ohio; T. A. Mott, Indiana; Miss Catherine Goggin, Illinois; D. W.\nSpringer, Michigan; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; A. V. Storm, Iowa; W. L. Kunze, Minnesota; Ben Blewett,\nMissouri; George W. Nash, South Dakota; E. J. Bodwell, Nebraska; Oscar J, Craig, Montana; Miss Estelle,\nReel, Wyoming; Lewis C. Greenlee, Colorado; A. J. Matthews, Arizona; W. J. Kerr, Utah; Miss May L. Scott,\nIdaho; Frank B. Cooper, Washington.\n\nPresent, forty directors.\nOn motion, the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, held in Boston, Mass.,\nJuly 9, 1903, was dispensed with, and the minutes were approved as printed in the volume\nof Proceedings of the Boston meeting.\nThe secretary read communications from several absent directors, tendering their\nresignations, and nominating their successors for appointment to membership by the\nboard, as follows:\nDirector John W. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania, nominating Nathan C. Schaeffer.\nDirector Warren Easton, of Louisiana, nominating Miss Evehne A. Waldo.\nDirector W. K. Tate, of South Carolina, nominating Leonard T. Baker.\nDirector Louis P. Nash, of Massachusetts, nominating Albert E. Winship.\n\nOn motion, these resignatior« of the several directors were accepted, and the secretary\nwas instructed to cast the ballot of the directors for the election of the respective nominees.\nThe secretary reported the ballot as so cast, and the president announced the nominees\nelected as members of the Board of Directors.\nThe annual report of the Treasurer of the Association, Mr. McHenry Rhoads, of\nKentucky, was then read.\nDirector A. G. Lane, chairman of the Board of Trustees, stated that the report of the\nTreasurer had been examined by the Board of Trustees and compared with the record of\naccounts as kept by the Secretary, and that said Board had attached their certificate that\nthe Treasurer's report was found in all particulars correct.\nOn motion of Director J. M. Green, of New Jersey, duly seconded, the report of the\nTreasurer was received and approved, and ordered printed in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nDirector A. G. Lane, chairman, submitted the eighteenth annual report of the Board\nof Trustees. The detailed report was distributed to the members of the Board of Directors in printed form.\nDirector A. G. Lane: You will note, by turning to the last page of the report, that\nquite a number of Kansas county and municipal school bonds, which we have held for a\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n33\n\ngood many years, are in default. This condition was brought about by the drought which\nexisted in western Kansas some years ago, and which led to the abandonment of farms and\nthe breaking up of some communities. But the country has been improving in recent\nyears. The lands have been resold, and the taxable value has gradually increased. From\ninformation received by the Board of Trustees, we have felt that it is not advisable to\naccept ofifers of compromise for the settlement of these bonds that have been made from\ntime to time. The market value of these bonds has gradually increased from twenty-five\ncents on the dollar to fifty cents, and in Some cases to a Uttle more.\nAt the meeting of the Board of Trustees last year it was deemed advisable to adopt a\nconservative policy in making investments, and it was recommended that such investments\nbe made in approved bonds, rather than in real-estate mortgages. You will therefore\nnotice that the investments in bonds have increased from $18,000 last year to $53,500 this\nyear. Of the expense account, which appears on the second page of the report, you will\nnote that $650 was for premiums on the bonds, and $698.63 was for the accrued interest\nand loans. Eight hundred dollars of this amount has been returned in interest received,\nas appears in the next to the last item of the \"Income Statement.\"\nOn motion, the report of the Board of Trustees was received and adopted, and ordered\nprinted in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe Secretary: I am in receipt of a letter from Hon. Carroll D. Wright, of Washington, D. C, chairman of the Committee on the Economic Status of Teachers, transmit ing apreliminary report of the committee. The report is of some length and refers\nto the work of the committee up to the present time, including certain statistics which\nhave been tabulated. The entire report is, however, preUminary, and is submitted as a\nreport of progress.\nOn motion of Director Nicholas Murray Butler, of New York, duly seconded, the\nreport was received, and the secretary was instructed to transmit it to the National Council\nwith recommendation that it be printed in the annual volume of Proceedings.\nThe secretary reported the receipt of a communication from EUakim H. Moore, head\nof the Department of Mathematics of the University of Chicago, transmitting a petition\nto the Board of Directors for the establishment of a Department of Mathematical Education, said petition being in due form and signed by twenty-five or more active members\nparticularly interested in mathematical education.\nOn motion, the appUcation was read and received for consideration by the board.\nDirector J. M. Green moved that the petition for the proposed new department be\nnot granted; seconded by A. S. Downing, of New York.\nDirector J. M. Green: I think it would be a mistake to increase the number of\ndepartments that we already have. I have never been quite able to understand why we\nshould have a Department of Higher Education, and then have other departments covering all the subjects that would naturally be discussed in the Department of Higher Education. Ithink that the increasing number of special departments draws interest away\nfrom the others.\nDirector J. M. Greenwood: The proposed new department may draw something\nof interest away from the Department of Higher Education, but it seems to me that the\nrequest is one that ought to be granted. When you take into consideration the rather\nchaotic condition of the teaching of mathematics in this country, I think it would be\nentirely appropriate to establish a special department for the consideration of this subject. I,for one, am willing to vote for the creation of a Department of Mathematical\nEducation.\n\nAfter further general discussion, the motion of Director Green, that the petition be\nnot granted, was put to vote and carried.\nUnder the order of new business, Edwin B. Cox, of Ohio, was recognized by the\n.hair, and, being granted the privilege of the floor, he presented an apphcation from the\nCommittee on SimpUfication of SpelUng appointed by the Department of Superintendence\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": null, "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof the National Educational Association at its meeting February 25, 1904.\nSaid application was in the form of a communication to the Board of Directors, as follows:\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association and to the National Council:\nGentlemen: The acceptable duty was laid upon us by the Department of Superintendence, February\n24, 1904, of formally apprising you of its adoption of the two following resolutions, and of respectfully asking\nyour concurrence in them :\nResolved, (i) That the Department of Superintendence approves the first of the resolutions addressed to\nit by the State Teachers' Associations of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and respectfully requests the Board\nof Directors to appoint a permanent, self-perpetuating committee of thirty prominent citizens in different\nwalks of life, particularly scholars and educators, and representing the various sections of the country, to head\nthe movement for simplifying our spelling, and to promote its interests in all ways which they find feasible and\ndeem wise.\nResolved, (2) That the Department of Superintendence approves the second of the resolutions addressed\nto it by the State Associations of lUinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and respectfully requests the Committee\non Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council to recommend to the Board of Directors, and the\ndepartment respectfully asks said board to make, the appropriation of $2,000 a year for five years, for the use\nof the above committee, to be paid to it semi-annually, each payment to equal such a total sum as shall have\nlaeen paid for the same purpose, within the preceding six months, to the treasurer of said committee by any\nindividuals, teachers' associations, or other organizations, the amount paid by the National Educational Association never to exceed $2,000 in any one year, and never to exceed the sum contributed from outside sources\nduring the previous six months.\nPermit us to call your attention to the significance of the decisive vote of the department on each of the\nresolutions, and also to the significance of the decisive similar action by the State Teachers' Associations of\nIllinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and by the principals' associations in over seventy-five of our largest cities\nand towns, as Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Syracuse, Toledo, Detroit, Columbus, Indianapolis, Springfield\n(111.), Minneapolis, etc.\nIt gives us pleasure to present to you herewith a petition signed by 1,545 of our active members, asking\nyou to comply with the requests of the Department of Superintendence. We also present, in parallel column,\nthe names of the 171 active members who oppose your taking such action. The vote thus stands over nine\nto one in favor of yoiu: complying with the requests of the department.\nYou will notice that, while your petitioners pay into the National Educational Association treasury directly,\nevery year, about $3,000, they indirectly put in much more, as a large proportion of them are superintendents,\nwho are the chief agents in securing the large attendance of grade teachers which we have every year.\nTo facilitate your action in this matter we submit (on the following pages) two different plans which have\nbeen suggested and carefully considered for organizing the proposed commission or committees. We submit\nthem in a purely tentative way, merely as a working basis for your deliberations. While we hope to be heard\nfully when the matter is before you for action, we deem*it proper to say here that, in our judgment, the interests\nof the National Educational Association will be best conserved by a working organization fashioned in the main\nin accordance with Plan A. But we are not strenuous on this point, and we are sure that whichever plan you\nadopt will prove acceptable to the Department of Superintendence and to all your other petitioners.\nRespectfully submitted,\nW. H. Elson, Chairman (Superintendent, Grand Rapids, Mich.);\nEdwin B. Cox (Superintendent, Xenia, O.);\nC. N. Kendall (Superintendent, Indianapolis, Ind.);\nF. T. Oldt (Superintendent, Dubuque, la.);\nA. W. Rankin (State Inspector of Schools, MinneapoUs, Minn.);\nSpecial Committee of the Department of Superintendence.\nOff behalf of. our respective State Associations, we heartily avail ourselves of the privilege kindly accorded\nto us of indorsing the above letter.\nDavid Felmley (President State Normal, Normal, 111.)\nChairman Illinois Committee on Simplification of Spelling.\nR. H. Halsey (President State Normal, Oshkosh, Wis.),\nChairman Wisconsin Committee on Simplification of Spelling.\nJ. F. Millspaugh (formerly President State Normal, Winona, Minn.,\nand Chairman Minnesota Committee on Simplification of Spelling; now President State Normal, Los Angeles, Cal.).\nC. W. G. Hyde (Editor School Education, Minneapolis),\nChairman Minnesota Committee on Simplification of Spelling.\nRESOLUTIONS\nRegular\n\nTO BE SUBMITTED FOR\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nMeeting\n\nWhereas,\n\n5:30 p. m., Monday,\n\nCONSIDERATION BY THE BOARD\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nJune 27, 1904. Library Hall, Missouri Building, Exposition\nGrounds, St. Louis\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, the State\n\nTeachers' Associations of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, together with many other educational bodies\nand a large number of our active members and of other prominent persons, have memorialized this board to\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n35\n\ncreate a permartent committee, and to provide it with a limited contingent fund,\nfor the purpose of promoting\nand directing the movement to simplify our English spelling; therefore\nable after the regular expenses of this meeting are\nPLAN A\npaid, and as shall never exceed the amount contribuResolved, (i) That this Board hereby invites and\nted from other sources for the use of the commission,\nconstitutes the persons hereinafter named to be a\nsaid $10,000 or portion of it to be paid to the comCommission on the Simplification of Our English\nmission inten semi-annual instaUments, each equal\nSpelling, under the following terms and conditions:\nto, but never exceeding, the amount contributed dur1. This commission is established to labor, directly\ning the same period, as above indicated.\nor indirectly, with discretion and patience, and with\nPLAN B\npersistence lasting thru generations, if need be, to\ninduce our people gradually, but as rapidly as wise\nResolved, (i) That a permanent Committee on the\nSimplification of Our English SpelUng is hereby\nand scholarly leadership may render possible, to\nestablished as one of the activities of the National\nadopt such changes in our spelling as shall ultimately\nEducational Association, under the following terms\nreduce it to a simple, regular, phonetic basis, so tha*\nand conditions:\nall our words shall be spelled as they are pronounced ,\nwith one sound for each sign and one sign for each\n1. This committee is established to labor, etc,\nsound.\n(same as in Plan A).\n2. This commission shall consist of the following\n2. This committee shall consist of the following\npersons, or of so many of them as shall accept their\npersons, or so many of them as shall accept their\nappointment within thirty days after receiving notice\nappointment and become active members of the\nthereof :\nNational Educational Association, if not aheady\n(A list of thirty or more persons, prominent as\nsuch, within thirty days after receiving notice of said\neducators, writers, scholars, business men, etc., and\nappointment.\n(A list, etc. [same as in Plan A].)\nrepresenting different sections of the country, wilj\nbe nominated for consideration by the board as soon\n3. The committee shall organize by electing a\nas this resolution and its constituent sections are\nchairman, a \\dce-chairman, a secretary, and an execuadopted.)\ntive board. The secretary need not be a member of\n3. The commission shall organize by electing a\npresident, a vice-president, and an executive board\nfrom its membership, and also a secretary and a\ntreasurer, who may be members of the commission\nor not.\n4. The commission shall be free to make its own\nrules for the conduct of its business; to determine its\npolicy and methods; to increase or decrease the number of its members; to elect honorary members; to fill\nall vacancies that may arise in its membership; to\nafiiliate other organizations with it in its efforts and\nwork; to become a corporate body, and to hold and\nadminister bequests or other funds for the best\ninterests of the cause which it is created to serve; and\nto do any and all other acts which its judgment may\napprove as tending to promote the simplifying of our\nspelling.\n5. The commission shall keep a record of all\nreceipts and disbursements, which shall be open to\ninspection at all suitable times by any oflficer of the\nNational Educational Association or by any regular\ncontributor to its funds. It shall make an annual\nreport to the Secretary of the National Educational\nAssociation covering the general features of its work\nfor the year ending June 30, which report shall be\npublished, at the discretion of the Executive Committee of the National Educational Association, in\nthe volume of Proceedings.\n6. The members of the commission shall serve\nwithout compensation, excepting the one who may be\nchosen to act as secretary or agent, who shall receive\nan appropriate salary. The actual expense incurred\nby any member in performance of any service to\nwhich he was duly appointed may be reimbursed to\nhim.\nResolved, (2) That beginning July i, 1904, there\nis hereby appropriated from the current revenues of\nthis Association, for the use of said commission, the\nsum of $10,000, or so much thereof as shall be avail-\n\nthe committee, but he must be or become, within\nthirty days after his election, an active member of the\nNational Educational Association. The Treasurer of\nthe National Educational Association shall act as\ntreasurer of the committee, and as such he shall\naccount for all money placed in his hands for the use\nof said committee.\n4. The committee shall be free to make its own\nrules for the conduct of its business; to determine its\npolicy and methods; to invite, in the name of the\nNational Educational Association, scientific, literary,\nand other organizations to join with it in its work; to\nincrease or decrease the number of its members; and\nto fill all vacancies that may arise in its membership,\nproviding that any person elected as a member shall\nbe an active member of the National Educational\nAssociation or become such within thirty days after\nnotice of his election. The committee shall make an\nannual report to the secretary of the National Educational Association covering the general features of its\nwork for the year ending June 30, which shall be\nprinted in the annual volume of Proceedings.\n5. The trustees of the National Educational Association are hereby authorized and requested to act\nas trustees for the Committee on Simplification of\nSpelling, and to receive and administer gifts and\nbequests made in its behalf.\n6. The members of the committee shall serve\nwithout compensation, excepting the one who may be\nchosen to act as secretary or agent, who shall receive\nan appropriate salary, to be fixed by the committee\nand paid from its fund. The actual expense incurred\nby any member of the committee in the performance\nof any service to which he was duly appointed may be\nreimbursed to hijn from the funds of the committee.\nResolved, (2) That beginning July i, 1904, there is\nof\nhereby appropriated from the current revenues\nthis Association for the use of said committee the\nsum of, etc. (as in Plan A).\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": null, "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMr. Cox stated that he was authorized to present this communication in behalf of the\ncommittee in the absence of the chairman, Mr. W. H. Elson, of Michigan, who was unable\nto be present. He further supported the commujiication and application with an argument for its favorable consideration and disposition, making reference to the expression of a\nlarge number of the active members of the Association which had been made strongly\nfavoring the application of the committee.\nAn informal discussion followed, in which attention was called to the custom of the\nBoard of Directors of referring appHcations for appropriations to the National Council for\ninvestigation and recommendation.\nDirector F. B. Cooper, of Washington, moved that the application be referred to the\nNational Council of Education, with the request that it be considered, and recommendation thereon be made by its Committee on Investigations and Appropriations; seconded\nby Director A. S. Downing, of New York.\nEdwin B. Cox: With your permission, Mr. President, and the permission of the\nBoard of Directors, I wish simply to make inquiry with regard to the particular functions\nand duties, under the constitution of the Association, of this Committee on Appropriations\nof the Council, or of the Council itself, with reference to a question of this nature.\nDirector Nicholas Murray Butler : Mr. President, may I be permitted to answer\nthat question ? At the Washington meeting, in 1898, this board adopted a resolution covering this matter which it may at any time repeal if it so desires. This resolution provided\nthat, in view of the large number of applications for appropriations which were annually\ncoming before the board, all such applications should be referred to the National Council\nof Education for an expression of opinion as to the wisdom of such appropriations. The\nNational Council thereupon constituted a standing committee, consisting of nine members,\nwhose duty it should be to consider and report to that body on all applications for appropriations. Last year the business of the Council became so heavy, and the number of important\nrequests to be considered and reported upon in a very short time so large, that the Council\nadopted a rule requiring a certain notice of application to be given in advance of the\nannual meeting. My understanding is that the rule has been compUed with in the present\ncase; so, to answer the question of my friend from Ohio, the pending motion to refer the\napplication to the Council for recommendation is simply in accord with the procedure\nadopted by the board to govern the consideration of all requests for appropriations.\nDirector J. M. Greenwood: Supplementing what Director Butler has stated, permit me to say that under the pending motion (if passed) the apphcation of the Committee\non Amended Spelling will go to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of\nthe Council, which will meet tomorrow afternoon at 2:30 o'clock, in the lecture-room of\nthe Education Building; that all papers referring to this question will come up for consideration and discussion before this committee; and that the application presented by Mr.\nCox will be then considered, in accordance with the usual form. On page 16 of the\nOfficial Program of this convention will be found the rule of the Council governing such\nbusiness. As chairman of the Committee of the Council on Investigations and Appropriations,wish\nI\nat this time to invite Mr. Cox, and all others interested in these matters,\nto be present at the meeting of the committee.\nMr. Edwin B. Cox: The explanations given by Directors Butler and Greenwood\nare entirely satisfactory. As a member of the committee of the Department of Superintendence having this matter in charge, and as the representative of the chairman of that\ncommittee, I desire to say that I am perfectly wilhng, on behalf of the committee, to submit the application of the Department of Superintendence to the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the National Council, as provided in the pending motion.\nAction was then taken on the motion, and the same was adopted without dissent.\nFollowing this action, in answer to a question by Mr. Cox, explanation was made\nby President Cook, as follows: In accordance with the usual order, the Committee on\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nInvestigations and Appropriations will report its action to the National Council. The\nNational Council will then report to the new Board of Directors, which will meet in this\nroom on Thursday afternoon at 4:30 o'clock, and this new Board of Directors will take\naction on the recommendation of the Council.\nThe secretary reported the receipt of a communication from Mr. H. Delmar French,\nan active member of the Association, on the subject of spelUng reform, which he desired\nto have referred to whatever committee should be appointed to consider that subject.\nThe letter of Mr. French and the accompanying documents were, on motion of Director\nA. S. Downing, of New York, referred to the Council to be considered with the application\nof the committee of the Department of Superintendence.\nAfter various announcements by the secretary, the meeting adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": null, "text": "MINUTES\n\nOF THE\n\nMEETING\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nFOR 1904-1905\n\nSt. Louis, Mo., June 30, 1904\nThe new Board of Directors of the National Educational Association met in the\nModel Library Room of the Missouri Building, Exposition grounds, at 4:30 p. m., June\n30, 1904.\n\n.\n\nThe meeting was called to order by First Vice-President John W. Cook, who presided in the absence of the president-elect.\nThe following directors responded to roll-call:\nJohn W. Cook, Illinois-, Albert G. Lane, Illinois; Irwin Shepard, Minnesota; Nicholas Murray Butler,\nNew York; James H. Canfield, New York; Aaron Gove, Colorado; J. M. Green, New Jersey; J. M. Greenwood, Missouri; W. T. Harris, District of Columbia; T. MarceUus Marshall, West Virginia; Joshua Pike,\nIllinois; F. Louis Soldan, Missouri; A. R. Taylor, Illinois; A. H. Chamberlain, Cahfornia; Miss Clem Hampton, Florida; W. F. Slaton, Georgia; May L. Scott, Idaho; J. A. Mercer, Illinois; T. A. Mott, Indiana; J. D.\nBenedict, Indian Territory; A. V. Storm, Iowa; J. W. Spindler, Kansas; S. L. Frogge, Kentucky; John S.\nLocke, Maine; M. Bates Stevens, Maryland; W. F. Kunze, Minnesota; R. B. Fulton, Mississippi; Ben Blewett,\nMissouri; R. G. Young, Montana; George L. Towne, Nebraska; A. S. Downing, New York; Lydia Yates,\nNorth Carolina; E. D. Lyon, Ohio; A. R. Hickam, Oklahoma; E. J. Johns, Jr., Tennessee; Alex Hogg, Texas;\nA. C. Nelson, Utah; L. D. Harvey, Wisconsin; Estelle Reel, Wyoming.\n\nNumber of directors present, thirty-nine.\nOn motion of Director J. M. Green, of New Jersey, it was ordered that the reading\nof the minutes of the last meeting be dispensed with, and that they be printed in the volume\nof Proceedings.\nThe next order of business being the election of a member of the Board of Trustees\nto fill the vacancy occasioned by the expiration of the term of service of Newton C.\nDougherty, of Illinois, a motion was made and unanimously carried that Trustee\nDougherty be elected to succeed himself for the term of four years.\nOn motion, Director W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, was\nelected to succeed himself as a member of the Executive Committee for the term of one\nyear.\n\nThe secretary reported the receipt of a communication from the National Council,\naccompanied by a copy of a detailed report to the Council by the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of that body.\nAt the request of the president, the communication was read, as follows:\n\nRoom of the National Council, N. E. A,,\nSt. Louis, Mo., June 30, igo4.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary of the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nDear Sir: By direction of the National Council of Education, I herewith transmit a series of resolutions\nnumbered 1,2, and 3, for the consideration of the Board of Directors. The resolutions Nos. 2 and 3 embody\nthe recommendations of the Council on a general plan and policy proposed for governing all matters of appropriations ofmoney for committees of investigation, and for other purposes; and also the recommendations of\nthe Council of certain appropriations to committees of investigations for the ensuing year.\nAccompanying these resolutions and for the information of the Board of Directors is a copy of the full\nreport of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations of the Council, and a copy of a resolution (No. 4)\nwhich is submitted as a report of progress on the application for an appropriation by the Committee of the Department of Superintendence on the subject of Reformed Spelling, which was referred to the Council for recommendation by the old Board of Directors at its meeting held Monday, June 27, of the present week.\nRespectfully yours,\n(Signed)\n\nJames H. Van Sickle,\nSecretary of the National Council.\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nOF THE NEW\n\nNOS. i, 2, AND\n\nBOARD\n\n3, TRANSMITTED\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n39\n\nBY THE COUNCIL\n\n[nOS. 2 AND 3 BEING RECOMMENDED FOR ADOPTION BY THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS]\n1. Resolved, That the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations made under date\nof June 29, 1904, be accepted and its recommendations adopted.\n2. Resolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to adopt\nthe following rules of procedure to govern all appropriations:\n(a) All appropriations for whatever purpose are chargeable against the current income of the Association for the year in which they are made. Unexpended balances will be covered into the treasury at the dose\nof the fiscal year.\n^\n{b) When circumstances require, unexpended balances will be re-appropriated either in whole or in part,\nfor the purposes for which they were originally made.\n(c) All appropriations for special purposes shall be made subject to the requirements of the conduct of\nthe ordinary business of the Association, including the salary of the Secretary and the expenses of his oflSce,\nthe expenses of the Executive Committee, the publication and distribution of the volume of Proceedings, and\nthe usual miscellaneous and incidental expenses.\n(d) When the current income of the fiscal year is more than sufficient to meet the cost of the conduct of\nthe ordinary business of the Association, then appropriations for special purposes shall become available in the\norder in which they are voted by the Board of Directors.\n3. Resolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association be requested to make\nthe following appropriations for the fiscal year beginning July i, 1904:\n(a) The unexpended balance of the appropriation of $1,500 made July 9, 1903 — namely, $1,109.29 —\nand additional appropriation of $1,500, for the committee to inquire and report to the Council upon the Salaries,\nTenure of Office, and Pension Provisions of Public-School Teachers of the United States.\n(6) The unexpended balance of the appropriation of $1,000 made July 10, 1902 — namely, $709.25^\nfor the committee to inquire and report to the Council upon Taxation for School Purposes in the United States.\n(c) The unexpended balance of the appropriation of $500 made July 9, 1903 — namely, $312.05 — and an\nadditional appropriation of $500, for the committee to inquire and report to the Coimcil upon Industrial\nEducation in Schools in Rural Communities.\n(d) The sum of $200 as a contribution toward the expenses of the Conunittee of Five authorized by the\nDepartment of Superintendence, February 25, 1903, to confer vdth the committees of other associations in\nregard to a Universal System of Key Notation for Indicating Pronunciation and to recommend a Phonetic\nAlphabet.\nRESOLUTION\nSUBMITTED\n\nNO. 4\n\nBY THE COUNCIL FOR THE INFORMATION\n\nOF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS\n\nResolved, That the president of the Council be authorized and instructed to invite Calvin Thomas, of\nNew York; George Hempl, of Michigan; Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa; and Charies M. Jordan, of Minnesota,\ntogether with the President of the National Educational Association for 1904-5, when elected, to advise the\nCouncil and their Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, not later than June i, 1905, upon the\nquestions stated in paragraph 7 of the report (the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. See minutes of the National Council for copy of the report).\nDirector A. V. Storm, of Iowa, moved that resolutions Nos. 2 and 3 be adopted as\nrecommended by the Council of Education; seconded.\n\nIn answer to questions, Director J. M. Greenwood, chairman of the Committee of\nthe Council on Investigations and Appropriations, explained that the efifect of the resolutions, ifadopted, would be that all future appropriations would be made for the current\nyear only, and that they would become available only after the fixed expenses of the Association had been provided for.\nA discussion followed on the subject of resolution No. 4, which was ruled out of\norder, since only resolutions Nos. 2 and 3 were included in the pending motion for adoption.\nOn motion of Director W. F. Kunze, of Minnesota, it was ordered that action on the\ntwo resolutions before the directors be taken separately.\nResolution No. 2 was then stated as before the directors for consideration.\n\n. After brief discussion, the vote was taken on resolution No. 2 and carried unanimously.\nAt this point President Cook withdrew to take charge of the vesper meeting at Festival\nHall, appointing Director L. D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, to preside in his absence.\nResolution No. 3 was then stated as before the directors for consideration.\nthe Economic\nA discussion followed as to the scope of the work of the Committee on\nJ. M.\nStatus of the Teacher, in the course of which explanations were made by Director\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": null, "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nGreenwood as to the scope and importance of the work of the committee in question, and\nby Director W. T. Harris as to the relations of that work to the work of the National\nBureau of Education at Washington, in which both Directors Harris and Greenwood\nurged that the appropriation for the committee be continued and increased. The motion\non the adoption of resolution No. 3, being put to the board, was carried without dissent.\nInquiry was then made as to the meaning of resolution No. 4, which was transmitted\nto the Council as a report of progress on the question referred to it by the former Board of\nDirectors at its meeting June 27; viz., an applfcation by a committee from the Department\nof Superintendence for the appointment of a Commission on the Simplification of Our\nEnglish Spelling, and an appropriation for its expenses. After explanations had been\nmade, resolution No. 4 was, on motion, received as a report of progress on the matter under\nconsideration by the Council.\nDirectors A. G. Lane, of Illinois, Aaron Gove, of Colorado, and T. A. Mott, of\nIndiana, were appointed a Committee on the Nomination of Members of the National\nCouncil to fill vacancies occasioned by expiration of term of ofl5ce and for other reasons.\nThis committee was excused to prepare its report.\nOn motion of Director W. F. Kunze, of Minnesota, the sum of $400 was appropriated\nfor the special expenses of the Department of Superintendence for its meeting to be held in\nMilwaukee, Wis., in February, 1905.\nThe next order of business was the consideration of invitations for the place of meeting\nfor the forty-fourth convention in 1905. The chair requested the Secretary to call the\nroll of states in alphabetical order with the direction that invitations be presented in the\norder of the roll-call.\nUnder the call a communication was read by the secretary from W. C. Radcliffe,\nsecretary of the Convention Bureau of the city of Detroit, Mich., affiliated with the Detroit\nBoard of Commerce, inviting the Association to hold its convention for 1905 in the city\nof Detroit.\nDirector John Enright, of New Jersey, presented a formal invitation from the mayor\nand council of the city of Asbury Park, N. J., supported by the Board of Education, the\nBoard of Trade, the Hotel-Keepers' Association, and other organizations, that the convention for 1905 be held in that city.\nThe secretary read an invitation from C. P. Thomas, president of the Business Men's\nAssociation at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., inviting the Association to meet in that city in 1Q05.\nAn invitation was presented by the city of Portland, Ore., and the authorities of the\nLewis and Clark Centennial Exposition Company, supported by the educational and\nbusiness organizations of Portland and the state of Oregon, to hold the next convention\njn that city in connection with the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, with relations\nto the Exposition similar to those under which the forty-third convention is held in St.\nLouis in connection with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\nThis invitation was supported by Colonel Henry E. Dosch, commissioner-general and\ndirector of exhibits, representing the city of Portland and the exposition authorities, and\nMr. A. L. Craig, general passenger agent of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company, in behalf of the transcontinental railway companies.\nAt the close of the roll-call, on a motion by Director A. S. Downing, of New York,\nit was carried by unanimous vote that all invitations be referred to the Executive Committee\nwith full power to select the next place of meeting, and to make all necessary arrangements\nwith local and transportation authorities for the next convention.\nThe Committee on Nominations to fill vacancies in the Council reported as follows:\nTo the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association:\nYour committee respectfully nominates the following to fill vacancies in the membership of the National\nCouncil to be elected by the Association, viz. :\nF. Louis Soldan of Missouri, to succeed himself, term to expire 1910.\nL. D. Harvey of Wisconsin, to succeed himself, term to expire 1910.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": null, "text": "PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE\n\nNEW\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\n41\n\nR. H. Halsey of Wisconsin, to succeed himself, term to expire 1910.\nC. G. Pearse of Wisconsin, to succeed himself, term to expire igio.\nJohn W . Cook of Illinois, to succeed R. G. Boone, term to expire 1910.\nYour committee finds a vacancy, by reason of the absence from two successive meetings, of James A.\nFoshay, of California, and recommends that Mr. Foshay be transferred to the honorary list, and that the vacancy\nbe filled by the appointment of C. N. Kendall, of Indiana, for the remainder of the term to expire 1906.\nRespectfully submitted,\nA. G. Lanb,\nAaron Gove,\nT. A. MoTT,\nCommittee.\n\nOn motion, the report of the committee was received, and the secretary was instructed,\nby unanimous vote to cast the ballot of the directors for the nominees named in the report.\nThe secretary reported the ballot as so cast, and the chairman declared the nominees\nelected to membership in the Council.\nThere being no further business, on motion, the board adjourned.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nSESSIONS OE THE ASSOCIATION\nADDRESSES\n\nHON.\n\nW.\n\nT.\n\nCARRINGTON,\n\nSTATE\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nOFSUPERINTEN\nMISSOURI DENT\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\n\nAs I stand before you who contribute most to our country's higher life,\nto bid you welcome, I am fiUed with pleasure. Pride and gratitude contend\nfor supremacy in my thoughts and for expression at my lips— pride in Missouri\nand her institutions, and gratitude for what you bring.\nIf you come from New England, where we were so cordially received last\nyear, you will find men and women here by the thousand who are of your\nblood and of your habits of thought, anxious to take you into their homes and\nhearts. If you come from the sunny Southland, whose fairest city of culture\nand refinement but recently entertained us most hospitably, you will find here\nbrothers in purpose and feeling, ready to provide whatever will contribute to\nyour pleasure. If you come from the far West, you will find that Missouri\nherself is western and our meeting today but a family reunion. All your\nelements, whether from East or West, from North or South, are so mixed\nin us as to make us cathohc. We boast of our cavalier ancestry, of our Puritan\ninstincts, of our Dutch persistency, and of our Yankee pluck.\nSituated in the heart of the greatest nation of all times, by the process of\nnatural selection Missouri has developed a cosmopolitan culture. The fullest\nexpression of this broad spirit has been along educational lines. A wellarticulated system of public schools, from the kindergarten thru a great university, bears us testimony in the hearts of three and a half millions of loyal\nMissourians.\nIn a dozen years our State University has grown from a small school of\nliberal arts into an institution having a faculty of more than a hundred specialists and a student body of several thousand — an institution offering special,\ntechnical, and professional instruction of the highest order.\nOur normal schools have expanded into teachers' colleges. They now\noffer every grade of academic instruction leading to the bachelor's degree.\nThey give special training for the kindergarten, for primary grades, for rural\nschool-teaching, for supervision in special Hues, and for departmental work\nin our high schools\nof our higher educational institutions,\nWith the growth and expansion 43\nprimary and secondary schools have kept pace; more, they have led the way.\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": null, "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn a list of five hundred public high schools are many that have incorporated\nmanual training and such industrial arts as agriculture, horticulture, and\ndomestic economy. In all of these the cultural and the practical are so blended\nand related as to secure results satisfactory to the strongest advocates of the\nclassics.\nOn behalf of the ten thousand rural school-teachers who are solving the\nproblem of bringing school life into close, sympathetic touch with the natural,\nindustrial, and social environments of the community; on behalf of the six\nthousand city teachers whose conceptions and skill you may find illustrated\nin yonder palace of education; on behalf of those who teach in parochial,\nprivate, and higher institutions; on behalf of all who teach and contribute\nto education in Missouri, I bid you welcome.\nOn account of the unavoidable absence of Missouri's chief executive, it\nbecomes my duty and pleasure to extend the states' welcome also.\nWhen the happy thought of celebrating the first great expansion of national\nterritory found expression, rural Missouri joined her Queen City in contributing wealth and genuis in promoting so worthy an enterprise. It is called the\nWorld's Fair, for the activities and results of education from every quarter\nof the globe are exhibited here. However, Missouri has more than ordinary\ninterests; and on behalf of the entire state we bid you take in the enture exposition and enjoy it.\nIf you can prolong your visit a few days, we will show you a most prosperous\nand cultured city — a city of good streets, fine homes, elegant churches, and\nprosperous business; a city having the best-organized and most economically\nmanaged system of schools in this country, and a municipal government that\nhas set up high standards of civic improvement, civic order, and civic righteousness.\nIf you can spend a month with us, we will take you to rural Missouri and\nshow you good old-fashioned country hospitality. You will find our broad\nprairies and fertile valleys teeming with business enterprise and rapid material\ndevelopment. You will find a citizenship God-fearing, liberty-loving, vicecondemning, and culture-inspiring; a citizenship more worthy to be crowned\nthan any noble Roman.\nIf you cannot take time to see our state as it is, an empire within itself,\nlet me insist that you do not fail to inspect our great exhibits of agriculture,\nof horticulture, of live stock, of mineral wealth, and of the thousand and one\ncontributions we offer in the fields of science and art in these exhibit palaces\nall around us here.\nBut we are not proud of our material progress and prosperity except in so\nfar as they indicate a wise and patriotic citizenship; except as they are an outgrowth of thoughtful and purposeful Hving.\nWe welcome you to a state which takes pride in its great variety of natural\nresources and material development. We welcome you to a state devoted to\neducation and high ideals.\nThese are results of a cosmopohtan view of life;\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\n^-\n\nWELCOME\n\n45\n\nfor\nin Missouri's institutions are the highest and best things drawn\nfrommirrored\nall sections.\nWe thank you in advance for your mature thoughts and words of wisdom.\nWe shall dehght to sit at your feet and learn. Your presence will stimulate\nand hold us above the fog o| local prejudice where we can see life in all its\nbreadth. It is therefore with mingled pride and gratitude that I extend\nMissouri's most cordial welcome.\n\nC. M. V^OODWARD, DIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL OF WASHINGTON\nUNIVERSITY AND PRESIDENT OF BOARD OF EDUCATION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n[stenographic report]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen — Fellow-Teachers jrom all corners of\nthe Republic:\n\nI appear before you not only as the representative of the pubhc schools\nof Missouri, but I appear for the moment as the chairman of the Local Reception Committee. I wish to say to you that that committee has done its best\nto make you comfortable, to see you safely and conveniently to your homes\nin this city. We attempt no social functions. We have merely made the\nbest effort we could to provide for your keeping and for your comfort while\nyou are here.\nOn the part of the Merchants' Exchange, the officers, the president, and\nthe chairman of the Entertainment Committee, I invite you to visit the halls\nof the Merchants' Exchange.\nYour badges will be sufficient introduction.\nI wish to speak a word for the teachers of St. Louis and for the school\nboard of St. Louis. I wish to welcome you to this great city, beyond the\nFather of Waters to the most of you — to a city which you may have supposed\nto be scarcely out of the backwoods, but which you will find beautiful, comfortable, and grand. It was here that Dr. William T. Harris won his spurs.\nWhen I came to St. Louis, nearly forty years ago, I met Mr. Harris, who\nwas then principal of one of our grammar schools. He soon became assistant\nsuperintendent; he then became superintendent; and I worked along with\nhim in the interests of education. Then he went on and on, and now occupies\nthe highest position in the educational work of this great people as the Commissioner ofEducation of the United States.\nI wish to welcome you to a city that within twenty-four hours Uved under\nthree flags. One day the flag of Spain was pulled down, and the flag of France\nwent up. The next morning the Tricolor came down, and the Stars and\nStripes went up; it has been up ever since.\nI wish to welcome you to the city that has the greatest engineering work\nin the country— an engineering feat which is unique in the whole scientific\nworld. I refer to the great steel arch known as the Eads Bridge— a structure\nwhich combines strength and beauty and all the finish of mathematical analyThere never will be another Uke\nsis. There is nothing hke it in the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": null, "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nit; and if there are those of you who thrill with pleasure in the presence of\nart and applied science, it will gratify them to know, as they behold that\nwonderful structure, that it is not only a thing of beauty, but is abundantly\nstrong.\nI wish to speak of our schools. With other good things in the city of St.\nLouis, the people have good understanding. They understand well enough\nto elect a school board and leave politics out. Two thousand teachers are at\nwork today in this city who know that their tenure of ofhce depends only upon\ntheir faithful service and not upon their political affiliations. If these schools\nwere in session, how welcome you would be to see their work! We should\nwelcome you to a hundred free public kindergartens. We should welcome\nyou to all our splendid new buildings. There are several things we know\nhow to do: we know how to build good school buildings; we know how to\nselect good teachers; we know how to equip schoolhouses as they ought to be;\nand the people know how to fill them.\nI wish to invite you to inspect our school buildings. The schools, in accordance with the fashion which we are bound to obey, have suspended for the\nsummer, but our schoolhouses are open. The McKinley High School, our\nlatest effort in building; a manual- training high school; the Emerson School;\nthe Eugene Field School; the Wyman School, are easily reached. We have\ninstructed the janitors and those in charge to open the doors and let the teachers\nin, with or without badges. You will be welcome at all these thruout the\nweek.\nThere is another reason why I wish to welcome you. It was here that\nthe first manual-training school was established just twenty-five years ago.\nWhen I went to the exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876, there was not a school\nexhibit from any place in the United States that had any manual training in\nit. You go now to the Palace of Education and you find there not a school\nrepresented that does not have manual training in it ; that is the progress of\ntwenty-five years.\nWhen President Eliot was out here last Christmas, he praised us to our\nfaces so that we actually blushed. He told us of our fine organization and\nof our good work. I had no idea that we had such a fine board of education\nuntil he told us. And then he has been talking about it all over the country,\nuntil we are actually puffed up with pride. Some of you may have known\nSuperintendent Soldan when he was a thin young man; but just look at him\nnow: he is puffed up with pride over the success of our schools and of his\nWorld's Fair exhibit.\nYou may be very sure we are all glad to see you ; glad to have you with us,\nand enjoy with you this week of intercourse. We trust that you will go away\nwith the feeling that St. Louis is a cordial city, that it is a progressive city,\nand that it is a city which you will be glad to visit again at some future day.\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nF. LOUIS\n\nSOLDAN,\n\nADDRESSES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nINSTRUCTION, PUBLIC\n\nMO.\nST. LOUIS, report]\n[stenographic\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n'\n\nMr. President, and Members of the National Educational Association:\nIt would be bad taste for representatives of St. Louis to speak of their\nown city and the present condition of the schools in fulsome terms of praise.\nThey are what they are; they are not merely what the teachers of St. Louis\nhave made them, but they are what the teachers of the country have made them.\nThe influence of this great Association extending thru many years, the influence of the improvements of schools everywhere, in city and country, have\nreacted on the city school systems everywhere. Every teacher in the land\nwho is progressive, and shows improvement in method and intelligent care\nin teaching, helps to shape the schools of all other sections of the country.\nThe teaching professsion in the whole land is in close touch. The achievement\nof one is the common property and credit of all. In this sense, I repeat, the\nschools of St. Louis are not merely what her own faithful corps of teachers has\nmade them, but, Hke every other city system, they embody the influence of the\nThey share in the general progress.\nteachers of the country.\nWhile it may not be proper to speak in terms of praise of the present system\nof schools in St. Louis, it may be permissible to speak of past achievements\nas historical facts without undue egotism or pride. I wish to add three things\nto those which my friend. Dr. Woodward, has mentioned as having emanated\nfrom St. Louis.\nThere is, in the first place, that great beginning of a forward movement\nin common-school education thru that master-mind who, while in charge of\nthe St. Louis schools, opened thru his reports and addresses a deeper insight\ninto the importance of the daily process of teaching. He was the first to give\na philosophic background to the everyday lessons in arithmetic, or geography,\nor history, and to show their importance in opening the windows of the young\nsoul and leading it to master the world. I refer, of course, to our esteemed\nfriend. Dr. Harris.\nProfessor Woodward could not speak of the second important fact in the\nhistory of American education in which St. Louis is especially concerned— the\nfact that the idea of the manual-training school emanated here. It was\nProfessor Woodward who introduced this leaven, this powerful agency for\nprogress, into the schools of the United States.\nAs a third feature originating in this city should not be forgotten, when\nthe teachers of the nation meet in council, that St. Louis is the foster-city of the\nkindergarten. Here it originated ; here it has thriven ; from here it has spread.\nMiss Blow, its inspired advocate, is a St. Louis woman! Former St. Louis\nteachers are in charge of kindergarten systems in other cities. The importance\nof the kindergarten can hardly be overestimated. It is important in itself;\nit is still more important on account of the influence its principles and practices\nIts silent and more potent indirect influhave had on education in general.\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": null, "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nence has extended from the primary grade up thru all the grades unto the\nuniversities of the country.\nHowever, I am here to bid you welcome on part of the teachers of St. Louis.\nDo you wish to know how many of the teaching profession of the city join\nme in this welcome ? Look at the roll of membership in the hands of the\nSecretary, and you will find that our St. Louis teachers, two thousand in number, have become members of the Association in welcome of its presence, in\nappreciation of its importance. In the two thousand there are included, not\nmerely the public-school teacher, but also the teacher of the private school,\nthe teacher of the parochial school, of the Roman CathoHc institutions in the\ncity: all have joined our executive committee to prepare the way for your\npresence and to welcome you to our gates today.\nThe welcome extended to you by the teachers of St. Louis is a cordial one.\nThe spirit of professional unity is strong among the teachers of our city. In\nour school system the rank and file of the teaching profession exerts a direct\ninfluence on the administration of the schools. There is no text-book used\nin the St. Louis public schools which has not been selected, or approved, by\na majority of the teachers in the service of the board. The course of study\nat present in use in the public schools of St. Louis has been elaborated by the\nteachers themselves. The teachers of the city, thru their committees numbering over a hundred, and representing all the grades- and every part of the\ncity, met in conference and adopted a course of study which was approved\nby the superintendent and the board. It is the work of the rank and file of\nthe profession. Even in regard to the details of school administration, it\nis the practice in our city to consult the judgment and experience of the teacher.\nWhen the contracts for the annual supplies of school material are awarded to\ncommercial houses, the teacher has a voice in selecting the tools with which\nshe works. The pen, for instance, with which the children write, is not selected\nby a committee of business men, well-meaning, but not knowing the details\nof school work and the needs of the children; it is selected by the teachers\nthat teach writing. Similarly, every article in the long fist of schoolroom\nsuppHes is selected by the worker and the expert. I extend to you the welcome\nof a corps of teachers who, under the law and under the provisions of the\nboard of education, are allowed to bring their expert judgment to bear on the\nmanagement and administration of the pubHc schools.\nWhen, before the beginning of this meeting, in a conversation with a friend,\nI mentioned that I did not quite know what topics to touch upon in my brief\naddress, he said, jokingly: \"Speak about the weather; that's in everybody's\nmind.\" Perhaps he is right, and a word of explanation is due to you in regard\nto it. It is true that the weather is too cold for comfort. It is equally true\nthat it is an unexpected predicament for a resident of St. Louis to be compelled, at the end of June, to apologize for the coldness of the temperature.\nMadame de Stael said: \"When you fully comprehend a thing, you will pardon\nit.\" If you know the history of this unprecedently cold June weather, I know\nyou will pardon it.\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n49\n\nA year ago when my colleagues and myself went to Boston to ask the\nNational Educational Association to meet in St. Louis, the great objection\noffered by everyone was this: \"Your horrible weather stands in the way— your\nhorrible heat during June and July.\" I did not blame my friends for their\nfear, because the hottest wave of the year had struck Boston at that time\nand the air was Uke the blast of a furnace. I had to meet the same objection to St. Louis in the Board of Directors, when I urged them to locate the\nmeeting here. I had been present during the last thirty years again and again\nwhen our sister-cities in the South asked for the convention, and there was\none favorite argument advanced almost every time when the weather was\nobjected to: \"Why, in our summer months you can sleep under blankets'.\"\nWhen I advocated the claims of St. Louis, I thought I ought to make that old\nphrase do service, and I said: \"If you come to St. Louis in July, you may\nsleep under blankets; but,\" I added, truthfully, \"I should not advise you to\ndo so.\" Kind Providence has made the first part of my invitation an unexpected reality.\nYou now fully comprehend the presence of the cold wave, and I hope that,\nin accordance with Madame de Stael's maxim, you will pardon it. Yet you\nhave felt uncomfortably cool, and, of course, the matter must be stopped.\nEven without consulting with the local executive committee, I promise a\nchange very soon.\nAnd now, in conclusion, I bid you welcome on behalf of the public schools\nof the city, of their teachers, their friends, and their eighty thousand children.\nI welcome you as representatives of the cause of education which is the blessing\nof the past, the glory of the present, and the hope of the future.\nHON. ROLLA WELLS, MAYOR\n\nOF ST. LOUIS\n\n[stenographic report]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nI see in this auditorium men and women upon whom the future prosperity\nof this nation depends. In your professional capacity you stand between\nthe state and the home, charged with the earnest and difficult duty of inculcating in the rising generations those principles which make good citizens, and,\ntherefore, good men and true women. You represent a force that is greater\nthan the government itself; for the country must look to you for the perpetuation of sincere manhood and pure womanhood.\nYour influence is not confined to the army of pupils you are preparing to\ncross the threshold of fife, nor is it limited to this generation or to the next.\nIt is a power that will impress itself upon the annals of this country thru many\nyears. Long after all of us shall have gone, your sway will be felt.\nThe convention which you have begun today is not of pleasure alone.\nYou have come to discuss and consider subjects which wiU aid you in making\nyour arduous work the more effective. You are here as students to learn\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": null, "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfrom each other valuable lessons gleaned from experience in your several\nfields of activity.\nThis city which you have chosen as your meeting-place has ever recognized\nthe importance of education. Our citizens feel a keen interest in the affairs\nof the school and a paternal desire for the intellectual and moral advancement\nof the young. This interest, under the management of our board of education, has developed a pubUc-school system of which we may well be proud.\nWe are proud of our schools. We who make this city our home are well content with its past history; we are satisfied, regardless of some imperfections,\nwith its present; and we have every confidence in its future.\nI extend to you a most cordial welcome to St. Louis. I trust your deliberations may be most profitable, and your visit with us most enjoyable.\n\nHON.\n\nDAVID\n\nR. FRANCIS,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF THE\nCOMPANY\n\n[stenographic\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPURCHASE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nOn behalf of the Universal Exposition, I desire to express the appreciation\nof the management of this Exposition of this body of representative educators\nof the country. If there is any class of people whom we are more than pleased\nto welcome in these grounds, it is that great body of teachers who prepare the\nminds of the people of the United States and of the world to appreciate this\nUniversal Exposition which we have here installed.\nThis Exposition, as you know, is held to commemorate a great event in\nthe history of the country, and until the attention of the people thruout the\ncountry was called to the Louisiana Purchase by the celebration that was\nproposed, but a comparatively small number of them knew what the Louisiana\nTerritory was, or how it was acquired. From the time that this celebration\nwas first spoken of, six years ago, more has been read and learned about the\nLouisiana Purchase than was ever known thruout the United States before.\nThe very talk of the celebration, therefore, was educational; and that educational motive has followed this enterprise from its beginning.\nThe management of the Exposition has been claiming, and I think not\nentirely without grounds, that this Exposition is a university in itself. We\nfeel that its educational benefit far surpasses all of its material force. We\nhave classified all of the products here exhibited, but this Exposition is not\nconfined to an exhibition of material. We purpose to include here not only\nthat which the hand of man has wrought, but the best that his brain has conceived. The intellectual exhibits, or international congresses, that have been\narranged for in connection with this Exposition will, in our judgment, be a\nmarker in the thought of the world. No congresses of such a character have\never been planned, certainly not upon so ambitious a scale.\nIn the classifica-\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nrj\n\ntion of this Exposition we think that there has been manifested a higher grasp\nof the achievement of man — of his development.\nThe very first department, Department A of this Exposition, is Education. Itis therefore eminently fit that a meeting of the National Educational\nAssociation should be held within the grounds of this Exposition. In our\ninternational congresses we have sought the aid of the cultured minds of this\ncountry. We have called to our assistance a great wealth of intellect, as you\nwill see by the names of the men who are on the administration and the advisory\ncommittees. The chairman of the advisory committee is\" a prominent and\nactive member of this Association, Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, president\nof Columbia University. He has associated with him six distinguished educators, and they have appointed an administrative board of five. By their joint\nwork these international congresses have been arranged. I am not anticipating\ntheir work, but I have alluded to it only to call your attention to the classification of the congresses, to the classification of all the branches of human\nknowledge, and to say to you that the object of those international congresses\nis to demonstrate the unity of all knowledge, to show the relation of all branches\nof knowledge to each other. Ambitious it may be, and its results may be\ndisappointing; but I think not. It is the first effort of that kind ever made in\nthe history of the world; and this Exposition, comprehensive as it is in every\nline of human endeavor, will, in my_ judgment, be about the last exposition\nof this universal character that will be held, during this generation at least.\nI make this prophecy, that these international congresses which have been\nplanned in connection with this Universal Exposition will be the precursor\nof other international congresses, in which, or thru which, this ambitious effort\nto demonstrate the unity of all knowledge may be pursued, and may be followed to a successful conclusion.\nI shall not attempt to detain you by speaking of the various features of\nthis Exposition. I only ask you to remain with us long enough to give it a\npersonal inspection. See for yourselves. It is impossible for anyone to grasp\nall that is in this Exposition within the short period of one week. A month\nis inadequate. We trust you will remain here sufficiently long to conclude\nyour deliberations, and, when you adjourn this convention, that you will\nremain with us as individuals, or will make a return visit before the Exposition\ncloses. We may be pardoned for cherishing a pride in this Exposition, which\nhas surpassed even the expectations of its enthusiastic originators. We may\nbe pardoned for calling attention to the fact that the people of other countries,\nand the people of some sections of our own country, expressed doubt, when\nthe Exposition was first mentioned, as to our ability to install a universal\nexposition within the limits of the Louisiana Territory' that would compare\nfavorably with previous international expositions held in this country and m\nhe\nEurope. If there is any man who has visited this Exposition, whether\ncomnot\ndoes\nthis\n^at\nmay live in the United. States or abroad, who wilUay\nhis\npare favorably wiai any. expc^tiun ^yer heid, ,iH^~^ :inaji. l?as never made\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": null, "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nconclusions known. We think, therefore, that we are justified in asking a\nthoro inspection of this Exposition by you who belong to a class of workers\nthat have made it possible.\nForeign countries are participating to an extent never known before. Why ?\nBecause of the curiosity they cherish concerning the people who have made\nsuch wonderful progress within so short a period as a century and a third.\nWe tell them that this progress has been achieved because of the universal\neducation of the people of this country. We say to them that, altho we govern\nourselves, altho there may be a change in administration, or a change in the\npolicy of this country once in four years, never for a moment do we lose faith\nin the stability of our institutions; and that we cherish this confidence because\nof the fact that everybody in this country is educated. We think that general\neducation is the very foundation stone of our repubHcan institutions. We,\ntherefore, as I say, welcome the teachers more heartily, if comparisons are\npermissible, than we do any class or profession of people of this country.\nWe welcome you not only for what you have done, but we welcome you for\nthe intelligence with which you can take advantage of the Exposition that\nhas here been installed. We know that you will view these exhibits with a\ncritical eye, and be prompted, not by curiosity alone, but by a desire to take\nadvantage of what has here been done, not only for your own information,\nbut also for the purpose of benefiting the children who are under your tutelage.\nI say, therefore, in view of these facts, that there is no class of people whom\nthe Exposition management welcomes more cordially. There is no class of\npeople who are so well quaUfied to appreciate this Exposition.\nWhen I entered this hall, a gentleman was standing on the platform\naddressing you, and the scenes of my youth were immediately recalled. Thirtyseven years ago I came to this town as a schoolboy, and upon entering Washington University I saw Professor Woodward standing just as he was standing\ntoday, demonstrating to a class the principles of mathematics. He has been\nconnected with the educational interests of this country from that day to\nthis. I do not know how long he had been before I saw him, and that\nwas thirty-seven years ago; but I do know he has been teaching, and devoting\nhis Hfe to the advancement of education in this section, and every section of\nthe country. He spoke to you of the manual-training school. He is the man\nwho first established a manual-training school in St. Louis, if not in the United\nStates. He, as you know, was sent for, and went to Manchester, England,\nto teach the people of that country about manual- training schools. He has not\nconfined his energy, however, to manual- training schools, nor to Washington\nUniversity; but he has been deeply interested in the public schools of this\ncity, and has been active in working for them for over a quarter of a century.\nSuch men as those who have talked on this platform this morning, and as\nthose who are leaders in this organization, are the men who are more influential\nin estabhshing this-go-^ernmeDt upon a firm -foundation than any class of men\nthat can be selected ih:^ 9 n'y'pUrsuit of life.\n• '\" \" '• '\"-\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n^a\n\nIt is not only what you teach from books, but the principles that are inculcated bythe teachers of this country, that makes good citizens. We, therefore\nagain, if you will permit me to repeat it— by ''we\" I mean the Exposition\nmanagement— extend to you a most cordial welcome. We trust your stay\nwith us may be pleasant and profitable; and when this beautiful city of palaces\nshall have disappeared, when the gates shall have closed, when these structures\nshall have been removed, and this Universal Exposition has become a memory,\nyou will still be demonstrating by your work the incalculable benefit to the\nhuman race of this great gathering of all the peoples and all the nations of\nthe earth.\n\nHON.\n\nHOV^ARD\nJ. ROGERS,\nCHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT\nDIRECTOR OF CONGRESSES OF THE UNIVERSAL\n[stenographic\n\nOF EDUCATION\nEXPOSITION\n\nAND\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nOn behalf of the Department of Education and the Department of Congresses, Idesire to extend to the National Educational Association, to the\ndelegates of the United States government, and to the delegates of foreign\ngovernments to the International Congress on Education, a most hearty\nwelcome. Others have greeted you in the name of the city of St. Louis,\nof the state of Missouri, and of the Exposition as a whole, but I wish to extend\nto you the thanks particularly of the educational side of this great Exposition.\nWhen we presented to your Board of Directors last year the proposition\nto come to St. Louis, and when it was accepted, we knew that you were running some risk and making some possible sacrifice: risk, in that you were\nobliged to forego the pecuHar pecuniary advantages which have always been\nextended to you by the railroad authorities; and possible sacrifice, because\nit was not at all certain that the calm deliberations and careful investigations\nwhich have hitherto characterized the meetings of this Association might be\npossible of attainment in the midst of the diversities, distractions, and unnatural atmosphere of a great exposition. But when we presented to your board\nthe idea that the foundation of this Exposition was purely educational; that\nthe appeal to Congress for funds, to the states for support, and to foreign\nnations for co-operation had been made upon this basis, they were quick to\nsee the inconsistency of the greatest educational organization in the world\nmeeting in any other place in the United States than that in which the entire\neducational growth of the world was pictured and set forth. That action we\nhighly appreciate, as it gave us the stamp of approval of your great Association\nfor the efforts which have been made in connection with this Exposition to\nplace it upon a plane which should be thoroly in fine with your own aims and\npurposes.\nEducation in its broadest sense was meant in our statements pubUshed\nto the world: the education which comes to a people from observing art and\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": null, "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\narchitecture in heroic models; from observing exhibits grouped in relation to\ntheir interdependence upon each other; and from watching processes, in\nconnection with those exhibits, which take the raw product, and under the\neyes of the beholder transform it into the finished product, ready for the markets\nof the world. We felt that in doing this we were offering this Association a\nfair quid pro quo for the non-fulfillment of some of the many features which\nhave always characterized the annual convention of this Association.\nI close with this remark, that this is an exposition of opportunity to every\nmember of this Association. If you come here at the close of the school year\nready and eager for more mental discipKne and development, you will find\nit in the study of the architecture of these great palaces, and in the study of\nthe myriads of exhibits which fill them. If you come desiring physical exercise\nand development, you will gain it with the utmost rapidity in walking over\nthe 1,240 acres inclosed within our gates. If you come desiring complete\nmental rest and relaxation, you will find it in a place specially provided for\nthis purpose — \"The Pike.\" All of these opportunities we extend to you\nmost cordially, and trust that you will stay with us long enough to embrace\nthem all.\nCHANCELLOR\n\nW. S. CHAPLIN OF WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY,\nLOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nOF THE\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nIt has been, for many centuries, a great honor to come last; but on this\noccasion the fact that so many and so eloquent speakers have preceded me\nis somewhat embarrassing. I leave it to you that the ground has been well\ncovered.\nTherefore I shall take but a few minutes of your time.\nI wish to emphasize one fact; that is, that in Missouri, in educational\nmatters, we not only stand well, but we are advancing, advancing rapidly.\nThe public schools, the city schools, the colleges, and the universities are all\nmoving forward.\nI want to call your attention to the fact that this Exhibition, this Louisiana\nPurchase Exposition, is the first one that has ever given the highest prominence\nto the subject of education. It is a mark of the intelHgence of the governing\nbody of this Exposition that its chief department, the one to which it has given\nthe most prominent place and on which it has expended the largest amount of\nmoney, is the Department of Education. We are grateful for this, and we\nare grateful to those foreign countries which have made their greatest exhibits\nin the educational department. Look over these buildings and the displays\ntherein, and you cannot fail to recognize that education is the one subject by\nwhich they wish to be judged. I may say further that the best exhibits we\nhave from the foreign countries are the gentlemen who have come here to\narrange the objects and to explain them to us. I have never seen a gathering\nof such expert expositors as these gentlemen are. Go to any of them freely,\nask questions of them freely, and freely and gladly they will answer your\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n^^\n\nquestions. I think it will be recognized as one of the marked characteristics\nthat this Exposition is devoted largely to education, and that the men who\nhave come here to exhibit are fair exponents of the educational condition of\ntheir land.\nWe welcome you here. We welcome you because it is always pleasant\nto meet educated people. It is pleasant to meet people mth a high mission.\nThen we welcome you because we expect to gain much from you.\nI wish Superintendent Soldan and Professor Woodward had spoken more\nof the school system of St. Louis. Perhaps it was modesty that prevented\nthem. Modesty seldom restrains me, and in this case it has no play whatever.\nI wish to claim that the city of St. Louis has the best school law in the United\nStates, and then I wish to claim that it has a school board which has not yet\nbeen tainted with the least suspicion. It is absolutely honest, and the difference\nbetween the present board and the board of a few years ago is a saving of three\nhundred thousand dollars a year, which can be put into school buildings. I\nbeHeve it is a fact that after the school board of the city of St. Louis has chosen\nits heads of departments, it cannot name a single teacher, or janitor, or official\nfor a position. The head of the department names, and the board can approve\nor not, as it pleases.\nThus far, the rumor says, it has always approved.\nI wish further to call your attention to one thing which may possibly escape\nyou, and that is that the school buildings erected under the present school\nboard are the best school buildings erected in the United States, and that they\nare erected at a smaller cost per cubic foot capacity than any other buildings\nof their class in any great city. This is the result of simple honesty and business methods.\nThere is a special reason why I should speak of the higher education in\nthis state. We have more colleges and universities in the state of Missouri\nthan has any other state in the union, and we are sorry for it. Colleges,\nunfortunately, never die. They Uve forever. And yet the college condition\nin this state is improving. The State University is making splendid progress;\nand the other institutions are doing their very best. In the name of these\ncolleges, I welcome you here, and I feel that, if all the other 599,999 of the\npopulation of the city of St. Louis were to speak, they would all say the same\nthing — a hearty welcome.\n\nRESPONSES\nWILLIAM\n\nT.\n\nHARRIS,\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nINGTON, D. C.\n\n[stenographic\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nWASH-\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Gentlemen and Ladies of the National Educational Association:\nIn behalf of this Association that has come up from all the states and cities\nI\nof the country, at the invitation of the directorship of this great Exposition,\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": null, "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nacknowledge the cordial and hearty welcome which we have received here.\nWe have come to observe this great Exposition, in the first place; the latest\ngreat international object-lesson of the last fifty years, of a long series extending back to the first beginning, in 185 1, in England, the tenth and greatest\nobject-lesson of them all. It should call all the teachers of the country to see\nit, and the teachers will respond, if not now, at least before the close, in the\nlast days of November.\nI would say that we are here, first of all, to study the Exposition itself; the\nexposition of the industries of all people; not merely the industries of the United\nStates, but the industries of Europe, and of South America, and of all parts of\nthe world. Generous and friendly nations have sent here their results, in\norder that they may compare them with ours; in order that they may show us\ntheir processes; and this of all expositions is an Exposition that is meant to\nshow the processes of industry, laying great stress upon that; so that it is in a\nmuch higher sense an object-lesson that is educative in its character than perhaps any other international exposition that has ever been held. We behold\nhere the results. We have come here with the conviction that the schools\nhave had a great deal to do with our industrial success. The school has\ncontributed to this enormous, this colossal, result which we see here. It has\ndone this by making the children alert and observing, able to learn not only\nfrom their own seeing, but to learn from the ideas of another. When we are\nasked, what does the school do? What is the meaning of the school in\ngeneral? We reply: School means that children are not only going to have\ntheir own observations and ideas, but that they are also going to learn from\nteachers and other pupils, going to reinforce their own with the ideas of others,\nincreasing by the total observation of mankind, and learning to get hold of,\nfrom day to day, the ideas of the world.\nNow, these world-industries will at first appear to us in their products — the\nfirst gUmpse we get in studying this great object-lesson is a view of the net results.\nNext we look at the processes ; and then we begin to see how this vast collection\nof productions, natural and manufactured, relates to the lessons which we\ngive in our schools. In thinking out this relation we first divide our school\nwork into study of nature, learning how nature may serve man; learning the\nconquest of nature by the means of a study of its laws and the appHcations\nof science to the invention of machinery. This first lesson, you may say, is\nmateriahstic; the satisfying of the wants of food, clothing, shelter, and amusement. Then, in the second lesson, we see that this great Exposition connects\nwith our own history, our own borderland of history; and thru these borderlands we connect with other nations that have preceded us. We shake hands\nwith Spain and with France, on this very territory of the Louisiana Purchase,\nand here we are constantly reminded historically of the significance of these\ntwo national elements, the Spanish and French, in the history of the world;\nwhat a part they played in the discovery of America, and in publishing an\ninventory of its resources to the old world of Europe.\nWe come next, with\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\ney\n\nthese historical reflections, to contemplate the epoch of colonization and the\ngrowth of our own nation, and that of our sister-nations south of us; we begin\nto see in the Exposition, at every point, the potency of science, its new discoveries that from time to time have been utilized in inventions that increase our\nproductive industry; and then we connect this with speciaHzation by which\nscience is developed and perfected, and we see how the mathematics which\nwe teach in our schools makes possible the appHcation of science to machinery.\nBut it is not merely luxury and its production that we look for in this\ngreat Exposition, and our point of view is not chiefly a materiahstic one. It\nis not merely the conquest of nature, not the mere subduing of nature by man;\nbut it is rather the spectacle of the process that makes everything useful, and\nmore specially makes it subserve to unite man with man and nation with\nnation in peaceful and helpful ways. This union of man with man is the\nspectacle that creates in us the spirit of the great thought of our religion which\ntells us that God made this world as a place for man — for man to be born in,\nto grow up in, and above all to come into communion with his fellow-men.\nWe see that this conquering of nature is spiritual in itself. We turn from\nthat side, which I have called the material side of this Exposition, to the spiritual\nside; from the conquest over nature, to those studies in our schools which\nrelate especially to the Hfting of our people into spiritual communion with\nthe rest of mankind. We have languages in our schools, we have history,\nand literature, and art ; and of all places, the World's Fair is the place to study\nart. Every product of industry reveals the taste of the people that have prepared it.\nI spoke of the generous and friendly nations that have sent their educational\nexhibits here. They wish in return to see the best that we can produce. The\nmagnificent building prepared by the board of directors of this Exposition\nfor education and sociology shows what our country is doing in education\nand reveals ideals toward which we are striving. In the exhibit of the Bureau\nof Education we have brought out the statistics of our national progress,\nshowing by charts the proofs of our rapid growth, and of the completeness\nwith which we are reaching all classes of our population. In this great Exposition we are to study the educational exhibits of Germany, of France, of\nBelgium, and of the Scandinavian countries. We are to study those of Great\nBritain and her colonies, of Spain and our Spanish-American sister- repubUcs\non the western continent, of Italy and Austria and Japan; and that brings us\nonly to the middle of the enumeration. These great nations come here with\ntheir exhibits, and in them they do not reveal quite the same spirit as that\nwhich we should observe in studying their exhibits in their own countries.\nThat is to say, the exhibits here do not to so great a degree show the idiosyncrasies of the several nations. Each nation tries to hold back somewhat its\nidiosyncrasies, and makes concessions to foreign pubhc opinion, and makes a\ndisplay that will harmonize somewhat with the country to which it^comes.\nWhen nations colHde in war they put their idiosyncrasies into play as items of\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": null, "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstrength and make what they can out of it in their struggle one with the other.\nBut in a peaceful contest like this each one tries to show such of its products\nas are useful and valuable to all mankind. It wishes to come into closer\nrelation with the nation in whose international fair it exhibits. And, of\ncourse, it is the object of all contributors to the educational exhibits here,\nand to the display of material industries, to excite interest in what they have\nbeen producing; and it is our great object to learn something from each that\nis instructive to us.\nThis great Exposition is something that I suppose I take a great deal\nmore pride in than some of you ; I am especially proud of this city, and of the\nmen here who have made it, many of whom I have known since early years.\nProfessor Woodward I have known for thirty-seven years, and in the thirtyseven years that I have known him I have received great help from him; and\none of the pleasures I have from year to year in looking around the United\nStates is to see that there are monuments to that man in nearly every city or\ntown of any consequence in the country; and those places that have not as\nyet erected monuments to him are thinking of building such this fall or at\nsome early date. I consider every manual-training school built in the United\nStates a monument to Professor C. M. Woodward. We have two of them\nin Washington dedicated the past year. The WilHam McKinley Manual\nTraining School is one of these monuments to Professor Woodward, and I\nhad the pleasure at its dedication to mention this fact to the people of our\nnational capitol. And there, too, is my friend Dr. Soldan. He was strong\nand healthy always; always good, always refined, always conscious of good\nforms; himself a learned man and busied on problems of education, he was\nalways helpful to people concerned about the education of the people; and\nhis splendid success as superintendent of the schools of St. Louis rejoices the\nhearts of all teachers and school managers in the land.\nI wish that somebody had been chosen especially to speak here of Washington University in St. Louis — a university that was founded and has been\nconducted on the highest ideals from the beginning, by men who had that\npatience and ''sufferance sublime\" which Emerson speaks of as matching\n\"the taciturnity of time.\" And they could afford to wait for the maturity\nof this university. They said, when the university had become established:\n''We will have everything on a solid basis, all thoroness and nothing for mere\nshow, and we shall be perfectly satisfied to graduate a small class this year.\"\nThat was forty years ago. They were satisfied to graduate only a few, but\nthose on a high standard, and they have kept up that standard ever since.\nAnd this Washington University was started in those days by one whose\nname is held in great respect in the West and in the East— Dr. WilHam G.\nEHot, of whom all St. Louisians are proud and always will be proud. His\nbiography has recently been written and pubHshed, and everyone can read\nit and understand why he was and is honored. He was one of the wisest of\nmen, and his hand and brain were incessantly at work devising good.\nHe\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\nrg\n\nanticipated the future. He knew these results would come out as they have,\nand Washington University, presided over by its accomplished and able chancellor, isnow endowed in such a way, by generous business men of St. Louis,\nthat it has an assured future as one of the greatest universities of our country.\n\nCHARLES\n\nD. McIVER,\n\nPRESIDENT OF STATE NORMAL\nGREENSBORO, N. C.\n[stenographic\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nI am reminded of a little experience that I once had when a party of gentlemen were visiting a great industrial school. On a special occasion we were\ncalled, after inspecting the various departments, to a hall, where a number\nof us were called upon to make short talks; and a man who came about eighth\nor ninth on the Hst said that while he was going thru the wheelwright department he heard one suggestion which he thought came in just at that moment,\nand that remark was: \"The longer the spoke the greater the tire.\" It is a\ngreat temptation to any man to speak to an audience hke this longer than he\nought to speak, and if one who is full of enthusiasm, and who is also proud\nof his profession, would follow the inclinations of his heart, he would consume\nso much of your valuable time that some of you would be Hke the old man\nin church in those days when preachers preached sermons that were remarkable for their length. In the instance to which I refer the preacher was preaching on the subject of the major and the minor prophets. He had preached\non the subject of the major prophets for one full hour, and on the minor prophets\nfor one full hour, and being in doubt, at the end of this time, as to whether\nHosea belonged to the major or the minor class, he exclaimed: \"But where\nshall we place Hosea ? \" An old fellow in the back of the audience got up\nand said: \"Pa'son, you can just give Hosea my seat, for I'm going home.\"\nBut, speaking seriously, for the cordial welcome we have received I wish\nto give thanks to these gentlemen representing the state of Missouri and its\ninstitutions, to the representatives of the city of St. Louis and its great school\nsystem, and to the authorities of this magnificent Exposition. I tender the\nthanks of this Association to them for the instructive addresses that they have\nmade; and if any of them— Mr. Soldan or the others who have been compelled\nto speak well of their own work— felt the least bit of embarrassment, I would\nsuggest for their consolation a recent incident that came under my observation.\nA young man was invited to return to his alma mater and give an account of\nhis experience since he had left the institution. I heard him begin his speech\nwith these words: \"I have been asked to tell you the story of my hfe since I\nleft here, and, therefore, as I am obeying orders, if anything I say should\nlack of\nappear to you to be egotistic, I hope that you will pardon the seeming\nMy subject ought to appear on the printed program 'Egotism\nmodesty.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nby Request.' \" And so when we come to a great city like St. Louis, we expect\npeople who welcome us to tell us of its greatness.\nThe claim to cosmopolitanism made by some of the gentlemen who welcomed us was interesting and striking. I am glad that the National Educational Association meets at last in a state that claims to be neither east nor\nwest nor north nor south, but just simply Missouri ; and in a city that simply\nclaims to be \"it.\" In this case Missouri reminds me of the preacher who\nsaid to his congregation: ''All who want to go to heaven stand up;\" and\nnearly everybody arose. Then, after they all had taken their seats, he said:\n\"All who want to go to hell, stand;\" and nobody arose except one person,\nwho said: \"Parson, I have friends in both places and, I don't want to be\ndiscriminating.\"\nIt is a privilege to meet in a state and in a city having the great educational\nfacilities that have been referred to in the addresses this morning. The country\nis familiar with the work of the St. Louis Manual Training School; no one of\nus is unmindful of the fact that St. Louis gave to the country and to the world\nDr. W. T. Harris, our great educational philosopher and Commissioner of\nEducation; many of us think gratefully of St. Louis, too, because of the valuable\nservice in the kindergarten field of Miss Susan E. Blow.\nBut I must not detain you. I was to respond to these addresses of welcome\nin a speech of five or ten minutes, and I must not take longer time. To the\nauthorities of this great Exposition we must render our thanks. I would\nrather the teacher of my children would come to this place and spend a few\ndays than to go to any summer school or other kind of educational institution\nduring this summer. It would have been educational gain, and, in the end,\nfinancial gain, to this country, if every teacher in every city of these United\nStates had his expenses paid here by his school board in order that he might\nhave his eyes opened to the greatness of the country. I do not want my children\nto be taught geography by a person who has never been outside the congressional district in which he lives. I do not want the citizenship of this country\nreared by people who have never seen a house bigger than a small church or a\ncourthouse. The citizenship of this country ought to be trained by men and\nwomen who have seen something of the world and who have some personal\nknowledge of its progress. The average salary of $300 a year does not\npermit the teacher to do much traveling or special study.\nAs I went into the Missouri Building, I saw upon one side the statue of\nThomas Jefferson and on the other side that of Napoleon. No one can come\nto this great World's Fair this week without thinking of these two masteractors in the world's drama. They stand there, one of them the representative\nof the Kingdom of Force, and the other the representative of the Kingdom\nof Growth and Democracy. It was a hundred years ago that the great political\nphilosopher purchased from the great mihtary hero this southwestern country\nas an addition to his great school ground for training democratic citizenship.\nWe cannot forget that when Pestalozzi, the great Swiss teacher, sought the\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n6i\n\ninfluence of Napoleon for educational reforms, the latter replied, in efifect,\nthat he had no time for such small business. It is encouraging, too, to remember that in less than a century the power of Napoleon had passed away, and\nthat thru the work of the teaching profession and of educational statesmen\nlike Thomas Jefferson the doctrines of Pestalozzi have asserted themselves\nthruout the civiHzed world. Thomas Jefferson's first legislative effort was\nthe introduction of a bill to abolish African slavery in the state of Virginia,\nand his second pubHc act was an effort to abolish general human slavery by\nestablishing a public-school system. Educators should never forget that\nwhen he had almost reached the end of his life and his palsied hand would\nhardly hold the pen, he wrote these words: *'My last work shall be as my\nfirst was, to establish a system of public schools for the state of Virginia\nwhere all children of the rich and poor alike may come together into their\ncommon schools and there learn the eternal principles of democracy and the\nbrotherhood of mankind.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": null, "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nADDRESSES\nPRESIDENT'S\nTHE\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\nCOOK,\n\nNEED\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF A NEW\nOF\n\nADDRESS\nINDIVIDUALISM\n\nNORTHERN\nILLINOIS\nDE KALB, ILL.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe American public school is now so generally attended that it has become\nresponsible for much that appears in our social life. I do not mean that it\nis exclusively responsible, for it is but one of many forces that are determining\nthe character of our citizenship. It should be remembered, in estimating\nits influence, that it is comparatively new. Fifty years ago it really counted\nbut little in the formation of public opinion or in fixing the direction of our\nsocial life. It equipped such of the young as attended its disciplines with\nwhat have been called the tools of literary culture, but the real shaping of\nindividual disposition and tendencies was accomplished by other forces than\nthe school. As population has increased, and especially as it has been urbanized to such a degree that substantially everybody except the ranchmen of\nthe West lives in town, life has grown more conventional and a preparatory\ntraining more essential. Within the last thirty years a new institution has\ndeveloped into remarkable proportions, and is increasing in popularity in a\nmost interesting and suggestive way. So liberal is its culture and so general\nits establishment that it has won the dignified and appropriate name of \"the\npeople's college.\" The opposition that it encountered in the earlier stages\nof its existence has almost entirely disappeared, and all classes vie with each\nother in its admiration. In a very large majority of towns it is housed in the\nmost pretentious building. Moreover, it is disposed to accept the name\nwhich has been given it, and to assume college airs and college practices.\nIt adopts colors and \"yells,\" holds formal graduating exercises, organizes\nalumni associations, and endeavors to make itself a permanent force in the\ncommunity. And it is with the advent and growth of the high school that\nour educational system has become especially potent in giving character to\n,our social life. In many parts of the country it has entirely supplanted the\nold private academy, and in other parts it has prevented its establishment.\nDealing with youth at the most susceptible age, at the period of developing\nlife when new impulses are awakening and mighty energies are starting into\nbeing, it exercises an influence entirely beyond the range of the elementary\nschool. With its advent, therefore, a new and wonderful chapter was opened\nin educational history. The teacher was given a standpoint from which he\ncan really influence the civiHzation of his time.\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nA NEW\n\nINDIVIDUALISM\n\nNow that society is becoming conscious of itself, and because the air\nis\nfull of noisy voices, we are more and more disposed to study social conditions\nand to seek to improve them. There is much to awaken apprehension. Has\nour poUtical principle of individuaUsm gone to such an extreme as to confuse\nitself with its opposite, and to threaten a return to the old and arbitrary authority of the few ? It would, indeed, be a biting sarcasm if the very excess of\nindividuaUsm should round into an excess of its opposite. The battle between\nthe employer and the employed is one of the many indications of the sense of\npower that is coming to the masses of men thru the rapid increase of a certain\nsort of inteUigence. The schools of the people have taught all men to read.\nThe newspaper is the mirror of the times. Capital heralds its achievements.\nOratory exalts the dignity of labor. Our national charter of liberty declares\nthat all men are created equal. Our schools have given at least a superficial\nsmartness to large numbers of men who regard themselves as competent to\ndirect great affairs.\nIs it strange that such a time of ferment is upon us ?\nIt is quite possible that I am a mistaken reader of social indications. I\nshall be glad to discover that I am. But it is an impression that is forced\nupon me that we are surrendering the central principle of our fundamental\npolitical doctrine in matters of the gravest importance, and intensifying it\nwhere it should be robbed of its capricious tendency. I understand that our\nnational history means the greatly increased valuation of the opinions and\nthe social influence of the individuals that constitute what we call the masses\nof men. It is our boast that every man, however humble he may be, has an\nopportunity of registering his opinion upon all matters of public concern,\nand that this opinion is to have genuine weight in determining public policy.\nThe strength and security of our institutions are supposed to lie in the disposition ofour people to reflect upon all matters that affect the general welfare,\nand then to act in harmony with the conclusions thus reached without regard\nto the opinions of others. The ballot is supposed to furnish an easy and\neffective method of expressing that judgment and rendering it influential.\nIt has been assumed that conclusions thus reached and thus potentially\nexpressed would furnish the safest guide to the lawmaker and the most\nwholesome limitations upon the ambitions of the few to acquire undue power\nin the administration of public affairs. It is one of our favorite theories that\nthe many, acting upon their own reflection and entirely free from compulsion,\nwill in the aggregate manifest a sanity and an insight that the few, however\nintelligent they may be, will be incapable of equalHng. Orators have loved\nto say, and have pretended to beheve, that it is safe to trust the people. Mr.\nLincoln expressed the same idea in his oft-quoted remark that \"it is possible\nto fool all of the people some of the time, -and some of the people all of the\ntime, but not all of the people all of the time.\" If there is truth in such a\ncontention, it must lie in the opportunity that our institutions offer to men to\ninform themselves with regard to the folly or the wisdom of poHtical and social\ntheories, and in the courage and independence with which they will express\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": null, "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntheir opinions where they will have their proper determining effect. This\nview of our American life is the one that has been presented to all of us from\nour childhood up, and it needs only to be expressed to be admired. Surely\nnothing can be finer to contemplate than a great people, aggregating millions\nupon millions, and occupying a vast continent of surpassing fertihty and with\nall of the material advantages that the heart could desire, deliberating seriously\nand intelligently upon great questions of human welfare, and then going\nforth from the seclusion of their homes, where their meditations have been\nundisturbed by the noisy clamor of interested partisans, to make that conviction have all the weight which it deserves in the guidance of the administrative\npoHcy of a nation. When we talk about our western individuaUsm, it is\nsome such condition as this of which we are thinking.\nNow, the impression that is constantly gaining weight in my mind is that\nthe actual conditions among our people are very different from this ideal\nattitude toward the problems of life. In the field of labor individuaHsm\nhas disappeared with the growth of the union. If I am correctly informed,\nthere is a strong tendency to wipe out the distinction between the excellent\nworkman and the ordinary workman, and to reduce men generally in their\nproductive activities to a standard type. A man is a man, just as a pound\nof sugar is a pound of sugar. The individual as a laborer becomes a commercial commodity, and might as well be designated by a number as by a name\nthat was given to him at the altar and with all the sacramental dignities of\nrehgion. He must reach a certain degree of excellence, undoubtedly, to admit\nhim to the fellowship of the guild, but the tendencies are all toward the obHteration of special quaUties rather than of their cultivation.\nAgain, since the union is an organization for offensive and defensive purposes, there must be an immense centrahzation of authority. Men do not\nread history entirely in vain. A campaign that is to be managed by a townmeeting is foredoomed to certain failure. The great battles of the world are\nalways won by submission to the leadership of one dominant and supreme\nwill. Thus it is that in the management of the union there is a further suppression ofthe individual will. I am not unmindful of the fact that there\nis a theoretical democracy in these organizations, but I am further instructed\nthat it is only theoretically present. It may be that modern economic conditions demand this surrender of our dearest poHtical principle in order to keep\nbread in the larder and a roof over the head of the workingman. It seems\nhttle short of a tragedy to confess that the idea for which the greatest battles\nof the world have been fought utterly breaks down when brought into relation\nwith the food-question.\nIf we turn to the field of politics, a still more interesting spectacle confronts us. It is the more interesting because it is here, if anywhere, that our\nboasted individuaHsm should be preserved inviolate. Here is the ark of the\ncovenant, the center and inspiration of our pecuUar nationaUty. If you seek\nfor an explanation of the \"Mayflower,\" and \"the bleak New England shore,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nA\n\nNEW\n\nINDIVIDUALISM\n\nand Lexington, and Valley Forge, and Gettysburg, you should find it\nhere.\nBut how pitiful it is that men should only wisely smile at the innocent sentimentalism of him who imagines that the many in their free choice and without\nthe persuasive influence of material considerations settle political questions!\nWe manage our affairs thru the machinery of political parties. This\ndevice elevates the primary election to a position once occupied by the free\nand final ballot of the towmmeeting. Thus a return to the practice of the\nover-influence of the few is made possible. It is useless to ask in this presence\nwhether this possibility is ordinarily utilized. We make a brave show of\nretaining our dear pohtical principle, but it is often, alas! a thing of shreds\nand patches, especially in our cities, where pohtics has degenerated into a\nbusiness and is uninfluenced by national questions and issues except in a\nround-about way.\nMust we confess again that this is the only way to do it successfully, and\nthat close organization, the domination of the few, and the blind obedience\nof the many are essential to the perpetuity of our free institutions, that is,\nour institutions dedicated to the doctrine of individualism ? What a tender\nplant this precious thing must be, that it can be preserved only by being kept\nin cold storage!\nI wish to assert that I am in no sense a growler. Indeed, I have never\nrisen to the dignity of a mugwump. I usually vote the regular ticket. But\nif there is not a steady decline in the free and untrammeled expression of\nindividual opinion in the determination of political questions and in the selection of pohtical leaders, I have grossly misread the signs of the times.\nWhat, then, has become of our dear individuahsm ? It is busy elsewhere.\nIt asserts itself once in a while to ^'turn the rascals out;\" but it is in less serious\nbusiness the greater part of the time. With the growth of the idea of authority\nin politics there has come the decHne of the idea of authority in reHgion. The\ndesecration of the Puritan Sabbath is about complete. In the minds of a\nstartling number of our people it is reduced to an ordinary hoHday, out of\nwhich have been filtered the last poor remnants of intrinsic sacredness. They\nhave gone along with the superstitions of our childhood. The open saloon\non all of the days of the week has ceased to shock our cosmopolitan sensibihties.\nThe grotesque school strike dresses the old-fashioned master in the fantastic\ngarb of the jester with his cap and bells, and thus proclaims the passing of\nthe old conception of the authority of the school. These are some of the\nsurface indications of the great changes that are taking place in our mental\nattitudes. Old imperatives are losing or have lost their supremacy. New\nand less strenuous conceptions are taking their places. No great issues seem\nto be competing for attention. The pohtical situation is a type of the general\nsocial condition. The political party that must first write its platform has\nthe field quite to itself. To the other there remains the poor privilege of denial.\nIf we turn to the school, we find the same spirit of indetermination. Where\nis our well-defined ideal that should be inscribed upon our banners and bla-\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": null, "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nzoned upon the walls of our schools ? No two graduating classes have the\nsame motto. One is reminded of the sad wag who substituted for the familiar\n''God bless our home\" a quotation from the door of a railway car: \"It is\ndangerous to stand on the platform.\" A motto is a motto. We are pushing\nfor the intellectual disciplines and for the enrichment of the curriculum and\nall that, and the results are inspiring; but we have as yet no substantial consensus of opinion as to the character of a national type that should present\nto the world the consummate blossoming of our fundamental political doctrine\nas a contribution to the ideals toward which civilization should direct its course.\nWe have suddenly awakened to the supreme value of athletics, and the last\nfew years have witnessed its apotheosis. Within its proper Hmitations, this\nis full of promise, and is a revival of one of the noblest of the Greek ideals.\nBut I beg of you, gentlemen, you of the universities especially, is it all sincere,\nthis adoration of brawn and courage? At times it all seems like a gaudy\nposter. Its advertising possibiHties are enormous. We are dihgently cultivating certain of the brutal instincts whose edge we have been trying to dull\nby the processes of civiHzation. Have we been growing effeminate, and are\nwe attempting its correction by a cross-fertilization with the spirit of the\nRoman amphitheater? We all know the topics that hold the center of the\nfield of thought with the high-school boys and with the university men in\nthe football season. One need not go far to find the explanation of it all. Here\nis the coveted opportunity for that personal distinction which every aspiring\nnature seeks, and the road to glory is along those lines of evolution which\nhave crowded into man all of the competing instincts of his savage forebears.\nIn many ways it is a splendid manifestation of individualism, and utterly\nshames that poor mimicry of poHtical independence, that lazy dilettantism,\nwhich lets elections go by default, and that religious independence which\nleaves the churches to the few who are still in the thralldom of tradition.\nBut most of the institutions are too -busy counting the number of students\nin the annual catalog to spend much time just now in a critical study of the\nrelation of athletics to the national idea.\nBut I have occupied time enough in this attitude of dissent. We believe that\nour political experiment is properly motived in its fundamental idea. If we are\nin error there, then we have misread the seemingly unmistakable essence of\nhuman spirit. The hunger and thirst for self-determination are its characteristic qualities. The old evolutionary principle which perfected a body for man\nand which led him across the upper limit of animalism, having completed\nits work and declared it good, transferred its methods to the new fields of\nspiritual development and found this tremendous energy waiting for its\nguidance. We surrender no particle of our faith in the doctrine of individualism. We still beheve that democrarcy is the last word in the true theory\nof the evolution of a genuine humanity.\nBut we have confounded two terms. We have missed the distinction\nbetween liberty and freedom.\nOne is opportunity; the other is developed\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNEED\n\nOF\n\nA NEW\n\nINDIVIDUALISM\n\ncapacity. One we can inherit; the other each must win for himself thru his\nindividual effort. Forty years ago the door of opportunity was opened to\nan enslaved race. The way in which the black man is attempting to employ\nhis opportunity, and thus to achieve a genuine freedom, will be discussed from\nthis platform by one of their own number who is himself the finest illustration\nof the truth of the distinction that I am trying to make.\nWhat are some of the leading features that are to characterize this new\nand sane individuaHsm, the true democracy of the moral will written large\nin our citizenship ?\nI believe that its most striking quality will be the return of the despised\nprinciple of authority. Government begins with external control. It must\ncome to its perfection in internal control. It required many centuries for the\nHebrew nationahty to learn that the \"thus saith the Lord\" of its childhood\nwas only another expression of the law of its own ethical nature. The crying\nneed of our time is the identification of the law of the land with the highest law\nof our moral natures. The flagrant violations of the statutory provisions\nthat are necessary for the preservation of the most rudimental forms of civilization show how sHght a remove we have made from savagery when we are\nconfronted with certain forms of crime. The familiar methods of dodging\nthe spirit of the law of the land while appearing to observe its forms is a startling\nindication of the loss of that regard- for authority that belonged to our earlier\nhistory. One of the first lessons that a child should learn is respect for wholesome authority, and that system of education that fails to inculcate it, even tho\nsuch inculcation may at times require the infliction of bodily pain, is sowing the\nseeds of death in the midst of our civilization. We have learned in the marvelous development of the scientific idea how freedom comes to the race by\nthe utiHzing of the forces of nature thru obedience to the laws of the universe.\nWith a similar humiHty and sincerity we must bow before the imperatives\nof the ethical world and glory in our obedience. Are we not ready to agree\nunanimously upon one plank of a universal platform: The child must learn\nthe sacredness of law and the manHness of obedience to its high mandates ?\nWe need no longer fear the man on horseback with such a motive for obedience.\nI have spoken of the decHne of the authority of the religious idea in our\nmodern life. Are we to lose its high imperatives ? In a very true sense, the\nschool is the child of the church. Is the separation to become complete?\nIn thousands of schools the last vestige of any formal recognition of religion\nhas disappeared. There has been so thoro a secularization that the Bible\nhas become a sealed book to a majority of the children. There must be a\nretreat from this extreme position. No people can ever afford to neglect\nthe cultivation of the religious sentiment. A shallow and trifling spirit will\nbe the inevitable result. The Religious Education Association was not\norganized too soon, and practical measures of reform will come from its wise\ncounsels.\n\nA crowning quality of this new individualism will be its recognition of\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": null, "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe dignity of duty. We declare that the core of democracy is service. The\ngood citizen is he who is socially serviceable. The finest individualism is that\nwhich embodies the highest quahties of all, not the capricious eccentricities\nof those who covet distinction by their radical differences from their fellowmen. It will not permit itself to be dominated by brute authority, but it will\nbend its head in quick assent to the word of rational authority. It will not\nsacrifice its divine right to the full exercise of its highest powers, and close\nits eyes to questionable methods in labor unions or anywhere else, on the\nwretched plea that the end justifies the means. It will eventuate in an American manhood that will be recognized by all men as the fruitage of the long\nstruggle of the race for the privilege of doing the best that it can for itself,\nunvexed by the hard exactions of tyrannical governments. And it will usher\nin the time when the finest sentiments of our best moments will become urgent\nand strenuous guides in the commonplace duties of ordinary living.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nEDMUND\n\nOF THE CHURCH\nIN THE UNITED\n\nJ. JAMES, PRESIDENT\n\nTO HIGHER\nSTATES\n\nOF NORTHWESTERN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nEDUCATION\nEVANSTON,\n\nILL.\n\nIf I were concerned here with a historical question, the answer would be\na comparatively simple one ; for down to within a recent period the entire field\nof secondary and higher education, both in England and in America, with\nvery few exceptions, belonged to the church school. The vast majority of\nour colleges and universities, as well as academies and seminaries, owe their\nexistence, if not directly to the initiative enterprise of some Christian church,\nat any rate to the benevolence of some individual desirous, first of all, of advancing the interests of the church by this means. Even many of those institutions\nfounded by the state recognize that their object was fundamentally a religious\none.\nThus Harvard College, founded by a vote at a meeting of the general court\nof the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, recognized as its fundamental purpose\nthe education of the English and Indian youth of the country in knowledge\nand godliness. The government of the colony at that time and the government\nof the church was one, and the act estabhshing the overseers of Harvard\nCollege in the year 1642 recognized *Hhe good hand of God upon us\" in the\nfoundation of that institution. The very seal of Harvard College itself declares\nthat the institution is founded for Christ and the church, and when in 1870\na constitution was framed for the new commonwealth of Massachusetts, it\ncontained the following paragraph :\nWhereas our wise and pious ancestors so early as the year One Thousand Six Hundred\nand Thirty-six laid the foundation of Harvard College, in which university many persons\nof great eminence have, by the blessing of God, been initiated in those arts and sciences\nwhich quahfy them for pubHc employment both in Church and State; and whereas the\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nencouragement of arts and sciences and all good literature tends\nto the honor of God, the\nadvantage of the Christian religion, and the great benefit of this and\nthe other United\nStates of America, etc., etc.\n\nThe other institutions founded in colonial days were, with very\nfew exceptions, even more distinctly than Harvard College itself, organized to promote,\namong other purposes, the interests of the church. And after the Revolution\nand the adoption of the federal constitution nearly every institution of secondary\nor higher rank founded in our American states during a long period was the\noutgrowth of church influence, either of church activity directly, or of the\nbenevolence of men who were deeply interested in the church and the mission\nof the church.\nIt is certainly not too much to say that down to 1850, at any rate, ninetenths of all the institutions for secondary and higher education founded in\nthe United States owed their origin to the keen interest of the church in educational matters; and even today, if one takes the hsts of colleges and universities\nas given in the report of the United States Commissioner of Education, it will\nbe found that 360 institutions, or more than three-quarters of the whole number,\nstill recognize that they exist under the auspices of some branch of the Christian\nchurch; sixty-four institutions, tho marked undenominational or non-sectarian,\nowe, many of them at any rate, their existence to the same force from which\nthe others sprang; and only fifty institutions represent the total number of\ncolleges and universities in this list which owe their existence to the activity\nor initiative of the government of the state in which they are located.\nHistorically speaking, then, higher education in the United States owes\nits very existence and its continued prosperity to the activity, initiative, and\ncontinuous support of the church.\nBut, after all, no one in looking over the field of higher education today\nin the United States, as compared with fifty years ago, can help being struck\nby the fact that a very great change in the relative position of the church school,\nas compared with schools under the auspices of the state or of undenominational boards of trustees, has taken place. Where formerly the church school\noccupied almost a position of monopoly, it has today, by the drift of educational development, been relegated to a far less important position, if not\nindeed to a merely supplementary or subordinate position. This has come\nabout by two important lines of development — the more active participation\nof the state in the work of higher education, and the development of secular\ninstitutions, owing as Uttle allegiance to the state, however, on the one hand, as\nto the church on the other. These secular institutions are of two classes— those\nwhich were in their origin church institutions, but have gradually thrown off all\nrelation to the church as such; and those which were founded from the beginning distinctly upon a non-church, and in some cases upon an anti-church, basis.\nTo me the most striking, significant, and portentous fact is the remarkable\nextent to which the state, as such, has entered the field of secondary and higher\neducation.\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": null, "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn the last thirty years, the free pubHc high school, supported from the proceeds of public taxation by the community, has become the typical institution\nof secondary education in the greater part of the area of the United States, and\nit shows a steady tendency to become the typical institution for the vast majority\nof the population. The old-fashioned academy or seminary, dependent\nlargely for its support upon the church or upon the people interested in the\nchurch, has become an element of distinctly minor importance in our scheme\nof secondary education. Many of these academies or seminaries have declined\nin attendance and perished. Some of them are prolonging a miserable existence, with no outlook for continued health and activity, so far as one can see,\nin the immediate future, and the foundation of new institutions of this sort\nhas almost ceased. In other words, the state has entered the field of secondary\neducation to a very striking extent, and forces are at work to bring about an\never-increasing enlargement of this particular field of activity for the state.\nThere are still vast areas of the United States outside of a high-school\ndistrict, and even in such a state as Illinois, which may be considered as fairly\ntypical, perhaps not more than one-quarter, and possibly not more than onefifth, of the area of the state is actually within a high-school district. But\nthe friends of the free public high school — and this includes, I am glad to say,\npractically every thoughtful and progressive American citizen — are pushing\nthis idea of the state-supported institution in the same aggressive way over\nthe unoccupied territory as they have pushed it in the last generation over\nthe territory actually won. They will not, and I think we should all agree\nthey ought not, to be satisfied until every foot of the territory of the state shall\nbe included within a district of some free public high school, so that every\nyoung person in the state will have the right to attend, free of tuition charge,\nsome secondary school supported by the state, just as he now has the right,\nover nearly the entire surface of the United States, to attend some free elementary school.\nThe state has entered in the same way, in the same aggressive manner,\nand with a remarkable degree of activity and success, the field of higher education. Every state in the Union is now supporting some institution of higher\neducation whose facilities are open, free of charge or at a nominal cost, to the\nyoung people of that state. It was natural that this movement should in the\nolder states along the Atlantic seaboard be comparatively slow, for when the\nconstitution was adopted institutions had been estabhshed in all these states\nwhich promised to serve the needs of their population for higher education\nfor some time to come; but when the population began to pour over the Alleghenies into the Mississippi valley, and towns and cities and whole states, so\nto speak, were created over night, it became evident that extraordinary efforts\nwould be necessary in order to meet the educational demands of these communities. The idea of the state undertaking to assist in offering the facilities\nof higher education commended itself very early to the people of this region,\nand thus some of^the strongest educational institutions in the Mississippi\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n71\n\nvalley are state institutions, dating well back toward the end of the first quarter\nof the last century.\nIt is probable that in the long run all these states would have adopted a\nscheme of state universities even if the federal government had not come\nto\nthe aid of the states by its grant of lands, but this tendency toward state institutions was greatly hastened by the very liberal grants which the government\nof the United States made from time to time to the support of education within\nthe states; and the Morrill Act of 1863, by which to each state in the Union\n30,000 acres of land were granted for each senator and representative accorded\nto that state in the federal Congress; and two subsequent acts by which a sum\nof $25,000 a year, increasing gradually to over $40,000 at present, was granted\nHkewise to the states for the support of an institution which, without excluding\nother subjects, would be especially devoted to mechanics and agriculture,\nwere distinctly intended to be the crown upon this long series of endeavors,\nand to commit the state finally and forever to the work of higher education.\nFrom that act of 1863 we may date the final and irrevocable committment of\nthe federal government of the Union, and of the government of the states of\nthe Union, to the support of higher education. Nearly every state in the Union\nis now supporting out of the pubhc treasury an institution which is called a\nuniversity; and those states which, owing to their very Hberal equipment with\nhigher institutions, like Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania, did\nnot seem to need a university so much as some of these western states, have\naccepted this money and these lands quite as quickly as the states of the Mississippi valley, and they are devoting them to the support of a state agricultural\nschool, or a state college, or a department in an existing university, or some\nother kind of a higher institution of learning.\nAt the same time with this development, as a result of which the state has\nentered upon the work of higher education, more vigorously in certain ways\nthan it has ever done in any other country, side by side with this state activity\nhas been developed a large tendency on the part of private individuals to establish and endow higher institutions of learning which would be as independent\nof the state on the one hand as of the church on the other. These schools\nhave been usually put under the control of self-electing boards of trustees,\nwith the condition, in many cases, that they shall always be administered on\nundenominational and non-sectarian lines, and should have no more to do\nwith the church as an organization than with the educational authorities of\nthe state, as such.\n\nSome of these foundations have been among the greatest and most beneficent ever made in this or any other country. The Johns Hopkins foundation\nat Baltimore, the Clark foundation at Worcester, the Leland Stanford foundation in California, and others of less importance, represent this tendency,\nwhich has shown itself in such a marked way in the last generation, to build\nup educational institutions which should owe no allegiance and submit to\nno control from either the church or the state, except so far as, hke other corporations, they are subject to the fundamental or special laws of the land.\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": null, "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhen the state in the Mississippi valley came face to face with the question\nof providing facihties in the field of secondary and higher education, the\nchurches which were doing their utmost to provide facihties in this field proposed that the state should grant funds in aid of the different denominational\ninstitutions, and thus, by uniting the efforts of the church and the efforts of\nthe state, should secure the estabhshment and support of these institutions\nin the most direct way and at the least possible expense. This plan had\nmany things for it. It would certainly have accomplished valuable results,\nand would perhaps have led to a more rapid and more satisfactory development of our secondary and higher institutions than has actually occurred.\nBut, owing to circumstances which we need not go into further here —\namong other things, owing to a growing fear on the part of the community\nthat any attempt to divide funds among denominational institutions might\nproject upon the nation a series of religious and ecclesiastical contests which\ncould not but be injurious to the best interests of education — the states in the\nMississippi valley, almost without exception, decided, first, not to vote public\nmoneys to the support of denominational schools, and, second, to authorize\nthe government in these states to proceed with the establishment of a system\nof governmental schools from the very lowest grade to the highest.\nAs a result we find in such a state as Illinois, for example, that the people\nof that community have established a system of pubHc education reaching,\nin the more thickly settled portions of the state, from the kindergarten thru\nthe grade school, the high school, the college, and the professional school;\nand it is possible for a child in the city of Chicago, for example, to enter the\nkindergarten at the age of three years in his immediate neighborhood, graduate\ninto the grade school of his ward, the high school of his district, the college\ndepartment at the state university at Champaign, and finally the law school\nor the medical school of that institution, and be under the supervision and\ncontrol of state educational authorities from the day he enters the kindergarten at, say, three years of age, until he graduates from the law or the medical\nschool at twenty-three or twenty-four years.\nThe increasing willingness of the people of the states of the Mississippi\nvalley to grant large sums of money to the support of all these different departments of education indicates a still greater scope, a still wider field, for the\nhigher schools of the state than they have thus far occupied; and I beheve,\nfor my part, that this development has been beneficial; I beheve that the\nfuture development will be beneficial; and it is my own opinion that\nthe policy of the states in the Mississippi valley on this subject of higher\neducation is destined to have a most profound reflex effect upon the educational policy of the older states of the Union. In fact, this influence has\nalready begun to show itself, and in nearly half of the thirteen original states\nthe state university has become the most important institution of higher learning\nwithin its bounds.\nIt is not to be wondered at that, in view of these facts, in view of this\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nenormous development of state education, and this great develop\nment of\nnon-sectarian and undenominational private education, and in\nview of the\nlack of development in many departments of education of which the church\nhas had control, many people should have adopted the view that there is no\npermanent place in our scheme of higher education for the distinctly church\ncollege or university. Certainly whatever its place may be in the future,\nhe must be a blind man who cannot see that it must be very different from\nwhat it has been in the past. It is no longer true, as it once was, that if the\nchurch school did not exist, then no facihties for higher education would be\navailable; for if every church school were swept out of existence in the United\nStates tomorrow, altho the blow to the system of higher education would be\na severe one, still it would not be true that the community would be altogether\nwithout facilities for such training; nor does it seem Ukely from anything\nthat we can see that the time will ever come again when the church school\nwill hold the same position of pre-eminence, one may almost say of monopoly,\nwhich was once accorded it. The question which we desire to discuss here,\nthen, for a few minutes, is what that place shall be.\nFirst of all, it is perfectly evident that this country will never permit the\nchurch as such to control in any vital way, thru its own ecclesiastical organs,\nthe higher education of the community. There is a growing recognition of\nthe fact that, however much modern society may owe to the church in the\npast for its efforts on behalf of higher education, and however beneficial its\nactivity may be in the future on behalf of the same cause, we shall never permit\nchurch authorities, priest or preacher. Catholic or Protestant, Jew or gentile,\nto dictate to the American people what the form or function of its scheme of\nhigher education shall be. On the other hand, I believe that it is equally\ntrue that the American people will not in any time within our possible prevision consent to an absolute monopoly of the field of higher education by\nthe institutions of the state, such as is accorded in nearly every country of\ncontinental Europe today. In other words, we are destined to have, in my\nopinion, as we have now in the field of higher education, three distinct types of\ninstitution: the state-supported, state-controlled university, expressing one\nside of the life and work and aspiration of the community,' an absolutely\nindispensable and ever-increasing element of power and influence in the\nsystem of higher education; in the second place, a non-sectarian, undenominational private institution, devoted, if you please, solely to the same work as\nthe state institution, occupying, however, as time goes on, also a position of\nsupplemental and secondary importance to the system of state universities;\nand, finally, a system of colleges and universities in immediate connection\nwith the church as such— if you please, with the different denominations as\nsuch— tho we may hope there will be some diminution in the number of such\ndenominations, and consequently a simpHfication of the system of education\nitself. But we shall have a system of schools supported by— controlled by,\nto a certain extent— and the outgrowth of, the same underlying force which\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": null, "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbuilds up the church; these institutions expressing another side of our national\nlife equally necessary, equally fundamental, to those represented by the other\nclasses of institutions.\nIn this complex of higher institutions — of state, secular, and religious\ninstitutions — where is the place for the distinctly church school, and what is\nits function ?\nMy answer to that, on this occasion, within the limits set by this program,\nmust, in the very nature of things, seem dogmatical and to a certain extent\nunproved; but, such as it is, I offer it to you for your consideration.\nMy first proposition is that this relation of the church to higher education\nshould be a vital and active and important one. The church as such should\nstill continue to concern itself earnestly and actively in behalf of higher education.\nFirst of all, because neither the state nor non-church private activity will\nsupply the needs of this country for higher education for a long time to come.\nIts aid is therefore needed, and probably will be needed for an indefinite\nperiod, in this important field of our higher life. You will pardon me if,\nconstrained by the necessity of making some concrete appHcation, I use the\nstate of Illinois as an illustration, for I happen to know more of its. educational condition than of those of other states. In the state of Illinois, for\nexample, we have a great state university, destined, in my opinion, with all\ndue deference to our sister-institutions in other states, to lead the procession\nof state universities as distinctly as Illinois will, in the long run, lead its sisterstates in the Mississippi valley. The state of IlHnois will undoubtedly make\ngreat additional grants to this institution. We all hope for that and pray for\nit; and yet, after the state has done everything that its people can be persuaded\nto do, there will still remain a large field of higher education unoccupied and\nunfilled, unless these private institutions and these church institutions occupy\nit. Besides the state university of lUinois today there are in that state\nthe oldest university in the state. Northwestern University; the wealthiest,\nthe University of Chicago; the youngest, Milliken University; and if we\nadd to them the Armour Institute of Technology as of college and university grade, we should see these four great universities combined represent\na far greater income available for purposes of higher education than the\nstate university itself, and they are supplying the needs of a far larger number\nof students, taken together, than the said university itself. If we were to\nwipe out these institutions, or for any reason their vigor or vitahty should\ndiminish, it would not necessarily mean that the state university would grow\ncorrespondingly to occupy this field, but rather that the facilities for higher\neducation in the state of Illinois would by that much be seriously diminished.\nIf we were to close all the schools supported by the church, we should deal an\nalmost irremediable blow to the system of higher education. Consequently,\nin the interests of the community itself pure and simple, with no reference to\nthe church at all, it would be a serious injury to the interests of higher education\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ses^JQ\"^]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nif the church should no longer take that active and keen interest in it\nwhich\nhas been characteristic of the church from the beginning.\nThe church should continue this attitude of interest and support\nto higher\ninstitutions because, even if the state were willing and able financial\nly to\nundertake this function entirely, to occupy the whole field in a satisfact\nory\nway, it still does not He in the interests of the community that the important\ninterests of higher education should be entirely in the hands of the state. Even\nif we approve, as I do, of a state-supported system of education from the kindergarten thru the professional school; even if we believe, as I do, that the state\nshould support such a chain of institutions by public taxation for the benefit\nof the community, it is still true that the exclusive domination of higher education by the state is not in the interests of a free people. We see today in all\ncountries of continental Europe an illustration of the exclusive possession of\nthe field of higher education by the state, which means, of course, by the state\ngovernment; and Germany affords a most striking example of a great and\npowerful nation which has accepted the principle of state control of university\neducation to the exclusion of church or private co-operation.\nIt has always seemed to me that certain definite disadvantages have resulted\nto the German people from this scheme. Only those types of intellect and\nsentiment and temperament can flourish in a German university which are\napproved by the government organization and by the public opinion of the\nnation as a whole. And we have received into our country many a score\nand many a hundred of Germans who have been of great value to our intellectual and moral life, who were forced to leave Germany because they could\nnot live in the atmosphere of an exclusively state university system. And\nwhile we might not suffer from just that sort of thing, yet if the state university\never comes to occupy relatively such a position in the United States as it has\nin Germany today, we should suffer from other evils of a similar and no less\nserious sort. To limit the access to the learned professions and to the higher\ncivil service to the graduates of a state university would be to strike a blow\nat some of the most important and beneficent influences at work in our modern\nlife. The intolerance of a democracy to things which it does not like is even\ngreater and more crushing than the intolerance of a monarchy. It lies in\nthe interest of a community as a whole that, side by side with this system of\nstate-supported schools, expressing one side of the Hfe and thought of a people\nas no other kind of a school can do it, there should also be a system out of all\nrelation to the educational system of the state, responsible only to the general\nlaws which the community may find it necessary to enact. In this country we\nmay be sure that many a good talent is saved to advance the welfare of a community or nation which might be snuffed out or stifled to death in the atmosphere of an exclusively state system.\nThe combination then, from this point of view, of private and state schools\nfor higher education is more desirable by far than an exclusive monopoly of\neither.\nThis, I beheve, to l^e the American system.\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": null, "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI have said that the function of a system of church schools was, first of all,\nexactly similar to that of state schools; namely, to do its share in supplying the\nneed of the community for higher education, and which cannot be supplied\nat present by the state alone.\nBut there is another reason why the church should be interested in the\nestablishment, the maintenance, the development, and the proper equipment\nof a university, and why the community as a whole should be interested in the\nchurch's undertaking this. The church school may develop certain aspects of\nscientific investigation and thought which — with our ideas at present, at any\nrate, and for aught that we can see for an indefinite time to come — the state\ncannot properly cultivate.\nTake the whole field of theology, using that term in the large sense. The\nscience of God, the science of the relation of man to God, I think most Americans, whether they are members of a church or not, would agree that this is\na department of human thought and human inquiry which ought to be maintained, and ought to be provided for as fully and as adequately as any other\nbranch of human science or human thought. Now, it is perfectly apparent\nthat the state university, under existing conditions in the United States, with\nour ideas upon the relation of such study to religion and our notions of an\nabsolute separation between church and state, cannot properly teach this\nsubject, and indeed ought not to teach it at all. Take the extreme case, that\nof theology in the narrow sense, the sense in which theological sdiools are\norganized to develop and apply it: we all agree that the state university cannot\nestablish a theological department; and that simple fact, combined with the\nfurther fact that we believe the study of theology to be important, makes it\nnecessary that we should have a system of church schools in which this subject\nmay be properly pursued.\nThe same thing may be said in a large way of the study of the Bible.\nThere may be a study of the Bible, of course, having reference simply to its\nexternalities, which may be carried on by anybody in any kind of an institution; may be carried on by the friends of the Bible or by the enemies of the\nBible; but even this objective study of the Scriptures, be it sympathetic or\nantagonistic, is barred from the state university by our ideas on the subject.\nAnd so the whole study of the Bible, with everything which concerns it in a\nlarge way, is practically excluded from the system of state-supported schools.\nin fact, we are going so far that some of our courts are holding that the Bible\nis a sectarian book which cannot be read or studied or commented upon, or\neven mentioned, in our system of schools from the lowest to the highest.\nBible study, then, in a large sense includes all those subsidiary sciences which\ngo to make it effective in modern times, such as Egyptology and Assyriology,\netc., ^d is practically excluded from the domain of state-supported education.\nAnd surely here is a very important function for the church schools. We may\nadd also that those of as who beheve in the Bible as a holy book, as representing ina peculiar sense the will of God, do not like the idea of an unsympa-\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n77\n\nthetic and irreverent study of these Scriptures, and believe that it is to be\nadvanced most efficiently if carried on under circumstances where affection\nand reverence can have their proper weight in determining the attitude of\ninvestigator and student toward the books.\nThere are other departments which cannot be adequately represented and\nadequately taught in any system of state-supported schools. One is ethics,\nand another is history. No one who beheves that ethics finds its basis in religion can for a moment be content with a teaching of ethics which ignores and\nexcludes religious considerations; and yet this must be the character of ethics\ntaught in a system of state-supported schools.\nHistory, so far as it has to do with church history— and that is for a large\npart the history of Europe since the fall of the Roman empire — can hardly be\ntaught in a thoroly satisfactory way in a state school. There is, of course, a\npurely objective way of dealing with historical facts which might possibly\nmeet the approval of all parties except in those cases where the facts themselves\nare disputed; but to the extent that they pass over into the domain of interpretation, religion, and philosophy are as much entitled to speak as any other\nelement of human thought. And there is scarcely a page of history of the\nMiddle Ages which is not so wrapped up with church history as to make it\nalmost impossible to teach the subject in a satisfactory way in a state school.\nOur CathoHc friends are especially severe on this particular point. They\nclaim that all non-Catholic teaching of history is anti-Catholic. WTiile, of\ncourse, we cannot grant any such proposition as that, we may admit that\nhistory may be made to mean a very different thing as its facts are presented\nin one setting of another, from one point of view or its opposite.\nIn the same way the subject of politics, using that term in the large sense,\ncannot be adequately and satisfactorily dealt with in the state schools, because\npolitics — present-day poUtics, at any rate — is a side issue more or less to some\npolitical tendency or some political party, and requires positive political affiliation; but such an attitude will not be suffered to exist in a state institution, as\nit would be distasteful to the supporters of the school. The instructors in\nsuch a school, according to the pubHc mind, may not justly represent the view\nof one part of the community and antagonize the views of the other.\nOf course, I am fully aware that the church, in all these departments, lies,\n\nconsidering its history, considering its organization, justly under the imputation of teaching history, philosophy, and theology from its own narrow point\nof view. It lies, under the suspicion of taking questions as already settled which\nought to be investigated, and as excluding certain subjects from consideration\nbecause it is a part of the dogma of the church that they have been settied.\nthe\nThese are undoubtedly the weaknesses of the church school, and one of\nand\nmistakes\ntheir\ncorrect\nto\nreal reasons why we need other institutions,\nsupplement their defects.\nschools m\nThere is another reason for the existence of a system of church\nis the fact\nthat\nand\n,\ncountries\nother\nof\nthe United States, whatever may be true\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": null, "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLOenera\n\nthat in a democracy like our own, where all public institutions are under the\ncontrol of public sentiment, the tendency toward the narrowly and shortsightedly practical is likely to dominate, or at any rate to attain an undue\ninfluence, in any system of state-supported institutions. The state university,\nif it fails to keep in close touch with its constituents, is likely to have to go out\nof business. If it keeps in touch with its constituents, it is likely to have to\nsacrifice its ideals in very many points to the demands of the community.\nNo one would suspect me of desiring to say anything against the study of\nagriculture, or engineering, or commerce, or law, or even cooking and sewing ;\na large part of my active life has been devoted to securing for these subjects\ntheir proper place in a university curriculum; but, important as these subjects\nare, they are not more important than the cultural element which ought to\nenter into all education, particularly secondary and higher.\nI do not beheve that it is necessary for any man to study Greek and Latin\nto be a cultured and educated gentleman, to be a successful lawyer, or merchant, or railway president, or banker. I do not believe that it is necessary,\nor even desirable, that every child in the community should study Latin and\nGreek, or even Latin or Greek; but I should consider it a very great misfortune\nfor the American people if nobody studied Latin or Greek; if we did not keep\nin touch with the magnificent history of the peoples which speak these tongues ;\nif we have no one laboring to interpret anew for our time and our generation\nthe lessons which the life of these peoples sends down to us across the ages.\nNow, I believe that the facts will bear out the proposition that our system of\nstate-supported schools, as a whole, if it does not emphasize too much the practical, at any rate tends to underestimate too much the cultural, and thus fails\nto serve the community in its highest interests in an efficient way. Here is\nanother case of the natural and proper division of labor, if you please. We must\nlook for the cultivation and protection of this interest to institutions which do\nnot rely upon the state treasury primarily for their support. I beheve the\nclassics — that is, the ancient classics, Latin and Greek, and Latin and Greek\nhistory, and everything connected with it— would decUne very rapidly and disappear from the scheme of study in the United States today, if their sole resource\nwas a system of state-supported schools ; and we should all regret such a disappearance as a great loss to the higher interests of American society.\nThere are other departments of higher scholarship which the state-supported\nuniversity finds it difficult to cultivate and support as they deserve. What\nlegislature, for example, would appropriate $150,000 to dig a hole in the plains\nof Babylon to find out whether there is any real evidence that Abraham lived\nin Ur of the Chaldees and went out from there to Palestine ? In other words,\nwhat legislature would appropriate such a sum of money to help penetrate the\nmysteries of our ancient civihzation which are located in the dust hills of Babylon, or on the great monuments of Egypt, or in the ruins of Greece or Rome ?\nAnd yet no one who values the higher things of Ufe can deny that this sort of\nstudy is not only one of the most interesting, but one of the most valuable and\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n79\n\ninspiring, lines of investigation in which the modem man is engaged today.\nFully half a million dollars have been spent by Americans in these undertakings,\nand the expenditure has been a credit to American benevolence and to American\nscholarship. This and similar departments represent a field of our higher\neducation and higher learning which we can hardly expect the state, as it is\norganized in this country today, to cultivate adequately.\nBut the church should concern itself about higher education for another\nreason. It can organize and support a type of institution which many parents\nin our system would patronize when they would send their children to none\nother. We cannot loss sight of the fact that the American people is essentially\na reUgious people; that a large part of its members are associated definitely\nwith some form of the Christian church; that they believe in an education\nwhich as one of its results will leave the student interested in religion, religious\nquestions, and religious work; and that there are thousands and tens of thousands of parents in this country who would rather their children would never\nobtain a higher education than to get it in an atmosphere which is antagonistic\nto, or simply neutral and indifferent to, the claims of religion. In other words,\nmany of our people believe, whether mistakenly or not, that the religious nature\nof man stands in as much need of cultivation and care as the intellectual or the\nphysical, and that no institution which is prevented by its very nature from\nlooking after this side of the life of the young man or young woman ought to\nconsider itself as offering a complete and well-rounded education. There are\nall sorts of views upon these questions, many of them of course extreme and\nuntenable, and yet we certainly cannot deny that the attitude toward religion,\nreligious problems, and rehgious life of young people in the mass will be\ndeveloped to a considerable extent for their entire Uves by the influences and\natmosphere and attitude with which they are brought into contact during those\ncritical years of college and university life. I would not lose sight of the fact,\nof course, that after all the formal cultivation of religion is easily overdone;\nmistakes are easily made which may result in more harm than good; and the\nevil results of neglect in this particular department are, to my mind, often\nexaggerated, as well as the evils of an attempt to overcultivate this part of the\nstudents' Ufe are minimized and disregarded. Nor do I sympathize at all with\nthat view so often expressed that state schools, because they do not give positive\nrehgious instruction, are godless. The teachers and students in these schools\nare, as a class, as rehgious as those in other schools. And as long as the American\npeople remain a Godfearing, religious people, so will be thek schools, whether\nthe\npubHc or private. But, after aU, we must concede, I think, the truth of\nand\nideas\ngeneral proposition that if the reUgious instincts and the reUgious\nsee the\nideals of young men and women are not cultivated, we must expect to\nphysical under\nreUgious nature atrophied, exactly as would be the inteUectual or\nin which\nmstitution\nan\nestablish\nsimilar conditions. Now, the church is able to\npopulation\nour\nof\nan atmosphere can be created which wiU satisfy a large part\nhigher education.\nsecular\nabsolutely\nan\nupon\nfear\nand\nsuspicion\nwho look with\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nI do not see, for my part, how anyone can deny that it is well to satisfy this\ndemand by the existence of such schools, unless indeed he deny the claims of\nreligion and religious education and reUgious culture in toto.\nLooking at the question still from the standpoint of the interest of the community as a whole in securing the best scheme of higher education, I beheve\nthat the church as such should be interested, positively and directly and vitally,\nin the organization and maintenance of the institution of higher learning, because of the reflex effect of this upon the educational ideas and educational\nstandards of the denomination which engages in this project. Supporting\nhigher education with all the incidental and reflex circumstances set at work\nas a result of that function, takes in, in the most efficient means possible, the\nrank and file of the membership of the church, with the result to higher education that it elevates the educational standards and ideals of the entire community.\nIn other words, the great function of the church school in the field of higher\neducation is to educate the church itself and its membership as to the necessity\nand desirability of higher education. Take any one of our great rehgious\ndenominations — the Methodist church, for example. It includes within its\nmembership, counting the members of families and communicants in all the\nvarious branches of this much-divided denomination, upwards of thirty millions\nof people in this and other countries. Consider what a power for higher education such a church may be and is, if it develops and works out a system of\nefficient and high-class church schools. The Methodist church was the result\nof a protest against certain tendencies in English life. It is probable that the\nmovement would have resulted in its adherents leaving the EngHsh church,\neven if they had not been pushed out by the ignorance and intolerance of the\nclergy at that time. It was too large a movement to remain within the Hmits\nof any establishment, and as it went out to its work of evangelism, its first\nmessage of course was to the ignorant, poor, and neglected classes; and it has\nbeen the glory of the church ever since that that has been recognized by the\nchurch to be the chief part of its function.\nBut the movement was cradled in Oxford, one of the great centers of culture, refinement, and scholarship in the Europe of that day. It was led by\nmen who were recognized as among the leaders in the college and university\nlife of their time. So cradled and so led, it could not help being an educational\nmovement also, as well as a spiritual movement. Its doctrine that the Bible\nshould go into the hands of every individual — the old Protestant doctrine —\nand that every individual should study the Holy Scriptures, made it, of course,\nfrom the beginning an essentially educational movement; for no one could\nstudy the Scriptures thoroly without receiving a liberal education in more\nsenses than one. But how distinctly it is also an educational movement in the\nnarrow sense is apparent from the eagerness with which the church began to\nfound and develop educational institutions of secondary and higher grade.\nIn this country, the pioneer Methodist preacher, as he traveled over these\npathless prairies and forded these bridgeless streams, carried with him every-\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF CHURCH\n\nTO HIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\n8i\n\nwhere, not only a Bible, but other good books illustrative of Bible doctrine\nor\nBible inspiration, or bearing on the higher hfe of the community. The\nmovement looking toward an educated clergy, combined with the idea that an educated laity was also necessary, gained an ever wider and wider influence and a\nstronger power. And when finally the church began to found institutions of\nhigher and secondary learning, a new standard was set up and a new idea\nentered into the minds of the people, and the great mass of these uneducated\nadherents of the church became interested in higher institutions of learning,\ninterested in the education of their children because they were interested in\nthe church; and the church preached the necessity of education and showed\nher belief in it by the efforts and sacrifices she put forth to estabUsh these\nhigher institutions.\nThe University of Chicago has, in my opinion, done no more useful service\nfor higher education in this country than the remarkable indirect influence\nwhich it has exercised upon Baptist educational standards thruout the country.\nThe ideals and standards and tests which the University of Chicago set up\ncould not be without their influence upon the same standards and tests of every\nother Baptist institution ; and it is not too much to say that every Baptist clergyman in the United States — nay, every Baptist layman — has experienced a distinct advance in his educational ideas and educational ideals from the stand\nwhich this institution took and from the place it has occupied in the pubHc\nmind from its opening.\nAnd what was true of the Methodist church and the Baptist church is also\ntrue of the Presbyterian and Lutheran and CathoHc. In proportion as the\nchurch takes up education the individual member becomes ever more deeply\ninterested. And this function of training its own membership to a higher view\nof education is, to my mind, one of the most valuable functions of the church\nschool. It is a service which every thoughtful citizen must recognize to be of\nthe very highest value to the community as a whole.\nSo far from the standpoint of the community. Looked at in the narrow\nway from the standpoint of the church, the need of the church to estabhsh\nhigher institutions of learning is quite as plain.\nIf we believe in the fundamental importance of reUgion and rehgious\ntraining, in the national scheme of education, we should be interested as citizens in everything which will make the church itself more efficient for this\npurpose. Now, whatever else the church college and church university may\ndo, one function certainly seems to be most natural, and one may say almost\ninevitable. If the church really desires to provide for the active encouragement\nand development of its own personnel for the doing of its .own work, it must\nlook for this very largely to specific church institutions. A very large part of\nthe active trained ability for the work of any church comes, and must come,\nfrom the students in the church schools. I think everyone would agree that\nif the Presbyterian or Congregational or Methodist churches expect to find a\ncontinuous and adequate supply of ministers for their pulpits, they must look\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": null, "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor these to come forth from the centers of learning which they themselves\nestabhsh and maintain. There is universal regret in nearly all our Christian\nchurches on account of the small number of young men who present themselves\nfor the Christian ministry. I beheve this is, in large part, to be explained by\nthe fact that some of the very greatest centers of church training, of rehgious\nculture, have ceased to be church schools in any proper sense of that term —\nhave ceased to be centers of reUgious interest and religious work; and so the\nnumber of men has decHned who have looked forward to that as a calling in\nwhich they might most properly serve their day and generation.\nI have time for only one other point, and cannot develop that at very great\nlength. As citizens we are all interested in the development of a very high\ntype of religious and church organization and authority; we are interested in\nfreeing religion from its superstitions, in raising it into that higher atmosphere\nin which these injurious growths will themselves wither and disappear. Now,\nthe church itself, in its ecclesiastical organization, in its discipline and its polity,\nin its outlook upon the world, is rationalized and refined by a close connection\nwith a system of higher education. Not only are its specific servants, its clerical and lay ministers, better educated and better trained for their work, but\nthe whole mass of the denomination is refined and improved by that intimate\ncontact with higher education which is an outgrowth of the necessity of establishing and maintaining and carrying on this work of higher education. We\nmust not lose sight of the fact that within the church itself the church school\nmust insist, for its own sake and for the sake of the work that it is doing, upon\nthat independence of ecclesiastical control which may easily mean death to\nall real educational investigation or outlook. I do not believe that any institution of higher learning can be safely intrusted to the control of any of the\necclesiastical organizations of any Christian church, not even the most Hberal\nand intelligent. And just as the state in this country has rejected once for all\nthe notion that the church, whether Catholic or Protestant, whether Jew or\ngentile, shall dictate the policy, the ideals and aspirations, the methods of a\nsystem of higher education, so every educational institution within the church\nitself, if it is to do its work in such a way as to be of benefit to the church and to\nthe country, must insist upon that proper and fair degree of independence\nwhich is necessary to any vital educational effort.\nTo sum up the ideas underlying this paper in one brief paragraph: The\nplace of the church school in higher education in this country, altho it may be\nand in my opinion will be from now on, in a certain sense strictly subordinate,\nand at any rate strictly supplementary, is still a vital and important place;\nimportant not only to the church as such, but important to the community\nas a whole, and to the highest educational interests of the community.\nThe secular school, whether private or state, and the church school, are\nnecessary elements in that system of higher education which is to work out the\nbest results for the American people. They must go hand in hand — the weaknesses and shortcomings and defects of the one, supplemented by the elements\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nENGLAND\n\nof strength and power in the other, so that the system, taken as a whole, shaU\nserve the purposes and needs of this great, God-fearing, intelligent American\npeople.\n\nPOPULAR\nCAPTAIN\n\nPERCY\n\nATKIN,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\nBRITISH\nEDUCATION\nREPRESENTATIVE,\nPURCHASE EXPOSITION\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nIn England we have one Board of Education deaUng with education thruout the whole country. The administrative work of the board is divided into\nthree main branches — one chiefly concerned with elementary education, the\nsecond with secondary education, and the third with technology and higher\neducation in science and art. The elementary branch deals with the provision,\nadministration, and inspection of elementary education, and with the training\nand examination of teachers and pupil-teachers in elementary schools. The\nsecondary branch deals with matters relating to the administration and inspection of secondary schools and of educational endowments. The technological\nbranch deals with the administration and inspection of technical institutions\nand evening classes thruout the country which receive aid from the board, and\nwith matters relating to the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Royal Colleges\nof Science and of Art, the Geological Survey, and certain other work under the\nboard. It should be clearly understood that, except in the cases of the Royal\nColleges of Science and of Art, the board itself neither provides nor administers any educational institution, the function of the central authority being\nrestricted to the award of central treasury grants and to the maintenance of a\ngeneral standard of efficiency. Under the recent education acts the local\nadministration of education of all grades is intrusted to one and the same\nbody, viz., a committee appointed by a locally elected body.\nSuch elected body has to submit a scheme for the constitution of its education committee for the approval of the Board of Education. Every such\nscheme must provide for the appointment of persons of experience in education\nand of persons acquainted with the needs of the various kinds of schools in\nthe area of the local authority, and for the inclusion of women; and the Board of\nEducation has in every case insisted upon the strict observance of these specific\nrequirements of the act, while leaving to the discretion of the different localities the precise manner in which these objects were to be attained.\nThe duties of these local authorities include aU those which formerly\ndevolved upon the school board and school attendance committees, together\nwith the control of all secular education in all elementary schools, whether\n\nvoluntary schools or council schools, and the obUgation to consider the educational needs of the area, and to take such steps as seem desirable to supply, or\naid the supply of, education other than elementary.\nform\nThe total number of local education authorities required by the act to\neducation committees is 334.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": null, "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt should be here stated that ''voluntary schools\" is the name given to those\nschools built by private subscribers, with or without the government aid;\nthe managers were voluntary, and not necessarily representative of the locahty ;\nthe subscriptions might cease at any time and the school be closed. On the\nother hand, \"council schools\" are those built by the popularly elected local\nbody, paid for out of the local taxes, permanently dedicated to secular education, managed by the local education committee, open to all comers so long as\nthere is room, and giving no denominational religious instruction.\nSo much for our organization of administrative management.\nAnd now to turn to elementary education. The first tangible recognition\nby the state of its duty toward education was given in 1833. These grants were\ncontinued from year to year, but were considered only as a temporary expedient until a more permanent system could be established. They were at first\ndevoted solely toward assisting in the erection of school buildings, and were\ndistributed thru the agency of the two great school societies — the National\nSociety, and the British and Foreign School Society. After some years, in\norder to secure more efficient teaching, grants were made for maintenance\nas well as buildings. The increase in the amount of state grants was rapid,\nbut it was accompanied by much misgiving as to the real extent and value of\nthe provision thus secured. Tho the report of the royal commission appointed\nin 1859 was optimistic, rfie feehng of uneasiness continued, and deepened into\na conviction of the insufficiency of voluntary effort, which led to the adoption\nof the first great Elementary Education Act in 1870. It was the object of\nthis act to establish a national system of education, which should be open to\nevery child, whatever the religious belief of his parents ; and it was accordingly\nlaid down that no school should be entitled to a share in the parliamentary\ngrant unless it were so conducted that a child might be withdrawn by the parent\nfrom any religious observance or instruction without forfeiting any of the other\nbenefits of the school. Voluntary schools, provided that they satisfied the\nprovisions on that head, might continue to give such religious instruction as\nthe managers chose. But in the new class of schools established by the act no\nreligious catechism or religious formulary distinctive of any particular denomination was to be taught. These latter schools were to be provided and\nmaintained by popularly elected bodies called school boards, and were supported partly out of the central grants and partly out of local taxes. The\nvoluntary schools were entitled to receive state aid on the same terms as the\nboard schools, but they were debarred from receiving any financial assistance\nfrom the local taxes. This provision has been repealed by tlie Education\nAct of 1902, which makes the local education authority responsible for the\nsecular instruction in all public elementary schools. The second main modification ofthe act of 1870 has been the aboKtion of specially elected authorities\nfor educational purposes. Education has now become one of the ordinary\nmunicipal services.\nIn 1876 attendance was first made compulsory, and subsequent acts have\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nENGLAND\n\nintroduced more stringent regulations. As a general rule, it is now obligatory\nfor children to attend school from the age of five to the age of twelve. Thev are\nfurther bound to attend school between the ages of twelve and fourteen, unless\nthey become quaUfied for either total or partial exemption by passing a prescribed examination, or by having attended school previously with a certain\namount of regularity. As a matter of fact, in the cides fourteen is the more\nusual age for total exemption. This year it is proposed to give a higher rate\nof grant on account of all children over twelve who attend school.\nIn 1 89 1 an act was passed which gave to every parent the right of obtaining\nfree education for his children between the ages of three and fifteen, and the\nBoard of Education is required to see that free places are provided where\nneeded, since certain schools still retain the right to charge fees.\nBy means of its codes, annually approved by Parliament, the Board of\nEducation has determined the conditions on which its grants should be awarded\nto elementary schools. These grants are paid on average attendance at the\nfollowing rates: 155. between three and five years of age, 20s. between five and\ntwelve, and 255. between twelve and fifteen, with extra grants for special\ninstructions in cookery, handicraft, and other subjects. To some extent these\nconditions have regulated the subjects taught; but the central authority, while\nlaying down general Hnes, does not prescribe any detailed course of study.\nThe education given is based on a graduated course of instruction suitable\nto the age and capacity of the scholars in the following subjects: English,\narithmetic, knowledge of the common phenomena of the external world,\ngeography, history, drawing, singing, physical exercises, and, for girls, plain\nneedlework. Additional subjects are, for boys, handicraft, gardening, and\ncookery (for seaport towns); and, for girls, cookery, laundry work, dairy\nwork, and household management. Further, one or two more subjects may\nbe taught to older scholars, if the inspector of schools is satisfied that the subject is suitable to their age, circumstances, and capacities; that it does not\ninterfere with the general course; that it can be efficiently taught; and that a\nproper scheme is framed and approved.\n\nOur next branch deals with secondary schools. In spite of many warnings as to the necessity for the organization of secondary education, up to the\npresent day the relations of public authorities, both central and local, with\nsecondary schools have been much less close than those with elementary education. The secondary schools may be divided into four classes: (i) the pubhc\nschools (i. e., the seven principal schools— viz., Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury— dealt with by the Public\nSchools Act of 1868 and certain others, such as Haileybury, Marlborough,\nUppingham, popularly associated with them); (2) the endowed schools (i. e.,\nthe endowed secondary grammar schools administered under the Endowed\nSchools of Act 1869); (3) schools estabHshed and controlled by local authorities; (4) schools carried on by private enterprise. It is hardly possible to give\nan exact definition of a pubHc school, but the term includes all the most impor-\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": null, "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\n,tant older foundations which maintain very close relations with the ancient\nUniversities of Oxford and Cambridge. They are mainly, tho not exclusively,\nboarding schools, and thus are differentiated from the endowed schools, which,\ntho admitting boarders, have a strong local connection. Educationally the\nendowed schools were under the control of the charity commissioners, whose\npowers in this respect have now been transferred to the Board of Education.\nThese powers include that of making schemes for the general conduct of such\nschools, and for organizing administrative inspection to see that these schemes\nwere properly executed; but they did not include any authority to grant\nfinancial assistance. This defect was to some extent remedied by the action\nof the former Science and Art Department (now the Technological Branch of\nthe Board of Education), whose grants could be earned by schools complying\nwith their regulations. Both from this source and from the funds administered bythe county council under the Technical Instruction Acts, considerable\nfinancial aid has been given in recent years to secondary schools. In many\nplaces there probably still exists a considerable deficiency in this grade of\neducation, but the duty of providing a fitting remedy is laid by the act of 1902\nupon the new authorities. It may be noted that the greater part of the provision ofgirls' secondary education is still made by private enterprise.\nHitherto no special qualifications have been demanded of secondary\nteachers. High academic qualifications unaccompanied by any professional\npreparation have sufficed to open the best posts in the teaching profession to\nmen leaving the old universities. But with the estabHshment of the Register\nof Teachers under the act of 1899 this state of things will cease. After the\npresent transitory arrangements have been withdrawn, no teacher will be able\nto be placed on that register without affording proof of distinct preparation for\nthe practice of his profession.\nIn the matter of secondary education Wales has received a different, and,\nas some maintain, a preferential, treatment. It was unusually poor in\nendowed schools, and the opportunities for secondary education were few.\nThru the disinterested zeal of one or two individuals, a bill was introduced\ninto Parliament in 1889, and carried with the support of the government.\nBy this act, the treasury undertook to pay to each county and county borough\na subsidy not exceeding in amount the sum raised by local rates for the purposes of intermediate education. Thru the operation of this act, within a very\nfew years the principality has been provided with an excellent system of secondary schools. For the maintenance of an equal standard of attainment thruout\nthe country, a system of inspection and examination has been established, and\nplaced under the control of a central board, to which each county and county\nborough sends delegates. This organization has been allowed to retain its\nfull powers under the act of 1902.\nAs was indicated earlier, the third branch of the Board of Education takes\ncharge of technological education. Technological education may be said to\nbegin with the nineteenth century.\nIn 1800 Dr. Birkbeck started courses for\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPOPULAR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nENGLAND\n\nworkingmen in Glasgow. He continued this work when he removed to London, and thru this influence institutions which aimed at providing mstruction\nfor workingmen were estabUshed in many of the principal towns of England.\nBut the movement failed to retain its hold upon the interest of workingmen.\nMany a mechanics' institute degenerated into a kind of social club for small\ntradespeople rather than for workingmen. The great exhibition of 1851 once\nmore called attention to the need for such instruction of the working classes,\nand one of the results was the creation of the Department of Science and Art,\nwhich has always devoted a considerable portion of its funds to the diffusion\nof scientific knowledge by means of evening classes. But the local resources\navailable were so insufficient that much of the work this department was\nintended to undertake remained undone, and there arose a further cry for\nincreased opportunities for technical instruction. To meet this demand the\nTechnical Instruction Act was passed in 1889, and the execution of this act\nwas entrusted to the local bodies which had been created in the previous year\nby Parliament. The new authorities were greatly assisted in their educational\nwork by the assignment to them of a large sum of money derived from the\ncustoms and excise duties, the greater part of which was used by the majority\nof the councils for the furtherance of the objects of the Technical Instruction\nAct. The act of 1889 and subsequent acts were Repealed by the acts of 1902\nand 1903, but the work which was inaugurated under them can be carried on\nwithout any hindrance under the provision of the latter measures.\nIn connection with our national system, reference must be made to the\nuniversities. But it must be remembered that EngHsh universities are not\nsubject to the jurisdiction of any department of state. The constitutions of\nthe ancient foundations of Oxford and Cambridge have from time to time\nbeen modified by parliamentary action, but within the limits of their statutes,\nframed in accordance with his legislation, they and their constituent colleges are\nself-governing bodies. Except in the case of a few professorships at either university of royal foundation, to which nominations are made by the chief minister\nof the crown, the selection of its teachers and officers is left to the university.\nThe most noteworthy fact in the recent history of English university\ndevelopment is the gradual abandonment of two old ideals, namely, that of the\nfederal university and of the university which examines, but does not teach.\nThe University of London, till 1900 a foundation of the latter type, is now\nsteadily developing its internal or teaching organization, and as a first step in\nthat direction is bringing, with great energy and very considerable success,\nthe various agencies for teaching which already exist in the metropolitan area,\ninto harmonious co-operation.\n\nwhich conThe University Colleges at Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds and\nbecome\nstituted the former Victoria University have parted company,\neach of them an independent university. Owing no doubt to a greater degree\nprincipal\nof homogeneity in the local conditions of the principality, the federal\nBangor,\nwyth,\nAlberyst\nof\nColleges\nty\nUniversi\nthe\nand\nWales,\nstill obtains in\nand Cardiff are the constituent colleges of the University of Wales.\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": null, "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe following are the universities at presery; existing in England and Wales,\ntogether with the dates of their foundation: Oxford (ninth century), Cambridge\n(thirteenth century), Durham (183 1), London (1836 and 1900), Birmingham\n(1900), Victoria University of Manchester (1903), Liverpool (1903), Leeds\n(1904), Wales (1893). With the exception of the first three named, all these\ninstitutions are in receipt of treasury grants. Under treasury minutes, eight\nuniversity colleges also share in these grants, which it is hoped the government\nwill considerably augment in the near future.\nI have thus covered the general field of our educational activity in England,\nand in the remaining time allotted to me I will restrict any further remarks to\nthe subject of elementary education.\nThe great distinction between the American and the English systems of\nelementary education is that the bulk of the money expended on education in\nEngland is derived from a central government grant supplemented by local\ntaxes. The central government, in providing this money, exercises, by means\nof its inspectors, a preponderating influence on all the work done in the schools.\nIt approves the types of school buildings, the curriculum to be followed, and\nthe teachers to be employed. But the central authority, while securing some\ngeneral standard of achievement, does not aim at destroying individuality or at\nlimiting the discretion of local authorities and teachers in proposing courses of\nstudy which they may deem better suited to their special circumstances. The\ndominant idea is a unity of method without uniformity of detail.\nWith this purpose in view, it is the aim of our educational system, under\nthe present enlightened, reconstituted Board of Education, to train the children\ncarefully in habits of observation and clear reasoning, so that they may gain\nan intelligent acquaintance with some of the facts and laws of nature ; to arouse\nin them a living interest in the ideals and achievements of mankind, and to\nbring them to some familiarity with the literature and history of their own\ncountry; to give them some power over language as an instrument of thought\nand expression, and, while making them conscious of the limitations of their\nknowledge, to develop in them such a taste for good reading and thoughtful\nstudy as will enable them to increase that knowledge in after-years by their\nown efforts.\nThe school shall at the same time encourage to the utmost the children's\nnatural activities of hand and eye by suitable forms of practical work and\nmanual instruction ; and afford them every opportunity for the healthy development of their bodies, not only by training them in appropriate physical exercises\nand encouraging them in organized games, but also by instructing them in the\nworking of some of the simpler laws of health.\nIn all these endeavors the school must enlist, as far as possible, the interest\nand co-operation of the parents and the home in an united effort to enable the\nchildren, not merely to reach their full development as individuals, but also\nto become upright and useful members of the community in which they live,\nand worthy sons and daughters of the country to which I have the honor to\nbelong.\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nCHILD\n\nPOSSIBILITIES FOR THE COUNTRY\nIN THE UNITED STATES\n\nO. J. KERN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WINNEBAGO\nROCKFORD, ILL.\n\ngo\n\nCHILD\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nThe message I bring you this morning comes from the farm with its fields\nof waving grain. I bring you, I trust, the spirit of a new age for country Hfe,\nthe promise of a richer and a more complete life. Let there be words of\nencouragement for the earnest country school-teacher who, in spite of conditions, ofttimes not appreciated, and usually underpaid, is doing a heroic service. She gives her life that her pupils might have life and that they might\nhave it more abundantly. There are great educational possibilities, practical\npossibilities, for the country child.\nIn the first place, the country school of its kind should be just as good as\nthe best city school for the most favored city child. It should not be the same\nkind of school with the same course of instruction. There is a difi\"erence of\nenvironment which must be considered. The school training should relate\nmore to daily life.\nTIME TO IMPROVE\n\nTHE COUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLet us give the country school all the credit possible for its work of the.\npast. It has done a great work, and will do a yet greater work. But there is\nroom for vast improvement; and to claim that there is no use to improve any\ninstitution is t* acknowledge that it has in a great measure outlived its\nusefulness.\nThe serious attention required by the new conditions of Hfe is now being\nbestowed upon the improvement of the country schools. There is a greater\npubUc interest in this part of the educational field, much of which has been\ntoo long neglected. The telephone, free delivery of mail, and the trolley line\nmust touch the educational as well as the financial and social interests of the\nfarmer.\nA NEW\n\nAGE\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nA study of the exhibits in the agricultural, horticultural, and various buildings of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition must convince one that this is a\nnew age for the farm. It is estimated that over $9,000,000 was expended last\nyear at the different agricuhural colleges and experiment stations of the United\nStates in the interest of higher education for the farmer. Why continue to\nneglect the possibiHties for elementary instruction to the children in the district school regarding things of vital interest to the farmer .of tl\\e future ? No\nprogressive farmer is satisfied with the machinery of twenty-five years ago.\nThe last one hundred years witnessed the settling of the Louisiana Territory. Now has opened the period of settling down in that territory. This is\ntrue of the United States at large. The significance of this change is weU set\nThe writer says:\nforth in a recent editorial in the World's Work.\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": null, "text": "90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn a sense we have settled the country; and now we are beginning to settle down.\nWe are reaching a period of an equihbrium of opportunity.\nThis large fact explains many changes in the direction of our activities, and a corresponding change that is taking place in our national character; for what we do makes\nus what we are. It is a key to the larger tendencies in present American Hfe.\nThe difference between a period of settling and a period of settling down is the difference between adventure and development. It is expressing itself in a hundred ways —\nin intensive instead of extensive farming; in the concentration of industry instead of duplicating it;in building better homes instead of seeking other homes; in doing the jobs we have in hand better rather than in seeking other jobs. All this means greater efficiency.\nIt means sticking closer to business. It has much to do with the production of great\nwealth which makes the last decade a period in our history which stands out by itself. It\nhas much to do with the great movement to consolidate industry. It brings us back to\nall kinds of home problems — to the proper building and government of our cities, and to\nthe almost universal tendency to improve country life.\nNEWER\n\nIDEALS FOR THE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIn this improvement of country life there is no agent so potent in possibihties as the country school. The school, especially the country school,\nshould not only be a preparation for life, but it should be life. For the country\nschool there should be created a new educational ideal. The most difficult\nof all educational problems is to reach the average farmer and genuinely to\nenlist his active co-operation for the improvement of school faciUties for his\nchildren. He must be met on his own ground, and the reasons must appeal\nto him from his own point of view as well. No one that I know of has yet\nsolved this problem. The great farmers' institute movement with the agricultural college and experiment station from above is leading to h^ghts unknown\nheretofore. It remains for someone to tell us how to organize the forces\npossible in the country children, and thru the country school reach the great\nmass not now touched by the farmers' institute and the experiment station,\nand thus from beneath make greater educational possibilities for the farm\nand the country home. He who enters upon this task must have patience,\ncourage, enthusiasm, and a genius for hard work.\nV^HAT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\n?\n\nThere are two great movements, at least, now operating in the new education for the country child — if it may be called a new education — which gives\nus a glimpse of the educational possibilities. The first has to do with the spirit\nof the child, the school, and the home ; and the second has to do with the environment of the. child, a consideration of the farm, and its interests as educational\nfactors.\nFirst, by the awakening of the spirit I mean that soul-culture that will\nenable the country child to thirst for and enjoy the best of the civilization of\nthe age. It is the country child's right to be brought into contact with the best\nof music, literature, and art. There should be no discrimination in this\nrespect between the child living in the fields and the child living on the boulevard. There is plenty of hard work on the farm, much that is necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nCHILD\n\nqi\n\nperhaps, and no insignificant factor in the education of the individual to a life\nof usefulness. But the child's education can impart a spiritual force that will\ngive freedom from the slavery of toil.\nSecretary Wilson in a recent interview said:\nAll the teachings of the schools and colleges and universities these days have a tendency\nto lead boys away from the farms, and nothing is done to make the farms attractive to them.\nI have always believed in the old adage, that if you want a boy to stay on the farm, you\nmust not bear too heavily on the grindstone.\nATTRACTIVE\n\nSCHOOLHOUSE\n\nAND\n\nGROUNDS\n\nThis spiritualizing force that will lead to more attractive farms and comfortable homes, better reading in the homes, has its beginning in the improvement of the material environment of the country school. By this is meant the\noutdoor art movement for more attractive school grounds. The planting of\ntrees, shrubbery, flowers, etc., works a marvelous change in the appearance of\nthings and creates new ideals with reference to the country home. The child\nbecomes a part in the great forestry movement of the country; and it is a\nbeneficent thing to train our children to plant, care for, and protect the trees.\nThe indoor art movement is bringing more attractive schoolrooms for\nthe country child. That was a significant thing that Mr. Horace K. Turner,\nof Boston, did when he gave thirty-six pieces of art to the first consolidated\ncountry school in Illinois. This donation of statuary, casts, and framed\nphotographic reproduction of the best paintings — all hanging on tinted walls\n— cannot fail to bring a richer life to the country children who came from\nschoolrooms lacking in everything calculated to give a spiritual uplift. The\nimprovement and adornment of the 3.6 acres comprising the grounds of this\nconsoHdated school will in time bring about a change in the country homes.\nSoap, fresh water, paint, trees, and flowers, with sanitary buildings, are\nfirst. All other things will come in due time, if we do some other things than\nwait.\n\nThere are great possibilities in the library movement, the effort to supply\nthe country school with good literature. Millionaires give hbraries and art\ngalleries for the enjoyment and profit of the city children. But who is doing a\nHke service for the country children ? It is a hopeful sign when the readingtable, covered with good magazines and books, is finding its way into the country\nschoolroom. If the school gives the child a desire to read good literature when\nschool days are over, then truly there are possibilities in the movement to\nestablish school libraries for the district school. In this age of good magazines and illustrated periodicals the country school-teacher is doing a valuable\nthe\nservice when the children are brought more and more into contact with\nuplift\nAmerican\nthe\nto\ncontribute\nwill\nwork\nSuch\nart.\nand\nbest of literature\nwill\nin national life and, instead of emphasizing the mere money-gettmg,\nwill\nthat\nthings\nthose\npoint the way to the wise expenditure of the dollar for\ncontribute to a more complete Hfe.\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": null, "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\nRELATE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDAILY\n\nWORK\n\nTO\n\n[General\n\nLIFE\n\nThe second great movement in the education of the country child is to\nrelate the school training more and more to the life of the country child. The\ncourse of study for the country child should be more practical. The things\nsurrounding the child on the farm should be utilized in a system of training\nthat will result in greater efficiency for life's work. There are great possi-bilities for the country child in the United States in the enrichment of the\ncourse of study in the district school. The character of agriculture is rapidly\nchanging. The use of complicated machinery is requiring greater skill on the\npart of the average farmer. Our agricultural colleges and experiment stations\nare discovering valuable information for the farmers. These discoveries will\ngreatly modify actual farm work when once the mass of farmers appreciate\ntheir value. A study of the educational exhibit of the agricultural and experiment stations in the education building of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition\nreveals the character and vast importance of the investigations of the higher\ninstitutions of agricultural instruction. The farmer who takes advantage of\nsuch discoveries has a tremenduous advantage over the farmer who remains\nin ignorance of them.\nNEW\n\nIDEAL\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nThe country school sustains a most vital relation to the new agriculture.\nThere must be created a new ideal with reference to the farm and its activities\nas means of education for lives of usefulness. Something, in an elementary\nway, should be taught in the country schools with reference to the soil, plant\nlife, animal life, and farm economics. Illinois is making an exhaustive soil\nsurvey of the state, with the purpose of finding the best way to restore the\nfertility of exhausted land, or to conserve and increase the productive\ncapacity of the better class of farms. The valuable knowledge thus gained\nshould be put in such form that the elementary facts may be taught the country\nchild in an experimental way. It ought to be possible for the average country\nchild to learn the simple facts about the composition of the soil in the neighborhood of the schoolhouse; how to preserve or restore its fertility; the effect\nof various kinds of treatment of the soil; rotation of crops, etc. This is not\nto be gained by memorizing the facts from a text-book alone, but with the\nschool garden encourage the child to do and observe for himself. More of\nthe learning of the average school should come as the result of doing under\ninteUigent direction.\nIn a similar way may be studied plant and animal life on the farm, and\npractical instruction given the boys and girls with reference to the wise business\nmanagement of the farm and home.\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAGENCIES\n\nIn the creation of this more rational system of education for the country\nchild, and thus creating a new ideal with reference to the farm and country hfe,\nfour powerful agencies are now at work.\n\nThe first is the great farmers' institute\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPOSSIBILITIES\n\nFOR\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nCHILD\n\nmovement. I shall not enter upon the importance of this work. This is a\npart of the larger movement for the spiritualization of agriculture. The\nleaders of this movement do not yet claim to have solved the problem of\nreaching the farmer. As President Latta, of Indiana, said at the American\nAssociation of Farmers' Institute Workers at Toronto last July:\n\nHow can we get the farmers throughout our great country to discern the close relationship that exists or should exist between soil and salvation; brawn and brain; thought and\nthrift; sense, science, and success; cash, culture, and capacity; work and wisdom; labor\nand love; ideas and ideals; home and heaven?\n\nThere are possibilities for the country child in the country school along\nthese lines.\nThe second agency is the agricultural college extension work thru organizations ofboys and girls in experimental clubs and home culture clubs, etc.\nThis not only reaches the pupils in the district schools, but holds many who\nhave, for various reasons, quit going to school. It serves to interest the boys\nand girls in the problems relating to the farm, and quickens their interest in\nthe work of the agricultural college and experiment station. It gives the boys\nand girls opportunity to do original experimental work under expert direction.\nIt reveals to them the possibilities of farm interests and country life.\nA third agency is the educational excursion to the agricultural college and\nexperiment station. This affords an opportunity to study the work of our\nhigher institutions at first hand, and gives the boys and girls broader views of\nlife. To walk over the experiment farm; to inspect the live-stock department;\nto inspect the laboratories where experiments in plant-breeding and soil investigations are carried on — all this reveals the educational possibihties for the\ncountry boys and girls as nothing else can. Each returning excursion party is\na great missionary force to create a new ideal with reference to the country\nschool.\n\nA fourth agency is the consolidation of country schools, the organization\nof the district schools so as to secure better elementary instruction, and at the\nsame time bring the possibihties of secondary education to the great mass of\ncountry children. The country high school, with its laboratory, experimental\ngardens, manual training, and domestic arts along the lines of farm activities\nand home interests, is one of the great practical possibilities for the country\nchild in the United States.\nILLINOIS\n\nIDEA\n\nIN COUNTRY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIt is the Illinois idea that the country child is entitled to the best there is\nin the way of training for life's duties; that the country school for its specific\nmovements\nwork shall be just as good as the best city school. The three great\nimproveare\nStates\nUnited\nthe\nfor the improvement of the country school in\nof the\nment in the material environment of the country child, enrichment\nall this Ilhnois has\ncourse of study, and consohdation of country schools. In\nand educational\npeople\nyoung\nof\nions\nThe organizat\njust made a beginning.\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": null, "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nexcursions to state institutions from many counties in Illinois are bringing\nabout a new order of things. To be sure, there are discouragements to be met\nwith in the evolution of the country school. But when I think of the educational possibilities I feel like exclaiming with the Psalmist of old: Lift up\nyour eyes, O ye teachers! And be ye lifted up, all ye people! And behold\nthe new king. Who is this new king ? The new type of the American farmer,\nhe is the new king. A man strong in his personal virtues, mighty in his influence for civic righteousness; nature's nobleman, the product of a more rational\nsystem of education for the country child.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nJ.\n\nH.\n\nPHILLIPS,\n\nNEEDS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTH\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nBIRMINGHAM,\n\nALA.\n\nThe educational needs of any section of our country must be considered\nin their relation to those larger elements of nationality to which they must\nvitally contribute. Nationality is the unit of measurement with which our\ndiverse local conditions and sectional needs must be compared. The American\nideal of democracy embraces historical, political, economic, and ethical elements, which largely determine our sectional requirements. However widely\nthe educational needs of the South may differ from those of other sections,\nthey are still in an important sense national needs, and must be considered\nin the light of national ideals and in the spirit of that broad patriotism which\nregards sectional problems as vital elements in the life of the nation.\nIt is not my province today to offer any preconceived theories, nor to attempt\nthe final solution of any of those perplexing problems which the South of today\nhas inherited from the past. I am not here in the capacity of a problemsolver. Perhaps the one immediate educational need of the South today is\nexemption from the domination of certain near-sighted and dogmatic problemsolvers at home, as well as relief from the well-meaning, but none the less\nirritating, efforts of long-distance problem-solvers abroad. The one class\nstands in such close proximity to its perplexing environment that it lacks\nperspective; it stands so near the fire that it is blinded by the smoke. The\nother class may have the perspective, but is wanting in accurate and intimate\nknowledge of facts and conditions. It will be a fortunate era, indeed, not\nonly for the South, but for the nation at large, when those who are intrusted\nwith leadership in public affairs shall possess this happy combination.\nTo understand the educational needs of the present South requires historical perspective. We must consider her political development, her economic\nprogress, and her perplexing problems of population. The needs of today\ndepend upon the conditions of yesterday. The educational requirements of\nthe present are deeply rooted in the social, political, and industrial conditions\nthat obtained before the Civil War, when the private tutor, the female gover-\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\ngr\n\nness, and the classical academy constituted the chief educational agencies of a\nsocial order that was essentially aristocratic in its organization. The story of\nthe Civil War is too famihar to require rehearsal here; it is the story of destruction and spoliation, of industrial disintegration and social revolution. It is a\nstory partly recorded in books, but indehbly burned into the heart of every\nsouthern commonwealth. In a soil thus rendered barren by blood and fire,\nin an atmosphere thus poisoned by distrust and suspicion, the tender plant\nof the public school could develop but slowly. Indeed, from i860 to 1880 the\nchurch represented largely, tho decreasingly, the education of the people,\nbecause in its organization the genius and traditions of the South were supposed\nto be loyally and securely preserved. But the awakening spirit of democracy\nfound its earliest expression in the pubhc school. The educational needs of\nthe unprivileged masses gradually developed into conscious wants, and the\npubHc school became the most potent instrumentality of a real democracy.\nAt first these schools were contemptuously called charity or pauper schools;\nlater they were known as free schools — a designation scarcely less opprobrious;\nand lastly they are known as public schools, denoting the schools of the people.\nThese three terms, as employed in the South, indicate three distinct stages\nin the development of the state-supported school in popular favor, three steps\nin the progress of democracy.\nThe public school as a factor in southern life is thus a comparatively modem\ninstitution. Outside a dozen cities there can be found today few men and\nfewer women who have received even a part of their training in the public\nschool. The masses who patronize the schools of the South today do so on\naccount of their growing faith in the state-supported school as an institution of\ndemocracy. It must be remembered that it was not until 1880 that the maintenance ofan efficient system of pubHc schools came to be seriously regarded\nas the chief concern of the commonwealths of the South.\nThe primary need of the South today is a more liberal infusion of the spirit\nof true democracy, as represented by Jefferson one hundred years ago; the\ndeepening and strengthening of the conviction that the education of all classes\nof its people promotes the economic and moral welfare of the state; the realization of the American ideal which opens wide for every child, of whatever race\nor color, the door of opportunity.\nA second fundamental condition of educational progress is found in the\nSouth's industrial and economic development. The old industrial system was\nbased almost exclusively upon agriculture and slavery. When that system\nwas demolished, the accumulated wealth of a century was swept away, and\nthe South found herself reduced from the wealthiest section.of the Union to a\nof the\nposition of indescribable poverty. The change in the financial status\nEdgar\nMr.\nby\ntold\nstrikingly\nis\ni860\nSouth during the decade beginning with\nthat the\nGardner Murphy in his recent work on The Present South. He shows\nand\neastern\nthe\nof\nwealth\ncombined\nthe\nexceeded\ni860\nin\nSouth\nwealth of the\nIn 1870 the wealth of these states exceeded\nmiddle states by $750,000,000.\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": null, "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthat of the entire South by nearly eleven billions of dollars. South Carolina,\nwhich in i860 had ranked third in wealth, on the basis of population, in 1870\nhad fallen to the thirtieth place; Mississippi had fallen from fourth to thirtyfourth; Georgia, from seventh to thirty-ninth; and Alabama, from eleventh to\nforty-fourth. From i860 to 1880, embracing the periods of war and reconstruction, there was a shrinkage in the taxable values of the South of more\nthan two billions of dollars, while there was corresponding increase in the\nproperty values of other sections. The establishment of a new industrial system upon the ashes of the old required courage of a higher order than that\ndisplayed upon the battlefield. The maintenance of an efficient educational\nsystem requires as its first condition a stable industrial system and a ratio of\nwealth to population that will justify the needed expenditure. At first this\nseemed a discouraging task, but during the decade beginning with 1880 the\nmarvelous industrial revival of the South, resulting in the development of tax\nvalues, thru her mining and manufacturing, her railroad-building, and her\nagricultural interests, inspired her people with a new faith and a larger hope.\nHer present need is the further development of her natural resources in field\nand mine and forest; the establishment of an adequate physical basis for her\neducational system. Remarkable as her progress has been in this respect\nduring the last twenty years, the South still suffers by comparison with other\nsections. The tax values of 1900 are still below those of i860. The states\nin the South in proportion to their wealth are contributing to the work of\neducation perhaps as liberally as the other states of the Union, but their contributions fall far short when measured by the number of children to be\neducated. In Missouri the annual school levy is about 42 cents on each $100\nof taxable property, but this provides $2.50 per caput of the total population.\nThe average school levy in the states of the South is about 46 cents on every\n$100 of taxable property, but this yields less than 98 cents per caput of the\ntotal population, while the average in the United States at large is $2.99. And\nyet many of the southern states are now devoting approximately 50 per cent,\nof their total revenues to the maintenance of their public schools, exclusive of\nlocal revenues raised by cities, counties, and special school districts.\nNotwithstanding her limitations, the South fully realizes her obligations.\nShe frankly admits her comparative poverty, but she does not for this reason\nseek to excuse herself from her duty to herself and to the nation. Nor does\nshe plead the reverses of 1864 to condone or extenuate the failures of 1904.\nMuch less is the South disposed to excuse her meager educational appropriations on account of the unec^ual distribution of national burdens, as shown\nby the annual pension roll and federal tariff legislation. Stimulated by the\nconsciousness of her needs and forearmed by a full knowledge of her difficulties, the South has entered with sublime patriotism and enthusiastic heroism\nupon the accomplishment of her stupendous task.\nThe third condition of educational development in the South is found in\nher complicated sociological problems.\nHere Hes the chief obstacle to the\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTRE\n\nSOUTH\n\nprogress of the public school. In the first place, the land is occupied by two\nseparate races, whose least distinction is the difference in color; whose past represents no common heritage, and whose future, as yet, gives promise of no common destiny. This bi-racial condition of the population imposes upon the\nSouth a dual system of schools, thus doubling the burden of maintenance— a\nburden already heavy— for the taxpaying race. But from Kentucky to\nAlabama and from Virginia to Texas this burden has been voluntarily assumed\nand this sacrifice has been cheerfully borne, rather than risk the evils that would\naccrue to both races from consolidation. In the South 's present state of\ndevelopment segregation is indispensable and imperative. To both races in\nthe South the subject admits of no debate. To the weaker race this duality\nprovides the best possible opportunity for development by the process of selfactivity; it provides a vocation for the negro teacher, whose racial identity\nwith the pupil constitutes an essential element in the educational progress of\nany people. To the stronger race it preserves its gains thru the higher\naverage of personal achievement, without lessening its power by the sacrifice\nof its children. To both races alike it guarantees the fundamental doctrine\nof race-integrity and preserves the ideal of racial purity.\nIt is not within my province in this paper to deal specifically with the\nconditions of negro education in the South. Suffice it to say that the South\nhas voluntarily accepted the task of developing and educating these wards of\nthe nation. This is abundantly evidenced by the fact that since 1870 the\nsouthern states out of their poverty have contributed for negro schools more\nthan one hundred and ten millions of dollars — five times the amount contributed for this purpose by private philanthropy. The South of today accepts\nthe race-problem as a heritage from the past, and is content to leave its solution\nto time and Providence, seeking only to transmit it to the future with the\nfewest possible compHcations. The South has committed herself to the policy\nof educating the negro, in the first place, because it is a solemn obligation, and,\nin the second place, because of its conviction that ignorance offers a solution\nfor nothing in the universe.\nWhile the South is not indifferent to the problem of negro illiteracy, she\nhas reached the deUberate and solemn conclusion that her greatest and most\nserious problem is the illiteracy of her native white population. She realizes\nthat the first step for the defense of the state and the honor of the repubhc—\naye, the first condition to the protection and the substantial elevation of the\nnegro— must be the ehmination of her native white illiteracy. Statistics\nshow that, while the southern states have only 24 per cent, of the total native\nwhite population of the United States, they have 64 per cent, of all the native\nwhite illiterates over ten years of age in the country. In the education of the\nnegro the South has been materially aided by the philanthrophy of the nation.\nThe assistance derived from the Hand and the Slater funds, and from numerous\nbenefactions, is gratefully appreciated because of the great good that has been\nThe Peabody\naccomplished in laying the foundations of negro citizenship.\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": null, "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nEducation Board, under the guidance of its late lamented leader, Dr. J. L. M.\nCurry, has done a noble work for the education of both races by stimulating\nthe preparation of teachers in all the southern states. In recent years the\nGeneral Education Board, by means of a series of great conferences for education held in the South, has helped to quicken and energize public sentiment,\nand by its wise and generous donations has served to popularize the spirit of\nthe common school and to stimulate the practical and essential doctrine of\nself-help. With the exception of the liberal assistance of these two boards,\nthe South for twenty years, almost single-handed and alone, has wrestled with\nthe problem of her white illiteracy. The results, however, are far from discouraging. In 1880 the eleven states of the South recorded 22.7 per cent,\nof their native white population as ilUterate. In 1900 this had been reduced\nto 12.2 per cent. — a reduction of 10.5 in twenty years.\nIn the mountainous regions of the Virginias, eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, the western parts of the Carolinas, and the northern parts of Georgia\nand Alabama — an area continental in its isolation as well as its dimensions —\nwith a white population of more than three millions of the purest and sturdiest\nAnglo-Saxon stock, there are found today two hundred' thousand male illiterates of voting age. This army of ilHterates occupying the mountain solitudes\nof Appalachian America are behind, as Mr. Murphy tells us, not because they\nare degenerates, but because they are \"the unstarted.\" They constitute what\nDr. Frost has fittingly described as \"our contemporary ancestors\" — the belated\ncontingent in the onward march of American citizenship. The cry of the\nwhite children of the mountains today is a call to the chivalry, the humanity,\nand the statesmanship, not alone of the South, but of the entire nation as\nwell.\nThe question of school organization and maintenance in the South is\nrendered more difficult because the population is so largely agricultural and\nso thinly distributed over large areas, with poor roads and inadequate facilities for reaching industrial or commercial centers. Eighty per cent, of the\npopulation live in rural communities. The average rural county has eighteen\nchildren to the square mile — eleven white and seven black. The census\nshows that 20 per cent, of the children of school age in the United States live\nin cities with a population of 25,000 or more. In the South only 6 per cent,\nof the children of school age live in cities of that class. The development of\nthe rural school thus becomes the most important requirement in southern\neducation. The needs of the rural South are today enhsting the earnest\nattention of our best thinkers. How to organize our rural communities so as\nto provide for every child the opportunity to get an elementary education, and\nto secure for that community a higher degree of economic value and social\nefficiency, is a complicated problem. The obstacles in the way of its early\naccomplishment include sparsity of population, geographical barriers, and a\nlimited school fund, together with the apathy of the adult population. The\npressing need of the agricultural South is the consohdated industrial school,\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\nwhich shall become the center of the industrial, social, and civic life of the\ncommunity.\nOf the schools in the cities of the South httle need be said. As a rule, they\nwill compare favorably with those of other sections. The South's sorest needs\nlie in her rural communities. Her country schools, in the main, are unorganized and unrelated, maintained for an average session of four or five\nmonths, taught by teachers whose average salary is $25 or $30 per month, in\nschool buildings that cost upon an average less than $300 each. The average\ncounty superintendent is incompetent, because the nominal salary will not\njustify competency. The equipment of the average rural school is meager,\nand usually consists of what the mental and financial ability of the teacher can\nprovide. Outside of the cities and larger towns of the South there are few\nhigh schools, and the passage from the elementary school to college or university isfraught with difficulty. Only 62 per cent, of the children of school age\nare given even these meager opportunities, and the school hfe of the average\ncitizen in most of the southern states is only about two and one-half years.\nThese facts indicate the specific needs of our southern schools, and in every\nstate there is today an organized movement to provide the necessary remedies,\nand to develop the rural pubHc school into an efficient agency for the promotion of the pubHc welfare. The present movement regards the rural school\nas the strategic point in the general compaign against iUiteracy, and the\nimmediate remedies sought for present conditions involve (i) the supply of\nmore quahfied teachers thru the agency of state normal schools, state and\ncounty summer schools, and state examinations; (2) better school buildings\nand equipment; (3) qualified supervision; (4) longer terms; (5) consolidation\nof small schools wherever possible; (6) the introduction of practical gardening\nand scientific agriculture; (7) the establishment of a state system of secondary schools, so that there shall be within the reach of every child a high school\naffording the necessary preparation for college or for the duties of citizenship;\nand, lastly, (8) the amendment of state constitutions and the enactment of\nstate laws providing for optional local taxation by counties and school districts\nto supplement the state school revenues.\nThe present educational movement, in the breadth of its scope, the earnestness ofits spirit, and the intensity of its ardor, is without a parallel in\nsouthern educational history. In almost every county there is an organized\npropaganda for better schools; comparative statistics of illiteracy are widely\ncirculated, and self-help thru local taxation is urged from every platform as\nthe only possible remedy for our present educational weaknesses.\nIn this, as in all other matters, however, the South will be characteristically\nconservative. The historical conditions, from which her present educational\nneeds have been so largely derived, will not be ignored in the provisions that\nshall be made to meet the present requirements of her population. The\ntransition from the old aristocracy to the new democracy has not— and, it is\nto be hoped, never will— entirely obliterate the past. Her schools>re today\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nindebted to the old order for an element of chivalry and an indefinable ethical\natmosphere whose ruthless sacrifice to the commercialism of the age would prove\na misfortune, not only to the South, but to the nation as well. When the rising\nyears of the century shall have developed her natural wealth, and shall have\nprovided the material foundation for her educational system, the South will\nlack neither the will nor the power to discharge her obligations to herself and\nto the nation by the education of all the youth within her borders.\n\nEDUCATION\nE.\n\nB.\n\nBRYAN,\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION\nAND\nSOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY,\nUNIVERSITY,\nBLOOMINGTON,\nIND.\n[stenographic\n\nreport]\n\nINDIANA\n\n•\n\nI am to speak to you about the education of a people that lives in an archipelago whose landed area is equivalent to the combined areas of Indiana,\nOhio, and Kentucky; a people that numbers eight millions, six and one-half\nmillions of whom are pure-blooded Filipinos — Christian Filipinos — and a\nmillion and a half, more or . less, wild, un-Christian tribes. And I wish\nhere for your benefit to make a distinction between the Filipino people on the\none hand, and those wild and uncivilized tribes on the other hand. There is\nno closer connection between these tribes and the Filipino people than there\nis between the American Indian and the audience that is assembled before me\nin this room. The Igorrotes are not Filipinos, altho they live in the Philippine\nIslands ; the Moros are not Filipinos, altho they live in the southern portion of\nthe Philippine Archipelago; the Negritoes are not Filipinos, as the term \"Filipino\" isunderstood and should be understood. They do not resemble them\nanthropologically; they do not resemble them ethnologically ; they do not\nresemble them historically; they do not resemble them in any point conceivable, except that they all occupy various portions of the Philippine\nArchipelago.\nI fear this thing, that many of you, and many of our people thruout the\ncountry, will confuse things Igorrote, things Negrito, and things Moro with\nthings Filipino; which confusion will be very misleading indeed. I said to a\ncertain principal of a normal school today that the thing I feared would be\nthis, that you and your friends and the people who come here this summer will\ngo down to the Philippine village and watch the Igorrotes dance, and that\nyou will not, and your friends will not, go into the educational exhibit to get\nthe other side of the Philippine situation.\nNow, more than a year ago a member of the educational system of the\nPhilippine Islands, Mr. A. R. Hager — a man who by training, disposition, and\nexperience was best fitted of all men and women in the Philippine Islands to\nlead in the educational exhibit at this time in St. Louis — was detailed to take\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\niqi\n\ncharge of that work; and, magnificent and fine as are the German and the\nother exhibits, I assure you that you will get from no exhibit on these grounds\ngreater encouragement and greater hope than from the Philippine educational\nexhibit, if you will have the pains to go and inspect it.\nBefore American occupation of the PhiHppine Islands there was practically\nno public-school system. There had been repeated attempts, especially on\npaper, to estabhsh in the archipelago a universal educational system, but\nthere never was an attempt to estabhsh a universal system of education in the\nPhilippine Islands under Spanish rule which was free from the control and\nguidance of the dominating church. The education of the people was limited\nalmost entirely to the education of those who lived in the larger centers, in\nManila and a score of other towns; and so it occurs that after more than three\ncenturies of Spanish rule in the archipelago only a very small percentage of\nthe people are able to speak the Spanish language, or to read and write it.\nAfter Dewey's victory in the Bay of Manila, after the occupation of Manila\nby the American forces, August 13, 1898, the education of the Philippine\npeople began under American direction. Long before the Sherman Commission ever visited Manila, and long before the Taft Commission reached\nManila, this work began. We must never forget that we as a people should\ngive credit to such men as General McArthur, General Chaffee, General Lee,\nGeneral J. Franklin Bell, and scores of others whose names I do not recall,\nfor the work in education which they started before civil government was\nestablished in the archipelago, and for the assistance they rendered afterward.\nWe have the information, too widespread and too deep-seated in our minds\nand in our hearts in this country, that all that happened in the Philippine\nArchipelago before the landing of the Taft Commission was killing. This is\nnot true. Many were the army officers that were detailed to teach ,*'and many\nwere the soldiers right from the ranks that were detailed to teach ; and the plain\ntruth is that the appetite for education was developed in the archipelago before\ncivil government was established in a single province. The American soldier\nand his officers paved the way in the Philippine Archipelago for the American\nteacher.\nOne of the first things, as well as one of the wisest things, which was done\nby the Taft Commission, however, was the establishment of an educational\nsystem, a secular educational system. To this momentous task Dr. Frederick\nW. Atkinson, of Massachusetts, was called; and soon after his arrival in the\nIslands he called a thousand American men and women to his assistance.\nThe archipelago was divided into thirty-five districts, and at the head of each\nwas placed a division superintendent; and you may go out of this convention\nin any direction, over any railroad, and select the first thirty-five superintendents, or thirty-five county superintendents, you will meet, and you will not\nhave thirty-five educational leaders who will excel the thirty-five men that Dr.\nAtkinson put at the head of these thirty-five districts. He called a thousand\nSan\nteachers to the Philippine Archipelago; and before those teachers left\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": null, "text": "I02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFrancisco stories were told, and after they arrived at Honolulu stories were\ntold, and after they left Honolulu stories were told, and after they reached the\nPhilippine Islands stories were told, which would indicate that those teachers\ndid not go there with the earnestness which should characterize their profession*\nGo out from this convention, over any road, in whatsoever direction you care\nto go, and meet a thousand teachers, and you will not get a thousand teachers\nwhose preparation, whose training, whose scholarship, whose zeal, whose\nefficiency, will excel those of the thousand teachers which Dr. Atkinson called\nthree years ago. Many mistakes were made. There will be no attempt whatever to deny or disguise that fact; but the truth in regard to these thirty-five\nsuperintendents, and these thousands American teachers, I have stated to you.\nIn addition to one thousand American teachers in the Philippines, there are\nabout three thousand native teachers, almost all of whom are pure-blooded\nFilipinos. These four thousand teachers, more or less, are instructing in\nthe day schools of the archipelago two hundred thousand children, using the\nEnglish language as the medium of instruction. Dr. Atkinson was wise enough\nto see that the most desirable thing to do for these people at the beginning was\nto teach them a common language, the English language; and he was a wise\nenough a pedagog to see that the English language was to be taught properly,\nit could not be taught as well by natives teachers as by well-trained and competent English or American teachers. And so today in the common day\nschools of the Philippine Archipelago there are taught, by a thousand American teachers and three thousand Filipino teachers, two hundred thousand\nboys and girls, using the English language as the medium of instruction. In\nthe night schools, which are made up of men and women from the age of six\nto the age of sixty, are twenty thousand people taking instruction five nights\nin the week. In the secondary schools, so-called (''secondary\" has not been\nvery closely defined in this country, and it is not nearly so closely defined in\nthe archipelago, of course), there are probably at this time twenty thousand\nchildren taking instruction in the higher branches.\nAll of this instruction — in the public day schools, in the secondary schools,\nand in the night schools — is given thru the English language. Many teachers\nwho were appointed three years ago to proceed to the Philippine Islands were\nappointed as teachers of Enghsh. They had the notion that their task would\nbe to go to these islands and teach English, and nothing more. That was not\ntrue. Every teacher who was appointed to teach English was to proceed to\nthe PhiKppines to teach school, just as any common school-teacher in Illinois\nor Indiana would teach school — teaching arithmetic, and history, and hygiene,\nand geography, and EngHsh, and all the other branches of the curriculum,\nusing the English language simply as the medium of instruction.\nMany people say to me: Is not that a great waste of time ? Would it not\nhave been better for the general superintendent of education to have selected\nonly those people who could use the Spanish language, and then require those\npeople to teach in the Spanish language ? Not at all; for the reason that, in\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\njq.\n\nthe first place, only a small percentage of the people in the archipelago could\nhave taken their instruction in the Spanish language, because a large\npercentage ofthe people there do not know the Spanish language. Furthermore,\nthese people pick up a language almost over night. They pick up language\nas a sponge takes up water, as a blotter takes up ink. These people are a\nchildHke people, in many senses. I wish, when you consider them from a\nreligious standpoint, and from an industrial standpoint, or from the standpomt\nof government, that you would remember that they are a childlike people.\nI wish, when you think of them from an educational standpoint, that you\nwould remember that they are a childlike people. We leave our children at\nthe age of eight or ten months, and go away, and we say good-bye to them, and\nthe way they say good-bye to us is this [waving the hand]. Now, I profess,\nover here in an adjoining state, to be a professor of educational psychology,\nand I want to explain that to you. We have been working on child study,\nand a whole lot of other phases of psychology; and I am going to tell you how\nit is that the little child can do that. My explanation of the matter is this—\nand it is the only explanation in the world: he does it that way because that is\nthe way he does it. That is the only explanation. You can go to Germany, as\nmen and women, and stay for a quarter of a century, and you will not speak\nthe German language as an American child three or four years of age speaks\nEngHsh. You can get so you can read a book and understand it, but you will\nnot get the language as the child gets it in early life. I say these people are\nalmost childHke in their nature; and so it would have been a waste of time and\nenergy, besides not being pedagogic, to have undertaken to instruct these people thru any other medium than the medium of the English language. A very\nsmall percentage indeed of the inhabitants of the archipelago could speak and\nwrite the Spanish language after more than three centuries of Spanish rule.\nFive years after Dewey's victory in Manila Bay no fewer than three hundred\nthousand people in the archipelago could speak, read, and write the English\nlanguage.\nThese people excel in certain things; in certain other things they do not\nequal the Saxon child. Briefly, these people excel in all things that are based\nupon memory or imitation. They excel in handicraft, in penmanship, in\ndrawing, in the rudiments of music, in the rudiments of art.' They excel in\ngaining a working knowledge of language. All things based upon memory\nand imitation they excel in. In the more abstruse thought-work I think I am\ncorrect when I say they do not equal the Saxon child.\n.,^^\nNow, what shall be done for these people ? Well, many things. WTiat\nis being done should be continued; but one thing that ought .to be emphasized\nthruout the archipelago— and I am told by a representative of the school\nsystem this morning that it is the one thing which Dr. Barrows is emphasizing\nnow more than anything else— is industrial education— industrial education\nbased upon the stock of these people, their history, their traditions, their\nenvironment, their industrial development, and their industrial promise. Other\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": null, "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nthings should not be omitted, but this phase of education should be emphasized\nin the PhiHppines.\nBecause an educational system has been successful with a given people in a\ngiven country it does not follow that that system will be successful with another\npeople in another country. What is needed in the Philippine Archipelago is\nnot an attempt to dump upon it the American school system. No educational\nsystem can successfully be dumped upon a foreign people. We want an\neducational system there; and a system is being developed very rapidly that\nfits the history of these people, their traditions, their habits, their ambitions,\ntheir ideas, and their ideals. At the head of the bureau of education stands\nDr. David P. Barrows, of California — a man who knows more about the\nhistory of these people, their anthropological and sociological conditions,\nthan any man living. As secretary of pubHc instruction, we have General\nJames F. Smith — a man who is a member of the church to which 95 per cent, of\nthe Filipino people belong; a man who believes in those people; a man who\nsympathizes with them in all their efforts for better things. The greatest\nencouragement that comes to me this morning is this; that we have such men\nas these at the head of this great educational problem.\nAfter two years of residence in the archipelago — and the greatest regret of\nmy life is that I am obHged, thru force of circumstances over which I had no\ncontrol, to say two years instead of twenty years — after two years of life among\nthese people, in which I saw daily, dressed and undressed, the poor and the\nrich, the ignorant and the intelligent, I am able to say, with all the emphasis\nthat I can summon, that I believe in the Filipino people. I have great hope\nfor them educationally, in the broadest sense. First, they are an alert and\ninteUigent people; second, they are an appreciative people; third, they —\nespecially the more intelligent, more highly developed, among them — believe\nin the regime under which they have been living for the last four years. And\ncertainly a people that is happy under its governmental regime, a people that\nis appreciative of all the good things that come to them, a people that is alert\nand inteUigent, is not without great hope educationally.\n\nOUR\nZ. X. SNYDER, PRESIDENT\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nOF THE\n\nCREED\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nSCHOOL, GREELEY,\n\nCOLO.\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nA creed should set forth a doctrine based upon philosophy and the scien\ntific conclusions which have been reached and which dominate the thinking\nworld. It is necessarily made up of belief and fact. Belief gives rise to deepseated sentiment; fact, to rational procedure. The sentiment from which an\nact springs determines its power, its fruitfulness, its efficiency, and its dignity.\nThe fact in an act measures its accuracy, its permanency, and its trustworthi-\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCREED\n\niq-\n\nness. Any stage of civilization is the resultant of belief and fact. Belief may\nwholly change; fact may vary in its relation to belief and other facts; hence a\ncreci is not an instrument for all time, but for the present. In our own time\npolitical, social, religious, and scientific creeds have changed and are changing!\nSome of them have been reversed. During our own time, our educational\ncreed has rapidly changed, if not reversed itself. It has changed from accretion from without— the accumulation of isolated facts— to expansion from\nwithin in the training of a human being; from mechanical accumulation and\ntension for all aHke, to the building up of a world within each human being in\naccordance with his tastes and powers, who is responsive in turn to the world\nabout him, as an observer and thinker and social being.\nFrom the above conception, we shall endeavor to set forth our educational\ncreed in the form of theses:\nI. We believe that the application of the doctrine of evolution is fundamental\nin the interpretation of an individual and his education. — Evolution implies\ninvolution— something to evolve, expand. It has given us the child— physical, mental, moral, social, and spiritual. It has unified him with the universe.\nIt has given meaning to the relation of his natures. It is a working principle\nfor the development of the individual, of groups of persons, of society, of the\nstate, and of the nation. Evolution dignifies the body in that it estabHshes\nthat all human activities depend upon it. Material prosperity of all kinds,\nindeed civilization, depends upon the body. The body is the avenue and\ndepository of all knowledge, thought, sentiments, aspirations, and inspirations.\nThe arts and sciences grow out of it. Healthy and strong functioned and\nfunctioning cells constitute its stock in trade. For these reasons the utmost\nattention should be given to physical education. Large and small, strong and\nweak, sound and unsound — all should share in its benefits. This conception\nof the body in life largely eliminates the false notions that prevail in the present\nmethods of physical training, which has become largely a contest for triumph\nupon the part of the strong, rather than a training in life and for Ufe upon the\npart of all. It has interpreted mind as having a physiological basis. This\nin connection with the motor nature gives the circuit of learning from muscle\nto idea, thence to sense, and reversely. All science, all art, all philosophy, all\nrehgion, is the evolution of mind and spirit. Hence all education is an appUcation of the principle of evolution. The following laws of evolution are found\noperating in the processes of the education of a child:\n\n1. Heredity is the law of persistence. It is the transmission of characteristics by descent— racial, national, and parental. They may be physical, mental,\nmoral, social, or spiritual. The inside of an animal is the record of heredity;\nthe outside, the record of movement.\n\n2. IrritabiHty is the law of response. Concessions, adaptation to environment—variation. IrritabiHty is that property by which the individual reacts\nupon stimuH.\n\n3. Individuality is the law of divine initiative.\n\nIt is that which charac-\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": null, "text": "io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nterizes, or identifies, an object, a person, or an organization.\nvariation from within.\n\n[General\n\nIt occasions\n\n4. Self-activity is the law of reaction. It is action against stimuli. The\natom, the molecule, the mass, the plant, the animal, the mind, the social mind,\nthe state — indeed, all things react against environment. It does not exist\nper se, but in relation to other action.\n5. Altruism is the law of affinity or mutual aid. Aggregation — organism —\ncommunity — association. Altruism is the impulse or sentiment of gregariousness. From chemical affinity to conjugal, parental, and patriotic love it is\nmanifested.\n6. Natural selection is the law of survival of the -fittest — struggle for existence. Natural selection, the great motive force in evolution, is constantly\neliminating the weak — the unfit — and preserving the strong — the fittest, or\ntoughest.\n7. Environment is the law of impact — extrinsic in its nature. Energy from\nwithout — stimulus. Environment is the sum total of external stimuH that\naffect the individual or the mass.\n8. Consecration is the law of devotion. It is that sentiment which holds to\na purpose.\nIt is fidelity to ideals of life and action.\nII. We believe that an individual is an involution of possibilities — a composite potential. — Every child is a quantum of the past. Some of all that has\nbeen is focused within him. There is an inherent life-stress in the constitution of the cells that is responsible to the appropriate stimulus. In him are\nrace, national, and parental elements, and the influence of nature and divinity\nas it has touched and modified the activities of humanity. The child is a concentration ofthe ages. The possibility to grow, to think, to feel, to purpose, to\ndo, and to enjoy is within him. We are indebted to the doctrine of evolution\nfor this conception in our educational creed. It has been and is the soul of\nprogress, whether known or not; but as the consciousness of it appears and\nbecomes disseminated, progress is the more rapid.\nIII. We believe that the education of an individual is the evolution of the\npossibilities within him — an unfolding of the potential. — Education is the\nexpansion of an individual into life, consciousness, ethical interpretation, social\nparticipation, and divine recognition. If a child is an involution of possibilities, his education is an evolution of these possibilities into the manifold\nactivities of life in its fullest sense. The education of an individual may be\ndefined as living fully, readily, and righteously, with his environment. It\nis the adjustment of self, on the one hand, to environment, and, on the other,\nadjusting environment to self. All that is without acts upon the child; he\nreacts, and adjustment occurs. All along the fine the tendency is to resist, to\nreconcile, and to adjust.\nThe body expands into physical manhood ; the mind, into intellect, feeHng,\nand purpose; the ethical side, into humanity; the spirit, into the development\nof the higher Hfe of which faith, hope, and love are the mainsprings.\nThe\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\n-^\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCREED\n\n-___\n^\nusing of the elements of life itself at any one stage to prepare\nfor the next stage\nis the order of training. To force adult hfe on the child and\ncall it Uving or\neducation, is absurd; but using the Hfe of the child, in whateve\nr stage he is\nliving, to prepare him for the next stage is rational procedure. Educati\non as\nexpansion, in the above sense, appHes to persons, to states, and to nations.\nThe above principle recognizes that all education commences in the\nparticipation othe\nf child with nature, out of which comes the reaUty for the participation ofthe child with real human Hfe. The social activities of the child are\nbut the expression of the expansion of what is within to adjust itself to what\nis without. His babbHngs, and later his talk, are but the effort to reaUze his\nthoughts, feehngs, and wants in social participation. His civiHties and communal relations are but the same realization of his mental and social nature.\nEducation for service is, first, for self; second, for others; and third, for God.\nIt is devotion to vocation, to humanity, and to destiny. The impulses to do\nto feel, to know, and to exchange are inseparable and fundamental. All\nsocial service comes out of them. Children in a group who are doing and\nexchanging notions and sentiments are aiding each other and performing\nsocial service. The permanent solution of economic and social problems\nmust be effected by the application of education or the appHcation of universal\nHfe- values. While education is a process of living— real life— it is a formation of the capital stock for future living. The different stages in a human hfe\nare the embryonic, the infantile, the adolescent, the adult, and the senescent.\nThe capital stock referred to above, which is accumulated during one stage for\ninvestment in a subsequent stage, is an important consideration in the process of education. These different stages have their special students, which\nis a valuable part of our educational economy. Much has come out of a study\nof the infantile and adolescent stages. Our practice in many cases has been\nchanged as a result; our pedagogical Hterature has been enriched; a broader\n\nview and a brighter vision of a human being's Hfe have been gained; but not\nenough has been made of the idea of investment in one stage for the better\nHving in the next. The cHmax of all educational investment should be the\npeace, the joy, the happiness, and the sweetness of the senescent period. This\nview is not the economic and commercial one, but it is the humane and Christian one; so that, as education may be defined as the expansion of a child into\npresent Hving, it must not be lost sight of that it is accumulating for the future.\nMuch that is being realized in the true school in the way of Hving wiH be more\nfully realized in later life. Our complex civilization cannot be thrust into our\nschools; but the mode of Hfe suitable for children becomes an introduction to\nour complex social relations. The school Hfe should grow out of the home\nlife and into it at the same time. There wiU always be surplus stock of values\nthat may and wiU be invested when the home relations dawn more fully upon\nhim. The teacher should be more of an inspirer and suggester, rather than\na controUer and dictator, in the school Hfe; hence, the authority m the school\nshould be subjective in the children rather than objective upon the part of\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": null, "text": "io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe teacher. The nearest related activities to a child are industrial. The\nformalsubjects should grow out of these and into these activities, as the use of\nlanguage should grow out of them and into them. Mathematics should grow\nout of them and into them; history should grow out of them and into them;\nliterature should grow out of them and into them; and so with other subjects.\nSchool subjects are means to living.\nIV. We believe that the possibilities in individuals are variable — no two\nbeing the same. — This gives rise in our creed to individual treatment. It is\nbreaking down the old conception that all are to be ground thru the same\nmill. There is no movement that is so valuable in our educational practice\nto give an opportunity to individual creative productiveness. It encourages\ninitiative. It is the principle that preserves the individual in the socialization\nof the school. Socialization without initiative is deadening; initiative without\nsocialization is narrow. To balance these two is a function of the school. It\ngives different types of citizens, but it gives the best product of trained men\nand women along their respective lines. This is what gives rise to the elective\nsystem, where the tastes, powers, and aspirations of an individual are reckoned with in the process of his training. It leads to the proper conception of\nthe equality of all people, or rather their inequahty.\nV. We believe that the Biological Principle that junction precedes structure\nis equally true in the Educational World. — Doing precedes structure in all\ndepartments of human effort. Someone has said, \"expression before impression.\" Action, or to do, grows out of stress — a nutrition of feeling for something. A feeling to do sends back its reflex influence and deposits itself as\nstructure. The stress to do and attempt to do begets structure. Motives,\ndesires, and ideas become clarified by action, reflecting back into nerve, muscles, motives, ideas, and consciousness. The dynamics of a human action is\nfrom expression to impression, and vice versa from impression to expression,\nrather than an attempt to work out arbitrarily ideals and ideas of others. A\nchild should work from stress and image in his own soul, and not from anxiety\nand image in the teacher's soul. The order is action, motor structure, sentiment, and ideas; and reversely. Hence education results from the impulse\nto act and the acting; thought, knowledge, and feeling forming and following.\nThis all becomes capitalized child for a new endeavor worked out in the same\nmanner. A process in the training of a child ceases to be educational when\nfeeling and finding a way is not found in it. This is a basis for interest.\nInterest grows out of the congruous relation of action, images, sentiment,\nand ideas, and is measured by the affinity of the pupil's experiences. There is\nno other real index to the growing child than interest.\nVI. We believe that true socialization of an individual means to transfigure\nhis individual initiative into mutual aid, or humanity. — Individuality unsocialized is selfishness. It should be transformed. Gregariousness is a fundamental impulse. To stimulate action, images, sentiments, and ideas, and\nto transform them, is a large part of education.\nIt expands in a course of\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCREED\n\nIOq\n\neducation from the relations of a child to his parents and his classmate\ns, to\nthat more universal aid that is world-wide. It even rises above one's own\ncountry and takes in the world of human life.\nEducation should individualize and at the same time socialize. To live\nin any stage of development is to share the sympathies, joys, sorrows, resistances, and labors of those with whom we Hve. A misinterpretation of\n\"education is living\" is to engraft the Hfe, as the\ns, labors, and\nenvironments of adult Hfe, upon the children. This sympathie\nviolation of the natural\norder is seen in some teaching where the child is required to adapt and work\nout all the stages of some matured industry. Use his own experiences and lead\nup to the matured industry. This will lead him gradually to get hold of the\nhistoric idea of civilization. Capital stock born in children is always capable\nof being stimulated, expanded, and invested in immediate interests, or the life\nof their own kind. To live over civilization in extreme detail is as unnatural\nas it is impossible.\nUse the ancestral spirit, but telescope the details.\nVII. We believe that a child is horn with the instinct and impulse to know\nand think, and to participate with his fellows, and that the object of his training\nis individual; the aim, social; and the end, civic. — Not individual training that\nmakes him selfish, but training that makes him powerful, just, and courageous;\nnot social training that destroys the identity of the individual, but training\nthat transfigures his ideas, sentiments, and doings into humanity; not a social\ntraining that makes the individual feel utterly dependent, but a social training\nthat makes him feel independent in his ability and disposition to help; a training\nthat makes him feel it a privilege to help his fellows, that leads him to seek\nopportunities to share benefits, whether they be physical, mental or spiritual;\nnot a civic training that enables him to use his state for his own personal ends,\nbut a training that actuates him to regard the interests of the people above\nself — a training that makes him battle for righteousness on public questions,\nand for business and purity in poUtics. A people so trained is the first condition toward the solution of many of the vexed questions that confront our\ncivilization. It is the mission of the school to help bring this about. The\nschool in conjunction with the home has this great work to perform. Like all\nother movements, it is one of evolution; hence it is slow, but ultimately sure.\nIt must make for the intelligence and righteousness of the community thru\nthe children by stimulating and directing the impulse of self-development,\nsocial participation, and civic honesty.\nVIII. We believe that the external sources oj education are nature, mind,\nand spirit.— While there is considerable study of the value of nature in the\nprocess of education, there is not enough attention (the right kind of attention)\ngiven to it in the schools and in Hfe. A child glories in nature— in its spirit\nrather than in its letter, in its touch rather than its study, in its soul rather\nthan in its body. The body of nature is studied rather than its spirit felt and\nits soul touched. There is a wide difference between science and nature\nScience deals solely with the body; nature study, with the soul. Nature\nstudy.\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": null, "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION.\n\n[General\n\nstudy is not so much to make people see as it is to make them feel. There is a\nfeeling in the soul of everyone that may be directed toward nature in such a\nway as to make him feel its beauty, its inspiration, and its uplift.\nMind touches and quickens the possibilities within in the form of history\nand hterature, the capitalized soul of the ages; history as a record of the will of\nhumanity, and literature as an expression of the sayings, sentiments, aspirations, and inspirations of humanity. These are indispensable in the expansion of a human soul as it follows the trail of civilization from the first rude\nbeginnings to the present time. History marks the purposeful activities of\npeople, and literature marks the soul and its longings. Meeting and living\nwith people of high ideals are always stimulating and enriching. The mind\nof the teacher who is rich in thought and sentiment and ideals touches and\nquickens. It is an opportunity for a child to come in touch with a virile mind\nthat glows and sparkles with life and can adapt itself.\nThe spirit of Divinity as it operates in a human soul is a conception worthy\nof attention. In this materialistic and commercial period in which our civilization isliving the utmost importance should be attached to the quickening of\nthe spirit, or the higher nature. It is not meant to decrease our interest in the\nindustrial and scientific aspect of the people, but to feed the spirit. Religion\nis the life of God in the human soul. The spirit of nature, the spirit of literature, the spirit of the Bible, the spirit of God, should all touch the soul of the\nchild. The pedagogical graces — truth, beauty, and good — should be emphasized more as fundamentals in the real life of the child and our civiUzation.\nFaith, hope, and love should be Hved more, should be taught more, should\nreceive time for their inception into the lives of the children and people. To\nstudy the Bible as mere literature is not enough. This conception would\nseem to degrade it to the level of all other literature. The four great worldbibles — Homer, Dante, Goethe, and Shakespeare — and the literature that has\ngrown out of them and that clusters about them, are powerful stimulants in\nthe growth of a human being; but the Bible which appeals to all classes, high\nand low, wise and ignorant, young and old, is the source of spiritual food, and\nshould be recognized above all for aspiration, consolation, inspiration, and\nideals of life. It alone portrays the lives of the prophets, martyrs, apostles,\nand the Christ. Teach it as life — the life of God in the human soul. Such\nis the creed set forth to all teachers who are leading souls toward destinies in\nthis life and the life to come. The proper conception of the religion of the\nBible among a people has been and is an index of its civilization.\nIX. We believe that learning is expressing, thinking, jeeling, knowing. —\nA common notion of education is that learning consists in knowing. This\nnotion is dominant among the laymen in education, and even among many\nteachers. There is another view, that education consists in thinking. Another\nset of modern educators think that education consists in doing. This principle holds that learning consists in all these — expressing, feeling, thinking,\nknowing.\nKnowledge ununified is mere superficiality.\nTo think a thought\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCREED\n\nUI\n\nand not have it energized and not have it in action is to have it but half-bomto express an experience without some sentiment and thought connected with\nit is but imitation. But to do, to feel, to think, is to energize. It is to make\nlearning a living force. It is putting it into the whole being— body, mind, and\nspirit. Out of this process comes motor, intellectual, ethical, esthetic, and\nspiritual training. This is the development of the whole nature. It is the\nconception that education is an expression of the entire individual. It is the\nembodiment of the notion that a trained man is one who has an intellect to\nthink, a will to purpose, a hand to do, and a heart to enjoy.\nX. We believe that the junction of the school is to individualize, socialize\nand civilize the individual. — The school should be a place for the fullest participation with nature, with school-fellows, with the home, with the community, and with the inheritances of the race, as expressed in history, literature,\nand institutions. The school should be a community — a social unity — and at\nthe same time unify itself with the larger life of the world. To bring about\nthese results, there should be a large degree of flexibihty in the schoolroom.\nPatent methods of discipline prevent the fullest and best expression of children\nin forming social ideas and in their reahzation. They tend toward having the\nchild live within himself — toward making him self -centered, selfish, and unfit\nfor social blending. The center of interest in the school is the children. The\nschool is organized for them. The teacher and all equipment are for their\naid. A chance should be given each child for the development of his initiative; a chance should be given each child to blend with all others; a chance\nshould be given each child to express himself relative to his interests, and his\ninterests to the relations of others. In other words, the school should be just\nas democratic as it is possible to have it without having it a place of caprice.\nWhile the child is led to do something for himself, to mingle with and do for\nothers, he should see his relations to the larger community, the state. Civic\nlife, or the motives, sentiments, and ideas that should actuate him as a citizen,\nshould be nourished and reaHzed in so far as his attainment will permit;\nmaking a child a civic force commences early in Hfe.\nXL We believe that the public-school system should be the most democratic\nof our institutions and the most efficient for the education of the children, for\nthe elevation of the home, for the solution of municipal, state, and national\nproblems.— Educsition is constructive from within; it is subjective. Legislation is constructive from without; it is objective. In the solution of the great\nmoral, social, and civic problems, education must precede legislation. That\na law may be effective, it must grow out of the minds and hearts of the people;\nit must be a product of the social mind.\nA modern school is a group of persons and a teacher organized and managed\nservice. It\nfor struggle, aid, and devotion, or for individual, social, and civic\nof these\nis organized and managed in accordance with the living experiences\nshares\nHe\nconstituting the group. The teacher is an inspirer and a guide.\nmodem\nthe\nmarks\nStruggle\nlives.\nhe\nhis life with the lives of those with whom\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": null, "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nschool in that the individual struggles to comprehend the subjects studied in\ntheir relation to his life; he struggles to crucify his selfishness and share his\ninterests with those with whom he is living, and thereby aids them. He also\ncontinuously becomes more devoted to what he is doing and to the life of the\nschool. He finally reaUzes that he is one of the civic community; that he is a\ncitizen, and living and working with others, and that all he does is for himself\nand the community; and, in turn, all the community does is for itself and him.\nThis is based upon the principle that the interests of the individual and the\nmass are identical.\nIn a modern school system, from the kindergarten to the university inclusive, the grade or school above should accept the product from the grade or\nschool below. This would eliminate the estrangement that now exists in passing from the kindergarten to the primary school, from the grammar school\nto the high school, and from the high school to the college or university. In\nthe latter two of these transitions is where we find the falling off in attendance.\nThe greatest slaughter of the children occurs in the entrance years of the high\nschool and of the college. This is because of the extreme estrangement.\nFrom one department to another should be as gradual as from one grade to\nanother. A mutual understanding should be among those having charge of\nof these different departments, so that when a child goes from one to the other\nhe goes with as much joy and ease as he does from grade to grade. The conception that the school is of the people for the children should always prevail.\nNo school should be a preparatory school for the one above; the one above\nshould be a receiving school for the one below.\nAgain, the organization of the modern school is an economic problem in\nwhich the capital stock is time. Any school that wastes the time of a child\nbecause of its mechanism is unworthy of public maintenance and is behind\nthe spirit of our civilization. It may have to be endured, but is not to be\ndesired. A modern school is for the whole people. The interests of the whole\npeople have become so varied that much latitude should be given for the selection of subjects. A school that is narrow in its opportunity for entrance is\nnot a school for the whole people. A study of our increasing and complex\ncivilization would tend to broaden the teacher and make him feel the true\nimport the more, that the people own the schools. Something must be done\nto save time.\nThe modern school is a doing and a participating institution. Much\nmore time should be given to doing with the hands, the head, and the\nheart — more time to realize ideals by building them and energizing them\nthru doing. This doing is an excellent basis for participation. Many things\nare capable of being made in common. The children blend with each other in\nidea, motive, feeling, and doing. Sewing, knitting, weaving, basketry, whittUng, carving, joinery, gardening, nature study, exftirsions. dramatizing,\norganizing into groups for work for service, etc., belong to doing. The modern school no longer uses the formal subjects as ends in themselves, but as\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nOUR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCREED\n\nu^\n\ngrowing out of the Ufe or activities of the children, and growing back into\nthem. The application of the above would solve the problem of the overcrowded curriculum. The overcrowded course of study is a result of making\nsubjects ends within themselves. Forsake this fetich and there is relief. The\nschool needs emancipation from the priestly authority of the teacher, and\nshould be placed in possession of the heads and affections of the teacher and\nchildren.\nThis would give the true democratic school.\nXII. We believe in the extension oj the free public-school system from the\nkindergarten to a great national university inclusive. — Every child should come\nunder the influence of a good kindergarten. There are more real doing and\nreal human blending in a first-class kindergarten than in any other place in\nthis world. There are a frankness and a beautiful reaHty not found anywhere\nelse. It is the place for the bad man's child, the poor man's child, the laboring man's child, the rich man's child; indeed, any child. The kindergarten\ngets the child before he becomes self -centered, and thru his entering into the\nspirit of nature and the feelings and activities of each and all it establishes a\nreal democracy, having its existence in their hearts. Should all the children\nfour, five, and six years of age in our great country have this opportunity, and\nalso that of going on in the various departments, what wonderful achievement\nwould be accomplished.\nThis country of ours that stands among nations as the parent of democracy should have as the crown of the public-school system a great national\nuniversity. It should be an institution as wide as human thought, feeling\nand endeavor; an institution where the great world-problems, whether they\nbe of physics, life, mind, society, or state, may be worked upon and solved\nindependently of any influence except that of truth. Great state-problems\ntake time for solution. An institution of this kind would help materially in\nbuilding the ideals of the nation and in the solution of the problems that\narise.\nXIII. We believe that the school-teacher should be trained academically and\n\nprofessionally.— Is^othing can take the place of scholarship. It is the reserve\npower of every great teacher. It commands the respect and attention of pupils\nthe people, and the state. Professional training is the adjustment of scholarship to the education of the child, the people, and the state. It consists in\nknowing the child and all the relations that exist between him and his environment. Itis a blending of his soul with that of the child in the processes of Hfe.\nHe should be interested in the child's interests and activities, skilled in stimulating them onward and upward to the end of oneness with all that is in the\nuniverse of things and energies. He should be a stimulator of thought, a\nmolder of opinion, a prompter and leader of movements in the community.\nwelfare\nHe should be interested and properly active in questions that affect the\nmovethe\ninto\nof the people. His success is measured to the extent he enters\nrealization.\ntheir\nattains\nhe\nextent\nthe\nto\nendeavor,\nhuman\nments of\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": null, "text": "114\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nNEW\n\nJ. J. SHEPPARD,\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nDEPARTURE\nPRINCIPAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nOF HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n[General\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nThe dedication in New York city a short time ago of a high-school building\ndevoted to commercial education, and the recent action of the Chicago Board\nof Education in making provision by an appropriation of a half million dollars\nfor the erection of a building for a similar purpose, mark unquestionably a\nnew departure in secondary education. The two foremost cities in the United\nStates recognize in no uncertain way the important part played by commerce in\nthe modern world, and follow the example set by Germany in adapting education to the needs of the business man. In Philadelphia, Washington, Pittsburg, and Paterson commercial education of secondary grade has been given\nfor some time, but New York and Chicago are the first cities to plan entirely\nindependent schools offering a four-year course. One may safely predict, I\nthink, that within a comparatively few years commercial high schools will have\ngreatly increased in number, and that eventually no important city in the\ncountry will neglect this phase of education.\nThe development of commercial education is but one of the striking\ninstances of efforts now being made to adapt education to actual community\nneeds. Those in charge of secondary education have been rather slow to\nrealize that the old-time course of study for high schools, planned especially\nas a preparation for college, was faiHng to attract or to hold great numbers for\nwhom preparation for vocation is of immediate and pressing importance. In\nspite of the fact that an almost insignificant proportion of high-school pupils\nseek admission to college, the influence of the latter institutions in determining\nthe course of study for the lower school has been all-powerful, and the program\nneglected those subjects, however useful they might be, which did not count\nspecifically for college preparation. But all that is changing now. The\nsecondary school is fast coming to assume an independent position, with its\nown problems to solve in its own way; and these problems concern themselves\nno longer chiefly with the occasional student looking to a higher institution,\nbut to the great numbers who must immediately take their place among wageearners. Not the least important among those problems is, in a commercial\nage and a commercial country, how best to prepare the youth to render inteUigent and valuable service in the world of trade.\nIt hardly needs any presentat'on of data to prove that this is a commercial age and America a commercial country. It has been well said by one of\nthe foremost of European statesmen that, as the sixteenth and seventeenth\ncenturies were marked by religious wars, the eighteenth by the development of\nliberal ideas, and the nineteenth by questions of nationality, so is the twentieth\ncentury to be distinguished by the struggle for existence among the nations\nin the field of commerce. The economic phase of history has been always\nimportant, but today its importance receives a recognition which gives it\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nDEPARTURE\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nnr\n\ntremendous emphasis. One who notes with a seeing eye present\nconditions\nin Europe is strongly impressed by the almost nervous solicitude shown\nby\nthose in authority on the question of the maintenance of commercial advantage. England is debating with fierce interest proposals to regain lost industrial prestige by a return to protective duties. Continental nations, and notably\nGermany, are devoting themselves with conscious energy to the task of securing\nan increasing share in the markets of the world. The present struggle between\nJapan and Russia is fundamentally a commercial war. The great industries\nof this country are no longer content with home markets, but are boldly entering into competition with foreign rivals on their own ground. The recent\nestabHshment of a Department of Commerce is but an indication of the desire\nto give governmental aid in the development of commercial interests.\nThe marvelous inventions of recent decades, multiplying productive power\nas they do many fold, and bringing the whole civihzed world into wonderfully\nclose intercommunication, enormously intensify division of labor, which\ninvolves and implies exchange and distribution— processes which are distinctly\ncommercial. And with the vast increase in the extent of exchange and distribution there has come an increasing complexity in their management. Trade\nhas long since ceased to be simple barter. Its rules and processes can no longer\nbe picked up by the fairly inteUigent in a few weeks. In its higher phases it\nputs to test the keenest minds, and in its ordinary phases it affords ample\nopportunity for the exercise of more than ordinary gifts. In a notable address,\ndelivered in Philadelphia a decade ago. Speaker Reed made a significant prediction concerning the importance in the near future of the man of affairs.\nBusiness men, he said, would in a short time be the dominant factors in American public life, and business, rather than law, or medicine, or the ministry,\nwould offer the greatest opportunities to abihty of the highest grade. In the\nlight of this prediction, an examination of the statistics gathered concerning\nthis year's graduating classes at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton is both pertinent and interesting. In each of these universities the greater number of\ngraduates now make choice of a business career, or some technical pursuit\nintimately related to business. At Harvard more than half the graduates who\nresponded indicated that business, or some vocation closely allied to it, was\nto be their hfe-work, while Yale and Princeton show an even greater tendency\nin the same direction. This is a striking and a very suggestive change from\nthe time, not very remote, when the ministry, the law, and medicine seemed\nto be the only suitable careers for the college graduate. Little wonder that\nour universities one by one are estabUshing schools of commerce designed to\ngive appropriate and adequate scientific preparation for a field of activity fast\napproaching the dignity of a profession.\nIf the secondary school is to render the best service to society, it must adapt\nto the needs of the time. If the activities of a community are\ninstruction\nits\nchiefly or largely commercial, then provision should be made in the course of\nstudy for an educational preparation for these activities, and the preparation\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": null, "text": "Ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nshould not be merely general. It should include so-called ''practical\" studies.\nThose who have contended that education should look only to the cultivation\nof general power and the acquisition of general knowledge, and should ignore\neverything designed to be immediately and directly useful, have argued ably,\nbut they have not won their case. The unrest in secondary education noted by\nCommissioner Sadler in the very conservative German atmosphere owes its\norigin to the feeling that the training of the school should be more practical;\nand the same unrest is to be noted in every advanced community. Everywhere we note the loosening hold of the classical studies, and the gradual exaltation of the purely modern curriculum. Almost a decade ago Professor\nFriedrich Paulsen wrote these lines in his History oj Higher Education in\nGermany:\nFor the majority of pupils in our secondary schools, even of those who are destined\nto pursue their studies at some higher seat of learning, the cukivation afforded by modern\nlanguages and literature, and by natural science, is a more indispensable matter than the\nso-called classical education. They need a kind of school oriented to the claims of the\npresent day — a modern Gymnasium. Relieve the classical school from the burden of\nwhat must be to it an alien task, and it may, I grant, conduct a select number of scholars\nto a deeper, and therefore to a more really fruitful, study of classical antiquity — a province\nof culture which I should be. the last to underrate. One may, on the contrary, perhaps\ngo so far as to say that there is still no sphere in which a pupil may be so quickly led to the\nfree exercise of comparatively independent habit of thought as in the defined and limited\ndomain of classical culture. Yet it must be allowed that schools the curriculum of which\nis classical in this definite sense will have no easy place in the coming century. We live\nno longer in the happy age when the German people, as Bismarck said, fixed their gaze upon\nthe hills of Thiiringen. The capital of Germany is Berlin, not Weimar. The outlook\nof our time ranges across the seas. The active mind of the nation is centered, not on literature and art, but in gaining command of the forces of nature, and in possessing the earth.\nThe point of view is not without its effects even on the thoughts and interests of the generation still at school. Can we deplore it ? Would it help matters if we did ? The wind\nbloweth where it listeth. The school cannot create the tendencies of the age, and will\ntherefore do well easily to adapt itself to them.\n\nIt needs but a superficial study of the history of secondary education to\nrealize how steadily the modernizing tendency has been at work. Progress in\nthe earlier stages, when classical ideas were so firmly intrenched and suitable\nalternatives were not easy to offer, was slow indeed. But gradually there has\nbeen an enrichment, and Enghsh, modern languages, science, and history have\nnow firmly established themselves in the curriculum. Manual training, at\nfirst accepted as a harmless fad, a spc?\":3 of ''busy work,\" is now generally\nregarded as of great educational value, not alone in a general way, but immediately and directly for confessedly practical purposes. Perhaps the most significant aspect of the modernizing tendency just at present is the prominence\ngiven to the idea of utility in a consideration of the educational value of subjects. In other words, we are breaking away from the doctrine that a subject\nshould be taught merely for its own sake, and not for any utiKtarian purpose.\nIt may safely be said that sciences are studied largely because they serve certain\nimportant practical purposes.\nPhysics and chemistry are essential to the\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nDEPARTURE\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n117\n\nequipment of those who intend to devote themselves to work\nof a technical\ncharacter, while the medical man needs both chemistry\nand biology. Side\nby side with the colleges whose chief aim is to give a liberal training\nintended\nto promote general culture are growing up scientific and technical\nschools\naiming directly to fit their students for immediate participation in industria\nl\nactivities.\nBut even from the standpoint of general culture, it may very appropri\nately\nbe urged that for vast numbers the road to it cannot be along the lines of\nclassical scholarship. It would be a sorry thing, indeed, if the classical education should be thrown overboard as entirely unsuited to the times. It has\nserved its purpose well thru the centuries, and we shall always have need of\nthe sort of scholarship and culture it insures. It should be wisely conserved.\nBut, on the other hand, it should not be forced upon the many to whom it is a\ndiscouragement rather than an inspiration. Many a boy and girl to whom\nclassical studies do not appeal evince an interest in subjects whose practical\nbearing is easily discerned, and for them practical subjects often prepare\nthe way to a broader culture, because latent intellectual interests are incidentally and indirectly aroused.\nSo much by way of a general argument for secondary commercial education.\nIt would be interesting to trace the gradual development of business instruction from the primitive type of business college to the present ambitious course\noffered in the great universities, to note the widespread interest and great\nactivity in commercial education in Europe, and to make some predictions as\nto the future. But, in the brief time allotted to me, it would be perhaps more\nserviceable to indicate as clearly as may be just what the secondary school can\nand ought to do by way of preparing its students for business careers.\nWe may well start with the admirable statement of Commissioner Sadler,\nof England. He declares that it would be a blunder, from the point of view of\nthe later efficiency of the pupil, to deprive him of a liberal education in order\nto impart to him an early knowledge of the technicalities of business Ufe.\nSurely the man of affairs has need of cultivated perceptions, breadth of vision,\nand the forward-reaching gift of imagination. The accumulated experience\nof the race, as depicted in the pages of history, will not go for naught in his\nequipment. The logical and exact training of mathematics, the accuracy of\nobservation and inference which science developes, the discrimination and\nappreciation which language imparts— all of these are vitally important in\nmaking him a more intelligent doer of the many things which present themselves for consideration and disposition to the man of business. The oldline commercial course of the \"business college\" assumed that a certain\ntechnical facility was practically all that was necessary, and so its studies were\nwhat might be called form studies. Of content there was little or none. The\nmodern commercial course assumes that a broadly trained intelligence is\nessential to success in business, and it turns to its use the typical secondary\nScience is important, not only because\nsubjects, rich and varied in content.\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": null, "text": "ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nof its intrinsic value, but because of its close relation to the materials of commerce. History not only contributes to an understanding of the main currents\nof civihzation, but throws Hght upon the economic and commercial changes\nin a nation or a period. Modern languages are instruments not alone for\ndeveloping refinement of perception and appreciation, but also for facilitating\nan understanding of the international aspects of present-day trade. In\nshort, the modern commercial course takes the standard secondary subjects\nand makes them more vital to the pupil by relating them directly to the world\nof affairs. There is a danger, of course, of making a study too ''practical\"\nand the teacher in the commercial school may sometimes have to be cautioned\nagainst an unprofitable application of his subject to a commercial purpose.\nLiterature, for instance, should be taught chiefly for its own sake. A certain\namount of so-called \"business English\" may be useful and necessary, but it\nshould not usurp time which rightfully belongs to a study of the world's\nmasterpieces or the training in spontaneous expression.\nThe four-year commercial course should then include language, science,\nmathematics, history, and art. French, German, and Spanish should be\noffered for the pupil's choice, and it is desirable that the program permit of his\ntaking at least two of them. They should be so well taught that a fair degree\nof facility in conversation in at least one language should become the possession of the commercial graduate. In other words, they should not be weak\nsubstitutes for the rigid training given by the study of Latin and Greek.\nScience (including biology, chemistry, and physics), mathematics, and drawing\nshould be required for at least three years. History should be studied continuously thruout the course, special emphasis being laid upon the economic\naspect of the development of civilization. It should include a very careful and\nthoro study of civics — a subject too often neglected or inadequately treated\nin even the best secondary schools. Drawing is of very great commercial\nvalue. The refinement of taste which it develops is alone sufficient reason\nfor giving it a place in the curriculum. vEsthetic form is the chief element of\nworth in many a commodity which finds wide sale in a civilized community.\nIn this respect America has much to learn from its European competitors.\nAnother liberal subject hitherto studied almost exclusively in the college\ndeserves an important place in the commercial curriculum. Economics\nlends itself readily to advantageous treatment in the secondary school. The\nlaws governing the production, exchange, and distribution of wealth are\nwithin he comprehension of the high-school senior, tho he may not any\nbetter than his college brother grasp all their subtleties. Economics presents\nfor the pupil's consideration data of the most interesting character, and in\nits practical applications touches upon nearly all of the vital social and political questions of the day. Banking and finance, international trade, taxation,\nsocialism, all fall within the scope of the subject. And from the purely disciplinary point of view, economics is peculiarly adapted to advanced secondary\ninstruction.\nIts laws and principles are drawn from facts which must be care-\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nNEW\n\nDEPARTURE\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nng\n\nfully weighed and balanced. It trains the pupil to reach conclusi\nons based\nupon considerations of a complex character. The syUogism\nof mathematics\nis not the syllogism of every-day Hfe. The man of afifairs cannot\nproceed\nfrom absolutely fixed premises to definite and unvarying conclusi\nons. The\nvalue of his judgment will depend upon the abihty to give proper weight\nto a\nvariety of elements which make up his premises. For training in this practical\nsort of reasoning a better subject than economics could not be selected. Closely\nrelated to economics is economic or commercial geography. The latter throws\ninto broad rehef the division of labor— perhaps the most marked feature\nof modern industrial conditions, and the fundamental basis of trade and\ncommerce.\nThus far we have spoken of the typical secondary subjects common in all\ngood high schools, with the single exception of economics. A program of\nstudies in a commercial school would not in a mere statement of the subjects\ndiffer very much from the program in the ordinary high school. What is\ninsisted upon is that they should be taught as far as possible with a commercial bias.\nThere remains for our consideration the group of studies which are directly\nand immediately commercial. The business activities of today require from\nthose who would undertake them the ability to write a good hand, to use\nfigures with accuracy and dispatch, to keep accounts with intelligence and\neconomy of time and effort. To these equipments may be added a familiarity\nwith business forms and documents, the laws governing their use, and some\nknowledge of office economy. In many instances a knowledge of stenography\nand typewriting is essential, and in any case it is a valuable addition to the young\nbusiness man's equipment. The commercial course should therefore include\nbusiness writing and business arithmetic, bookkeeping, business correspondence, and office practice, commercial law, and stenography and typewriting.\nBusiness writing and business arithmetic should come early in the course to\nfind their steady application in the later work of the school. Bookkeeping is\nby no means an easy study if properly taught. It does not seem advisable to\nbegin it before the second year of the course, and provision should be made\nfor its study in the third and fourth years. Competent observers feel that\nbookkeeping as usually taught is not made to show its real educational value.\nIt is certainly possible to make the instruction in accounts center about certain definite principles. It is by no means necessary for the pupil merely to\nfollow a model in the spirit of an unthinking imitator. In commercial law,\nalso, that instruction cannot be called successful which aims only at giving\nthe pupil a certain body of facts. The subject lends itself to a treatment\nwhich is in no small degree scientific. It has been the fashion in four-year\ncommercial courses to postpone the study of stenography to the late years of\nthe course. This is hardly defensible. Pupils in the first and second years\nmay with profit pursue the study of shorthand, and the many opportunities\nfor its use in school makes it possible for them to secure a practical training,\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": null, "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ninsuring speed and accuracy at graduation. Business correspondence and\noffice practice come more properly after a preliminary training which has\nmade the pupil familiar with many details of business usage. It is perhaps\nnot unwise to place them in the fourth year of the program.\nBriefly stated, it should be the aim of the commercial school to give the\nrequisite technical equipment for business, but also to go far beyond that, and\nby a wise application of practically all the standard secondary subjects to\ncommercial uses to give a depth and breadth of preparation that will insure an\nall-around efficiency, an easy adaptability to new and important tasks, and a\ndegree of initiative. The graduate of the commercial high school will be by\nno means a finished business man. But no law school expects its graduates\nto be finished lawyers, and no medical school assumes that its graduates will\nbe finished physicians. There is much that the successful business man must\nknow, which no school can teach, just as there is much in the practice of law\nfor which no law school offers a prescription. And yet the day has gone by\nwhen law is learned by reading in a lawyer's office. The law school has\nbecome practically indispensable. And the day is fast passing with the\nremarkable speciahzation of all commercial and industrial activities when a\ndesirable all-around training in business can be secured in a business house.\nThe new recruit is assigned to some restricted task, with small outlook into\nother fields, and unless he has more than ordinary energy and initiative, or is\npossessed of influence, he is likely to have little opportunity for broader\nexperience.\nEuropean countries have made great strides in the matter of providing\nthoro business training. Germany alone has more than two hundred commercial schools. The United States has hitherto relied chiefly upon the socalled ' ' business colleges. \" These institutions have been and still are extremely\nuseful, but the demand is now for a business training which involves much\nmore intensive and extensive study than is possible with the highly specialized\ncurriculum of the business college, and in the very brief time which such institutions demand and secure from their pupils. It falls to the secondary\nschool to undertake this work, and I venture to say that the most notable\nexpansion of secondary instruction in the next decade is to be along the line\nof commercial education.\n\nEDUCATION\nREAR\n\nIN THE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nNAVY\n\nADMIRAL CASPAR F. GOODRICH, U. S. N., DELEGATE FROM THE\nSTATES NAVY DEPARTMENT TO THE FORTY-THIRD CONVENTION\nNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\nI.\n\nUNITED\nOF THE\n\nINTRODUCTORY\n\nThe pecuhar sociological development of the United States has imposed\nupon the Navy Department an extended and ramified system of education.\nThe necessity for this undertaking may be found in the fundamental fact that\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nNAVY\n\n121\n\nours is not a maritime nation. Whatever delight and profit our forefathers,\na hundred years ago more or less, may have taken in a seafaring life, their\ndescendants have sought and seized the larger opportunities ofiFered by agricultural and industrial pursuits for gaining a living, for fostering and elevating\nthe home, and for raising themselves and their families to a plane of existence\nwhich grows, from year to year higher and more elaborate, and a way of\nliving which grows, pari passu, more costly.\nIn a general way, it may be stated that whatever of special training the\nnavy needs it must itself supply. The navy alone is capable of providing\nthe means and opportunity by which it secures men capable of handling its\nguns and ammunition and of laying its batteries with accuracy upon the\ntarget. But there are a great number of occupations, trades, professions,\netc., represented in the crew of every naval vessel which are so well compensated in civil life that, with the scant pay allowed, the service must either\nevolve these particular talents out of its own personnel or go without them.\nI might run thru the long list of trades represented in a typical ship's company and point out their active duties and their passive or reserved duties,\nfor both of which the men must be competent. It is only by taking willing\nand intelligent men, who are disposed to go to sea with us, and then schooling\nthem in the particular way we need, that we succeed in maintaining the efficiency of our ships.\nYou will note that the education of the blue-jacket is in large measure not\nso much education in the generally accepted sense of the word as training in a\nnumber of trades. The education of the officer, however, falls more readily\nunder the generally accepted classification. It is effected in a manner less\ndiverse and more progressive, and vastly more extended, for it ends only with\nlife itself.\nII.\n\nNAVY\n\nCORPS\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNEEDS\n\nThe officers on board a ship are divided into certain classes according to\nthe nature of their duties. One class commands and maneuvers the ship,\ndrills the men, fires the guns, and operates the engines. Its members are called\n\"Hne officers,\" and with them solely lies succession to command. This corps\nis recruited from the graduates of the Naval Academy.\nWe have also surgeons, drawn from civil life and admitted to the navy\nafter the most searching examination.\n\nInasmuch as the ship consumes large quantities of provisions, ammunition, coal, and other stores, and is in itself a small community wherein each\nmember works for hire, it is necessary to have the business side of life represented; and so she carries a pay officer, with his clerk and assistants.\nauxilThe special care of the ship's engines, boilers, and the wilderness of\niaries rests with the officers detailed for that particular duty, who are at present hne officers as well as engineers.\nbut\nThe marine officers were at one time graduates of the Naval Academy,\nbeen\nhas\non\ninstituti\nthis\nin,\nset\nhas\nsince the enormous expansion of the navy\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": null, "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nunable to supply even the demands of the line, so that the recent additions to\nthe list of marine officers are drawn from civil life.\nLastly, among the commissioned officers are the chaplains, who are taken\ninto the service on the diploma or certificate of a theological college or\nseminary.\nIt goes without saying that all officers are compelled to undergo a rigid\nphysical examination before being commissioned.\nIII.\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nLINE\n\nOFFICER\n\nThe most important as well as the oldest educational enterprise which the\nnavy has undertaken is the training of the midshipman at the Naval Academy\nto become an officer of the line. Without confining myself too closely to figures,\nwhich may change from one year to another, I may say broadly that today\nevery senator, representative, and delegate in Congress is entitled to have two\nmidshipmen at the Naval Academy, while the president can appoint five each\nyear. This he does by nominating the individual to the Navy Department,\nand the Navy Department examines the lad. If he can pass the prescribed\nphysical and mental examination, he becomes a midshipman, enters the Naval\nAcademy, and begins his course of instruction.\nThe boy spends four years in all at AnnapoHs, and then goes into the service for a probationary term of two years, after which a final examination\nensues; and, if he passes satisfactorily, he receives a commission in the navy as\nensign, the lowest grade of fine officers. He is now on the way to the highest\nrung of the ladder, the admiralcy. Eight months of every year are devoted\nat Annapolis to the study of the elementary branches, mechanical drawing,\nEngHsh, chemistry, history, mechanics, mathematics, physics, French, Spanish, seamanship, ordnance, gunnery, marine engineering, navigation, and other\nprofessional matters. Three months are spent in the practice cruise on board a\nship, by which the boys get their sea-legs, or sea-stomach, and the sea-habit —\nmost important of all. For one month each year they are granted leave, corresponding to the vacation in ordinary schools. Altho the Naval Academy\ndoes not pretend to a very exalted grade of education, still in its special lines\nit goes very far, and the pace is very rapid, so that the boy who finishes the\nfour-year course must be one of average inteUigence and rather more than\naverage industry. An inspection of the program of studies will reveal the great\npreponderance of the mathematical branches. This preponderance is a\nnatural sequence of the fact that today a naval officer's duties are to a large\nextent intimately associated with engineering and navigation, both of which\nhave mathematics for their basis.\nI am not singular in believing that the weak point in our entire scheme of\neducation of this country lies in the primary school. It is the rarest thing\nin the world to find boys and girls of, say, fourteen years, who can read and\nwrite and spell and cipher with even tolerable accuracy. This same complaint of incomplete preparation in English branches comes from every\ncollege and university in the land.\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nNAVY\n\n12^\n\nThe Academy pretends only to lay the foundation of an education— to\nsupply the irreducible mininum, as the diplomats say, of schooHng. It can,\nindeed, do no more. As a fact, like others, we only learn our profession by\npracticing it. It is on board ship and in carrying on the duties of ordinary\nship life that the young man gradually widens his mental horizon and becomes\nfamihar with all the duties of the naval officer. This would be abundantly\ntrue were the naval profession fixed and immutable. How much more true\nmust it therefore be when we reflect that everything about the navy, material and moral, is changing from day to day, and that so keen is the competition that we must work hard, long, and unremittingly to maintain our place\nin the procession.\nIn the lower grades the line officer becomes accustomed to consider the\nquestions which lie ahead of him — those of command ; and when in command\nof a single ship, especially if cruising in a squadron, he reaches still farther out\nand touches the problems of flag rank — the command and maneuvering of\nthe fleet.\nI may remark that our ships are designed by and constructed under the\nsupervision of a corps of naval constructors, graduates of the Naval Academy,\nwho learn their special trade either abroad at the Polytechnique in Paris, the\nRoyal Naval College at Greenwich, the Glasgow School of Marine Architecture; or at home, under a recent arrangement, at the Massachusetts Institute\nof Technology.\nWe have also in the navy an institution to which I have the honor of\nstanding as godfather — the Naval War College, at Newport, R. I., where\nofficers of higher rank meet and discuss questions of strategy, tactics, and\nthe art of naval warfare. At this college there is little of teaching, so called;\nit is rather by meeting together and discussing the points mentioned that progress issecured. Every year a general problem of strategy is laid before the\nofficers who attend the course, and much hard and faithful work is done during the entire summer in threshing out the main and the incidental questions.\nCases and schemes of tactics are also discussed by them, and situations in international politics presented as weU, with a view of illustrating the principles of\ninternational law by concrete examples. Next to actual experience afloat,\nthe Naval War College is the most important factor in our training of captains\nand admirals.\n\nNewly appointed assistant surgeons are put thru a special course at the\nNaval Medical School in Washington, and young marine officers spend the\nbest part of a year at the School of Apphcation in Annapohs.\nIV.\n\nTHE\n\nAPPRENTICE\n\nSYSTEM\n\nJust as one set of boys is taken to AnnapoHs and trained to become officers,\nso is another set taken to Newport, R. I., enhsted as apprentices, and taught\n'the trade of the common sailor. They spend six months on shore in commoof\ndious, well-arranged barracks, where they are instructed in the rudiments\nbedding,\ntheir\nclothes,\ntheir\npersons,\ntheir\nEnglish, and, above all, in the care of\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": null, "text": "124\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand in drills of various kinds found in the naval service, infantry, field artillery,\nsignals, etc. Another six months are spent in a cruise in a training ship, and\nthen the boy is drafted into the service, where he completes his education in\nthe old-fashioned way — by practicing it. These boys come in originally\nbetween fifteen and seventeen, and serve during their minority. Everything\nin the naval service is open to them in the way of petty officers' appointments\nand emoluments, and the position of warrant officer — gunner, carpenter or\nboatswain; while to the latter class of officers are yearly reserved twelve\nappointments into the line of the navy for such as can pass a satisfactory\nexamination.\nThe training stations — for there is a second one at Mare Island, similar\nin all ways to that of Newport — have proved utterly inadequate to supply the\nnumber of young men required for the navy. Just after the Spanish- American\nwar it was sought to supplement the productivity of the training stations by\ntaking into the navy a large number of young men, not under eighteen years\nof age, and instruct them in the ways of ship board. These are known in the\nservice as ''landsmen for training,\" and while they do a great deal of excellent work, the bulk of their time is occupied by drills, exercises, and tuition on\nboard ship. As a matter of fact, they do stay a little while at a navy yard\nprior to going afloat, but it has been found that the briefer this period the\nbetter.\nThere is, as you will perceive, a marked difference in the two methods\nemployed. In one instance we take the boy, train him progressively, and\nallow him to get into the regular service only after he has spent a year or more\nunder tuition and observation ; in the other case we take young men and, after\na very brief term on shore, send them either in special training ships in large\nnumbers or directly to vessels in commission. Each of these systems has its\nadvantages. The apprentice training system is terribly handicapped by the\nyouth, frivolity, and mischieviousness of the boys who come. In spite of\nour precautions, many creep in from the slums of the cities; not a few have\nbad records; and oftentimes they are brought by parents and guardians\nand handed over to us as apprentices merely for the purpose of getting rid of\nthem, of banishing them from homes which they have rendered practically\nuninhabitable by their boisterous, vicious, or even criminal practices.\nThe \"landsmen for training,\" on the other hand, are, as a rule, five or six\nyears older than the apprentice boys; that is to say, they will average about\ntwenty-one or twenty-two years of age, are more mature, more thoughtful,\nmore capable, less mischievous, more anxious to do what is right; and altogether they furnish us with far more pliable material. The probabilities are\nthat eventually the apprentice training system will be greatly reduced in size,\nwhile the numbers of landsmen for training, on the other hand, will be greatly\naugmented. Theoretically, the apprentice training system is the better, but,\nthe practical disadvantages have reconciled many thoughtful officers to its\nabandonment.\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nV.\n\nTHE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nnavy's\n\nAMERICAN\n\ntrade\n\nNAVY\n\njjc\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n1. Theschool jor seamen gunners.— li{snoir\\Qce?>sdiTyio^QwoiQmuchoiyo\\xT\ntime to the intimate study of the many trade schools which the navy has been\ncompelled to found, and to which brief reference has been already made. A\nhasty glance in passing must suffice. The first of these schools, chronologically speaking— that for seamen gunners, so called— was established at the\nTorpedo Station, Newport, in the eighties. Seamen (preferably apprentices)\nwho reach proficiency are called ''seamen gunners.\" The graduates of all\nthese schools are given diplomas, and they receive $2 monthly as extra pay.\nThe instruction occupies three months in the shops of the Naval Gun Factory,\nWashington, and three months at Newport, R. I., making a six-month course.\nThat at Washington consists in practical work which would fit a gunner's\nmate to perform the ordinary repair work required of him on board of a modern battleship; i. e., brazing, soldering, etc.; together with instruction in the\nlatest types of guns, mounts, breech mechanism, and sights; also in projectiles and powder charges. At Newport the course consists mainly in torpedoes, high explosives, the manufacture and care of smokeless powder, fuses,\nand primers. During the summer months, or when the weather permits, a\ncourse of diving is given, and men are certified as quahfied divers when competent to work under water at certain specified depths.\n2. The school for electricians. — The electrical class is situated in the Navy\nYard, New York; and at the present time the members consist of electricians\nwho are recruits and who iiave had no experience on board of vessels of the\nnavy. They are taught the care and management of dynamos, high-speed\nengines, and the means of interior communication on board ship. In addition, they are given instruction in wireless telegraphy, and those who show\nspecial aptitude for this work are detailed exclusively as wireless-telegraph\noperators. The course of instruction is three months, and a very good class\nof electricians is turned out.\n3. The school for machinists. — It is the intention of the Department to\nestablish a machinist class at the Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va. The course of\ninstruction of this class consists in instruction in boilers, both Scotch and watertube, main engines, pumps, auxiHary machinery, steam-launch machinery,\nindicators, and general electric work and repair work.\n4. The school for torpedo-boat machinists.— The machinist class for torpedo-boat service is situated at Newport, R. I., and men are particularly\ninstructed in this class in the care, management, and running of high-speed\nengines, water-tube boilers, and torpedo-boat machinery.\n5. The school for artificers.— This particular school deals with the special\ntrades, and instructs carpenter's mates, shipwrights, blacksmiths, plumbers,\npainters, etc. The artificer class is situated at the Navy Yard, Norfolk, Va.,\nand is under the supervision of the naval constructor.\n6. The school for writers or storekeepers— or yeomen.— The yeomen class\nis on board the \"Hancock,\" at the Navy Yard, New York. Men are\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": null, "text": "126\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nselected for each particular line of work. Those who are expert accountants\nare generally assigned to the pay yeoman division; good penmen are generally\nassigned to the navigator or executive officer's division; stenographers and\ntypewriters are instructed in the duties of a captain's yeoman; while bookkeepers are, as a rule, made equipment and engineer's yeomen. All members\nof the class are, of course, instructed in the navy regulations, typewriting, and\noflScial correspondence. I may remark parenthetically that the navy brand\nof red-tape flourishes like the green bay tree.\n7. The school for cooks. — Ship's cooks and bakers are instructed in the\nduties of their ratings, both on board the \"Hancock,\" and ''Franklin,\" at the\nNorfolk Navy Yard.\n8. The school for musicians. — The musician class is on board the ''Franklin.\" All musicians enlisted and all \" landsmen for training \" who have\nmusical ability are assigned to duty in connection with this class.\n9. The hospital corps school. — This school is situated at the Naval Hospital, Norfolk, Va. The course consists of three months' instruction and\ndrill in nursing, elementary anatomy, physiology, elementary hygiene,\nmateria medica and pharmacy, bandaging and splints, first aid, discipline,\nand drill.\n10. The school for submariners. — The submarine boats \"Porpoise,\"\n\"Shark,\" and \"Pike,\" at Newport, R. I., are used for instruction of men who\nvolunteer for service on board of those vessels.\n11. The school for torpedo-boat firemen. — This supplies a short practical\ncourse for selected men, young, intelligent, and active.\n12. The school for petty officers. — The universal cry thruout the service is\nfor petty officers — corresponding to the army's noncommissioned officers.\nThey are the leading men in all places and at all times: boatswain's mates,\nwho carry on the deck routine and help on the work with their cherry pipes\nand calls; coxswains, who command their boats when absent from ship; etc.,\netc. Without them we should be greatly embarrassed. Their positions are\nthe stepping-stones to the warrants of boatswains, gunners, and carpenters.\nEvery captain is on the lookout for promising material among the crew out\nof which to make petty officers, which, when found, he sends to Newport for\nparticular instruction.\nI have sought to give only a general outline of the methods by which the\nnavy has endeavored to reach the end it had in view in any particular case.\nSo highly do we rate education that we look upon it as a duty, which may\nnot be neglected, to reduce the figure of iUiteracy on board our ships to zero.\nThere is no regulation or departmental order on this point, of which I have any\nknowledge, nor is one necessary; for whenever on board ship we find a man\nwho cannot read and write, instinctively as Americans we get up a night\nschool in order to rid ourselves of what we cannot help feeling to be a reproach.\nUnder these circumstances, and in view of what has been said, I think I can\nassure my compatriots in this convention that they need lie under no appre-\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nPORTO\n\nRICO\n\nI2^\n\nhension regarding the responsibility which rests upon the\nnavy to see that our\ncountry, even among its blue-jackets and marines, shall not fall\nbehind in the\nmarch toward universal enlightenment.\n\nEDUCATION\nSAMUEL\n\nIN PORTO\n\nRICO\n\nMcCUNE LINDSAY, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION\n[an abstract]\n\nIN PORTO RICO\n\nThere is something peculiarly interesting in watching the transplanting\nof anything, because the process involves a test of the vitahty of the thing\ntransplanted, of the surroundings into which it is brought, and of the modifications or transformations of which it is capable.\nWe are engaged in transplanting the American free pubhc schools to a\ntropical climate and among a people speaking a foreign language. It goes\nwhere there were schools before, but schools that spoke of another civiUzation older than our own, and based on entirely different ideas of the rights of\nman and his duties to his fellows. There were a few well-educated people in\nPorto Rico; and 522 schools, with 22,000 pupils enrolled, seven years ago was\nthe high-water mark of what Spain accompHshed. We found no savage\ntribes; we found no opposition to all of the aids that education has to offer in\nthe process of civilization. Indeed, we found a singular preparedness for,\nand willingness to accept, American ideas and ideals. But we found no free\npublic schools, and no real interest in the education of the masses of the people.\nLess than seventeen persons in every hundred of the population could read\nand write, and a still smaller number had even the most elementary notions\nof the world in which they lived, and of their relations and duties to the natural\nworld or to their fellow-men.\nThe schools we found there seven years ago were wretchedly equipped\nand poorly taught by teachers who were rarely paid at all for their services,\nand who had to rely entirely upon themselves for guidance and encouragement.\nWhat percentage of the pupils enrolled was in actual attendance we do not\nknow. We do know there was no enthusiasm for education, and that the\nname of teacher was a by- word for misfortune.\nSeven years is a short period, but in that time we have estabUshed nearly\ntwelve hundred schools, most of which are equipped with the best modem\nappKances for work; over fifty new buildings, some of them fine, large, modem\nstructures have been erected; schools have been graded, and now offer all\ngrades of work, from the regular kindergarten in the large towns to the primary\nand grammar school, to the high school and normal school, with provision for\nnature study and special agricultural work, and with considerable provision\nfor manual training and industrial work. A new professional spirit has been\ninfused into the teaching body. To every eight native teachers one American\nteacher is employed, working alongside of his Porto Rican colleague, at the\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": null, "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsame salary, and under the same conditions. The Spanish language prevails\nin the schools, but English is taught in every school in the island, and there\nare an increasing number of schools in which the entire work is done in English.\nLast year these schools enrolled 70,000 pupils; and while I do not know as\nyet how many different pupils have been enrolled during the school year just\nended, we had during the first two terms an average daily attendance of nearly\n45,000.\nWe are trying to make these schools stand for democratic ideals, and they\nare open alike to boys and girls, negro and white, rich and poor. We spent\non their support over $600,000 from the insular treasury during the past year,\nand $150,000 from the municipal treasuries. This represents 28 per cent,\nof all revenues raised for taxes; and yet this sum is wholly inadequate to the\nneeds of the situation. We are able to provide school accommodations for\nless than one-fifth of the population of school age. Three hundred thousand\nchildren must go every year without any school training so long as these conditions prevail.\nIf the people of the United States really desire to build up a new civiUzation in Porto Rico, to establish a new democracy, they must stand ready to\nextend the necessary aid. After the people themselves have done all they can,\nit is the duty of Congress to vote millions of dollars, and to respond to every\ncall for the proper support of enough public schools to give a seat to every\nPorto Rican child who is knocking for admission.\n\nTHE\nBOOKER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nT. V^ASHINGTON,\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE NORMAL\nTUTE, TUSKEGEE, ALA.\n\nAND\n\nNEGRO\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nINSTI-\n\nEvery nation, race, and generation has its own special and peculiar problems. Each group of people in each period of its existence is likely to feel\nand argue that its difficulties are the most trying and serious. We often forget\nthat if one generation could settle all the difficulties, there would be little left\nfor the succeeding one to do. For two hundred and fifty years and more one\nof the questions that have interested and permeated every section of American\nlife has had to do with the presence and influence of the black people in\nAmerica.\nUpon many vital points affecting the Negro the nation has been divided\nfrom the first. As far back as the seventeenth century a portion of the nation\nsent ambassadors to the natives in Africa, saying: 'Xome hither and we will\ndo thee good;\" while another portion said to the African: \"It is best for you\nand for us that you remain away.\" Later came slavery, and the division of\nAmerican sentiment was still more evident. One portion of the country said\nthat slavery was righteous and best for the Negro and the nation; another\nsaid that it was sinful and hurtful to the Negro and the nation.\nStill later\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\n120\n\ncame freedom, and another division appears. One element said that\nthe\nNegro could not be educated; another said that he was capable of education\n;\nanother element claimed that whenever a mulatto exhibited quaUties of executive abiUty, or of organizing power, it was the white blood that should have the\ncredit; still another element just as emphatically claimed that the mixing of\nthe races tended to weaken the Negro. Another element claimed that the\nsalvation of the South would only come when the Negro departed from its\ncotton, rice, and cane fields; still, whenever the emigration agent appeared, he\nwas usually met and virtually forbidden to take a Negro from southern fields.\nOne element argued that the future hope of the Negro consisted in keeping in\nclose touch with the American white man; another said that it was the part of\nwisdom to keep the two races as completely separated as possible. One\nelement has argued that the Negroes should return to Africa; another, that\nthey should remain in America. One element contended that with the\nballot the Negro was doomed; another, that without the ballot destruction\nawaited him.\nThus I have indicated a few of the points upon which some of the most\nintelligent and influential white people have differed in the past. These\nalmost bewildering contentions and differences at least prove two points: one,\nthat the white man, at least on this subject, is not omniscient; and the other,\nthat the Negro deserves the greatest credit for having kept Itis head and\ncourage in the midst of such confusing contentions and differences. Few\nraces in history of any color could have withstood the tremendous strain of\nthese contending forces during so long a period, and still continued to grow\nin prosperity, intelligence. Christian character, and numbers. At every point\nat which the Negro has touched the white man the Negro has had the wisdom\nto get something that has made him a stronger and more useful citizen.\nIn the midst of the uncertainties and perplexities, a few strong, definite,\nand undebatable facts stand out clear and convincing; and these should\nstrengthen our faith and our activities for the future. Centuries ago the\nNegro began life in America in paganism; today there are nearly ten millions\nof Christians. He began life without a language; today he speaks the EngUsh\ntongue. From a slave he has grown into citizenship and the ownership of\nproperty. Into hands formerly bound by the fetters of bondage he receives\ntoday the Bible, the spelling-book, the hatchet, the plow, the trowel, the college diploma. These constitute distinct and potential signs of progress and\nhigh citizenship. Nor need we stop at this period to inquire whether this\nprogress represents the influence of slavery, or freedom, or both. It is enough\nfor us to know that it is an accompHshed fact, and that our common country\nshould have the credit.\n\nI have been referring to unsettled and debated questions concerning the\ngrowth of my people, and I ask to be permitted right here to dweU a Uttle\nupon one other such question— one that seems to be given considerable promiFrom several quarters the\nnence just now in the minds of important people.\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": null, "text": "I30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstatement has recently come that education does not only not benefit the Negro\nrace, but actually hinders his progress. If this contention is true, there is no\nbetter time, and no more fitting place, to make known the truth than at this\ngreat Exposition, which represents the ripest work of hand and head of our\nmighty country, and especially of that section where the Negro has dwelt in\nlargest numbers, and where his hands have been most active. Who is there\nso shallow of heart or little of mind that he will not appreciate that but for\nthe Negro's effort in clearing the forests, draining the swamps, building the\nrailroads, planting and reaping the cotton, rice, and cane, the panorama of\nprogress and enlightenment which we behold here would be woefully wanting\nin completion ? But to continue: If we take the most selfish and mercenary\nview, I claim that whatever measure of education the Negro has received has\npaid, and will pay more largely in the future.\nReasoning from the known to the unknown, I begin with the Tuskegee\nInstitute. At the close of our school year about 525 young men left the school\nfor vacation. I find by careful investigation that the services of practically\nall of these men had been engaged many days before they left school. In\nseveral cases tickets were sent to defray their passage on the raihoads. One\nfilrm in Mississippi employed twenty-five students for the summer, and sent\ntickets to cover their railway fare. In other cases agents representing various\nindustrial plants came in person to urge students to enter their employment.\nStill others solicited them by mail and telegraph. Those seeking the labor\nof our students were practically all southern white people. In the majority\nof cases the students were sought for labor which required, not only skill, but\na high degree of intelligence. One manufacturing firm in Birmingham\nkeeps a standing order with us to the effect that it will employ every man that\nwe recommend. It is safe to say that if the number of students leaving the\nschool for vacation had been twice as large, each one would have still found\nwork of some kind.\nInvestigation shows still further that our students command an average\nwage that is three times as large as that which they earned before receiving\nany training at the Tuskegee Institute. That is, expressed in dollars and cents,\nthe southern white people place three times as much value upon the services\nof an educated Negro as they place upon the services of an uneducated one.\nFurther, in South Africa there are five millions of black people who have\nnever been brought, thru school or other agencies, into contact with a higher\ncivilization, in a way to have their minds or their ambitions awakened. As a\nresult, the industries of South Africa languish and refuse to prosper for lack of\nlabor. The native black man refuses to work because he has been neglected.\nHe has few wants and little ambition, and his crude and few wants may be satisfied by laboring one or two days out of the seven. In the southern part of the\nUnited States there are more than eight millions of my race, who, by contact\nwith the whites, and by education in the home, in school, and in church, have\nhad their minds awakened and strengthened — have thus had their wants\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\n131\n\nincreased and multiplied many times. Hence, instead of a people in\nidleness, we have in the South a people who are anxious to work because they\nwant education for their children; they want land, and houses, and churches,\nbooks and papers. Looked at, then, from the most materiahstic and selfish\npoint of view, it has paid to awaken the Negro's mind; and there should be\nno limit placed upon the development of that mind. From the most selfish\npoint of view, then, the education of the Negro has paid.\nWe are to live in the South, and sympathy between the races is vital. We\nmust convince the southern white people of the value of educating the Negro;\nand this we are doing, according to the testimony of the southern people\nthemselves.\nSometime ago I sent out letters to representative southern white men,\ncovering each ex-slave state, asking them, judging by their observations in\ntheir own communities, what effect education had upon the Negro. To these\nquestions I received 136 replies, as follows:\n1. Has education made the Negro a more useful citizen ? Answers: yes, 121; no, 4;\nunanswered, 11.\n2 . Has it made him more economical and more inclined to acquire property ? Answers :\nyes, 98; no, 14; unanswered, 24.\n3. Does it make him a more valuable workman, especially where skill and thought\nare required ? Answers : yes, 132 ; no, 2 ; unanswered, 2.\n\nLet us pursue the economic side still farther:\nAll will agree that the Negro in Virginia, for example, began life forty\nyears ago in complete poverty, scarcely owning clothing or a day's food.\nRight here I lay emphasis upon the conditions in Virginia for the reason that\nthe Hampton Institute is located in that state, and is the oldest and most\nwidely known of all our schools. From an economic point of view, what has\nbeen accomplished for Virginia alone largely thru the example and work of\nthe graduates of Hampton and other large schools in that state ?\nThe reports of the state auditor show that the Negro today owns at least\none twenty-sixth of the total real estate in that commonwealth, exclusive of\nhis holdings in towns and cities, and that in the counties east of the Blue Ridge\nMountains he owns one-sixteenth. In Middlesex county he owns one-sixth;\nin Hanover, one-fourth. In Georgia the official records show that, largely\nthru the influence of educated men and women from Atlanta schools and\nothers, the Negroes own over 1,500,000 acres of land, and added last year\n$1,526,000 to their taxable property, making the total amount upon which\nthey pay taxes in that state alone $16,700,000. From nothing to $16,000,000\nin one state in forty years does not seem to prove that education is hurting the\nrace very much.\n\nRelative progress has taken place in Alabama and other southern states.\nEvery man or woman who graduates from the Hampton or Tuskegee Institutes, who has become intelligent and skilled in any of the industries of the\nSouth, is not only in demand at an increased wage on the part of my race, but\nthere is an equal demand from the white race.\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": null, "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nWhen the South had a wholly ignorant and wholly slave Negro population, she produced about 4,000,000 bales of cotton; now she has a wholly free\nand partly educated Negro population and produces nearly 11,000,000 bales\nof cotton, besides more food products than were ever grown in its history.\nIn the making of these statements, it should not be overlooked that it is\nnot the Negro alone who produces cotton, but it is his labor which produces\nmost of it. And while he may pay a small direct tax, his labor makes it mighty\nconvenient for others to pay direct taxes.\nJudged purely from an economic and industrial point of view, the education\nof the Negro is paying, and will pay more largely in the future in proportion\nas educational opportunities are increased.\nA careful examination shows that of the men and women trained at Hampton and Tuskegee not 10 per cent, can be found in idleness at any season of\nthe year.\nThey have learned the beauty of work, the disgrace of idleness.\nBut it has been repeated with emphasis that, no matter how much strength\nof mind or skill of hand the black man may acquire, after all, the weak point\nis that education does not help but retards his moral growth, and that educated\nNegro youths are more given to crime than was true in the older generations.\nIn passing, may I remark that a study of the criminal statistics of the whole\nworld shows that it is the young people who are most given to crime ? But\nwhat are the facts as to the effect of education? Within the last month I\nhave asked and secured direct information as to the criminal records of the\ngraduates of fifteen of the largest and oldest Negro colleges and industrial\nschools, and the facts are that only two graduates out of the total number\nhave been sentenced to prison, and at the present time not a single man or\nwoman bearing the diploma of one of these fifteen institutions wears the\nprison garb.\nThe records of the South show that 90 per cent, of the colored persons in\nprison are without knowledge of trades, and 61 per cent, are illiterate. This\nstatement alone disproves the assertion that the Negro grows in crime as he\nsecures education. If the Negro at the North is more criminal than his\nbrother at the South, it is largely because the North withholds from him the\nopportunity for employment that the South gives. It is not the educated\nNegro who has been guilty of, or even charged with, crime. It is, as a rule,\nthe one who has a mere smattering of education or who is in total ignorance.\nFrom the point of view of intellectual growth and self-help, the education\nof the Negro has been a success. Few white Americans realize what sacrifices\non account of his poverty the Negro has niade to secure education, and that\npractically no school has been opened that has not been filled. View the picture of a black woman teacher from the Tuskegee Institute, teaching a school\nfor weeks under an oak tree, then with hatchet and saw leading the way in the\nbuilding of a schoolhouse, and receiving for her services a pittance of ten dollars a month ! Later, see her closing her school at two o'clock that she and\nthe elder children may cultivate the acres of land about the school building.\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nNEGRO\n\nfrom which three bales of cotton are raised toward the support\nof the school,\nso that the term is finally lengthened from three to seven months !\nIn one southern state, year before last, each Negro child of school age had\nspent upon him for his entire education $1.89, while each child in New York\nstate had spent upon him $20.55. But in spite of the poverty of the southern\nstates and other obstacles, the Negro is not ashamed of his record of forty\nyears of freedom.\nAfter years of civiHzation and opportunity in Italy, 38 per cent, of the\npopulation is illiterate; in Spain, 68 per cent.; in Russia 78 per cent.; in the\naverage South American country, 80 per cent. ; while, after forty years of freedom and opportunity, the American Negro has only 44 per cent, of illiteracy\nto his debit.\nI have thus compared the progress of my race not with the highest-civilized\nnations for the reason that in passing judgment the world too often forgets\nthat, e'ther consciously or otherwise, because of our geographical and physical\nproximity to the American white man, we are being compared with the very\nhighest civilization that exists.\nFinally, there should be no disguising the fact that these are anxious\ndays for my race, and serious effort is ahead; but never for a moment do I\ndoubt our ultimate triumph. Freedom can never be given. It must be purchased. Our success will finally come, as I have insisted on numerous other\noccasions, by our learning to exercise that patience, self-control, and courage\nwhich will make us begin at the bottom and lay the foundation of our growth\nin the ownership and skillful cultivation of the soil, the possession of a bank\naccount, the exercise of thrift and skill, and the application of the highest culture of hand, head, and heart to the things which the times need have done.\nIn proportion as the Negro can convince the southern white man that by reason\nof education he can perform in the best manner the services of head and hand\nwhich the community desires, in the same proportion will that lasting friendship between the races which is so vital be strengthened. The race, like the\nindividual, that makes itself indispensable has solved most of its problems. In\nthis connection I ought to add that one of the dangers which constantly\nthreaten one race that surpasses another in numbers, wealth, and power, is\nthat it will yield to the temptation of crushing the hopes* and ambitions of the\nweaker people.\n\nThere are two ways of exerting one's strength: one in pushing down,\nthe other in pulUng up. It is a sign of the highest civilization when individuals reach the point where their strength is used in pulling every human soul\nup to the very highest point of usefulness and service. In this work the\ndescendants of Africa will pledge themselves to join hands with every white\nman on this continent. Tho myself an ex-slave, I pity from the bottom of\nmy heart any human being that has undertaken a contract to keep in ignorance and poverty any other child of the Common Father. I have so far freed\nmyself from the domination of racial and sectional prejudice that I can say I\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": null, "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhave no ambition higher than the doing of that which will serve the highest\ninterests of all the people of our hallowed Southland, regardless of race, color,\nor creed.\nIn this connection let me free your minds, if I can, from possible fear and\napprehension in two directions. The Negro in this country does not seek as a\nrace to exercise political supremacy over the white man, nor is social intermingling with any race considered by the Negro to be one of the essentials to\nhis progress. You may not know it, but my people are as proud of their\nracial identity as you are of yours, and in the degree that they become intelligent, racial pride increases. I was never prouder of the fact that I am\nclassed as a Negro than I am today.\nYou of the white race do not know of the best that is occurring among my\npeople. Many of you know more of the best in Japanese, Italian, and French\nl\"fe than of tha' of the Negro right at your door. A people should be judged\nby their best, not by their worst. One should see the Negro in his industrial\nand business occupations, and especially in his progress in church, school, and\nhome life, before judgment be passed. There are two classes among us as in\nall races — the vicious and the virtuous. I can point you to groups of my people\nin nearly every part of our country that in intelligence, and in the high and\nunselfish purpose of their school and church life, and in the purity and sweetness of their home life and social intercourse, will compare favorably with the\nraces of the earth. You can never lift any large section of people by continually calling attention to their weak points. A race, Hke the child in school,\nneeds encouragement as well as chastisement.\nMy fellow-teachers, let us, as we go out from this great gathering, teach\nthe children of the land that in proportion as they lift their hands to oppress\nand harm another race, in that degree will their souls be degraded and weakenedbut\n; that in so much as they try by word or action to lift up the humblest\nand meanest and most unprotected of the human family, they themselves will\nbe strengthened and broadened and made after the fashion of the Teacher of\nteachers, who when on earth became the servant of all, that in the end he might\nbe the Master.\n\nTHE\nGEORGE\n\nA. GATES,\n\nPLACE\n\nOF THE\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nSMALL\n\nOF POMONA\n\n[stenographic\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCLAREMONT,\n\nCAL.\n\nreport]\n\nMr. President, and Fellow-Teachers:\nI find myself under the embarrassment of appearing before you to\nplead my own cause. It might have been better for someone from the distinctive university life of America to speak on this theme, for I am convinced\nthat there are no circles in America in which the value of the small college\nis more thoroly recognized than in our great universities. No theme, however, could please me more.\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n135\n\nI am to speak on \"The Place of the Small College.\" Among all institutions of education in the world, the American college is a class by itself. A\nGerman, Frenchman, or EngHshman cannot understand what an American\nmeans by the word ''college.\" I saw it tried once. Principal Fairbaim of\nOxford in a circle of Yale men was describing higher education in England.\nIt was an informal occasion, and he was several times interrupted by the\nquestion: ''Dr. Fairbairn, How does that compare with so and so in\nAmerica?\" He attempted awkward answers to each such inquiry, but\nfinally threw up his hands in despair and said: \"Please stop asking me comparative questions. There is no comparison.\"\nI am sorry to see our good name \"college\" somewhat stolen from us. It\nis being used by business schools, for which we may all have high respect in\n.their place, but they are no more colleges, in the American sense, than they are\nkindergartens. It is straightout robbery. No teacher of a business college\nto whom I have the pleasure of speaking this morning will accuse me of discrediting their work. That would be utterly to misunderstand my meaning.\nIt is a mere question of the use of the right name. I deprecate that tendency\nin our American school life which leads one grade to ape the manners and\nadopt the name of another grade. It is always the lower filching from the\nhigher. Our high schools are coming to have their \"commencements.\"\nThey have \"baccalaureate sermons,\" altho they have no baccalaureate —\ni. e., bachelor — degrees to be conferred! They have Greek-letter fraternities\nand sororities. Even grammar schools have begun the same course. I was\nonce seriously invited to preach a \"baccalaureate\" for a \"grammar-school\ngraduation.\" The latest I have heard is that the infant school has established\nits yell. One knows not where we shall land with this degradation of good\nnames. The high school do'es not honor itself in allowing its pupils to cheat\nthemselves in this insidious way of some measure of the appeal of the college.\nIt should seek its honor in being the best possible high school. Of course it\nis worse when a college dubs itself \"university;\" for we are old enough to\nknow better.\n\nThe American college began in response to American needs. It remains\nbecause it still meets those needs. Otherwise it would have passed as is the\ncustom with outworn garments. The first college. Harvard, was established\nfor this purpose, that the colonists might have competent and intelligent\nleaders. If they emphasized leadership in the church at that particular time,\nit was because the church was relatively more in the position of instructor and\nleader than is its special function now. But the purpose was, not that a few\nboys should be selected for special privileges, but that the colonists might have\nintelligent leaders and competent instructors. It was broad democracy.\nThere has been no more formative factor in American life than these same\ncharacter.\ncolleges. Their product has gone into the very fiber of the nation's\nTheir work has been contributory to the best life of our people.\n\" was not yet.\nIn my college days, thirty years ago, the American \"university\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": null, "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe last quarter of the century at the end of which we now stand, saw somewhat of a reaction toward universities. This began with the founding of\nJohns Hopkins, our first real American university. That movement, in which\nour oldest and strongest colleges have been sharing along with the state universities, was wise, organic, timely. Quite long enough had America been\ndependent on Europe for university work. Our universities will grow from\nmore to more. That reaction from the old-time American college, with its\nfixed and necessarily somewhat narrow curriculum, came in, as I say, during\nthe last quarter of the nineteenth century. But just in these present years a\ncounter-reaction is setting in in the minds of American educators toward the\nsmall college. Now, that remark has little meaning if I simply stand here to\nmake it. If it does not meet a response of assent in the minds of my hearers,\nthen it probably is not true. I ask you, as you look at American college life\nand note its tendencies, can you not see a reaction from that former action — a\nrereaction now in favor of the small college ? I believe that to be a true historical statement of fact. The place and function of the American college are\nreceiving re-recognition. There is reason in it and for it. Not that we are\ngoing back to that same old American college. It too must develop; only it\nmust be in its own way and in its own field. No philosophy of history is logical, however, which takes as its watchword ''back to\" anything. It is always\n''forward to\" something. We hear the opposite of that sometimes. But\nany cry, in state or church or school, of \"back to\" something, is a false cry.\nWe are bidden to \"walk with God.\" Very well then, we must keep up, for\n\"Our God is marching on.\" So that any change is not back to a former condition of regard for the college, but is forward in the larger fife of higher\neducation, in which the new American college has its permanent place.\nThe distinguishing features of the college, as contrasted with the university,\nare too valuable to lose from American life. What are these features?\nI. The college at its best is far less exposed to \"the tendency to foster a\nnarrowly specialized efficiency at the expense of broad and Hberalizing culture.\" College education has for one purpose, preparation for technical and\ntechnological training. I find myself radically opposed to the tendencies in\ncertain high places in American education which are tempted to yield to the\ncall of persistent and fierce commercialism. I do not believe that American\nyouth need any urging to make haste to get into commercial life. Recently\nan article has been written, in one of our large magazines, by a man who has\nfounded a school of journaHsm in one of our great universities. He \"struck\"\nthis country a generation ago, a poor Austrian Jew immigrant boy. Today he\nis the proprietor of three strong newspapers in three large American cities.\nHe has turned around and devoted of wealth he has accumulated a fund to\ncreate a school of journalism, to lift journaHsm, as he phrases it \"up out of\nbusiness into a profession.\" He wrote to the president of one of our leading\nuniversities, seeking advice about a curriculum for the new school. The\npresident answered wisely, but included some courses about the commercial\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\n——\n\nTHE\n\n■\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n«j /\n\naspects of journalism. Then behold a phenomenon: This boy, landing in\nthis country poor as a beggar, but become a munificent possessor of great\nwealth, ''calls down\" one of our greatest university presidents by\nsaying:\n''No sir; not one word of commerciahsm shall be taught in my school. It\nshall train men for the ideals of a great profession.\" Fellow-teachers, there is\na spectacle worthy of a sculptor's art.\nI am speaking of specialization, as over against general culture which the\ncollege offers. A few years ago a young American student in one of our\nuniversities said to the professor of chemistry there — a man at the head of his\nprofession: \"Why don't you make chemistry a culture study, by giving one\ncourse of lectures on the history of chemistry ?\" And the man laughed, and\nrepHed: \"I want to know what chemistry now is. I care nothing about its\nhistory.\" Go forward twenty years. In that same university that same\nprofessor gives annually a course of lectures on the \"history of chemistry,\"\nand lo, it is the most popular of all his courses !\nBut I hear the objection, the old call of those who demand that we must\nspecialize early if we are to meet the ambitious demands of our rushing commercial age. They say: \"Oh well ! Your theories are very fine, but we must\nmeet life as we find it.\" Friends, that is very true. But woe to America if\nAmerican educators at such a time interpret that sentiment to mean that we\nare to leave life as we find it ! I take it that the function of higher education\nis that it finds life at one stage and leaves it at another. American education\nwill not ultimately yield to that subtly fatal temptation. It is just at this point\nthat the American college has found and will retain its own great place, our\none place where influence is against early specializing. By as much as a man\nis more than his profession, or his work, or his vocation; by as much as general\nculture is more to him who possesses it than any height of specialty, by so much\nis the college course, modified as knowledge grows, certain to hold its own in\nthe life of the American people.\n2. The supreme factor in education is ever the personality of the teacher.\nThe small college offers scope for this function to a degree that is not claimed\nby the larger university. Great personalities make themselves felt anywhere,\nbut in the general the small college has here a clear advantage. The touch\nbetween institution and student, of intimate personal relation, is a never-to-bePersonality is the ultimate fact of education, as of all\nforgotten chief factor.\nphilosophy and Hfe.\n[Mr. Gates' address was interrupted at this point for the reception by the Association\nof Cardinal Satolli.]\n\nLadies and gentlemen, I count it an honor to make way^for so distinguished\nHfe\na visitor to our country, representing a type of educational and rehgious\ncherish\nI\nthat\ntrust\nI\nwhich\nfor\nwith which I am not formally associated, but\nsympathetic appreciation.\n\nI visited a univerI was speaking of the place of personaHty in education.\nby\nsity last year in which there was a class of ,137 students in geometry taught\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": null, "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\none man at the same time. One should not say ''taught\" — an impossibility.\nHe was there, presiding and lecturing on geometry to freshmen 1 He himself\nsaid it was a farce.\nThe head of the department of chemistry in one of our greatest universities\nwrote to the head of the department of chemistry in a college in Iowa: \"Your\nboys after one year in chemistry come to me better prepared than my own boys\nhere. What can I do with a mob of 350 coming into my laboratory to receive\ninstruction ? I can only give them fourteen inches of bench space apiece and\nsend assistants around to look after them.\nYou can ' teach ' them but I can't.\"\nThe fact is that Germany and France are reacting from the centraHzation\nidea. They used to say in Berlin : \" If there is a professor in another university\nthat dares to show his head above the commonplace, we get him to Berlin.\"\nThey have stopped that. German university Hfe is becoming too big to be\nconcentrated in any one place. France is growing away from it. England\nnever had it; the loyalty there is to the small, individual \"college\" in the\nuniversity, rather than to the university as a whole. In America we are\nalready, by way of reaction, having some tendencies that way. I believe that\nour friend up in Chicago, when he occasionally desists a moment in his mad\ncareer of \"affiliating\" the solar system, catches a vision of the wisdom of dividing a great university into small \"colleges.\"\nThe teacher who loves teaching for its own sake will be found more particularly where he can get that personal touch with his pupils. I was speaking\nyesterday with one of our strong educators of America, himself the head of a\nuniversity, who said: \"I deprecate the tendency to bring university methods\ninto the college.\"\n3. The small college must not be so small and poor as to be mean. There\nare such. I object to the term \"denominational college,\" as it is too often\nused. I happen to be connected with a college that belongs under the patronage of a certain denomination; but of the three hundred students in that\ncollege only one-third, as they report themselves in their registration papers,\nare affiliated with our own denomination. Any college that starts out to teach\nnarrowly any kind of doctrine will fail and ought to fail. Truth is free, and\nmust always be taught so; it makes free teacher and taught. The college\nmust be large enough for the \"college spirit\" — that subtle term which we\nunderstand, but cannot define. It must be small enough that that spirit be\nnot impossible thru the fact that the men cannot know each other.\n4. We must not overlook the value of the small college next door to that\nbright boy. Oh, how some of us know what this means'. The college bell,\nactually and in figure, calls to him, and he never would have heard, much less\nheeded, that call if he had had to go two or three thousand miles to answer it.\nThis fact of comparative proximity, coupled with the other closely related fact\nof the smaller expense, has been and is of immeasurable significance to our\nAmerican life.\n5. It is a dangerous experiment in the higher education to take boys and\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPLACE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSMALL\n\nCOLLEGE\n\ni^g\n\ngirls from the superb teachers they often get in our best high schools and put\nthem under immature and inexperienced assistants and tutors. One distinct\nadvantage that the small college has is just here. I will not insult your intelligence by elaborating that point.\n6. Some sorts and degrees of leadership, easily escapable amid large numbers, are forced upon most students in a college. This is one of the greatest\nadvantages of limited numbers. It is of large significance for women, in an\nage laying increasing obligations upon them for sane and strong leadership.\n7 . Statistics abundantly show a far larger proportion of graduates of smaller\ncolleges ' ' doing well \" than of larger institutions. A Harvard man has recently,\nin a brilliant paragraph, shown that this is strikingly true of his own college,\ncomparing Harvard the \"small college\" before i860, with ''Harvard University since\n\"\nthat time. Some of the best men this country has known would\nprobably never have been known but for some small college.\n8. The small college can, and does, cultivate a spirit of loyalty to itself,\nand to its members, that no great institution can by any possibility do. If the\nolder colleges that have become universities still retain it, it is because of what\nremains of the ''small college\" still nestling in the heart of the great university.\nIn the chief city of the Pacific coast effort has several times been made\nto organize the considerable number of graduates of one strong Eastern University into an alumni association. The effort has as often failed. Loyalty\nand college spirit are wanting. The men never knew each other or of each\nother. Several such associations of \"small colleges\" of the East are vigorous\nin this same coast city. Men in the great universities may indeed \"know as\nmany students, but they do not know them in the same way.\"\nA physician in a city of two hundred thousand people, a man who in that\ncity stands at the head of his profession, said to me a few days ago: \"It is the\nthirtieth anniversary of my college graduation; my college is three thousand\nmiles away; but my patients must seek other help. The college calls to me\nand I must go.\" It is the college of which Daniel Webster, pleading his\ncollege's case in the Supreme Court, said: \"It may be a small college, but\nthere are those who love it.\" Let us not lose the glorious friendships of our\nyouth, such as go with the best American college spirit. They are among the\nchoicest things in our lives. God pity us, if the mad spirit of commercialism\nor any other delusion robs us of great life itself ! There are few brighter pages of\nfife than the beautiful memories and friendships of our best American Colleges.\nFinally this general word: that higher education, which wiU permanently\n\ncommand respect and allegiance will be found to consist chiefly of the enlargement of life. However \"practical\" or impatient our age, \"getting a Uving\"\nof whatever sort will not satisfy as a goal or ideal. We may as well understand\nthat there can be no \"tendency,\" looked at in the long and large, that fails\njudgment\nto justify itself before the bar of the clearest vision and the sanest\nseems to\ncollege,\nAmerican\nthe\nthing,\nunique\nThat\nfor.\nis\nof what human fife\nideal.\nan\nsuch\nto\ng\nministerin\nin\nhave an abiding place\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": null, "text": "I40\n\nTHE\nDR.\n\nLEOPOLD\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\nBAHLSEN,\nTHE\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nLOUISIANA\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE\n\nPURCHASE\n\n[General\n\nIN GERMANY\n\nGERMAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT\n\nEXPOSITION^\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nFirst of all I wish to thank you for the honor you have shown me by inviting\nme to speak in this magnificent Festival Hall, the universally admired central\nfeature of this glorious World's Fair; and to speak to an audience composed\nof ladies and gentlemen who are all interested in the important questions\nregarding the culture and the intellectual progress of the human race — the\nquestion of education. I assure you, the government which has sent me here\nto represent the German school exhibit takes the most active interest in all\nmatters pertaining to the National Educational Association, and its various\neducational councils and congresses.\nThe question on which you have kindly invited me to speak to you — the\npreparation of teachers — is one of the most important among the many\nquestions which you touch upon in your various meetings and congresses, in\nso far as it is the question of the training of men and women to whom the\nparents intrust the education of their boys and girls, the future citizens and\nhope of their country.\nThe occupation of teaching is a noble, a difficult, a highly responsible one,\nrequiring a vast amount of idealism and a full devotion to the noble cause.\nAnd this, I am happy to say, is to be found among American teachers no less\nthan in my own country. It was one of the most impressive pedagogical\nexperiences in my life when I had the opportunity of teaching in the United\nStates, in the Teachers College under the auspices of the Columbia University\nof New York, whose highly respected president, Professor Nicholas Butler,\nmay be considered an ideal educator, both as a teacher in the university and as\na leader in the most difficult problems and questions of pubHc education.\nFrom my experience and observations in this country of rapid progress, I\nknow there is no lack here, as there is none in the old country, of well-educated\nearnest teachers. Your work is not in vain, and your teaching will take root\nin the young hearts, and will bear fruit in the later life of those who are to work\nafter us in the great field of education and humanity.\nThe teacher in our German schools — and I suppose in all well-regulated\nschools of other countries — must be able to fulfill two requirements: First,\nhe must have the humanitarian quahties necessary for every true teacher, a\nlove for his work, and a genuine interest in the child who is to be intrusted to\nhis care, combined with the moral qualifications without which he could\nnever be the shining example which his pupils have a right to expect him to be,\nnot only in matters of scientific knowledge, but in matters of heart and home.\n»By request of the author the simplified spellings adopted by the Association are not used in this\npaper. — Editor\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN\n\nGERMANY\n\njai\n\nThe second requirement is that he shall be thoroughly versed in his line of\nwork; for, while it is quite true that the most highly educated people do not\nalways develop into the best and most successful teachers, yet it is equally\ntrue that knowledge should be the first requisite of the teacher, and that\nnothing weakens his authority or his usefulness so quickly as the realization\non the part of his pupils that he is not well versed in that which he is trying\nto teach them.\nI could add a third thought to these requirements, and that would be in\nregard to the pedagogical skill which to a great extent is a gift of nature, but\nwhich is not generally recognized, or appreciated, until the teacher stands\nbefore his pupils to fail or to succeed. Even the best-equipped teacher\nmust necessarily pass through a period of practice work before he can safely\nrely on his ability.\nNow as one must recognize the truth that pedagogical skill can be developed\nto a great extent with due practice, we give our applicants the necessary scientific training first of all.\nIn Germany we classify the teachers into four groups, according to the\nschools in which they work and the educational courses which they must take\nup: (i) teachers of the lower and middle schools; (2) teachers of the higher\nschools; (3) teachers of technical, art, and manual-training schools; and (4)\nthe professors of the universities.\nThose who wish to teach in the technical, manual-training, and art schools\nmust be able to demonstrate their ability in their chosen line, and must have\nattended institutions in which they could best receive the necessary\ntraining. He who wishes to teach in the university must have attended one of\nthe three varieties of higher schools, and then have studied at least three years\nin some German university; after which he must win the degree of doctor by\nspecial examination, and must prove by some printed, literary or scientific,\ncontribution that he is on the road to independent literary effort.\nHowever, what you invited me to speak about is the training required of\nteachers in the lower, middle, and higher schools of Germany; and in this\nconnection I wish to say that by the lower schools we mean all elementary\nschools, the public schools (having only one or two classes, as we find them in\nthe German villages) as well as the primary and grammar schools, their\ncourses of study extending through even seven or eight years, as they are\narranged by the local authorities of the larger cities.\nIn these lower schools no foreign language is taught, and in all other\nbranches the aim of the course of study does not differ materially from that of\nyour elementary schools. Coeducation does not exist, except in some of the\nsmaller villages, and in a very few of the higher schools in Baden. In general,\n\nlady teachers are employed only in the girls' schools. These girls' schools are\nalso graded as lower, middle, and higher schools; and of late some higher\ngirls' schools include even Latin and Greek. In its main features the training\nFor the\nof the male and female teachers for the lower schools is the same.\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": null, "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmiddle schools, in which one foreign language, generally French, is taught,\nthe teacher must, of course, be proficient in this language.\nHe who wishes to teach in the elementary schools must have attended a\nnormal school — we call it Seminar. No coeducation exists in the German\nnormal schools. He is not qualified to enter such Normal school, or seminary,\nuntil he has taken a six-year course in some high school, or (and this is generally\nthe case) has successfully completed the work in some preparatory school,\nwhich he can enter from the common schools. No one under the age of\neighteen years is admitted to the normal school.\nThe course of such a Seminar is of three years' duration. Their curriculum embraces a course in German and religion, besides history, geography,\nMathematics, elementary geometry, biology, pedagogy, method of teaching,\nteaching in class, agricultural instruction, French or English, drawing, gymnastics, and music. Most of the seminaries are Protestant schools, but we\nalso have many Catholic seminaries of this kind in Germany, and some schools\nto which both Protestants and Catholics are admitted.\nIn Germany there are now about two hundred seminaries for male teachers, and only thirty for female teachers; but for the latter there are also\nmany private and municipal seminaries. One-third of these schools are\n'' interna te\" — that is, boarding schools; one-third are ''externate\" — that is,\nhave no dormitories; and one-third are a combination of both systems. The\nnumber of pupils seldom exceeds eighty or ninety.\nDuring the third year the pupils have opportunity to do practical work in\nteaching, in a training department connected with their normal school, and\nunder the direction of an able and experienced teacher. This training department consists sometimes of one, sometimes of two classes. In Berlin this\ntraining or practice school, connected with the normal school, is completely\ngraded as a middle school. All the male normal training schools are royal\ninstitutions, but to some higher city schools for girls has been given the right\nto combine a normal training school with their higher grade work. The\ngraduates of such schools must pass examinations given by the state commission.\nAs a rule, the candidates who take these examinations or graduate from\nnormal schools are twenty years of age. Although they have had opportunity during the last year of their work to do practical teaching under the\nguidance of experienced instructors, this examination, which is the first they\nhave to take, consists only of written and oral tests.\nAfter the candidates have completed the normal course they may be\nemployed as substitute teachers, as occasion requires; but before they may\nhold permanent positions they must pass a second examination, and that\nmust be sometime within the following five years. Then they are qualified\nto hold positions in the primary or grammar schools; or they may, according\nto their ability, receive a certificate which will entitle them to the possibility\nof working up to a principalship of a primary and grammar, or intermediate,\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nPREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIN\n\nGERMANY\n\n143\n\nNow as to the training of the teachers of the high schools in Germany:\nThey must have attended a university, the title of doctor of philosophy being\na very agreeable, though not an absolutely necessary, addition to their honors.\nThe educational course of a future senior teacher (Oberlehrer) in Germany\nis as follows: He must attend a higher school— Gynasium, Real gymnasium,\nor Oherrealschule — whose course of study extends over a period of nine years.\nFrom that he graduates at about nineteen years of age. Then he attends a\nuniversity to study philology or mathematics, history or geography, or the\nvarious branches of natural science, in connection with philosophy and pedagogics, including psychology and logic. After studying for three or four years\nin such a university, he may acquire the title of Ph.D., if this be his ambition,\nby some dissertation and an oral examination, and then he takes the so-called\nscientific state examination, which every teacher of the higher schools has to\npass.\nThe government appoints an examining commission for each province,\nthe members of this body being partly very prominent schoolmen, and partly\nprofessors of the university of that province. Having successfully passed\nthis scientific state examination, the candidate sends his certificate to the royal\nboard of education of the province in which he wishes to be employed as\nteacher. Then he is appointed to some state or city school, in which he will\nhave ample opportunity to gain experience by practical teaching. A teacher\nof the ancient languages is, of course, assigned to some college, while one who\nteaches the modern languages is assigned to a Realgymnasium, and one who\nteaches mathematics and natural science is assigned to an Oherrealschule,\nThis course of practical schoolroom work takes up two years of his time;\nduring the first of which he attends various classes to Usten and learn by the\nexample of the older and more experienced teachers. He receives instruction\nregarding the matters of discipHne, organization, rules, and regulations of\nschool life.\nHe must write essays on various important pedagogical books, essays on\nthe lessons which he has attended, and must plan and write original programs\nor outHnes of such lessons. In the second year he is allowed to teach, under\nthe direction and criticism of the principal of the school. At the end of the\nyear he receives a certificate, as to his quaHfications and ability as a teacher,\nfrom his principal. And now, finally, he is ready to be employed as a senior\nteacher, or Oberlehrer, in one of the higher schools.\nThe matter of salary is definitely regulated in the state as well as the city\nschools, and after ten years of active work the teacher is entitled to a pension, a\npart of which is transferred to his family in case of his death. This rule\nregarding salary and pension applies to the teachers of higher as well as lower\nschools, and to male as well as female teachers.\nThe educational course of some of the teachers in the higher schools includes\nancient\na sojourn in foreign countries. Those who wish to instruct in the\nso m\nor\nyear\na\nfor\nstudies\ntheir\ncontinue\nto\nty\nlanguages are given an opportuni\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": null, "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe Archaeological Institute in Rome. In Athens a similar institute affords\nopportunity for the study of classical art.\nOf course, it is a very great advantage for the teacher of modern languages\nto have studied such a language, not only philologically at the university, but\nalso practically by a sojourn among the people in whose language he wishes\nto instruct. The time has passed in which we of the German schools simply\nstudy grammar without giving the pupils opportunity to carry on conversational work in the foreign tongue. Where can the German teacher learn, for\ninstance, the French language — I mean the language of e very-day life — better\nthan in the land and among the people of France ? For that reason it is right\nthat the government regard it as an advantage, and give preference to those\nteachers who have lived for a time in France or England.\nAnd even this seems to me no longer sufficient. What do we mean by\nteaching the modern languages? I should say it means not only to teach\nthe language, but to introduce the pupil to the literature, the history, the customs, the mode of life, and the habits of the people whose language he is\nstudying. And we German teachers, who teach the English language in our\nGerman schools, must remember that in these lessons we must dwell not only\non the literature and life of England, but also on those of these United States.\nWe should bear in mind that English is not only the language of Shakespeare,\nbut also of Longfellow and Ralph Waldo Emerson. And he who wishes to\nenter fully into the spirit of our present era, in these the opening years of the\ntwentieth century, must remember the glorious development of this country,\nthe workings and accomplishments of this industrious people of the United\nStates.\nI shall never forget how much a year spent in the United States helped\nand inspired me for my work as a German teacher of the English language\nat a German school. I owe a great vote of thanks to the worthy gentleman\nwhose letter of introduction to the school authorities made it possible for me\nto visit many of the schools and universities from New York to San Francisco ;\nI mean the man whose educational work has endeared him to every teacher\nof this country, and whose name is spoken with the highest regard and respect\nalso by teachers of foreign and far-distant countries, the United States Commissioner ofEducation in Washington, Dr. William T. Harris.\nThrough traveling in foreign countries the teacher widens his horizon,\nlearns to lay aside many prejudices, and consequently enables himself to\nbroaden the intellect and remove the prejudices from the minds of his pupils.\nThus he will help to build up that majestic intellectual bridge which, in spite\nof the thousands of miles of intervening water, connects the nations of the Old\nWorld with those of the New, in the friendly contest of intellectual and other\nambitions, in this busy life-work of the twentieth century.\nThis, I think, is the best advice we can give a teacher, never mind of what\nnation he may be :\nIf you wish to do full justice to your noble profession, act as you wish\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSHOULD\n\nORGANIZE\n\nM5\n\nyour pupils to act, live for your country, put your heart and\nsoul into your\nwork; but do not forget to lift your eyes above the narrow confines\nof the\nschoolroom, out into the glorious world in which all civilized\nnations are\nworking for the progress and enlightenment of humanity.\n\nWHY\nMARGARET\n\nA. HALEY,\n\nTEACHERS\nPRESIDENT\n\nSHOULD\n\nORGANIZE\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\nFEDERATION\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nILL.\n\n'\n\nThe responsibility for changing existing conditions so as to make it possible\nfor the public school to do its work rests with the people, the whole people.\nAny attempt on the part of the pubHc to evade or shift this responsibility\nmust result in weakening the public sense of civic responsibility and the\ncapacity for civic duty, besides further isolating the pubHc school from the\npeople, to the detriment of both.\nThe sense of responsibility for the duties of citizenship in a democracy is\nnecessarily weak in a people so lately freed from monarchical rule as are the\nAmerican people, and who still retain in their educational, economic, and\npoHtical systems so much of their monarchical inheritance, with growing\ntendencies for retaining and developing the essential weaknesses of that inheritance instead of overcoming them.\nPractical experience in meeting the responsibihties of citizenship directly,\nnot in evading or shifting them, is the prime need of the American people.\nHowever clever or cleverly disguised the schemes for relieving the public of\nthese responsibilities by vicarious performance of them, or however appropriate those schemes in a monarchy, they have no place in a government of\nthe people, by the people, and for the people, and such schemes must result in\ndefeating their object; for to the extent that they obtain they destroy in a people\nthe capacity for self-government.\nIf the American people cannot be made to realize and meet their responsibility to the public school, no self-appointed custodians of the pubhc intelligence and conscience can do it for them. Horace Mann, speaking of the\ndependence of the prosperity of the schools on the public intelligence, said:\nThe people will sustain no better schools and have no better education than they personally see the need of; and therefore the people are to be informed and elevated as a preliminary step toward elevating the schools.\n\nSometimes, in our impatience at the slowness with which the public moves\nin these matters, we are tempted to disregard this wise counsel.\nThe methods as well as the objects of teachers' organizations must be in\nharmony with the fundamental object of the public school in a democracy,\nto preserve and develop the democratic ideal. It is not enough that this ideal\nbe realized in the administration of the schools and the methods of teaching;\nin all its relations to the pubHc, the pubHc school must conform to this ideal.\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": null, "text": "146\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe character of teachers' organizations is twofold. Organizations on\nprofessional lines existed before the necessity became apparent for those for\nthe improvement of conditions. The necessity for both is becoming increasingly evident, and the success of the one is dependent upon the success of the\nother. Unless the conditions for realizing educational ideals keep pace with\nthe ideals themselves, the result in educational practice is deterioration. To\nknow the better way and be unable to follow it is unfavorable to a healthy\ndevelopment. To have freedom in the conditions without the incentive of\nthe ideal is no less harmful. It is, therefore, opportune that the occasion\nfor organization in the newer sense, the sense understood in the subject of\nthis paper, should be coincident with the formulation of the most advanced\neducational theory in a practical philosophy of pedagogy.\nModern educational thought has been dominated by the element of inspiration and the element of science; the former enthroning the child, displacing\nthe subject-matter of knowledge as the center of educational theory; the latter\nfounded upon the faith in underlying laws of human development in harmony\nwith which it is possible to evolve a rational method of eliminating waste in the\neducational process.\nHow far the educative influence of teaching under these two motives\ntends to produce a teaching body capable of the highest kind of organized\nactivity it is not possible to determine. Neither is it possible not to perceive\nthe harmony between the principles underlying a rational system of teaching\nand those underlying the movement for freer expression and better conditions\namong teachers.\nThere is no possible conflict between the interest of the child and the interest of the teacher, and nothing so tends to make this fact evident as the progress\nin the scientific conception of educational method and administration. For\nboth the child and the teacher freedom is the condition of development. The\natmosphere in which it is easiest to teach is the atmosphere in which it is\neasiest to learn. The same things that are a burden to the teacher are a burden\nalso to the child. The same things which restrict her powers restrict his powers also.\nThe element of danger in organization for self-protection is the predominance of the selfish motive. In the case of teachers a natural check is placed\nupon this motive by the necessity for professional organization. The closer\nthe union between these two kinds of organization, the fuller and more effective is the activity possible to each.\nFreedom of activity directed by freed intelligence is the ideal of democracy.\nThis ideal of democracy is slowly shaping our educational ideal, and making\nits realization the function of our educational agencies.\nThe public school is the organized means provided by the deliberate effort\nof the whole people to free inteUigence at its source — and thru freed intelligence to secure freedom of action.\nMisdirected activity is proof that the educational agencies are not properly\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": null, "text": "S^s«'»°sl\n\nWHY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSHOULD\n\nORGANIZE\n\nj^j\n\nfunctioning. This may be because these agencies have not freed intelligen\nce,\nor it may be because the inteUigence which they have freed is denied free\nactivity.\nMisdirected poHtical activity in lowering the democratic ideal, reacts\nto\nlower the educational ideal. On the other hand, a false or incomplete educational ideal fails to free the intelhgence necessary for the work of constructing\na democracy out of our monarchical inheritance.\nThat the pubhc school does not feel its responsibility in the matter of\npolitical corruption, for instance, nor realize the effect upon the schools of\nthis corruption and the misdirected activity of which it is a symptom, is proof\nthat the public school is not yet conscious of its own vital function in a\ndemocracy.\nWhen Ida Tarbell and Lincoln Steffens in Hghtning flashes, disclosed to\nthe American people indisputable facts concerning the business methods of\nour so-called ''good business men\" and their relations to politics, they showed\na condition of affairs that must make every thoughtful citizen stop and ask:\n\"Whither are we going?\" How many pubUc-school teachers, on reading\nthese disclosures, said to themselves: ''We must take our share of the blame.\nThe pubhc school, that great agency of the people for freeing intelhgence, has\nfailed to do its whole duty.\" The pubhc school is not wholly to blame. There\nare other educational agencies. There is the press, for instance. But the\npress does not belong to the people; it is a private enterprise. The schools do\nbelong to the people, and they are free.\nWe teachers are responsible for existing conditions to the extent that the\nschools have not inspired true ideals of democracy, or that we have not made\nthe necessary effort toward removing the conditions which make the realization of these ideals impossible.\nWe recognize anarchy in the act which takes the Hfe of the chief executive\nof a city, state, or nation ; but there is another kind of anarchy in our midst.\nIt is the anarchy which sends the railroad and corporation lobby to the legislatures and to the taxing bodies — yes, even to the bench — and in whose hands\nthese servants of the people are as wax and obey the command of the lobby,\nand defy the law they were elected and sworn to uphold. This is the anarchy\nwe need to fear in America, and whose meaning the pubUc-school teachers\nneed to comprehend.\nIt was indeed an invaluable public service which the teachers of Chicago\nrendered when they established in the courts, and in the minds of the people,\nthe fact that thru the connivance of pubhc officials five pubhc-utility corporations are enabled to rob Chicago of ten miUion dollars annually thru the free\ngift to these corporations of the use of the pubhc streets. Think what that\nmeans: the second city in the Union compelled to pay to five corporations,\nher own creatures, an annual tribute of ten million dollars; more than the\ncombined cost of maintaining the pubhc schools and the pubhc hbrary— at\nthe same time her board of education closing the schools, cutting the teachers*\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": null, "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsalaries, increasing the number of children in each room, and otherwise crippling the service for want of money !\nAmerica's motto once was, ''Milhons for defense, but not one cent for\ntribute,\" and we teachers may continue to teach that it is still our motto;\nbut the children will learn, in spite of our teaching, that \"Milhons for tribute\nand not one cent for defense\" is nearer the truth.\nThe significant thing in the tax crusade of the Chicago teachers was not\nthe disclosing of these humiliating facts, nor the forcing of the corporations\nto return to the public treasury some of their stolen millions; it was that the\npublic school, thru the organized effort of the teachers, was the agency which\nbrought these conditions to the attention of the public and showed how to\napply the remedy.\nNowhere in the United States today does the public school, as a branch of\nthe public service, receive from the public either the moral or financial support needed to enable it properly to perform its imporant function in the social\norganism. The conditions which are militating most strongly against efficient\nteaching, and which existing organizations of the kind under discussion here\nare directing their energies toward changing, briefly stated are the following :\n1. Greatly increased cost of living, together with constant demands for higher standards of scholarship and professional attainments and culture, to be met with practically\nstationary and wholly inadequate teachers' salaries.\n2. Insecurity of tenure of office and lack of provision for old age.\n3. Overwork in overcrowded schoolrooms, exhausting both mind and body.\n4. And, lastly, lack of recognition of the teacher as an educator in the school system,\ndue to the increased tendency toward \" factoryizing education,\" making the teacher an\nautomaton, a mere factory hand, whose duty it is to carry out mechanically and unquestioningly the ideas and orders of those clothed with the authority of position, and who may or\nmay not know the needs of the children or how to minister to them.\n\nThe individuality of the teacher and her power of initiative are thus\ndestroyed, and the result is courses of study, regulations, and equipment\nwhich the teachers have had no voice in selecting, which often have no relation\nto the children's needs, and which prove a hindrance instead of a help in\nteaching.\nDr. John Dewey, of the University of Chicago, in the Elementary School\nTeacher for December, 1903, says:\nAs to the teacher: If there is a single public-school system in the United States where\nthere is official and constitutional provision made for submitting questions of methods of discipline and teaching, and the questions of the curriculum, text-books, etc., to the discussion of those actually \"engaged in the work of teaching, that fact has escaped my notice.\nIndeed, the opposite situation is so common that it seems, as a rule, to be absolutely taken\nfor granted as the normal and final condition of affairs. The number of persons to whom\nany other course has occurred as desirable, or even possible— to say nothing of necessary —\nis apparently very limited. But until the public-school system is organized in such a way\nthat every teacher has some regular and representative way in which he or she can register\njudgment upon matters of educational importance, with the assurance that this judgment\nwill somehow affect the school system, the assertion that the present system is not, from\nthe internal standpoint, democratic seems to be justified.\nEither we come here upon\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSHOULD\n\nORGANIZE\n\n149\n\nsome fixed and inherent limitation of the democratic principle, or else we find in this fact\nan obvious discrepancy between the conduct of the school and the conduct of social life—\na discrepancy so great as to demand immediate and persistent effort at reform.\n\nA few days ago Professor George F. James, dean of pedagogy of the State\nUniversity of Minnesota, said to an audience of St. Paul teachers:\nOne hundred thousand teachers will this year quit an occupation which does not yield\nthem a hving wage. Scores and hundreds of schools are this day closed in the most prosperous sections of this country because the bare pittance offered will not attract teachers\nof any kind.\n\nProfessor James further maintained that school-teachers are not only underpaid, but that they are paid much less proportionately than they received\neight years ago.\nIt is necessary that the pubhc understand the effect which teaching under\nthese conditions is having upon the education of the children.\nIn reacting unfavorably upon the pubHc school, these wrong conditions\naffect the child, the parent, and the teacher; but the teacher is so placed that\nshe is the one first to feel the disadvantage: she is held responsible by the\nchild, by the parent, by the authorities, by society, and by herself because\nof her own ideals, for duties in the performance of which she is continually\nhampered. The dissatisfaction and restlessness among teachers are due to\nthe growing consciousness that causes outside of then^^elves and beyond their\ncontrol are making their work more difficult. Some of these causes of irritation are inherent in the school system. Such proceed from the failure of the\nsystem on the educational and administrative side to adapt itself to the growing\nideals of education and the demand for rational methods of realizing them.\nThese inherent causes of trouble include the limitations of the teachers themselves and the failure of the system either to remedy these deficiencies or to\nremove the deficient.\nWhere friction is minimized by enhghtened supervision and administration, the pressure of outside causes is less keenly felt. But where the system\nis so administered that inherent weaknesses and outside causes combine and\nreinforce each other to produce dissatisfaction, the double pressure increases\nthe irritation, and correspondingly hastens the time when sheer necessity\nimpels the teachers to seek a remedy or leave the profession.\nThe first and crudest form of expression that dissatisfaction with these\nconditions takes is the reaction against the nearest and most obvious cause of\nirritation — unsatisfactory supervision and administration, which are later recognized as effects rather than causes. The last causes to be assigned are the\n\nreal ones, and only when every individual effort to better coaditions has failed\ndoes the thought of combined effort for mutual aid— in other words, organized effort — suggest itself.\nAnd yet organization is the method of all inteUigently directed effort.\nWithin the last decade in a few cities of the United States organization\nhas been effected among those on whom devolves the responsibility of applying\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": null, "text": "I50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nscientific principles to the actual work with children in the school-room, the\npurpose of such organization being to secure conditions under which rational\nteaching may become possible.\nSuch organization is at once the effect and the cause of a broadening of the\nintelligence and the educational outlook of the teachers, for to such organization they must take not only a reading acquaintance with the best in educational\ntheory and practice, but a practical knowledge of what constitutes scientific\nteaching. Nor is this all, tho it may suffice for the professional equipment of\nthose whose duties are merely supervisory. The class-room teachers in addition to this must have the ability and skill, given fair conditions, to do scientific\nteaching. More than this, they must know the conditions under which scientific teaching is possible, must know when and in what respects such conditions are lacking; and then, most difficult of all, because it includes all these\nand much more, they must know how to reach the public with accurate information concerning the conditions under which teaching is done and their\neffects on the work of the school.\nSuch are the prerequisites of teachers who would successfully engage in the\nwork of securing better conditions for themselves, and for the schools, thru\norganization.\nA word, before closing, on the relations of the public-school teachers and\nthe public schools to the labor unions. As the professional organization furnishes the motive and ideal which shall determine the character and methods\nof the organized effort of teachers to secure better conditions for teaching, so\nis it the province of the educational agencies in a democracy to furnish the\nmotive and ideal which shall determine the character and methods of the\norganization of its members for self-protection.\nThere is no possible conflict between the good of society and the good of\nits members, of which the industrial workers are the vast majority. The\norganization of these workers for mutual aid has shortened the hours of\nlabor, raised and equalized the wages of men and women, and taken the children from the factories and workshops. These humanitarian achievements of\nthe labor unions — and many others which space forbids enumerating — in\nraising the standard of living of the poorest and weakest members of society,\nare a service to society which for its own welfare it must recognize. More\nthan this, by intelligent comprehension of the limitations of the labor unions\nand the causes of these limitations, by just, judicious, and helpful criticism\nand co-operation, society must aid them to feel the inspiration of higher ideals,\nand to find the better means to realize these ideals.\nIf there is one institution on which the responsibility to perform this service\nrests most heavily, it is the public school. If there is one body of public servants of whom the public has a right to expect the mental and moral equipment\nto face the labor question, and other issues vitally affecting the welfare of\nsociety and urgently pressing for a rational and scientific solution, it is the\npublic-school teachers, whose special contribution to society is their own power\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nWHY\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSHOULD\n\nORGANIZE\n\ni^j\n\nto think, the moral courage to follow their convictions, and the training of citizens to think and to express thought in free and intelligent action.\nThe narrow conception of education which makes the mechanics of reading,\nwriting, and arithmetic, and other subjects, the end and aim of the schools^\ninstead of a means to an end— which mistakes the accidental and incidental\nfor the essential— produces the unthinking, mechanical mind in teacher and\npupil, and prevents the public school as an institution, and the public-school\nteachers as a body, from becoming conscious of their relation to society and\nits problems, and from meeting their responsibihties. On the other hand, that\nteaching which is most scientific and rational gives the highest degree of\npower to think and to select the most inteUigent means of expressing thought\nin every field of activity. The ideals and methods of the labor unions are in a\nmeasure a test of the efficiency of the schools and other educational agencies.\nHow shall the pubUc school and the industrial workers, in their struggle\nto secure the rights of humanity thru a more just and equitable distribution\nof the products of their labor, meet their mutual responsibiUty to each other\nand to society ?\nWhether the work of co-ordinating these two great educational agencies,\nmanual and mental labor, with each other and with the social organism, shall\nbe accomplished thru the affiliation of the organizations of brain and manual\nworkers is a mere matter of detail and method to be decided by the exigencies\nin each case. The essential thing is that the public-school teachers recognize\nthe fact that their struggle to maintain the efficiency of the schools thru better\nconditions for themselves is a part of the same great struggle which the manual\nworkers — often misunderstood and unaided — have been making for humanity\nthru their efforts to secure living conditions for themselves and their children ;\nand that back of the unfavorable conditions of both is a common cause.\nTwo ideals are struggling for supremacy in American life today: one the\nindustrial ideal, dominating thru the supremacy of commerciaHsm, which\nsubordinates the worker -to the product and the machine; the other, the ideal\nof democracy, the ideal of the educators, which places humanity above all\nmachines, and demands that all activity shall be the expression of life. If\nthis ideal of the educators cannot be carried over into the industrial field,\nthen the ideal of industrialism will be carried over into the school. Those\ntwo ideals can no more continue to exist in American fife than our nation\ncould have continued half slave and half free. If the school cannot bring joy\nto the work of the world, the joy must go out of its own life, and work in the\nschool as in the factory will become drudgery.\nViewed in this Hght, the duty and responsibility of the educators in the\nsolution of the industrial question is one which must thrill and fascinate while\nit awes, for the very depth of the significance of life is shut up in this question.\nBut the first requisite is to put aside all prejudice, all preconceived notions,\naU misinformation and half -information, and to take to this question what\nthe educators have long recognized must be taken to scientific investigation\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": null, "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin other fields. There may have been justification for failure to do this in the\npast, but we cannot face the responsibility of continued failure and maintain\nour title as thinkers and educators. When men organize and go out to kill,\nthey go surrounded by pomp, display, and pageantry, under the inspiration\nof music and with the admiration of the throng. Not so the army of industrial\ntoilers who have been fighting humanity's battles, unhonored and unsung.\nIt will be well indeed if the teachers have the courage of their convictions\nand face all that the labor unions have faced with the same courage and perseverance.\nToday, teachers of America, we stand at the parting of the ways. Democracy isnot on trial, but America is.\n\nLIMITATIONS\nAND\nAARON\n\nOF THE SUPERINTENDENTS'\nAUTHORITY\nOF THE TEACHER'S INDEPENDENCE\nGOVE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nDENVER,\n\nCOLO.\n\nIn school administration a definite partition, positive and evident, must\nlie between the functions of the legislative and of the executive departments.\nWhile the superintendent of schools is permitted, and it is his duty, to participate inthe councils of the legislative department, his evident duty lies in\nthe execution of the plans which have been made as well by others as by himself. That part of the executive department of a school system which relates\nto the teaching of pupils is vested primarily in the superintendent; the responsibility ishis, and theoretically the knowledge of the best method lies with him.\nHe obtains that knowledge not only by perspnal investigation, study, and observation, but quite as much by contact and by the advice of his associates. No\nman undertakes alone to frame a course of study, but seeks counsel, and urges\nhis associates in all grades and departments to give to him the sum of their\nknowledges and experiences obtained in the active performance of their duties.\nThe limitations of the superintendent's authority are, or ought to be,\ndefinitely stated in the formal rules and regulations of the board of education.\nAn inspection of the many rules now in print, from all sorts and conditions of\nschool corporations, demonstrates a notable unity of legislation in this respect.\nWhile the appellate privilege lies to the board in the instance of all cases concerning the adjustment of difficulties between schools and home, or teachers\nand principals, it is the superintendent's duty to decide so far as to prevent,\nif possible, the necessity for an appeal to the legislative body.\nThe independence of a teacher is limited to that part of his official life\nwhich depends upon ethical relations. No independence can be, with regard\nto the performance of an assigned duty. It is comparable to the turning out\nof work by an industrial establishment, the performance of a task assigned\nby the chief of police of a city, or communicated to a soldier while on duty.\nWhile a polite remonstrance must always be the privilege of a teacher, it is\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nSessions]\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENT'S\n\nAUTHORITY\n\n153\n\nunderstood that the decision lies only with that authority which is responsible\nfor the accomplishment of the assignment.\nThe personal characteristics of the superintendent and his method of deahng\nwith subordinates largely modify the character of the output. One has a\nright to conclude that only polite conduct shall be, but what is polite on the\npart of one authority is despotic on the part of another. The autocracy of\nthe office of the superintendent of a public-school system is necessary for the\naccomplishment of his purposes, but that despotism can be wielded with a\ngloved hand. A dangerous tendency exists toward usurpation by teachers,\nthru organization, of powers which should be retained by the superintendent.\nAn apparently growing feeling seems to exist — in truth it does exist, especially\nin one of the large cities of the country — that the public-school system should\nbe a democratic institution, and that the body of teachers constitute the democratic government. This is a false conception of true democracy. The truth\nis that the boards of education are the representative bodies of the democracy\n— the people — for whom they are making laws, and to whom they are responsible for their acts. A democracy of teachers for the purpose of controlling\nauthoritatively the many hundred lines of activity connected with the administration ofschools is as fatal to accompHshment as would be that of the patrolmen of the police department of a great city to organize and give directions,\naccording to their own will, to the department in which they are placing their\nservices.\nIt seems to be along the line of action whereby, in the industrial interests\nof our country, trades unions are so active, and either helpful or harmful\naccording to the temper of the organizations and the wisdom of the chiefs of\nthese organizations. Concerning neither administrative nor educational policies can the teaching body be intrusted with final decision.\nPeople can be found who believe and speak and write that, as trades unions,\nin their authority over the membership, modify the kind of work put out, the\namount of work done, saying to its members only so much effort shall be made\neach day, controlling the organization as to the manner of the work and the\namount of wages paid, the number and kind of appointments, the tenure of\nposition; so ought the teachers of a school district similarly to organize\nand act.\n\nIs it possible that the members of the National Educational Association,\nor a respectable minority, believe that a similar organization will be helpful\nto the great interests for which they are spending their lives ? Can it be\npossible that there are in the ranks of our profession— four hundred thousand\nof us today— men and women who are willing to be bound by rules and regulations and promises whereby they shall officially determine upon the merits\nto the\none of the other; that no teacher can be employed unless he belongs\non directs;\norganization; that he shall have just the wages that the organizati\nm\neducation\npublic\nof\nmachinery\nthe\nstop\nshall\nhe\nnecessary,\nand that, when\nreturn for some real or fancied grievance ?\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": null, "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATIVN\n\n[General\n\nThe people are represented in the administration of a school system by a\nbody of men and women whom they elect for that purpose. In that body rests\nnecessarily all effective power and direction. That body selects an officer\nwhose sole business is to execute the plans prepared by the people thru their\nrepresentatives, the board of education. The instruments used for that\nexecution, namely the teachers, are furnished to this executive officer, who is\ninstructed to use them in the performance of his duties, he having the knowledge and skill and ability to select given instruments for given purposes in\norder to obtain the results.\nAn organization of teachers for legislative purposes or for directive purposes\nis comparable to an organization on the line of the younger part of a large\nfamily for the control of the parents' efforts. I know such conditions do\nsometimes exist in domestic affairs. It is not rare to find the sons and daughters directing the affairs of the household in opposition to the opinion of the\nparents. The fact of the existence of this condition occasionally, however,\nwill scarcely justify us in commending it.\nOn the other hand, one cannot forget that the amount of technical abiUty\nand intelligence embodied in the teachers of a city school system is of a scope\nfar exceeding that of any one or group of ones. This effective knowledge\nmust be used; the schools will never be at their best while their policy represents only executive power, or even while they represent the power of the\nlegislative and executive department. But this counsel, this giving of advice\nwhich is essential, is not to be given in a formal way thru the orders and directions and laws and rules of an organized body like that of a trades union;\nbut, on the other hand, it is to be given as the good daughter talks with the\nfather and mother; as the kindly son participates in the counsels of the home.\nPractically it is to be given by frequent convocations, experience meetings,\nadvice, the result of personal study and investigation'; not by dictatorial law.\nThe dictation must come from the other end.\nThe superintendent of schools is given a route along which to travel. At\nthe various stations he finds his associates doing an allotted duty. His limitations require him to demand the result; that is to say, the ultimate performance\nof the task. He cannot and must not presume to interfere with the manner of\nthat performance; he asks that when he reaches the end of the route his inspection shall have demonstrated that all the machinery is working, and expects\nto discover that the methods of that work have been materially modified\naccording to the instrumentalities of the performance.\nNo two minds approach a given subject along the same trail, altho both\nreach the objective. No instructors train their charges in identical ways;\nand yet the results of that training are similar; never, however, identical.\nThe personal characteristics of the superintendent long associated with a\nschool system are bound to be largely infused, injected, into that system; and\nthey ought to be. In the same way the positive characteristics of the teacher\nare bound to be infused into the Kttle character which he has in his training;\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENT'S\n\nAUTHORITY\n\n15 e\n\nand it ought to be; for it is because of the excellencies of these characteristics\nthat superintendent and teachers are engaged for the work.\n\nIt is wicked to work at cross-purposes. Both superintendent and teacher\nhave abundant limitations. Complete confidence is an essential; contest,\nconflict, suspicion, and strife are fatal.\nThe teacher's independence, as mentioned in the title of this paper, is the\nindependence of the free American citizen who has entered upon the performance of a duty definitely and positively outlined at the outset. The purpose\nis defined at the commencement; the demand is that it be accompUshed. The\nteacher has independence and can have independence Uke that of the man\nin the shoe factory who is told tomorrow morning to make a pair of No. 6\nboots. The independence of that workman consists in the fact that he can\nsew four stitches in a minute or forty, can work rapidly or slowly, as he chooses\nor as he is able; but his dependence is that the boots must be made and made\nexactly, according to the order both in size and quahty and execution.\nUnder the present typical school organizations of the country, the limitations of the superintendent's authority are necessarily loosely defined. A\nsystem has grown up of superintendents of schools with a corps of assistant\nsuperintendents of schools. Not only the title of the office of \"assistant\nsuperintendent\" is unfortunate, but it is quite out of place for an efficient\norganization. The better plan is that but one superintendent of any enterprise be appointed to office and intrusted with its duties. No one official can\ndo all the work which falls upon the duties of his office; he must have assistance.\nIn older and well-organized institutions but one head exists. As many men\nand women as are needed should be appointed and nominated school inspectors. A great part of the actual labor connected with the superintendent's\noffice is in the department of inspection. The superintendent of large interests cannot be also an effective inspecting officer. He must call about him a\ncorps of inspectors whose duties should be to inspect and to report.\nA notable illustration of what I am trying to say is in the War Department\nof the nation. Those who are fairly famihar with that department of our\ngovernment understand how emphatic and essential is regarded the inspection\nof garrisons, posts, divisions, battalions, and regiments. The commanding\nofficer at headquarters keeps in touch with all stations in his department by\noccasional personal inspection, but frequent and detailed inspection is necessary, and is performed by officers of the inspector-general's department.\nThe time never was nor can be when a superintendent of schools can efficiendy perform his duties from his desk; but in every school district comes the\ntime when, owing to the increasing size, hours at his desk .are increased, and\nthe superintendent's opportunities to inspect grow less. He substitutes for\nhis original personal inspection that of a lieutenant sent out. While we have\ngrown to call this office that of \"assistant superintendent,\" I suggest that that\nname be omitted hereafter in the titles of school officials, and that one responsible directive power called the superintendent's office be, as it is sometimes\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": null, "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnow, practically the ultimatum in school affairs. Some local and political\nembarrassments would not exist as they do now, were the office of assistant\nsuperintendent unknown.\nThen, again, the most valuable power, that which deserves and must receive\nmore compensation than any other, is the directive power — the superintendent— whether it be of a transportation company, or of a great industrial\nenterprise, or of schools.\nThe expense of the office can be reduced by appointing school inspectors —\nyoung men, growing men, men in training for the office of superintendent;\nbut who can afford, while learning that business and growing up, to receive\na part of their remuneration in the value of the training.\nThe executive department of a school system of thirty thousand pupils\nwould be ideal with one superintendent and four school inspectors who shall\nspend their entire time, as does the inspecting officer of the army, in reviewing\nand examining in detail every part of the enterprise and reporting promptly\nand often, in a very careful way, what he finds; and in recommending, if the\nsuperintendent asks for recommendation; if not, avoiding comment altogether.\nSuch an organization would remove too, beyond cavil, any possible envies,\njealousies, or discords that occasionally rise to the surface in some of our\ncities.\nWe realize fully the general tendency of our country to organize men and\nwomen for the purpose of self-defense, self -protection, and frequently for\noffensive operation. In general terms, we call it the conflict between labor\nand capital; in particular terms, we name on the one side 'trusts,\" on the other\n''unions.\" So general is this agitation, this inclination, this tendency, that,\nas has been intimated, it has reached the teachers of the country; and in no\npessimistic humor I am compelled to view this tendency with alarm. It is\nfraught with danger. Some effort has been made in this paper to condemn\nteachers' trade unions. I am unable to approach this subject on a common\nplane of action ; if it be industrial, it concerns artisans laboring under working\ncontracts; if it be spiritual, it concerns the training of intellects and souls in\nthe love of patriotism and devotion to family and country, as well as for\nimmortal life. If sordidness of our personal life, whereby most effort is\ngauged by the dollar to be returned for the effort, who can feel secure for the\nfuture of our nation ? The schools themselves are modifying the courses of\nstudy, while the character of the teacher and the purpose intended are those\nwhich shall bring the -greatest financial returns. The boys and girls in the\nhigh school are surrounded by the environment of an idealism which is represented bythe accumulation of great fortunes. An organization of teachers is\nintended to increase rather than diminish that tendency.\nI place the subject before you, and would that I could portray as upon\ncanvas the inevitable outcome, should the school world descend to a lower\nplane of social life, where the measurements of life's work cease to be honor,\nintegrity, patriotism, and love, and become that which represents acquisitive-\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nEXHIBITS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\njry\n\nness, selfishness, and financial success at the expense of the neighbor\n; striving\nchiefly for a superiority of wealth over everybody, regardless of the truths\nof\nideal manhood.\n\nADDRESSES\n\nAT THE VESPER\n\nART EXHIBITS\nHALSEY\n\nC. IVES,\n\nCHIEF\n\nMEETINGS\n\nIN THE EXPOSITION\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF ART,\nEXPOSITION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPURCHASE\n\n[stenographic report]\n\nMr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:\n\nI am glad to have the opportunity this afternoon to meet my co-workers,\nand to have the pleasure of speaking of the exhibits which have been brought\ntogether in the Art Building from twenty-six countries of the world. We have\ninstalled in the various national sections a total of not less than ten thousand\nexhibits. Think, if you please, of the energy, the feehng, the degree of inspiration, drawn upon in various parts of the world; the hopes, the fears, the joys,\nthat come of creation ; think of all these things, represented in these ten thousand exhibits. Austin Dobson paraphrases the Unes of Gautier as follows:\nArt alone,\nAll passes.\nEnduring, stays with us;\nThe bust outlasts the throne;\nThe coin, Tiberius.\n\nSo these thousands of works are giving to us, in these exhibits, expressions\nwhich will outlast thrones and the people whose feeling has caused their creation. In studying them, I think, as educators, if we are to get the good of it,\nwe should take the view that each section exempHfies fully that which the people\nwho have sent these works to us are, at their best.\nIn working with the various government officials and individual artists of\ninfluence in the countries of the world, in the interests of this Exposition, the\none thing I dwelt upon more than any other was that, in forming their juries,\ntheir committees of selection, who were to make up this collection, this idea\nshould be kept constantly in mind: they should select objects, not representing\nwhat they believed we cared for, but those which, in the consensus of opinion\nof the most intelligent people of their country, represented the best of their\nart, produced during the last eleven years. So I believe you may go to these\nvarious sections and study them with the belief that you are getting, thru the\nart of these countries, an expression of what their best people beHeve they are\nin art. And in making this comparative study I take it that you will find it\nhas great educational value.\nAs I look about the audience, I recognize the face of one who said to me\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": null, "text": "158\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nonly a few days ago : \" I hope no teacher, after spending time in this Exposition,\nwill ever be guilty of saying again: 'I don't know much of art, but I do know\nwhat pleases me.'\" I trust that the hope of my friend will be verified. Think,\nif you will, of the impression made by a teacher who would say to friends,\nor to students: \"I don't know much about literature, but I do know what\npleases me.\" I see no difference between the two. The one, art, is the expression of the great thought and feeling of the people quite as much as the other,\nliterature.\nIn the four structures devoted to the art department of the Exposition are\ninstalled this vast number of exhibits which represent a high average of the\nart-producing people of the world. Included are the United States, and twenty\nforeign countries represented by government commissions or national\ncommittees: France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Belgium, Russia,\nItaly, Austria, Japan, Mexico, Canada, Hungary, Sweden, Cuba, Brazil,\nArgentina, Bulgaria, China, Peru, and Portugal. In addition to these countries, the art works of Denmark, Norway, Iceland, China, Peru, and Ceylon\nare represented in a gallery specially prepared for the purpose, and designated as the \"International Section.\" The central building, which I like\nto think will become a permanent art museum, dedicated for all time to the\npeople of this city and the country tributary to it, contains the exhibits of the\nUnited States, nearly four thousand in number. In the separate pavilions on\nthe east and west, and in the International Sculpture Court on the south, are\ninstalled the contributions of these twenty-five foreign countries. There are\nalso galleries and exhibit spaces provided in several national pavilions, for\nthe installation of exhibits for which it was found impossible to grant space\nin the art building.\nThe striking feature of the organization of the art department is the incorporation init of the so-called industrial art, thus obliterating the line which\nhas hitherto separated the fine arts, so called, from the other original objects\nof art- workmanship. Under the broader classification of art work, as we\nview it, whether on canvas, marble, plaster, wood, metal, glass, porcelain, or\ntextile, or other material, in which the artist-producer has worked with\nconviction and knowledge, he is recognized as equally deserving of respect in\nproportion to the worth of his work from the standpoint of technique and\ninspiration. To carry out this idea, a special group entitled \"applied arts\"\nwas added, with spacious galleries arranged for their display. In this group\nis exhibited art work in glass, earthenware, metal, leather, wood, and textiles,\nas well as examples of artistic bookbinding and printing. Thus for the first\ntime in the history of international expositions in this country, American\ncraftsmen have taken full advantage of the broader classification which\nincludes all forms of artistic representation in which individual artists, or groups\nof artists working co-operatively, have expressed their thoughts in whatever\nmedium they may have selected.\nAt the time of the Chicago Exposition the arts-and-crafts movement, as it\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nEXHIBITS\n\nIN\n\nTHE^EXPOSITION\n\n150\n\nis called, had not made itself sufficiently felt to provide workers who could\ntake advantage of a similar classification. But the last ten years have seen a\nremarkable development of interest and activity in the revival of the handicrafts, and the Exposition of 1904 demonstrates that the impulse for artistic\nexpression in the various forms of art work is a factor likely to have no small\npart in our national development. Examples of the best work of modem\ncraftsmen from abroad are shown in various foreign sections, offering a valuable opportunity for comparative study in this interesting branch of art.\nA word or two might be added here in explaining still further what is meant\nby this, and what we hope to gain by holding to this classification. As an\nillustration — one which I used on a former occasion before your Association,\nat its meeting in Denver: Can you conceive that Raphael, the great master,\nwas less an artist when he was engaged in producing designs or patterns for\nthe Flemish carpet- weavers, than he was when he designed and created with\nhis brush the Sistine Madonna ? These patterns which he designed for the\nFlemish carpet-weavers are now held in Kensington Museum as priceless\ntreasures. They are called the cartoons of Raphael. You know where the\nreproductions are, the interpretations of them by the Flemish carpet- weavers;\nthe tapestry is now used as hangings in the Vatican. Did Raphael become an\nindustrial worker in the one case, or did he not ? Was he the fine artist when\nhe created the Sistine Madonna ? And when he used the same principles of\nline and composition of color in creating these great religious works, the cartoons, did he become an industrial worker? Was he not the same great\nmaster? So, should not we free ourselves from certain laws which were\ninflicted upon the world of art about one hundred and fifty years ago by art\npoliticians, and recognize the people who work with conviction, inspiration,\ntechnical knowledge, and skill, whether their feeling is expressed in a bit of\nglass, or on canvas, or in porcelain, or on iron, if you will, or in sculpture ?\nAnd right here I wish to speak of a thing that lies very near the heart of\nevery man who beHeves in art for Americans; in universal art for people who\nare wise enough to recognize art at its full value, whether the art is by Americans or by citizens of other countries. In this connection, there is a certain\nwork that may be taken up legitimately by your Association. I do not hesitate\nto appeal to any body of intelligent workers, no matter what their callings may\nbe, to use their influence in correcting certain legislative abuses which prevail\nin our country at this time. I allude to the unwise tariff regulations now in\nforce. I venture to use an illustration that I used before another great body\nof educators, the Federated Clubs of America, at its last meeting, about three\nweeks ago, in this hall. St. Louis is famed for a certain product. ^Statistics\nless\nshow that we produce in St. I>ouis and the territory adjacent to it not\nover\npass\nsmile\na\nsee\nI\nthan two-thirds of the entire output of sewer-pipe.\nwith art. Only\nmany faces. I fancy you are wondering what this has to do\nof our national\nit)\nthis : Thru the wisdom (with a large interrogation point after\nand Indiana, is\nlegislators the infant industry that thrives here, and in Ohio\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": null, "text": "i6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nprotected, in this way: A friend of mine in Holland, seeking to express his\nfeeling and knowledge in a certain form, to interpret his point of view of the\npeople of his country in character sketches, began to model their forms in\ncommon clay — exactly the material which is used in making crude forms of\npottery, of salt-glazed ware, crocks and jugs, and certain architectural details\nof buildings, and sewer-pipe. The value of each piece of clay is, possibly, a\nhundreth part of a cent; but he puts his genius into it, he creates an exquisitely\nartistic figurine. It is an exquisite type of art work; it is unique; it bears the\ntouch of the artist. It, like the sewer-pipe, is put into a furnace ; it is burned,\nexactly as the jar or jug; and when it gets the proper degree of heat, salt is\nthrown over it, and it is glazed, so that a hard, vitrified surface results. The\nmoment he brings to this country this article of a hundreth part of a cent of\nvalue in crude material, and perhaps twenty-five dollars in brains, with which\nhe has enriched it, what does our law exact of you, and you, and you, if you\ndesire to purchase it ? The law says that, in order to protect the infant industry\nof sewer-pipe-making in Missouri, in Indiana, in Ohio, you and I must pay\nto the government 60 per cent, of the value of this hundreth part of a cent,\nplus the twenty-five dollars of genius and brains that has been put into it. If it\nwere reproduced a hundredfold, this charge of 60 per cent, might with justice\nbe placed upon every reproduction; but upon the original work by the artist\nno restraining tax should be placed.\nIt seems to me that such a tax is wrong.\nAnother example: Take the iron that is wrought into such beautiful forms\nby skilled European artists. Five or six years ago I asked such an artist to\ntake a bit of iron, giving me the exact cost of the iron in the market, the first\nremove from the crude material. He reported that six cents would represent\nits value. I asked him to make a design for me, and to put it in the hands of\nanother skilled artist for execution. This artist produced an exquisite form\nin iron — a candlestick. I bring it to this country. It does not conflict in any\nway with work that is carried on here. We have not introduced that form\nof art in wrought iron ; our people have not the artistic skill required to produce\nit. But our wise legislator interposes, saying that if you try to benefit yourselves or your neighbors by putting this work of art before them, you must\npay, under the existing tariff, 45 per cent.\nNow, I believe in protection; but I do not believe in ''protection\" that is\ngoing to interfere with educational work. They will say to you at once that,\nfor educational purposes, art objects may be brought into our country free.\nTrue, they may be; but let me tell you what would happen, under that same\nregulation. If I send to one of the great galleries, or universities, or museums\nabroad, and ask my friend who is working there, one of the keepers, a curator,\nor a director, to have made for me a hundred representative objects which I\nwish to use in the university class lectures to illustrate the historical development of art, they are sent over, by parcel post or express. I receive a notice\nfrom the post-office of their arrival; but under this law I cannot get them\nwithout paying 35 per cent, duty, altho I prove that they are to be used in\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nART\n\nEXHIBITS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\ni6i\n\neducational work. If I bring over these same things with a stereopticon,\nasserting that I am going to stay six months and lecture, then take them out\nagain, I shall be permitted to bring them in free under bond; but I cannot retain\nthem for permanent use, under existing conditions, without paying this duty.\nIt seems to me that to correct such an anomolous state of affairs is a legitimate work to be taken up by such an organization as this. You have great\ninfluence in every section of the country; and I hope there is not one of you\nhere so modest as to suppose for a moment that your opinion in regard to these\nmatters is not worth more than that of the average legislator— the man\nyou may help to send to Congress. I speak with knowledge. I served four\nyears as a legislator, and have served thirty-two as a teacher; and my opinion,\nI know, is worth a great deal more as a teacher than it was as a legislator; and\nit is the influence of Ives as a teacher upon Ives as a legislator that causes me\nto speak to you on this subject as I do.\nA word or two on the educational influence of these various sections. I\nsaid a few moments ago that you have in these exhibits an exposition of the\ncharacter of the people that sent them. Are there any written words or productions, for example in Sweden, that express more forcibly than these pictures\nexpress what her people are ? And, by the by, there is no collection of works,\nunless perhaps it may be in Japan and in Holland, that is more truly national\nin its expression than that of Sweden. These three, I should say, express\nas clearly national feeling as any in the art department. Of course, there\nare others that are quite strong in various directions. The most universal art,\nin its technical influence, is the French school. Another broad and national\ncollection is that of Great Britian; but it is not as intense in its nationality as\nthe three of which I have spoken — Holland, Sweden, and Japan.\nIn regard to our section : I Uke to wander about the galleries and hear the\ncomments of visitors; the remarks of the intelligent, the indifferent, the ignorant.\nI get a great deal from it. I find this: People of intelligence, people who have\ntraveled, those who have a knowledge of literature, people who are readers,\nteachers, often express in some sort of way the same idea — that in the American\nsection there is no unity of expression. You have there, on the one side, an\nexample of art which is as truly French as the picture near it is Dutch; or\nanother which shows the strong influence of the German school; or, again, on\nwhich shows an independent expression— for example suggests the Newlyn\nschool of workers, the secessionists, the German Independents, or the French\nImpressionists. All these things are exempHfied in the works brought together\nin our own section; but the very things condemned as foreign are proof positive\nthat we have a national art. We are French, German , EngUsh ; we are ItaUans ;\nwe are Spaniards. We are a composite people; and we must, if we are honest,\nexpress just what we are— simply give expression to our feeling. There may\nbe a Dutch strain working out in me, or in you there may be a strong Spanish\nstuor French strain. Ought it to be wondered at that when our artists and\nof\ngroups\nindependent\nthe\nof\ndents goto the various art centers, or seek one\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nworkers, such as that in Glasgow, they put themselves in touch with the influence\nwhich is strong there ? Is it to be wondered at, if it touches a harmonious\nchord in them ? Is it strange that they should respond to it ? They would\nnot be honest if they did not. So the honest expression in our art today lies\nin just that fact: we are a mixed people; and our art, if it is honest, must be\nmixed. I am not disappointed in this. In it I see great hope for the future.\nWe are far in advance of the position in which the Chicago Exposition found\nus, eleven years ago. And even there I observed that which I have found\nto be true here.\nEven at this early stage in the present Exposition I have found that you\nmay walk thru the French, German, or ItaHan section, hour after hour of any\nordinary day, with great freedom; for in these sections you will find only the\npeople who are versed in art, those who know the various schools of art, those\nwho study the exhibits in a systematic way. The great mass of observers,\nintelligent, tho not versed in art, wander thru these various sections without\nstopping. Pass, however, into the United States section, and there you will\nfind the galleries crowded. It is not because the people seek this section at\nonce, of their own volition. They simply linger here because they feel a certain\nsomething which appeals to them : they are in harmony with that which they\nfind upon the walls.\nI take great encouragement from this. I can see that out of this conglomeration of influences we are working toward a complete expression in our art of\nthat which we are as a people. I believe if you wander thru this great collection of works, and look at it without prejudice, going from one section to another\nand finally coming to your own, you will recognize the truth of my statement —\nthat we are more nearly expressing a national feeling in our art than many\nhave supposed. I believe firmly that out of all this will develop an American\nschool; and that when it comes it will not be English, French, German, or\nItaHan, but will take from all these such things as properly appeal to us, just\nas in making up the total of our people we have drawn from all these nationalities; and that out of this will come a universal art which will be truly America'n, as out of this collection of the people of all the world will come a universal\npeople who will be truly American. I have faith in these influences; and I\nbelieve that, if you will study these various collections as educators, you may\ncontribute more than any other class of workers in the United States toward\nthe consummation of this end.\nNow, before we separate, I wish to speak to you of what may be done in\nyour schools. Possibly you may know it all better than I. All over the world\nare men who are ready to help schools in making representative collections\nshowing the historical development of civilization thru art. I have in mind\na town of six or seven thousand people in the northern part of this state, where\na group of ladies, believing that they could do something for art education,\nformed a course of lectures. They invited lecturers. First they invited me\nto go there and lecture. I do not know whether they continued it or not after\nI got thru, but I do know that about all the tickets in the hands of the different\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCULPTURE\n\nAND\n\nDECORATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n163\n\ngrades in their high school were sold. The total income from the efforts of\neach grade was to be used in the decoration of its room; and there was a sum\nof money reahzed from it considerable enough, I beUeve, to purchase a representative collection of reproductions which gives a fair idea of the historical\ndevelopment of art for, say, three centuries. This work was not done by the\nteachers; it was done by a group of ladies outside the school. I believe such\na work can be done in almost any town of three thousand inhabitants; and I\nbelieve there are men and women scattered all over the country who are willing\nto help in such a work, and who will contribute their services to help you.\nThese art reproductions are photographic. There are. several firms that\npublish them ; there are a number pubHshing them in our own country. There\nare obtainable, fair copies of all the great masterpieces that are to be found\nin the European and, I am glad to be able to say now, also in the American\nmuseums.\nBefore closing, a word or two as to what further may be seen here. You\nhave not only the contemporary collection of each of these twenty-six countries— of work done in the last ten years; but you have certain strong examples\nwhich were produced by men who lived in earlier years, those who produced\nwork which influenced strongly the men working in the contemporary period.\nThen, for the loan collection, in our own section, we have persuaded pubUc\ninstitutions and private owners to lend us many of their most famous pictures.\nPerhaps some of you are not aware that in the loan collection there are now\ninstalled some of the greatest art works of the world. One of the great Rembrandts is to be seen in that division. While the loan collection is installed\nin the United States section, none of the exhibits therein, with the exception\nof the Innesses, Vedders, and Whistlers, are American. Perhaps there are\none or two others. Yes, Page, the American portrait painter, who died in\nthe sixties — a great man, almost unrecognized as a master in his time, but\nwhose work is now greatly valued in the world of art. While these are installed\nin the United States section, in every case, except those I have mentioned,\nthey are foreign works which are lent to us with the proper American spirit,\nthat all may have the benefit of that which their owners have.\n\nSCULPTURE\nGEORGE\n\nJULIAN\n\nAND\n\nZOLNAY,\n\nART DEPARTMENT\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\n\nDECORATION\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nAT THE EXPOSITION\nOF THE\n\nDIVISION\n\nEXPOSITION,\n\nOF\n\nSCULPTURE,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.'\n\n[stenographic report]\n\nUnder ordinary circumstances it would be a difficult matter to take anothei's\nplace in a lecture, for there are very few cases in which two people's ideas comcide on the same subject sufficiently to enable them to substitute each other.\n\nas substitute for Mr. Carl T. Bitter, director of sculpture of the\n' Mr. Zolnay\nExposition,\nwho wasaddressed\ndetained the\nby convention\nillness.\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": null, "text": "i64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLGeneral\n\nIn this case, however, it so happens that Mr. Bitter's views on this subject\nand mine are practically the same. Moreover, I have a thoughtful letter from\nMr. Bitter, which I shall read to you, so that in reality you will get two lectures\nin one, which seems to be in perfect keeping with our strenuous Uves, in which\nwe get most things sublimated, from condensed milk to concentrated lectures\non art.\nAmong other things, this is what Mr. Bitter writes :\nIt occurs to me that, since the members of your audience come from all over the country,\nit might be of interest to explain the manifest difference between the sculpture that is seen\nat this Exposition and the works of art which one finds in the towns of the United States.\nI would remark that it seems almost incredible that so much sameness should prevail in\nthe expression that the people have given to their reverential regard for their heroes. It\nseems that, with a few exceptions, these so-called soldier-monuments are the only expression sculpture has found in this country. All travelers note with ridicule that wherever\nthey go they meet the same soldier standing upon the same leg, in the same attitude of\nparade rest, with part of his cloak thrown back over his left shoulder, and his arms resting\non his rifle. If more life and animation has been desired by the monument committee,\nthen the soldier is represented in the act of killing someone, either thrusting his bayonet\nat the invisible enemy, or just taking aim to shoot. In some singular cases even the act\nof dying is represented most faithfully. I wonder why the mind of the people likes to\ndwell upon and perpetuate a cruel side of the issues that have become matters of histor}'.\nI find no reference to the beneficial results which the wars have brought about, I find no\nreference to the issues that were at stake. In fact, I find little, if any, thought in the monuments Ihave referred to, and which now form the principal representation of sculpture\nin America. If, consequently, you appeal to the teachers to spread among our younger\ngeneration a desire to look upon the events of history, not as a record of cruel deeds and\nbloody events, but to look for and find a bright side and fruitful consequences, I believe\nyou will do a great deal of good.\n\nThis is a very beautiful sentiment expressed in a masterly way. I fully\nagree with Mr. Bitter that nothing could do more for art than the gradual\nspreading of a higher conception in the representation of the country's historical past.\nMy subject being Hmited to the out-of-door sculpture of this Exposition,\nI shall try to approach it from a somewhat different view-point from that of\nthe general observer. I shall endeavor to analyze the work from the standpoint of its decorative qualities and its spiritual significance.\nFirst of all, however, I must state that to condense the sculptor's work at\nthe World's Fair into one hour's talk is an almost impossible task, for there\nhas never been another occasion on which so much sculpture was produced in\nless than one year — and, what is most important, there has never been so\nmuch good sculpture in any one place — as decorates these buildings and\neducates the people who are fortunate enough to visit this great Exposition.\nBetter to appreciate the magnitude of what has been accomplished in this\nshort space of time, it is well to remember that sculpture in this country dates\nback less than thirty years. In fact, the real turning-point of American\nsculpture can be reckoned from the Columbian Exposition at Chicago, eleven\nyears ago.\nFrom that time on, sculpture has made its way by leaps and bounds.\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nSCULPTURE\n\nAND\n\nDECORATION\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n165\n\nand when the management of this Exposition decided to eclipse all former\ndisplays of statuary, there was an array of sculptors whose talent, ability, and\nexperience insured success in advance.\nIn looking at the artist's work, we must remember two essential things:\nFirst, in order thoroly to enjoy works of art it is best always to look for all\nthat is beautiful, suggestive, and elevating in them, rather than to criticise\nand find fault. We must start out with the conviction that there is some good\nin every work, be it ever so obscure. Being the most intimate product of the\nhuman mind, soul, and heart, no matter how deficient it may be in its execution, itis bound to contain some good qualities; for good quahties are in every\nhuman being, and every artist, big or Uttle, invariably puts into his work all\nthe good that is in him. I do not mean that we must prostrate ourselves and\nhave fits of ecstacy before every piece of work, just because it is labeled \"work\nof art;\" but I mean that by overlooking its faults or weaknesses we can enjoy\nwhatever good there may be in it. It is always wiser to leave the task of\ncriticising to the professional critic, or those whose Hvers are out of order, and\nwho are finding fault on general principles.\nAs for knowing just what is good and what is not, there is only one safe\nrule to go by, and that is to say, \"I like it,\" or '' I don't like it.\" Every human\nbeing has a perfect right to like or to dislike a thing, irrespective of its merits;\nbut we have no right to assert that this or that is bad, unless we are able to\ndemonstrate and conclusively prove that it is bad. I am tempted to cite one\nof Carmen Sylva's clever aphorisms bearing on this very question. It runs\nsomewhat Hke this: \"Many people criticise in order to conceal their ignorance;\nthey do not know that tolerance, leniency, and forbearance are the highest\nmarks of culture.\" But, as I said, we all have a perfect right to Hke or to disUke things — and to say so.\nSecondly, we must remember that in art there are two distinct modes of\nrepresentation: the allegorical and the direct. Allegory is the time-honored\nmode of giving shape to our ideas, and until lately it was considered the only\nlegitimate way of expression in sculpture. While allegory is the highest form\nof art, it is not the only one, as has been demonstrated by a large number of\nsculpture works at this Exposition. There have never been so many direct\nrepresentations in sculpture as you have occasion to see here; and I do not\nhesitate to say that this breaking away from consecrated traditions is the beginning of a new school in sculpture, the American school, which sooner or later\nwill occupy the front rank among the various schools of the world.\nAs you will see from the statues on the grounds and buildings, the allegorical representation is that in which an event, a thought, or a sentiment is\nthe\nexpressed symbolically; while the direct representation is that in which\nfact\nmatter-oftangible,\nevent, thought, or sentiment is expressed in a more\nour sculpmanner. It is this tangible, forcible manner in which a number of\nthat they\nconviction\nthe\nby\nbacked\ndaring,\na\ntors have presented facts, with\nand\nsculpture\nAmerican\non\nn\nimpressio\nwere doing right, that will leave a deep\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe public mind. That American sculpture has made such rapid progress as\nto rank today with the best sculpture of the world there cannot be any doubt;\nneither can it be denied that within the last few years sculpture as a profession\nhas progressed beyond American painting. I believe the cause can be ascertained very easily. For the last fifteen or twenty years the sculptors have had\ninfinitely greater opportunities than have had the painters, so that it is quite\nnatural that sculp tute should have progressed more rapidly. What were these\nopportunities ? To what is the more rapid progress of sculpture due ? It is\ndue in a very great measure to these expositions, which not only give the sculptor an opportunity to utilize his talent and ability to the best advantage, but\nalso to foster the public taste for sculptural work, which is a very important\nfactor in the development of art.\nIn the grading of the various branches of sculpture and painting, the\nrepresentation of the human figure is unquestionably the highest form, being\nthe most beautiful, the most instructive, and also by far the most difficult, art\nmanifestation. It is in this highest form, the human figure, in which American\npainting is comparatively weak, that American sculpture is signally strongest.\nHow can we account for this phenomenon ? The explanation is found in\nthe fact that there is an infinitely greater demand for the human figure in\nsculpture than there is in painting; and the chief demand is made by these\ngreat expositions, where, as in the case of this Exposition, $500,000 is expended\nfor statuary. Such demands keep the sculptor constantly before tlie human\nfigure, the most beautiful of God's masterpieces. This is why American\nsculpture has attained such eminence.\nUnder these circumstances, when we consider these expositions from the\npurely educational standpoint, which in fact is their chief mission, we must\nnot forget that, aside from their enormous influence upon the general education of the people, they have raised and are raising American sculpture to a\nheight which without them it might not have attained in a hundred years to\ncome.\nSo when you gaze upon the forest of statues by which you are surrounded,\nremember that, when the history of this country will be written, a thousand\nyears hence, and the historian shall make up the balance sheet of what we were\nand had at the beginning of the twentieth century, his most reliable document\nwill be the word of our sculptors. Art, the crowning point of civilization, is\nalways the most conclusive indicator of the degree of culture which a nation\nhas reached at any given time; and sculpture being the most enduring of all\nhuman products, it is by its works that the coming generations will judge us.\nIn conclusion, I wish to say that we all owe a great debt of gratitude to\nthose who are instrumental in bringing about great expositions, which are\nnot only most powerful factors in our general education, but are aiding American sculpture to transmit to posterity a correct estimate of the degree of civilization which we have attained at the beginning of the twentieth century.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nOF THE\n\nGEORGE JULIAN ZOLNAY, SUPERINTENDENT\nART DEPARTMENT OF THE UNIVERSAL\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nOF THE DIVISION OF SCULPTURE,\nEXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS MO.^\n\n[stenographic report]\n\nGreat expositions are bound to leave decided marks in almost every direction, but it seems to me that of all the expressions of the human mind, intellect\nand skill, architecture leaves a deeper furrow — a deeper mark — in the general\ndevelopment of a nation than any other manifestation.\nWe have to reach a high degree of contentment in civic life before we think\nof treating ourselves to works of art, such as paintings and sculpture; but\none of the first impulses of man is to build so that he may be sheltered. As\nthe human race advances, primitive building becomes architecture, and when\nexpositions Hke this bring before the people the most magnificent examples\nof that art, it is natural that it should leave deep marks on the present as\nwell as future generations.\nTo describe the style of architecture employed in the Exposition, I can\nthink of no better phrase than the one used by Mr. Isaac Taylor, the director\nof works, when he said that the Exposition is of \"Renaissance style with an\nAmerican feeling.\" It was the best way of expressing it— Renaissance, with\nan American feeling; to which I might add, perhaps, \"with American daring\nand independence.\"\nBefore going into details of the buildings and their various modifications\nof style, I shall try to analyze this much-abused, misused, and misunderstood\nword \"Renaissance.\" We are confronted with this word all the time, and most\nof the time we do not know what to make of it. We all know that \"Renaissance\" means \"revival,\" and that it is a French word which for some\nmysterious reason has never been fully translated. We also know that this\nrevival took place in Italy in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, after a long\nperiod of artistic stagnation known as the dark centuries of the Middle Ages.\nThis new era began with the discoveries and study of the remnants of Greek\nand Roman buildings and statues, and when the great minds with which these\ncenturies were blessed so lavishly began to work in unison, a new period was\ncreated by the revival of the classic forms and spirit found in these excavated\nfragments. This is what Renaissance means— a revival of the classic period\nof the Greeks and Romans.\n\nI\n\nThis Renaissance style spread from Italy to France, Spain, and the northern\ncountries, where it found its peculiar interpretation and treatment suited to\nthe various conditions of race and climate. Thus each country has its distinct\nRenaissance architecture, as easily recognized as modem Renaissance, which\nis practically the same in all countries except this— where it has an American\nfeeling which is its latest development.\nthe American Insti' Mr. Zolnay kindly consented to supply the place of William S. Eames, president ofbut\nwho was unable\nunder appointment to address the convention on this subject,\nwhoto was\ntute of Architects,\non account\nof illness,\nbe present.\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nTo go back and analyze the entire progress of architecture would be more\nthan we could do tonight. All we can do is to consider the development of\narchitecture in its great periods, beginning with the Greeks about 700 to\n200 B. C, when they built their wonderful temples, which have never been\nequaled and perhaps never will be. The next period which we have to consider isthat of the Romans, not only on account of the magnificence of their\nstructures, but for the fact that they are the people who invented the arch.\nIn Greek and all previous building no arch existed; the column supported\nthe structure, which was one of the reasons, perhaps the principal reason\nwhy the Greeks could not build such enormous edifices as the Romans did.\nSo, if we consider this second period, we find that the Romans created a new\nera by inventing, or rather by developing, the arch and the vault, which play\nsuch an important role in architecture. The real inventors were the Etruscans,\nbut their work was so primitive and crude that it remained for the Romans\nto develop it to such a high degree as to compel the world to give them the\nentire credit for the system.\nThen we come to the period of the Middle Ages, in which the Romanesque\nand the Gothic styles were evolved, and which is one of the greatest periods\nof architecture. The difference between the Gothic and the classic styles is\nso radical that a few words will cover it. In the Greek buildings the principal lines were horizontal, supported by columns. It was the same with the\nRomans, except that arches, vaults, and domes were added, which made their\nstructures much richer and larger. The Gothic principle of construction is\nentirely different; the principal lines are vertical; vaults and domes are pointed\ninstead of round, the mathematical problems of building in segments being\nthe fundamental basis of construction.\nAs we reach the fifteenth century, we find that the Gothic, or pointed,\nstyle has disappeared almost entirely, and that the new style, the Renaissance\nor revival of classic times, is established.\nFrom the sixteenth century to our days the Renaissance style has been\nsubjected to various modifications, of which the so-called ''Rococo\" style\nwas the most conspicuous. The Rococo style represents a time when the\nRena'issance entered upon a period of decadence, and while it contains many\nfine things, as a whole it is but an effeminate exaggeration of the RenaissanceI may add that this Rococo style has never taken foothold in this country\nwhich speaks well for the soundness and virility of the American people.\nAs we look at the Exposition buildings and compare them with modern\narchitecture, we see that this actually is Renaissance with an American feeling ;\nwe see that this architecture, even tho modified as we find it in almost every\nbuilding, still retains the great principle of the Renaissance, which is strength\nand simplicity. Some of the buildings have been modified more than others,\nbut every one conveys that great sense of solidity, even tho we know they are\nnothing but wood and plaster. It seems to have been the aim of all the architects of this great Exposition to secure simplicity, and to adhere to the beauty\nof classic outline and form as closely as practical requirements permitted.\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF THE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nTo show you how much latitude the architects were given in the conception\nof their work, I will cite the Mining Building as an example of independent\ntreatment. In its originaHty it stands out so strongly that the most casual\nvisitor will remember it longer than any other building on the grounds. There\nare certain things on which architects and artists do not quite agree, such as\nthe size of the statues on that building, which are decidedly too large; but,\ntaken as a whole, as well as in detail of ornamentation, it is unquestionably\nvery beautiful and the most original building on the grounds. In connection\nwith what I have expressed about the outgrowth of Renaissance known as\n''Rococo,\" the two restaurant pavilions at either* end of the colonnade of\nstates — might serve as a good illustration, for they have a very decided\n''Rococo\" touch. The lines are sinuous, and the entire feeling is one of\ndelicacy, rather than strength, which evidently was the architect's intention,\nperfectly justified under the circumstances. He wanted to express the nature\nof the building: He wanted to express the fact that these two buildings were\nmeant to be places of relaxation, places of joy. A restaurant ought to be a\nplace of joy, which is not always so, but is so in this case, with the exception\nperhaps that it is a little expensive — the only thing against it.\nIn analizing the building in which we are [Festival Hall], you will at once\nperceive the analogy with some of the Roman edifices. As a basis, the\narchitect has taken one of the Roman temples. You know that the first people\nto build round temples and domes were the Romans. They found the sewers\nof Rome, built by the Etruscans, from which they developed the dome and\nbuilt their wonderful temples of Diana and the Pantheon. This is a modified\ncopy of one of the Roman temples, as all domes are. There is no getting away\nfrom the fact that in architecture we have to take what has been transmitted\nto us from the Greeks, the Romans, or the Middle Ages, and modify it to suit\nour present conditions of life.\nThe building on the grounds which is least modified— with the least American feeling, but more classic — or rather more Roman in style than any other,\nis the Art Palace. The middle structure is almost a copy of the Baths of Diocletian, and, while the building in itself is very beautiful, the architect made\none serious mistake in not adapting it to the purpose for which it was built:\nhe designed a Roman bath, instead of a sculpture hall. If there is one thing\nabsolutely necessary to statuary, it is concentrated Hght coming from above;\nand had this hall a proper skyHght, instead of disfused light entering thru\na dozen windows, it would probably be the most ideal sculpture hall in\nexistence.\n\nThis question of hght in connection with sculpture is of such importance\nthat I shall try to elucidate it in a few words. Sculpture not having color to\naid in its expression, top Hght, which is the only light that shows form to best\nadvantage, becomes an absolute necessity. This is not a new theory, but on\nthe contrary a very old one. It is a theory which the common ordinary peasant\ngirls in Rome found out a long time ago. You know that in Rome there is the\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": null, "text": "lyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nColiseum — an immense structure that held a hundred thousand people; this\narena having very high walls and no roof, the Hght is concentrated from above.\nNow, what happened ? The girls of Rome, whenever they were to see their\nbest fellows, would always make the appointment in the CoUseum, because\nthere they looked so much prettier than anywhere else. That is a fact, and\nif the photographers would realize this very simple truth, and use skylight\ninstead of side lights, they would do a rushing business.\nA little incident illustrating this actually happened in a Kentucky town.\nI went to a local photographer to have a picture made of a lady, whom he\nproceeded to pose in the' conventional sidelight. Knowing what the result\nwould be, I raised the curtains, making as near a top light as could be\narranged in his studio. He took the photograph rather grudgingly, as if\nhe did not think a man who knew nothing about photography should meddle.\nBut when he looked at the negative on the following day, he thought the effect\nwas beautiful, and he assured me that he had never before obtained such a\ngood result. I assured him that I did not doubt it in the least, and explained\nto him the artistic advantages of the light from above. He afterward shut\nout all side lights, and some time ago he wrote, telling me that his business\nhad doubled, as all the girls in town patronized him — for the simple reason\nthat now he could make them look so much prettier in the photographs than\nthey were in reality.\nI believe I can explain this apparent phenomenon in a few words. By\nusing top light on a face, be it sculpture or nature, somehow the good points\nare emphasized and defects toned down. The cavity of the eye is emphasized,\nmade stronger, which gives to the eye greater expression. If the chin receives\nlight from above and shadow from below, it makes the chin appear very much\nstronger. The oval of the face becomes rounder, etc. The result is that the\nphotograph looks better than nature — as it ought.\nI mean it when I say that a portrait whether sculpture, painting, or photograph— should look better than the individual. The reason is this: The\nanimation of speech and the interest which the living word inspires, remove\nto a great extent whatever physical defects may be in the face. We often\nmeet people who are downright ugly, but bright; they begin to talk, and instanth\"\nwe seem to forget their ugliness. We get under the spell of their magnetism\nand the charm of their words as they reveal their soul, which the face may not\ndo. As the vibrations of Hfe hide deficiencies of form, and as our portrait\ncannot possess that vibration, we must equalize things by making such deficiencies as little evident as possible. In other words, when we make a portrait,\nwe must represent the individual at his very best, we have to make a compromise between the physical shell and the soul which is in that individual. Of\ncourse, this we cannot expect from a photograph — that is the province of\nsculpture and painting; but we can expect the photographer at least to render\nthe physical form to best advantage.\nBut to come back to my subject: Architecture, being a combination of\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": null, "text": "Sessions]\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSfTION\n\n171\n\nthe beautiful and utilitarian, naturally plays a more conspicuous part in our\nlives than art pure and simple. With buildings we are confronted every hour\nof our Hves, and their perfection ought to develop our sense of beauty to the\nsame degree that beautiful sculpture and painting do. Last night, when I\nspoke about sculpture, I appealed to you, the educators of the country, saying\nthat it depends upon you whether the sense of the beautiful will be developed\nin the coming generation or not. I had reference to sculpture, and I make the\nsame plea today concerning architecture. It is for you to make it possible\nor impossible for the coming generation to build beautiful homes and beautiful\npublic buildings. In these days of mechanical perfection, when we can buy\nthe finest prints and photographs of the best examples of architecture, sculpture,\nand painting, if you bring these prints and photographs sympathetically to the\nnotice of the children, they will gradually create that sense of appreciation\nfor all that is beautiful, and a disHke for all that is not beautiful. There is\nonly one way to distinguish between what is correct and beautiful and what\nis not; that is the constant seeing of beautiful things. It is not necessary that\na person should be a trained artist, or a trained architect, to know the difference\nbetween a good building and a bad building, a good statue and a bad statue.\nAll that is necessary is constantly to look upon beautiful works.\nWe are very much surprised when we go abroad — to Italy, for instance —\nto find that the Italians as a race have such a wonderful sense of discrimination\nand judgment in art matters. We wonder why it should be so. The explanation is very simple. Italy, hke so many other countries in Europe, is full of\nbeautiful things of the past. There is hardly a city without a number of beau- '\ntiful buildings, such as churches and palaces. Statues and paintings may be\nseen everywhere the greater number of which had their origin in the wonderful\nperiod of the Renaissance when the finest works of art were produced. From\nearly childhood they see these beautiful works, and by the time they have\ngrown up the eye and mind are so used to the correct and beautiful way in\nwhich the animate and inanimate are portrayed that they repel anything not\ncoming up to that standard.\n\nFifty years ago this plea could not have been made, because we would not\nhave had the means to bring before the children these beautiful examples of\nthe productions of the human mind, skill, and talent. But today, when\nwe can buy photographs of the most beautiful examples of architecture,\nsculpture, and painting for a few cents a piece, we should not fail to bring\nthese masterpieces before the children. If we consistently call their attention\nto the beauty of these great works, their sense of beauty will soon be as much\nit will\ndeveloped as that of the inhabitants of European countries. Perhaps\nclasses\nall\namong\nbe developed even more, education being more general\nis higher, for\nin this country. I do not mean that our standard of education\nwith those\nas yet the excellence of our colleges and universities cannot compare\nhere, the appreof Europe; but the education of the masses being more generalBesides, American\nciation ofthe beautiful can soon reach greater proportions.\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": null, "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[General\n\nchildren are quicker and more receptive ; consequently, when you bring before\nthem all these beautiful products of human skill and make them feel that what\nreally is beautiful will contribute to make them happier, you have succeeded\nin your lofty task. The sense of beauty plays a very important role in our\nlives, for it raises us from the commonplace life and adds to the sum total of\nour happiness. Those who can appreciate the beautiful will not only be happier, but also better, than those who cannot.\nIn conclusion, I will say once more that it depends upon you, the educators of the country, whether the next and future generations will attain that\nclimax of culture and civilization which is the goal of the human race.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nATLANTA\n\nMEETING,\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n1904\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February 23, 1904\n\nThe department met in the Grand Opera House, and was called to order at 9:30\no'clock A. M. by President Henry P. Emerson, superintendent of schools, Buffalo, N. Y.\nPrayer was offered by Rev. Theron Rice, D.D.\nHon. Joseph M. Terrell, governor of Georgia, extended a cordial welcome on behalf\nof the people of the state. The secretary read a letter of greeting from Hon. Hoke Smith,\nchairman of the Local Committee, who was prevented by ill health from being present.\nHon. William B. Merritt, state school commissioner of Georgia, extended greetings on\nbehalf of the teachers of the state.\nA response on behalf of the department was made by President Emerson.\n\"Education at the Universal Exposition, 1904,\" was discussed as follows:\n1. \"From the View-Point of the Chief of the Department\": Howard J. Rogers, chief of the Department\nof Education, St. Louis, Mo.\n2. \"Exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education\": W T.Harris, United States Commissioner of\nEducation, Washington, D. C.\n3. \"Some City Exhibits — Their Purpose and Plan\": F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of schools,\nSt. Louis, Mo.; Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New York city.\n\nThe president announced a reception to the department by the governor of Georgia\nat the executive mansion, and another by the Federation of Women's Clubs at the Capital\nCity Club.\nThe department then adjourned until 2 o'clock p. m\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February 23\n\nAt the opening of the session, W. F. Slaton, superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Ga.,\nformally presented President Emerson with a gavel made by a little boy in the manualtraining department of the Atlanta schools.\n\nTwo papers on \"The Course of Study in Elementary and Secondary Schools\" were\nread, the subtitles being as follows:\n1. \"The Superintendent's Influence on the Course of Study\": William H. Elson, superintendent of\nschools, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n2. \"What Omissions Are Advisable in the Present Course of Study, and What Should Be the Basis for\nthe Same?\" Frank M. McMurry, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city.\n\nThe discussion which followed was based chiefly on Mr. McMurry's paper, the\nspeakers being E. H. Mark, superintendent 1of73 schools, Louisville, Ky.; J. H. PhiUips,\nsuperintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala.; Clinton S. Marsh, superintendent of schools,\nAuburn, N. Y.; Charles H. Keyes, superintendent of schools, Hartford, Conn.; Charles\nof\nDeGarmo, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Charles F. Carroll, superintendent\nMich.\nDetroit,\nschools,\nof\nsuperintendent\nschools, Rochester, N. Y.; W. C. Martindale,\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": null, "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nF. D. Boynton, superintendent of schools, Ithaca, N. Y.; read a paper on \"Athletics\nand Collateral Activities in Secondary Schools.\"\nThe president announced the following committees:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nN. C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nW. H. Small, Providence, R. I.\nJ. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala.\nW. K. Fowler, Lincoln, Neb.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nJ. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind.\nS. A. Mynders, Nashville, Tenn.\nG. R. Glenn, Atlanta, Ga.\nC. G. Pearse, Omaha, Neb.\nW. S. Parker, Boston, Mass.\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, February 23\n\nThe evening was given to a \" S)anposium on the Educational Theories and Work of\nHerbert Spencer. ' ' Add resses were delivered by —\nHon. W. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education of the United States.\nJohn W. Cook, President of the National Educational Association.\nW. S. Sutton, professor of pedagogy, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\nA. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.\nM. Rose, professor of history and philosophy of education, University of Tennessee,\nKnoxvi'le, Tenn.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, February 24\n\nThe department convened at 9 130 A. m. with President Emerson in the chair.\n* 'Educational Principles for the South,\" was discussed by —\n1. Charles W. Dabney, president of University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.\n2. Charles D. Mclver, president of State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro, N. C.\nLawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga., read a pa, er on \"The\nFactory Child.\" This paper was discussed by W. H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, of\nthe city of New York, and N. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of schools of Pennsylvania.\nBUSINESS\n\nSESSION\n\nThe following report of the special committee appointed last year to report what\naction the department can wisely take to co-operate with the State Teachers' Associations of IlHnois and Wisconsin to promote the cause of simpHfied spelhng, was submitted\nby W. H. Elson, chairman of the committee.\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association:\nYour committee finds the philological scholarship of the world in perfect accord with the experience\nof teachers as to the need and desirability of rationalizing our spelling. The memorials addressed to this\ndepartment by the state Associations of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota propose a plan which, it seems to\nus, the National Educational Association can most wisely adopt with a view to permanently placing this\nmovement under auspices which, while effectively fostering it, will as effectively guard it against all radical\nand unwise steps. Therefore we recommend the adoption of the following resolutions by a separate vote on\neach:\nResolved:\n1. That the Department of Superintendence approves the first of the resolutions addressed to it by the\nState Teachers' Associations of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and respectfully requests the Board of\nDirectors to appoint a permanent, self-perpetuating, committee of thirty prominent citizens in different walks\nof life, particularly scholars and educators, and representing the various sections of the country, to lead the\nmovement for simplifying our spelling, and to promote its interests in all ways which they find feasible and\ndeem wise.\n2. That the Department of Superintendence approves the second of the resolutions addressed to it by\nthe state associations of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and respectfully requests the Committee on Inves-\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nMINUTES\n\nligations and Appropriations of the National Council to recommend to the Board of Directors, and the department respectfully asks said board to make, the appropriation of $2,000 per year for five yeais, for the use of\nthe above committee, to be paid to it semiannually, each payment to equal such a total sum as shall have been\npaid for the same purpose, within the preceding six months, to the treasurer of said committee by any individuals, teachers' associations, or any organizations, the amount paid by the National Educational Association never to exceed $2,000 in any one year, and never to exceed the sum contributed from\noutside sources\nduring the previous six months.\nRespectfully submitted,\nW. H. Elson, Chairman, superintendent of schools. Grand Rapids, Mich.\nEdwin B. Cox, superintendent of schools, Xenia, O.\nC. N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nF. T. Oldt, superintendent of schools, Dubuque, Iowa.\nA. W. Rankin, state inspector of graded schools, Minneapolis, Minn.\n\nThe adoption of the report was opposed by John McDonald, of Kansas, and R. P.\nHalleck, of Kentucky; and was supported by W. H. Elson, of Michigan; E. O. Vaile, of\nChicago, 111.; Edwin B. Cox, of Ohio; and Thomas M. BaUiett, of Springfield, Mass. A\ndivision of the question was called for. The first section was adopted by a vote of 116\nto 28; the second, by a vote of 94 to 38.\nThe Committee on Nominations made the following report:\nFor President — E. G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, III.\nFor First Vice-President — Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga.\n. For Second Vice-President — J. W. Carr, superintendent of schools, Anderson, Ind.\nFor Secretary — Miss Evangeline E. Whitney, district superintendent of schools, New York dty.\n\nThe nominees were elected by unanimous vote of the department.\nThe selection of a place of meeting for the next session was declared the next order\nof business. Milwaukee, Wis., and Columbus, Ohio, were proposed. The decision was\nmade in favor of Milwaukee.\nCarroll G. Pearse, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Neb., offered the following\nresolution:\nResolved, That in 1905 this department meet in Milwaukee, and each fourth year thereafter in such place\nas may be chosen by the department, or by its Executive Committee, if for any reason the department fails to\nmake a choice.\nThat in 1906, and each second year thereafter, this department meet in Chicago.\nThat in 1907, and each foiu1;h year thereafter, this department meet in Washington, D. C.\n\nThe department voted that the resolution be laid on the table.\nThe following motion, offered by J. M. Frost, of Michigan, was adopted:\nThat the special committee on the promotion of the cause of spelling reform be continued for one year,\nand that it. be charged with the duty of presenting the action of this department to the Board of Directors of\nthe National Educational Association, and to the committee in charge of investigations and appropriations.\n\nE. O. Vaile, of Illinois, presented the following report which was adopted:\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\nFOR\n\nCONFERENCE\nINDICATING\n\nON A UNIFORM\nPRONUNCIATION\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF\n\nKEY-NOTATION\n\nTo the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association:\nYour committee reports that the two other committees of conference contemplated in your resolutions\nwere duly appointed, as follows:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nO. F. Emerson, professor of rhetoric and English philology, Western Reserve University.\nCalvin Thomas, professor of Germanic languages, Columbia University.\nGeorge Hempl, professor of English philology and general linguistics, University of Michigan.\nEdward S. Sheldon, professor of Romance languages, Harvard University.\nC. G. Child, professor of English, University of Pennsylvania.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPHILOLOGICAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nF. A. March, professor of the EngUsh language and of comparative phUology, LaFayette CoUege, Pennsyl-\n\nGeorge Hempl, president of the Modern Language Association, and also of the American Philological\nAssociation.\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": null, "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nCharles P. G. Scott, etymological editor of the Century Dictionary.\nB. Perrin, professor of Greek, Yale University.\nBenjamin Ide Wheeler, president of the University of California.\nA joint meeting was held at Boston during the forty-third annual convention of the National Educationa\nAssociation. Professor Thomas was elected chairman of the joint committee. A subcommittee of three was\nappointed to prepare and submit for consideration in the full committee, during the session of the National\nEducational Association at St. Louis, a system of key-notation which will meet the needs of the lexicographer\nand philologist, but based upon a simple, phonetic alphabet thoroly available for the every-day use of the\ncommon people.\nThis subcommittee has been at work for some time, and its tentative alphabet is about ready to be submitted to the full committee.\nAfter the alphabet has passed the committee, it will be sent out for the criticism or approval of all persons interested, to the end that the scheme having the largest amount of scholarly, expert indorsement may\nultimately be submitted for adoption by each of the bodies represented in the joint committee, in the hope that\ntheir approval and recommendation of it will bring it into universal use in our dictionaries, speUing-books, and\ntheir manuals, as a substitute for our present various and confusing diacritical systems.\nBy a misunderstanding, the appropriation of $100 recommended by this department at its last meeting\nwas not brought to the consideration of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations. So far there\nhas been very little expense. But some printing will have to be done, and a few new types may have to be\ncut, and other expenses incurred. Your committee asks that the department recommend to the proper\nauthorities the appropriation of $100, or as such thereof as may be necessary to carry out the plans of the joint\ncommittee.\ntE. /-v\nO. TrVaele.\nF. Louis Soldan.\nThomas M. Balliet. .\nWm. R. Harper.\nAaron Gove.\n\nEVENING\n\nSESSION\n\nAn address on \"The Ethical Element in Education\" was delivered by Walter B.\nHill, chancellor of the University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.\n\nTHIRD\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, February 25\n\nlows: The topic, \"School Administration and School Supervision\" was discussed as fol1. \"The Superintendent as a Man of Affairs\": William H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New\nYork city; Seymour A. Mynders, state superintendent of pubUc instruction, Nashville, Tenn.\n2. \"The Assistant to the Superintendent — His Functions and Methods of Work\": Miss Alice E. Reynolds, supervisor of schools, Hew Haven, Conn.\n3. \"The Management of Special Departments, Such as Manual Training\": C. N. Kendall, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. The discussion was led by E. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss.\n4. \"The Teacher — Beneficiary or Victim ? \"\n\nMiss Celestia S. Parrish, Athens Ga.\n\nThe following resolution was offered by Edward Rynearson, of Pittsburg, Pa. :\nResolved, That a committee of eleven be appointed, with Professor Halleck, of Louisville. Ky., as chairman, to formulate a code of regulation for the control of athletics in our secondary schools.\n\nThe resolution was referred to the committee on resolutions.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION\n\norder:The topic, \" Extension of PubUc School Privileges,\" was discussed in the following\n1. \"The organization of a System of Evening Schools\": Thomas M. Balliet, superintendent of schools,\nSpringfield, Mass.\n2. \"Adult Education as Illustrated by the Free Lecture System of New York City\": Henry M. Leipriger, supervisor of lectures, Board of Education, New York city.\n3. \"University Extension for Teachers in Service\": R. H. Halsey, president of State Normal School\nOshkosh, Wis.\n4. \"Vacation Schools, Playgrounds, and Recreation Centers\": Miss Evangeline E. Whitney, district\nsuperintendent of schools, New York city; B. E. Nelson, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, lU.\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions returned the resolution offered by Edward Rynearson\nat the morning session without recommendation.\nOn motion, the resolution was tabled.\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n1 77\n\nThe department unanimously adopted the report of the Committee on Resolutions,\nas follows:\nREPORT\n\nResolved:\n\nOF\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\n1. That we, as members of the Department of Superintendence, reaflSrm our unswerving loyalty to our\nnational system of state-conducted free public schools, consisting of elementary and high schools; and that\nwe express our unqualified conviction that the demonstrated influence of these schools upon individual character and ideals, upon the quality of citizenship, and upon our country's industrial and commercial development\namply warrants their continued liberal support, and their encouragement to greater efficiency, by every American citizen of whatever race or religion\n2. That we reaffirm our confidence in the other educational institutions of the state, such as normal\nschools, technical schools, and universities, wherein the pupils of the public schools may find the stimulus and\nincentive to seek higher educational opportunities and higher fields of usefuhiess, whereby, under the direction\nof the state, more efficient teachers may be trained for the public schools, as well as more effective citizens for\nthe nation.\n3. That we recognize the justice of the claims of efficient teachers for better salaries, to the end that\nthey may prepare themselves still better for their work, and that they may make proper provision for the support of themselves and their families; and we pledge ourselves to assist them in every honorable way.\n4 . That we recognize in the skilled supervision and direction of teachers in nu-al as well as graded schools,\na most potent agency for the improvement of teachers, and the organization and direction of educational\nthought in the community. We therefore vurge upon school authorities and educational philanthropists the\nimportance of adjusting salaries so as to insure in the office of county superintendent of schools high quality\nof leadership and educational skill.\n5. That the greatest needs of the rural schools are better teachers, longer school terms, and better gradation. In order to obtain these, it is necessary to have more money to paj teachers, and better road? so as to\nfacilitate the consolidation of rural schools. We therefore urge the necessity not only of increased state appropriations, but also of an adequate local tax, voted by the people for the schools, and we heartily approve of state\nand national efforts for the improvement of our country roads.\n6. That we appreciate the loyal support of the American people to the pubUc schools, as shown by their\nexpressions of confidence, their zealous solicitude for the improvement of the schools, and the increased treasures that they voluntarily pay for their support. We pledge the people in return that, so far as it is within our\npower, the schools shall be economically administered, and that the children shall receive the best training of\nhead, hand, and heart that it is possible for us and our colleagues to give them.\n7. That it is desirable that the appropriate state authority in the different states shall be empowered by\nlaw to recognize teachers' certificates and diplomas of high grade issued or recognized by other states.\n8. That we extend our sincere thanks to Governor Terrell, to the citizens of Atlanta and the state of\nGeorgia, to the school officers and teachers of the city and the state, to the women's clubs, the Local Committee,\nand the press of this city, and to the Passenger Association, for the courtesies accorded the members of the\ndepartment.\nJohn W. Carr, of Indiana, Chairman.\nCarroll G. Pearse, of Nebraska.\nGusTAvus R. Glenn, of Georgia.\nWalter S. Parker, of Massachusetts.\nSeymour A. Mynders, of Tennessee.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nJohn nH. Hinemon, Secretary.\n\nROUND\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nTABLES\n\nOF STATE AND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nN. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania,. Chairman.\nW. L. Stockwell, of North Dakota, Secretary.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY.— Tuesday, February 23, 1904\nThe Round Table of State and County Superintendents met at 4 o'clock p. m. in the\nIn the absence of the leader, Superintendent\nassembly room of the Carnegie Library.\nSchaeffer, of Pennsylvania, called the meetSuperintendent\nRichard C. Barrett, of Iowa,\nSuperintendent W. L. Stockwell, of North Dakota, was appointed secretary.\ning to order.\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": null, "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atianta\n\nThe topic for discussion was: \"The Recognition of Certificates and Diplomas Granted\n{a) by State and County Authorities, (6) by Schools of Education.\" Superintendent\nSchaeffer opened the discussion, followed by Dr. Sanford, of New York.\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, of San Antonio, Tex., presented the principal paper\nwhich set forth the need of some plan of state reciprocity. Superintendent George W.\nNash, of South Dakota, followed with a paper which supplemented the paper of Superintendent Wolfe. The discussion was continued by Commissioner L. D. Bonebrake, of\nOhio; Ex-Commissioner G. R. Glenn, of Georgia; Superintendent W. T. Carrington, of\nMissouri; County Superintendent Shelton Phillips, of Florida; Dr. Henry R. Sanford, of\nNew York, and Superintendent Arthur Lefevre, of Texas.\nSuperintendent Wolfe moved that it is the sense of this body that state certificating\nauthorities should be authorized to indorse and validate certificates of a high degree\nissued by other states for use in their own states. The motion was seconded. Superintendents Bonebrake and Lefevre, and President John R. Kirk, of Missouri, discussed\nthe motion.\nThe motion was then carried.\nSuperintendent Wolfe also moved that the chair appoint a committee of state superintendents to confer with the state superintendents of the United States, looking to the\ncarrying into effect of this resolution, and to report to the Department of Superintendence.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nSuperintendent Schaeffer reserved the announcement of the committee until the\nsession of Wednesday.\nThe meeting then adjourned until Wednesday at 2 130 o'clock p. m.\nSECOND\n\nDAY.— Wednesday, February 24\n\nThe round table met persuant to adjournment. Superintendent Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, presiding.\nThe chair announced the following Committee on the Indorsement of the VaHdating\nof Teachers' Certificates: President A. S. Draper, of IlUnois; State Superintendents G.\nW Nash, of South Dakota; W. W. Stetson, of Maine; E. A. Jones, of Ohio; and W. T.\nCarrington, of Missouri.\nLetters were read from Superintendent Skinner, of New York, and Mrs. Grenfell,\nof Colorado, and also a telegram from Superintendent Sheats, of Florida, giving reasons\nfor non-attendance.\nThe topic under discussion was: \"Increasing the Efficiency of Rural Schools.\" The\nfirst paper was presented by Superintendent Arthur Lefevre, of Texas. He discussed the\ntopic briefly under the following heads: \" ConsoUdation of Rural Schools,\" \"Improvements in Course of Study and System of Grading,\" \"Higher Standards in the Employment of Teachers,\" and \"Expert Supervision.\"\nThe first topic was presented more fully by Superintendent J. Y. Joyner of North\nCaroHna.\nThe second subtopic, \"Improvements in Course of Study and System of Grading,\"\nwas presented by Superintendent Delos Fall, of Michigan, in an exhaustive paper. Superintendent Cary, of Wisconsin, continued the discussion.\nThe third subtopic, \"Higher Standards in the Employment of Teachers,\" was presented by President F. P. Venable, of the University of North Carolina. The discussion\nwas continued by Professor P. P. Claxton, of the University of Tennessee, and Superintendent M. L. Brittain, of Fulton county, Georgia;\nThe last subtopic, \" Expert Supervision,\" was discussed in a brief paper by Superintendent I.W. Hill, of Alabama; after which the round table adjourned without date.\nW. L. Stockwell, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] £DZ7C^r/0iV\n\nROUND\n\nAT THE\n\nTABLE\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nOF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe Round Table of City Superintendents met at the Grand Opera House on Wednesday, February 24, at 2:40 o'clock p.m. Leader, Edwin G. Cooley, superintendent\nof schools, Chicago, 111.; secretary, N. L. Bishop, superintendent of schools, Norwich,\nConn.\nBrief prefatory remarks were made by the leader, after which he introduced Samuel\nT. Button, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York city, who read a paper\nupon \"The Expediency of Importing Teachers of Proved Merit from without the City or\nTown.\"\nSuperintendent L. E. Wolfe, of San Antonio, Tex., opened the discussion, and was\nfollowed by Superintendent C. F. Carroll, of Rochester, N. Y.; Superintendent E. P.\nCummings, of Grand Haven, Mich.; Superintendent Arthur D. Call, of Ansonia, Conn.;\nSuperintendent J. V. Harris, of Key West, Fla.; and others.\nSuperintendent Walter H. Small, of Providence, R. I., being introduced by the leader,\naddressed the body upon the topic, \" Should Teachers Be Required to Present, from Time\nto Time, Evidences of Increased Scholarship ? \" Superintendent J. H. Van Sickle, of Baltimore, Md., followed with a statement of the plan in that city for encouraging advanced\nstudies by teachers.\nThe round table then adjourned.\nN. L. Bishop, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND\nEDUCATION\nI.\n\nFROM\n\nHOWARD\n\nTHE\n\nAT THE\n\nVIEW-POINT\n\nJ. ROGERS,\n\nCHIEF\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nUNIVERSAL\nOF THE\n\nEXPOSITION,\n\nCHIEF\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT\n\nOF THE\n\n1904\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nA great international exposition is not the result of chance conditions. It\nnever develops from commonplace motives. Some historic sentiment may\ngive the initial impulse, may fix the place of holding, but it is quickly subordinated tothe world-forces which come to a common center for the building\nof a world's fair. By common consent, and actuated by a common purpose,\nthe nations of the world bring together for comparison and exchange their\nbest work in science, art, and industry. The energy which creates the expositionthe\n; judgment which places the exhibits under a classification which is\nin itself the latest contribution to a category of the activities of the world; the\nfinancial abihty which judiciously controls the expenditure of fifty millions\nof dollars; the executive ability which cares for, instructs, and entertains\nthirty millions of people, form an epoch-making event. This event determines the relative progress of each country in every phase of human endeavor;\nit fixes the standard of national enterprise for the coming decade or generation.\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": null, "text": "i8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nEach of the international expositions has had its controlUng motive, and\neach its important result. The latter is not always readily apparent, and\noften is appreciated only after a lapse of years, when we are able to look back\nover a great popular uplift and mark its beginnings; as we are able to trace\nthe growth of industrial art in this country from the Centennial Exposition\nof 1876, and the growth of specialized training in the public schools of France\nfrom the Paris Exposition of 1878, But the motives are more clearly defined\nand stamp the character of the exposition. The first one, the Crystal Palace\nExhibition in London in 185 1, may almost be said to have been fraternal,\nsince international comity and the establishment of better commercial relations were the avowed object of its promoter, Albert, prince consort. In the\nParis expositions art has been the motive — art in its broadest sense, as applied\nto industries as well as to the purely aesthetic. In Vienna, in 1873, commercialism was the dominant factor; it was the only failure of the nine great international expositions. In Philadelphia national sentiment received its highest\nrecognition in exposition history. In Chicago there was a less clearly defined\nmotive at the start and a more brilliant result at the finish than in any previous\nexposition. It had its rise in historic sentiment, to be true; but it was too\nremote to be more than an excuse, and too accidental to create enthusiasm.\nThe location of the Columbian Exposition was the result of a sharp rivalry\nbetween three cities; but, having given it to Chicago, fate drew together a group\nof broad and brilliant men for its development, and as a result the White City\n— with its Roman classic architecture, its magnificent distances, its landscape\ngardening, and its Court of Honor — stood forth as an object-lesson to the\nAmerican people, more impressive, more convincing of the absolute necessity\nof the adaptation of art to the life of a nation, than thousands of sermons or\nyears of instruction.\nIn the St. Louis Exposition of 1904 the motive, avowed at the beginning\nand emphasized thruout, is education. The appeal to Congress for funds,\nto the states of the union for support, and to foreign nations for co-operation\nwas made on this basis. Education in its broadest terms is meant — the education which comes to a people from observing art and architecture in heroic\nmodels, from inspecting exhibits grouped with regard to their dependence\nand relation to each other, and from seeing processes in connection with the\nexhibits which will take the raw material and transform it, under the eyes of\nthe waiting crowd, into the finished product ready for the markets.\nIn the furtherance of this idea the classification of the exhibits division has\na scientific theory underlying it. It does not begin with agriculture, as at\nChicago, and end with transportation, because the alphabet runs that way;\nbut it has a logical development, the result of the experience of two great\nexpositions.\nAs expressed briefly in our prints:\nAt the head of the exposition classification has been placed Education, through\nwhich man enters social life. Second comes Art, showing the condition of his culture\nand development.\nLiberal Arts and Applied Sciences are placed third, to indicate the\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAT THE\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nEXPOSITION\n\ni8i\n\nresult of his education and culture, illustrate his tastes, and demonstrate his inventive\ngenius, scientific attainment, and artistic expression. These three departments equip him\nfor the battle and prepare him for the enjoyments of life. The raw-material departments\n—Agriculture, Horticulture, Mining, and Forestry— show how man conserves the forces\nof nature to his uses. The Department of Manufactures will show what he has done\nwith them; the Department of Machinery, the tools he has used. The Department of\nTransportation will show how he overcomes distances and secures access to all parts of\nthe world; the Department of Electricity will indicate the great forces he has discovered\nand utilized to convey power and intelhgence. And so through the several departments\nto Anthropology, in which man studies man; and to Social Economy, which will illustrate\nthe development of the human race, how it has overcome the difficulties of civilization\nand solved the great problems in which society is involved. Last is placed Physical Culture, in which man, his intelhgence having reached the supreme point, is able to treat himself as an animal, realizing that his intellectual and moral constitutions require a sound\nphysical body to prompt them to the proper performance of their function.\n\nThe main purpose of the exposition is to place within reach of the investigator the objective thought of the world, so classified as to show its rela\ntions to all similar phases of human endeavor, and so arranged as to be\npractically available for reference and Study.\nThat we shall reach in full this ideal no one prophesies; that we shall\nreach the higher because of it no one doubts.\nIn an exposition of this nature, therefore, the educational exhibit has a\ndouble responsibility — to represent properly its own subject, and to introduce\nfittingly the scheme of classification. It has received from the first most\ngenerous consideration from the exposition authorities. The National Educational Association was requested by them to recommend a chief of the\nDepartment of Education, which by the action of a special Advisory Board\nit did. A beautiful building, the first ever devoted Solely to education at an\nexposition, was assigned for its exhibits. The building is in the center of\nthe main picture of the exposition, and covers seven acres of ground. Every\nrequest for the development of the exhibit has been granted, if warranted by\nthe general policy of the exposition.\nThe object of the educational exhibit, as announced from the first, has\nbeen twofold: first, to secure a comparative exhibit from every country in\nthe world noted for educational progress; second, to secure a comprehensive\nexhibit of every phase of educational effort in this country. Both may be\nsaid, with reasonable limitations, to have been attained. The foreign\nnations of England, France, Germany, Russia, Italy, Sweden, Belgium,\nJapan, China, Mexico, Cuba, Brazil, and Argentina are participating. What\nthey will exhibit, how they will exhibit it, and how thoroly they will\ncover our classification, we have no means of accurately, determining until\ntheir exhibits are installed; but they have expressed the highest appreciation\nof our plans, and we have every reason to believe that they will be followed\nas closely as a classification based on the educational system of one country\nwill permit the system of another country to do. Two of the countries\nmade appropriations for an educational exhibit before a general participa-\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": null, "text": "i82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ntion in the exposition was decided; and one made a minimum of 5,000\nsquare feet in the educational building a sine qua non for participating at all.\nIn the domestic section thirty states are exhibitors, representing every\nsection of the country. Four cities will make individual exhibits — New\nYork, Chicago, St. Louis, and Cleveland — demonstrating the working of a\nhighly centralized municipal system. In all other parts of the public- school\nexhibit the state is the unit, as perforce it must be in our federal system. We\nhave taken all the pains that suggestion and insistence would warrant to\nhave the state exhibits carefully classified and graded, and to prevent repetitions and duplications. These will occur, for local pride is very assertive;\nbut we trust they may be minimized\nIn the university section. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, from the East; Chicago, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, Washington, St. Louis, and Minnesota in the central plain; and California in the\nWest, are the principal exhibitors. The professional and technical schools\nand colleges for women are equally well represented.\nIn respect to the classification and space, a special Advisory Board of the\nNational Educational Association, of which Dr. W. T. Harris, United States\nCommissioner of Education, is chairman, supervised the first. The department is divided into eight groups and twenty-six classes. The space relatively allotted to each group in the domestic section is as follows: elementary\nand secondary education, 47 per cent.; higher education, 22 per cent.; special\neducation in fine arts, 3 per cent.; special education in agricultural and\nmechanical schools, 13 per cent.; special education in commerce and industry, 4 per cent.; education of defectives, 6 per cent.; special forms of\neducation and miscellaiteous features, 5 per cent. Domestic education as a\nwhole occupies 57 per cent, of the department space, and foreign education\n43 per cent. Every foot of space is allotted, and we have a large waiting\nlist ready to take any space surrendered.\nSuch is the condition ten weeks before the opening of the exposition. It\ndoes not come within the scope of this paper to discuss special features of\nthe exhibit. Were I asked to name one or two, I should select the industrial\nexhibits and art exhibits.\nThe theoretical stage has been passed; the facts are about to develop.\nUpon this development depend the results. Of the educational exhibit from\nthe standpoint of the chief of the department, therefore, no positive assertion\ncan be made. The plan of development seems to us rational ; the co-operation\nof the exhibitors has been promised. If the plan proves tenable and the\nexhibits are thoroly in accord, the exhibit will be a success. By as much as\neither falls short, by so much will the exhibit fail of a full success. Under\nthe first condition — which, we believe, we are warranted in predicting to be\nthe true one — there will be demonstrated the right of education to the first\nplace in a classification of the world's activities; there will be demonstrated\nthe unity of the educational processes of this country, north and south, east\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nED UCA TION\n\nA T THE\n\nUNI VERSA L EXPOSITION\n\n1S2\n\nand west; and there will be demonstrated the superiority of the training\ngiven our youth over that given the youth of other countries in all that\ntends to produce a self-reliant, loyal, and well-rounded citizen of the\nrepublic.\n11.\n\nEXHIBIT\nW. T. HARRIS,\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nSTATES\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nBUREAU\nOF THE\n\nOF EDUCATION\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n[an abstract]\n\nCommissioner Harris stated that the exhibit of the bureau at St. Louis\nwould consist largely of charts illustrating various phases of educational\nstatistics. Photographs would also be employed to show the appearance of\nschool buildings, and to give one at the same time some idea of the social characteristics ofthe teachers and pupils. Pains have been taken to obtain from\nspecimen counties in different parts of the United States photographs of all\nthe school buildings in the county, the pupils being drawn up in front of the\nbuildings and the teachers standing in their midst. One or two cities also\nhave been shown in the same way. No city or county is shown on the exhibit\nunless photographs are obtained of all of its schools.\nThe great idea of an educational exhibit is to make things talk. It was\nat the Cotton Centennial in New Orleans that I first learned how effectively\nthis may be done. At the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia gifted persons here and there over the country had invented one or more devices for\nmaking things talk, and their exhibits were very instructive along one Hne or\nanother of educative work. At the Cotton Centennial these inventors were\nsingled out to prepare exhibits in education for that exposition. Not only did\nthe American educational exhibit prove very instructive at New Orleans, but\nthe exhibits from some foreign nations were of great interest — particularly\nthat from France, because of the artistic skill of the French. The artist,\nwhether a painter or sculptor, has a gift to make stone or canvas express\ncharacter. The average Frenchman is more of an artist than the average\ninhabitant of any other country, and this national characteristic appeared in\nthe educational exhibit at New Orleans. Things could talk a language\nwhich all nations might understand, and one could see how interesting the\ninstruction must be in a French school.\nWe are to have in our exhibit at St. Louis monographs and leaflets which\nwill contain in compact form the information which is given on great charts\nso arranged that he who runs may read. These will be handed to visitors\nwho manifest special interest in this or that particular feature of the\nexhibit.\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": null, "text": "i84\n\nIII.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSOME\n\nCITY\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBITS:\nA.\n\nF. LOUIS\n\nSOLDAN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nTHEIR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPURPOSE\n\nAND\n\n[Atlanta\n\nPLAN\n\nST. LOUIS\nOF EDUCATION,\nMO.\n\nCITY SCHOOLS,\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nSt. Louis is the home of the Fair. Her city school exhibit will be that\nof the host, as it were, in the group of city schools. Therefore it would\nseem to be appropriate for her to seek to present, in the arrangement of the\nmatter of her exhibit, a type of the work of the city schools of the United\nStates, rather than to show the special features of the St. Louis system. In\npreparing for this exhibit, it was seen at once that there were difficulties of two\ndistinct kinds, which necessarily limited the completeness of an educational\nexhibit and determined its character.\nFirst, education can properly be shown only in its effect on the pupils. It\ncannot be exhibited in an adequate way except in the life of the school from\nday to day. The silent processes of gradual transformation which bring\nabout the growth of the pupils cannot be exhibited. All that can be done is to\nshow with what the school surrounds its children in the wa}- of material and\nintellectual environment — those things that are concomitant with the process\nof education.\nThe second diflBiculty arises in trying to make the exhibit immediately\nattractive. The processes of the various forms of human industry in other\ndepartments of the World's Fair will be exhibited in the results obtained\nfrom stage to stage of the process. For instance, in the textile or the\nmachinery department the results of the industry, as well as the processes, can\nbe exhibited. Both are attractive and interesting in themselves, even for the\none that is not an expert. Such an exhibit you can read as you run. In\neducation, however, the resulting product of growth displayed in an exhibit\ncan be discovered only by a study and comparison of work shown in the\nsuccessive stages of school Hfe.\nThe inference drawn from this necessary character of the school exhibit\nis that, since the appeal is to study rather than simply to inspect, the form\nof the exhibit must be that of the library. Chairs and tables, and free space,\nmust be provided, so that books of material, and the charts and pictures, can\nbe studied at leisure.\nThe space occupied by the St. Louis exhibit will be about 140 by 27 feet.\nA decorative scheme for the inclosure is essential, and this should lend itself\nas an educational exhibit also. The facade will consist of a number of pillars\nconnected by arches, about twenty in all. Each pillar, apparently massive,\nwill have in its sides and front transparent panels that shall represent pictorially the history of education from the earliest times — the ancient Egyptian,\nthe Greek and Roman, schools of the Orient, and so on. In the spandrels\nbetween the arches and the pillars similar transparent panels will show children's faces as they have been taken at school-work, all aglow with interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] EDUCATION\n\nAT THE\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n185\n\nOn the wall space will be cabinets and shelves for books of the children's\nwork. Above these will be exhibited pictures and casts taken from some of\nthe schoolrooms of St. Louis, and showing the objects of art actually used\nin their decoration. The material of the school- work exhibited will be\narranged in order from the kindergarten to the high school. The close relation\nof kindergarten to home and church will be seen in the work grouped around\na Christmas tree, made beautiful by electric lighting — as will be all of the\nexhibit. Enlarged photographs of classes at work will show their happy faces\nin an apparatus which presents a new picture every minute.\nThe building department of the schools will be represented by models of\nsome of the school buildings, and of special features introduced in their construction. Bymeans of diagrams the organization of the school system will\nbe shown in state, county, and city. Finally an actual schoolroom will be fitted\nup 25 by 27 feet, and in this room children will be taught for a few hours\nevery day. The work will be such as can be given under such conditions —\nkindergarten and construction work, manual training and the work of the\nlaboratory in the high school, music, physical culture, classes with deaf\nchildren, etc.\nIn the mode of representation the idea is to have all of the work that of\nthe children. The written work will be collected into books having appropriate covers designed by the children. In designing covers for books to be\ndevoted to the different subjects, as science, geography, etc., the children\nwere asked to submit drawings in competition, and a committee of artists\nthen selected several of the most appropriate.\n\nB.\nANDREW\n\nW. EDSON,\n\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nCITY\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nTo speak of the beauty and merits of your own child, and especially to do\nthis in a public manner, requires great self-confidence, or at least great confidence inyour offspring. Modesty, or sane discretion, leads me to hesitate somewhat in describing the educational exhibit of the city of New York at the St.\nLouis Exposition, especially after hearing this very full and elaborate explanation of what St. Louis proposes to do.\n\nIn the first place, a word of apology is perhaps our due. Last September we introduced into our schools a new course of study. This course\nnecessitated the extension from a seven-year course to an eight-year course\nin Manhattan and the Bronx, in what was formerly New York city. In\nextending the work, in introducing new studies, and in making so many radical changes, we found that the preparation of an exhibit at this particular\ntime was a very difficult and delicate task to undertake. A year ago we could\nhave made a better showing than we can this year; a year hence we could\nmake a much better exhibit.\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThe thought that I have to present may perhaps properly come under\nthree headings: written work, photographic records, and school architecture.\nIn the presentation of written work, it seemed best to a large proportion of\nour instructors to determine upon a change from the traditional method.\nWe had in mind the fact that school exhibits are usually the greatest fakes\nafloat; they breathe dishonesty from start to finish. Instead of representing fairly and honestly the work of classes, they ordinarily represent the\ncombined effort of a few skillful pupils, plus the teacher, with much of the\nlatter mixed in all along the line. That is, in most school exhibits the papers\npresented are understood to be those that have been worked over and over,\nrevised, corrected, and copied until all mistakes have been eliminated and the\nexecution made perfect. The product, rather than the process, is made the\nimportant feature, with seldom a hint of the method by which the subject is\nunfolded.\nIn order to have all sections of the city represented, four schools from\neach of the forty-six school districts in the city were selected, thus giving us\nabout two hundred schools and six hundred classes to prepare work for the\nexposition. In order to restrict the amount of work in any one school, and\nto make the preparation of the exhibit comparatively light, no school was\nallowed to have more than two subjects, or more than two grades at work\non any one topic. During the months of December and January the classes\nwere asked to prepare ten sets of papers. From each of the nine of these\nexercises the best six papers were selected. In the tenth exercise, prepared\nduring the second week in January, all the papers of the class — good, bad,\nand indifferent — were reserved in order that we might have a fairly representative showing of all of the pupils engaged in the work.\nEach pupil's paper had the following heading:\nThe City of New York.\nPublic School\nName\nyear\n\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904.\nBorough of\nAge\nSubject\n\nhalf\n\nTo accompany each set of papers, whether six or fifty papers, a statement blank was filled in by the teacher of the class. This statement was\ndesigned to answer the inquiries sure to arise by all who inspected the work.\nThe following is a copy:\nEducational Exhibit,\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition,\nSt. Louis, 1904.\nTHE DEPARTMENT\n\nOF EDUCATION, THE CITY OF NEW YORK\n\nteacher's statement\nI. Subject\n2\nyear of school-work\n3. Number of pupils in class\n4. Number of pupils whose papers are here exhibited\n\nhalf\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] EDUCATION\n\nAT THE\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n187\n\n5. Time per week given to class instruction in this subject\n6. Connection of this exercise with previous or subsequent work.\n7. Questions or topics given to class\n8. Time spent by pupils in preparing for the written exercise.\n9. Nature of preparation\n10. Time occupied in writing\n1 1 . Usual method of criticism or revision by class or by teacher.\nI hereby certify that the following papers exhibit the pupils' first drafts and show\nthe regular work of the class.\n(Signed)\nTeacher.\nSchool\nBorough of\nDated\n190- .\n\nTeachers were directed to hand in only first drafts of written work. Some\nfew teachers protested against this course, insisting that it would place our\nschools at a great disadvantage, as the teachers of other cities would certainly\nhave their work corrected, copied, and perfected at every step. In some few\ncases a set of papers was copied, but in all such cases the first draft accompanies the copy, so that a visitor can see the first effort. We expect to have\nsome three hundred bound volumes of four hundred sheets each, and fifty-eight\nwall- cabinets, each cabinet with thirty-three sheets of mounted cardboard,\n22 by 28 inches, and ninety albums with twenty-five leaves, 18 by 22 inches.\nIn these volumes, in the wall-cabinets, and in the albums we shall have work\nwhich we think will fairly and honestly exhibit something of the work of the\nschools of our city. This is our hope and expectation.\n\nIn our photographic exhibit we shall have six or seven hundred photographs, 8by 10 or II by 14 inches. These photographs will cover the whole\nfield of our educational activity. They will represent classes at work, the\nconditions under which they work, and the method of our work in our vacation schools, playgrounds, recreation centers, recreation piers, roof play\ngrounds; classes at work in the kindergarten, in laboratories, in our night\nschools as well as in our day schools, in the parks, at the botanical garden,\nat the zoological park, at the natural-history museum, and at the aquarium.\nThe third phase of our work is in the line of school architecture. We lay\nclaim to having the best school architect in this country. We propose to have\nsome thirty or thirty-five large photographs and drawings of our latest and\n\nbest type of school buildings, as well as four models of school buildings costing some $500 each. From the pictures and models, from the plans and\nspecifications, we expect to show to the public something of what we are\ndoing in the erection of the best type of large school buildings. All that we\ncan say, then, is that we trust you will all visit our exhibit, that you will make\nas careful and thoro an investigation as possible, and that you will be kmd\nand considerate in your criticism.\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 88\n\nTHE\n\nI. THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF STUDY IN ELEMENTARY\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nW. H. ELSON,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nINFLUENCE\nSTUDY\n\nON\n\nOF CITY SCHOOLS,\n\nTHE\n\nGRAND\n\n[Atlanta\n\nAND\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF\n\nRAPIDS,\n\nMICH.\n\nAny intelligent survey of the superintendent's duties will reveal the commanding importance of the matter and method of the course of study. All\nother official duties focus at this point. It is the crowning issue in school administration, to which all else is incidental and contributive. What goes on in\nthe schoolroom in the daily contact of teacher with pupils in the process of\ninstruction is fundamental and vital. This is the ''firing fine,\" as it were, to\nwhich the entire machinery of the school is but means to end. It is here that\nthe real course of study — not the theoretical one on paper — finds its way to\nthe children; here the course of study is seen in action, both as to matter and\nmethod; it is here that expert leadership is needed, and it must function here\nif its influence is to be felt in the conduct of the school.\nWhatever tends to liberalize instruction — to organize, unify, and vitalize\nit, thereby rescuing it from blighting formalism and lifeless monotony, and\nmaking the appeal to individual initiative and to the spirit of investigation\nand inquiry in children — strikes at the very soul of school-life. My excuse\n(if, indeed, an apology were necessary) for pointing out with emphasis so\nevident a fact as that of the tremendous importance of the course of study,\nis the large demand which other and relatively less important matters make\nupon the superintendent's time and energy. It is not easy to keep a clear\nperspective of values among the various details that press for attention in\nthe routine of school administration. An active superintendent finds it\neasy to assume duties akin to those of clerk of supplies or purchasing agent;\nto become a gatherer of statistics; to supervise buildings and grounds, with\nincidental attention to repairs and janitors; to select sites and superintend\nthe construction of buildings; to find himself performing mere clerical duties;\nthese and other details lose him to the real purpose for which he, officially,\nexists, which is: to raise the standard of teaching and to improve the quality\nof instruction in the schools.\nThe superintendent is— should be — the expert, par excellence, in matters\nrelating to the course of study, particularly as to its scope and method. This\nis the one field in which his knowledge as a specialist renders him supreme.\nIt is this expert knowledge that distinguishes him as a superintendent, and\nwhich entitles him to consideration as such ; and it is this service that the schools\nmost need. The layman or the ordinary observer can in no sense be relied\non to form accurate and just conclusions in so intricate and many-sided a\nproblem as that involved in a course of study.\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMEN TARY\n\nA ND\n\nSECONDA RY CO URSE OF STUDY\n\n1 80\n\nThis professional leadership of superintendents will be recognized and\naccepted by the public in the degree in which it shows a genuine professional\ninsight, and the courage to organize this illumination of vision into a sane and\nwell-ordered administrative policy. It will be recognized and welcomed\nby teachers and principals in the degree in which it is genuinely helpful in\ndealing with fundamental difficulties; in the measure in which it throws\ninto relief certain organizing and unifying principles which must ever form\nthe light of guidance to teachers, thereby lifting them out of the fragmentary\none-year view of both subject-matter and child-Hfe— which school classification imposes— and giving them gUmpses of the unity and wholeness of both,\nwhich are essential to any adequate perspective of educational values or of the\neducative process as a whole. It will be effective in the degree in which it sets\nteachers and principals to work— actively, intelligently, sympathetically,\nby committees or otherwise — constructing and arranging subject-matter\nin • accordance with these guiding principles, seeking constantly to liberate\nthem in their work, relying much on their judgment as to details, thereby\nstimulating a healthy sense of responsibihty and professional spirit, and\nsecuring the careful study of environment and of individual children or\nteachers.\nSuch professional leadership illuminates every detail of practice and vitalizes the entire school organization. By its constructive and uplifting influence\nit creates a healthy attitude toward children and life, offers opportunity for\nindividual initiative and for the achievement of purpose, guards against the\npitfalls into which inexperience or restricted vision must inevitably lead,\nand sanctifies all with an attitude of good-will. Under such benign leadership monotony and deadly uniformity gradually disappear, quantitative\nstandards give place to those of quality in which originality and individuality\nare prominent, the ability to apply knowledge to new problems becomes the\nmeasure of progress, and the adaptation of work to individual needs and\nconditions constitutes the test of efficiency.\nA course of study should be suggestive rather than prescriptive, broad\nenough in outline to give free scope to original treatment, comprehensive\nenough to secure consideration of all essential matters, explicit enough to\nsecure organic connection in the work as a whole, and sufficiently pedagogical\nto enable teachers to adapt the work to the children's capacities and interests.\nThe making, as well as the administering, of such a course of study requires\nthe combined wisdom of teachers, principals, and superintendents. So intricate is the problem, involving as it does such a wide range of contributive\ninfluences, as to call for the massing and utilizing of all available capital\nin the way of insight, knowledge, and experience which the school plant\ncontrols. This is essential, not only to the making of an effective workingformula, but also to an enhghtened interpretation of it on the part of teachers,\nand to an intelligent and sympathetic co-operation in carrying it into\neffect.\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": null, "text": "1 9©\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThe influence alone upon teachers of such a poUcy of administration\nargues strongly for its more general adoption. Nothing so effectually kills\nmechanism, stimulates responsibility, enlarges the field of vision, and vitalizes\nthe entire work of teachers as does their active participation in the consideration of questions relating to the matter and method of the course of study.\nSuch a policy organizes the teachers into a normal training-school of the\nhighest type, and brings out the best in each individual teacher.\nIn practice, courses of study are often determined by agencies wholly\nindependent of the class-room teacher — by the superintendent, the supervisor, or the special teacher. The class-room teacher, who must finally\ngive reality to every phase of the course, thus escapes the necessity of studying\nthe real problem; no requirement is placed upon her to estimate the educative value of the material which she uses; she has no reason for assuming\nresponsibility for these things ; she is not therefore a student of the fundamental\nquestions involved in her work; she is not, in the language of commerce, a\nproducer, but a jobber — a handler of goods produced by others.\nIt is sometimes pointed out that there is a parallel between the modern\nfactory system and the pubHc-school system in that plans and commands in\nboth cases come from above. This is necessarily, tho unfortunately, true to\na considerable extent; but I hold that anything approaching an earnest and\nthoughtful study on the part of teachers of the fundamental problems in\neducation is impossible until they are placed in a position of responsibility in\nregard to the course of study and given large freedom in the achievement of\nresults. They must be charged with the business of weighing, testing, and\nevaluating subject-matter; they must know, not only the matter of the course,\nbut its value in the development of the child; and they must know how to\nadapt it to the needs of the child. In respect of these things they must be\nheld responsible for the exercise of personal good judgment. We need more\ndemocracy in our educational practice and a larger recognition of the ideas of\nthe workers.\nIt must be pointed out, however, that the factory system deals with material things; its output is a material product; while the school system fashions\nspiritual things, which do not respond to mechanical stimuli or \"orders\"\nhanded down from a governing head. When teachers are given large responsibility inselecting and adapting material to the needs of the children, their\nentire attitude changes. They form ideals of their own, make plans for\nachieving these, and enjoy the glow of success that attends the realization of\nworthy aspirations. The continuous enjoyment that comes to teachers in\ncreative work of this kind is alone of distinct value to a system of schools.\nSuperintendents who successfully combat the parallelism between the factory\nsystem and the school system, thereby making their teachers true factors in\nthe life of the school, interesting them actively in its most vital problems, will\nexercise a far-reaching influence on the course of study. They will likewise\nminimize greatly the disparity that too often exists between the course of\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n191\n\nStudy as it appears on paper and as it comes to the child in the daily work of\nthe class-room.\n\nYet, in the making as well as in the administering of a course of study\nthe superintendent must lead, inspire, and guide. For the study of the matter and method of the course, principals and grade teachers should have\nrepresentatives on the superintendent's cabinet. Naturally the superintendent has the widest horizon relative to the whole subject; he is in closest touch\nwith social conditions and needs; he has the deepest appreciation of the unity\nof the entire life of the child and of the entire field of subject-matter, consequently ofthe organic connection between school studies and the life of the\nchild; while his assistants may know more than he in their respective fields,\nespecially as to what is attainable in the several grades. For this reason they\ncan outline in detail more effectively and to better advantage than can the superintendent. The superintendent's judgment as to what is of most worth is\nmore valuable than that of his subordinates who work with a more limited\nhorizon ; with him must rest, therefore, final decisions as to the matter of the\ncourse. This implies that the superintendent is a student of education as it\nis viewed by others than those in his own system of schools.\nThe superintendent's influence in administering a course of study is more\nimportant than in constructing it. This should be a wide, extensive influence\nrather than a narrow, intensive one, giving subordinates large freedom within\nreasonably wide boundaries, and passing upon the results rather than dictating\nspecific methods. It is necessary to adapt the course of study to the ability\nand skill of teachers as well as to the varying conditions and needs of pupils.\nIt is possible to construct a course on purely theoretical lines, which only a\nmaster of the practical in education can administer; a bungler will fail with\nthe most nearly ideally constructed course.\nA vast difference exists with reference to the superintendent's influence on\nthe course of study between small cities, where he can supervise every detail\nof the work, and large cities, where he does his supervisory work largely by\nproxy thru his principals or assistants. In the former case he can assist\nevery teacher by direct suggestion in efforts to adapt details of the work to\nlocal and individual conditions. In the latter case this work must be done\nby the principals, and his own direct suggestions are necessarily of a more\ngeneral character, leaving much latitude in appHcation of these principles.\nYet in both cases greatest good will come if he seeks constantly to raise the\nideals of teachers, giving freedom to use their abiHty to realize these ideals,\nstimulating initiative in every way in principals and teachers— by relying m\nthe details of their work, both in matter and method, largely on their judgment; by enabUng them to feel that they are true factors in the life of school:\nby stimulating a sense of personal and professional responsibihty and selfesteem; consequently, by framing the course of work on broad lines which\nmay secure a healthy unity but avoid the pitfalls of deadly uniformity:\nby encouraging discussion, and personal and professional research by judi-\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": null, "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nciously commending success; by tactful criticism; by free recognition of merit\nand the elimination of manifest incompetence. To this may be added the\ninspiration of his own example and occasional messages from aggressive\ncolleagues.\nThis in no way precludes on his part the occasional issue of suggestions\nas to matter and method, entering even into minute hypothetical or observed\ndetails. However, these should always come as suggestions or helps — never\nas cast-iron directions or orders. \"Directions and orders\" should be confined wholly to the published general course of study. The superintendent's\nchief strength lies in the encouragement that comes to teachers from the\napproval of good and judicious work. Those things which he does not\napprove usually vanish in a short time, even without direct criticism.\nA healthy, all-sidedly progressive spirit has no other ground to stand on ; it\nis of necessity constructive in its nature, stimulating initiative and giving\nfreedom in execution. Likewise, test-papers, reviews, examinations, and\nquestionings on his rounds of visiting afford much valuable opportunity to\nshow discrimination in regard to good work, and to stimulate attention on\nthe part of teachers and principals to things which he considers of value or\nimportance — permanent or temporary. \"Ruts\" vanish cheerfully before\njudicious neglect in these matters on the part of the superintendent.\nThe stimulation and nurture of initiative is the chief business of method.\nThe child's growing knowledge in all subjects should serve as real tools in\nthe achievement of purpose. All that he knows is to be placed at the service\nof his productive and creative ability. In individual development, initiative\nappears as aggressive interest which leads to effort, to acquisition, to research,\ndiscovery, invention. In social development it means leadership, the effective appHcation of individual power, progress. It is therefore the effective\nelement in education.\nWe need not only organization and unification of the subject-matter of\nthe school course, incidentally eliminating much nonessential and duplicate\nmaterial, but more than all else we need a method which shall use the child's\ngains in knowledge in progressive achievement, applying these to the everyday problems of life within the range of his capacity and experience, thereby\nsecuring in him the attitude of self-expansion and self-assertion, and establishing him in the habit of purposeful efficiency. This demands not only an\nenlargement of the field of the manual activities of the school, but also the\nrecognition on the part of teachers of the fundamental value of these in the\ngrowing life of the child. The school must no longer content itself with the\nmere imparting of information; it must measure results by what the children\ncan do, by their daily output in the work of the school. What they get is not\nimportant; what they do is all-important. Manual activity enriches and\nstrengthens all mental life. The school should give more manual work, tho\nnot. less knowledge — more art in drawing and decoration, more modeling\nin sand and clay, more basketry, weaving, sewing, and knife-work.\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n193\n\nIn general we do not need less number-work, less grammar work, etc., so\nmuch as we need a method in which number-knowledge and grammarknowledge will serve as real tools in the achievement of purpose, and, consequently, inthe stimulation of initiative with reference to such purpose,\nas well as with reference to a fuller control of these tools. It is not that the\nschools give too much knowledge of arithmetic and grammar, but rather that\nthey do not give enough. The school makes its great mistake in giving its\nstipend in mechanical, unrelated, mere dry-as-dust drill which arrests development and clogs initiative. The pupils should be encouraged or enabled to\nuse their growing number-knowledge consciously and progressively in form\nand art-work, in nature study and geography, and in the various manual\ndoings related to these and other studies. Similarly, they should be enabled\nto use their growing knowledge of grammar in creative oral and written work,\nin relation not only to literature, but to every other subject of vital interest.\nSuch a method will lead them to respect arithmetic and grammar and will\nin due time induce a genuine interest (initiative) of research which will open\nthe way for broader and deeper results in these studies than we can boast\nof now.\nSocial work as a means of stimulating initiative has a value not fully realized\nby the school. In the subdivision of tasks and in concerted efforts to achieve\na common purpose, initiative on the part of each participant is necessary and\nnatural. They involve the stimulus of conscious leadership and conscious\nco-ordination, in both of which personal initiative plays a part. In the subdivision oftasks, each participant feels that, with reference to his phase or\nshare of the work, he alone is responsible; that there must be no shirking,\nand that there will come to his work the reward of grateful appreciation by\nhis associates. In mutual co-ordination there is a similar sense of personal\nresponsibility with reference to the achievement of the common purpose, and,\nconsequently, a spontaneous desire to grasp fully this purpose, the means\nfor its achievement, and the relation the work of each pupil bears to this,\ntogether with an equally spontaneous efifort on the part of each to do his best.\nIn the stimulation of initiative, manual training and drawing— expressive\nand decorative — do not in themselves necessarily involve greater force than\n\nother activities. These can be, and often are, taught as slavishly and mechanically as are arithmetic and grammar. Here, too, it is the method, not the\nmatter, which decides. Here, too, if initiative is to be reached, the pupils\nmust be encouraged to use whatever skill they may successively attain in the\nachievement of individual and social self-expression. Art and artisanship\nmust be growths, not transmissions.\n\nThe superintendent's faith must be ''large in time,\" if his influence on\nthe course of study is to be wholesome and helpful. Evolution is slow, and\nradical changes in instruction and training do not accord with the natural\ngrowth of institutions, especially those that influence the spirit of man. The\nsuperintendent is the \"governor\" and the \"fly-wheel\" of the educational\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": null, "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nsystem. \"Progressive conservatism\" is his word of command. Evolution —\nthe gradual changing of what is to the next step of its growth — and not\nrevolution, is his motto. A course of study is a growth. It is subject to\nconstant change in order to meet new conditions and new insight. This\nsuggests the field of the superintendent's greatest influence.\nII.\n\nWHAT OMISSIONS ARE ADVISABLE IN THE PRESENT\nOF STUDY, AND WHAT SHOULD BE THE BASIS FOR THE\n\nFRANK\n\nM. McMURRY,\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA\nCITY, N. Y.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nCOURSE\nSAME\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nAssuming that there is much overcrowding in our curriculum, let us consider the main ideas that have been guiding teachers during the last\ngeneration in their selection of matter, and determine which of these are now\nacceptable to us as standards for omissions. Then we shall proceed to discuss the omissions that these accepted standards require.\nI. Belief in utility long ago established the three R's in the curriculum,\nto be accompanied by spelling, composition work, grammar, geography, and\nsome physiology. This, to be sure, might be material quite free from thrilling incident for the pupil, but it was considered absolutely necessary for later\nlife.\nOur present interpretation of social requirements and needs includes this\ndoctrine of utility, but is much broader. Hence we now admit all this matter\nand much more.\nIn the first place, health is accepted as a larger factor in life and in the\nschool. We therefore require, not only physiology and hygiene, but physical\nexamination of children, and games and physical exercises in abundance.\nSecondly, history, including civics, and nature study must be added to these,\nwithout debate.\nThirdly, our belief in emotion as a vital factor in securing efficiency is far\nstronger than formerly. Hence much more emphasis is placed on literature,\nmusic, and fine arts than twenty years ago. Thru the latter subjects one is\nmade, not only more refined and sympathetic in various directions, but more\nenergetic as well. The function of emotion is the production of energy, and\nenergy is coming to take the same rank in education as steam takes in manufacturing.\nFourthly, the old notion of utility, coupled with greater belief in efficiency,\ncalls also for manual training, domestic science, and domestic art. These\nare studies that combine theory with practice. Indeed, the accepted principle,\n**No impression without expression,\" not only strongly supports these subjects, but is even insisting that an end point of practice be added to various\nother studies, such as fine art, literature, and nature study, thereby threatening greatly to increase the amount of time necessary for such branches.\nIn brief, therefore, our present attitude toward social requirements and\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n195\n\nneeds, as the first standard of selection of a curriculum, is the same as that\nof a generation ago, only much broader. We accordingly are now willing to\nadmit the same lines of work as that standard formerly admitted, and several\nothers. But other ideas have been very important in introducing and rejecting subject-matter, especially the topics within these separate lines or studies.\n2. The children's mental abiUty is one of these ideas. In the main, the\nlimits in the children's power of comprehension have always acted as a check\nto the introduction of material. Yet not an absolute one by any means. A\nretentive memory, for example, has often led to the introduction of memory\ngems from the Bible that could not be comprehended till later. But we have\nnow become generally convinced that there is so much classic material, even\nin the Bible, which children can fairly understand, that there is no need of\nadmitting other selections. The one argument supporting this conviction is\nthe fact that the younger a child, the more important that each year and each\nsubject of study prove richly nourishing to him. The fullest possible growth\nnow is the fullest preparation for the future. Therefore it is folly to sacrifice\nthe present for the future, and any subject that cannot be fairly comprehended\nby the child at the time it is presented should be excluded.\n3. The children's interest has been a third factor, closely related to the\npreceding, and recognized as increasingly important in recent years. On the\nwhole, interest is necessary for the same reason as comprehension: both are\nessential to proper digestion. But the interest likely to be aroused by a\nsubject should not be an absolute test of its worth. Every kind of subjectmatter should run the gauntlet of the two first-named factors — to wit, social\nneeds and the childs ability to comprehend — before being accepted in the\ncurriculum. But not so with this third point. Indeed, these first two\nstandards, particularly the first , may be so important as to overrule the third\nentirely. This is the only explanation of our admission of spelling, writing,\nthe multiplication table, and beginning reading into the curriculum. For\ncertainly we do not expect the intrinsic interest excited by these studies to\nmake the children hilarious. In other words, in spite of improved methods,\nthere is some school- work that approaches drudgery in its nature, and we propose to retain it because it is a social requirement. The test of interest, therefore, isnot absolutely binding. We can only say that, in general, whatever\ndoes not promise to excite an intrinsic interest has one strong point scored\nagainst it; and, unless other reasons for its acceptance are particularly strong,\nit should be rejected.\n4. A fourth factor that has been very influential on admissions to the\ncurriculum has been the scientific attitude toward knowledge. According\nto this idea, any fact is valuable because it is a fact, and should therefore be\nlearned. Remarks of that kind are frequently heard in nature-study classes.\nIt is partly the love of mere logical completeness that has led to extensive\nclassification in grammar and in science, and that insists on the cause of the\nBut this idea, so far as I can see, should be utterly\nseasons in geography.\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": null, "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[AUanta\n\nrejected as a standard of selection, on the ground that it has no negative\nside; it lets down the bars for anything and rejects nothing; hence it is nonselective and cannot guide.\n5. A fifth extremely influential factor has been ''the harmonious development of all the faculties\" as the accepted aim of instruction. But what topic\nwould be rejected when tested by relation to this aim ? Like the former, it\nis a blanket excuse for anything and everything. Recall, for instance, how it\nhas favored the hard problems — the puzzles that puzzled the teacher — in arithmetic, the mere lists of names in geography, and of dates in history. It\nshould be utterly rejected as a standard of selection, on the ground that it is\nabsolutely non-selective.\nMental development should be expected as a very valuable by-product\nbrought about in the course of the accomplishment of pieces of work that for\nother reasons deserve to be done. Only when this view is taken, and when\nthe above statement is forgotten, as a test of subject-matter, can I see promise\nthat one of the chief barriers to a sane curriculum will be removed. I realize that my last two points, when applied to the high school and the college,\ntend to knock the props out from some prominent studies, as algebra, for\ninstance; but I for one am ready to go on record as opposing those subjects\nthat owe their existence in the curriculum mainly to the fact that they contain\nfacts, or exercise the mind. Life is too full of large specific ends to be attained,\nto allow time for work that has no realty tangible object.\n6. The sixth and final factor that I wish to discuss is the definition of\nthoroness. I am convinced that our conception of thoroness is one of the\nmost important factors — indeed, the most vital factor — to be considered in\nthe present problem. Thoroness in spelling means the mastery of every\nword; thoroness in primary arithmetic means a mastery of every possible combination ofnumbers within a certain limit; thoroness in beginning reading\nand in writing, Hkewise means primarily a knowledge of each word or letter.\nIn these subjects, on the whole, there is no special organization of matter\ncalled for; the unit of progress is one small fact; questions as to what is\nlarge and small, or as to relative values, do not fit in, and there is no excuse\nfor neglect of any single part. One must simply begin at the beginning,\nand work until he reaches the end. Here the sum of the details in each\nstudy makes up the whole; hence in these cases the proverbs hold that \"thoroness has to do with details,\" and that \"trifles make perfection.\"\nNow, it is natural to want to apply this conception of thoroness to other\nbranches of learning, thereby placing all the facts of literature, history, nature\nstudy, and geography on the same level as equally worthy of attention. Then\nit becomes the duty of the teacher and pupils to run down facts. But their\ntask is hopeless; for there are so many possible things to consider that such\nstudies as these have practically no beginning or end. They contain very\nmany large, and innumerable small, thoughts, many of the largest being not\neven in print, but to be read between the lines. And thoroness in them\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n107\n\nmeans, first of all, judicious selection, a careful choosing of the more valuable\nparts, with willingness to neglect the rest. This latter is the vital point here.\nThoro instruction parallels good discipline in the requirement that many\nthings be overlooked. Until we have learned to slight, and even to omit outright, as well as to lay special emphasis here and there, we are unprepared\nto read a book intelligently; and until our conception of thoroness favors\nsuch action freely, we lack one of the first elements necessary for the selection\nof a curriculum, particularly the major part of it, the details. In brief, thoroness inthe treatment of most topics means the selection of the main points and\nwhatever details are necessary to support them, with the neglect or omission of\nwhatever facts are comparatively unnecessary or irrevalent to these main\nissues.\nOf the six standards for selection that have now been considered, two are\nrejected outright because they are practically non- selective, namely, truth\nfor truth's sake, and the harmonious development of all the faculties; and\none needs very serious modification— the conception of thoroness. Accordingly we hold to the following propositions in the rejection of subject-matter:\n1. Whatever cannot be shown to have a plain relation to some real need of life,\nwhether it be aesthetic, ethical, or utilitarian in the narrower sense.\n2. Whatever is not reasonably within the child's comprehension.\n3. Whatever is unlikely to appeal to his interest; unless it is positively demanded for\nthe first very weighty reason.\n4. Whatever topics and details are so isolated or irrelevant that they fail to be a part\nof any series or chain of ideas, and therefore fail to be necessary for the appreciation of any\nlarge point; this standard, however, not to apply to the three R's and spelling.\n\nNow for the application of these standards.\nIt is evident at the start that, in spite of our large number of studies,\nnot one can be wholly omitted. Reform does not lie in that direction. It\nis well to call to mind too, when violent complaints break forth against our\nexcessive number, that the French program for the common school includes\nall the branches that we ordinarily have, and distributed over about as many\nyears. Substantially the same statement holds for Germany; for, while she\nlargely neglects handwork, except sewing for girls, one of her most prominent subjects is religion. And the English code of 1900 for the public elementary school almost duplicates the German plan, with the exception that\nvarious kinds of handwork tend to take the place of religion. Judged by\nthese civilized nations, therefore, we have not yet gone mad in our devotion\nto fads.\nOmissions, then, must be confined to particular topics and details. Again\nthe example of the French is suggestive, for every second year of their course\nthey largely duplicate the work of the preceding year, thus devoting nearly\none-half of all their time almost exclusively to review, aside from the abundance of review provided while the ground is being covered for the first time.\nI. Let us first apply these standards to arithmetic. The contents of\neven the newer texts can scarcely be any guide whatever, because commercial\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": null, "text": "198\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ncompetition has made these books almost encyclopedias on quantitative facts.\nBut on the basis of social custom, our brief standard, the following things —\nvery often taught — may well be omitted:\nApothecaries' weight.\nTroy weight.\nExamples in longitude and time, except the very simplest, involving the 15° unit\nsince our standard time makes others unnecessary.\nThe furlong in linear measure.\nThe rood in square measure.\nThe dram and the quarter in avoirdupois weight.\nThe surveyor's table.\nTable on folding of paper.\nAll problems in reduction, ascending and descending, involving more than two steps.\nThe G. C. D. as a separate topic, but not practice in detecting divisability by 2, 3, 5,\nand 10.\nAll common fractions, except those of a very low denomination and customary in\nbusiness.\nAll work with L. C. M. except of such very common denominators as those just\nmentioned.\nComplex and compound fractions as separate topics.\nCompound proportion.\nPercentage as a separate topic, with its cases.\nTrue discount.\nMost problems in compound interest, and all in annual interest.\nProblems in partial payments, except those of a very simple kind.\nThe same for commission and brokerage; for example, all problems involving fractions of shares.\nProfit and loss as a special topic.\nEquation of payments — made unnecessary by improved banking facilities.\nPartnership — made unnecessary, in the old sense, by stock companies.\nCube root.\nAll algebra, except such simple use of the equation as is directly helpful in arithmeticIn addition to all of these, arithmetic may be omitted as a separate study thruout the\nfirst year of school, on the ground that there is no need of it, if the number incidentally called\nfor in other work is properly attended to.\n\n2. In geography the following subject-matter might well go:\nAll explanation of the cause of the seasons, except the mere fact of the changing\ndirection of the sun's rays. There is no special demand for such matter (except possibly\nteachers' examinations,) and it is beyond the grammar-school pupils' comprehension,\ncalling into use our second standard.\nThe cause of the tides, leaving the fact only.\nQuite probably one of our two treatments of Asia, Africa, Australia, and South\nAmerica. French and German children study their native country very thoroly, and\nEurope fairly well. They attempt comparatively Httle with the remainder of the world.\nWe would be unwiUing to adopt their plan. But why could we not have one good treatment of these four continents — with more interesting detail than we ordinarily present in\neither our small or our large geography — and then expect the supplementary reading to\ncontinue this geographical knowledge ? It should be remembered that, while we have a\nlarge amount of supplementary reading, its content is not usually prescribed. But it\nshould be. This plan might save one year of geography work.\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n199\n\n3. In grammar the potential mood can probably be omitted, and all of\nthe minor classifications, such as the kinds of limiting and of qualifying\nadjectives, of co-ordinate and of subordinate conjunctions, etc. This separate subject need not then receive more than one year of study, with one\nperiod daily.\nSo much for the omission of somewhat definite topics — a very inadequate\ntreatment, I must admit.\nThese suggestions, if adopted, might lead to some improvement. But\nthe main remedy lies outside of them. When we get beyond the three R's, spelling, and a modicum of arithmetic, geography, and grammar, there is no\npublic pressure brought to bear upon teachers compelling them to cover\nany recorded amount. For example, what portion of the pubUc, or even\nof school superintendents, knows, or greatly cares, just how much ground\nis covered in literature, history, color-work, drawing, domestic science, domestic art, physiology and hygiene, manual training, music, nature study, and\ngymnastics? Then why do teachers complain so much of overcrowding?\nThat leads back to my main point, already referred to under thoroness:\nThere are a great many persons, who can master all the facts in a fivepage history lesson, who cannot master the main facts in twenty pages.\nWhy? Because they have never learned to select — to choose principal\npoints and let others go. They must take all, or they flounder. This is\nthe difficulty that confronts teachers when they approach a modern curriculum. We believe in an enriched course of study, with many options,\nin accordance with the preferences and abiHties of children and teachers.\nBut the latter, being accustomed to begin at the beginning and take everything as they go, in spelling, in multiplication, etc. — even to the end, often\nthe bitter end — are confused when they come to such studies as Hterature\nand nature study that really have no well-defined beginning or end. What\ncan they do ? Merely begin and go as far as they can, and then sigh over the\nimpossible task assigned.\n\nAnd when finally one topic has been chosen from among a dozen suggested—as the crayfish, for example— in nature study, note the same tendency to go from beginning to end — in this case, from head to tail— observing ''all that one can find.\" How otherwise would one know when he had\nfinished? I am not wanting to decry the average teachers here. These\nremarks apply rather to our so-called best teachers— to those who are really\nexcellent in most respects.\nIn one of our best schools I was recently present while a second-grade\nclass reached the conclusion that grasshoppers habitually liv^d in dry, sunny\nplaces, the children when playing having seen them there. They decided\nthat the insect went under boards and rocks when it rained, and some related\nhow they had fed some captive grasshoppers apple and water. I saw a fifth\ngrade write out a description of a dead red oak leaf, the paper nearest me\nreading as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": null, "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nRed Oak Leaf\nSize — 7 J inches long; 4 inches widest part.\nShape — Somewhat oval, widest at top.\nLobes — alternate, long pointed, ten lobes on leaf.\nIndentation — ten indentations, rounded, deep, alternate.\nPetiole — short, thick, dark brown, mid vein thinner near top of leaf.\nVeins — alternate, thin, not many.\nColor — dark brown, near mid vein.\n\nWhat a mass of worthless matter in such instruction! Much of it so\nvalueless that there is no pretense of reviewing it next day: it is even unnecessary for examinations. Here lies probably the greatest waste in our instruction. Where there is no careful selection of details, there is only an aggregation; chaos rules there and despair is constant, because the field can never\nbe covered.\nThe teachers are not satisfied with such haphazard work, but it is difficult for any of us to do much better. However, the difficulty lies, not in\nmethod, but in the choice of matter; and I desire to make three recommendations in regard to the remedy:\nIn the first place, that the subject-matter in those branches that easily\noffer mere aggregations of facts, like history, geography, and nature study,\nbe brought under as few large headings as possible, just as a good lecturer\nis under obligations to present his thoughts under a very few points. These\nheadings, too, should be so worded as to be truly restrictive. Chapters in\nhistory on \"Columbus, or the Early Explorers\" and the ''Settlements,\" or\nin geography on \"The Western States,\" do not meet their requirements:\nthey admit a wide range of fact, much of which may be practically valueless.\nSuppose, on the contrary, according to the suggestions of some of my friends,\nwe study in history \"How the Europeans Found a New World,\" \"How\nSpain Took Possession of This New World,\" \"How a Rival Sprang up in\nFrance,\" \"How the English came to be a Second Rival,\" etc.; also, in\ngeography, \"What Are the Principal Industries That have Become Established in the Western States, and Their Causes?\" Satisfactory attempts\nin this direction would mean an organization of matter from the teachers'\npoint of view, while heretofore it has been largely from the scientific point\nof view, or possibly from no point of view. Such organization would bring\nabout extensive eliminations of minor topics in all the studies.\nIn the second place, those subtopics should be selected in each branch\nof study that are the best types of large groups, and that thus give control of\nthe strategic positions in the field. In history, for example, the causes of\nour wars might be considered in detail, but the study of the wars themselves\nshould, I believe, be reduced to a very few crucial campaigns and battles,\nthese being accepted as representative of the others. So irrigation about\nSalt Lake City or in southern California might be carefully studied, once\nfor all, as a type of such 'attempts the world over. There is already a growing conviction that strategic positions, as secured by types, should receive\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\n201\n\nthe same emphasis in the curriculum as strategic positions in a physical way\nreceive in warfare. As that idea is applied further, it will make us willing\nto omit entirely many topics that we now include, and do more intensive\nwork on a few.\nIn the third place, the leading questions that need to be answered under\neach type, or other topic, need to be clearly conceived in order to find a\nbasis for selection of details. For instance, I have an extension class of\nseventy-six primary teachers— much above the average in ability— who agreed\non twenty-two little points about the cat which they desired to teach, as a\ntopic in nature study. But until the principal questions which they had to\nanswer in regard to the cat were known, to which these many facts might be\nthe answer, their subject-matter was absolutely unorganized, and they were\nunprepared to give the instruction. Now, our main interest in cats is as pets,\nand if we set out to learn (i) to what extent cats can provide for themselves,\nand (2) therefore to what extent and how we should take care of them as our\npets, we shall cover all that is necessary about them. And when we deske\nonly the answers of these problems, we are given a standard that allows the\nomission of the number of teeth, the color of the hair, the length of the tail,\nand forty other facts that might consume time. So, if we set out to find out\nhow grasshoppers sometimes prove injurious to man, and what means may\nbe used to destroy them, we must discuss the food of the insect, its voracious\nappetite, its means of locomotion and quickness, its enemies, including parasites, its protection by mimicry, and its stages of development; but we shall\nhave no time to consider whether or not it knows enough to go under cover\nwhen it rains, provided it can find cover, or the fact that it can eat apples,\nsince it will never get many apples to eat anyway.\nSimilarly, in geography, if we set out to learn what are the main industries that have sprung up in the western states, with the causes, we shall need\nto consider the climate and topography, as the principal key to the situation,\nand then the mining, lumbering, agriculture, manufacturing, trade and manufacturing centers, etc.; but we shall have no excuse for bounding all the\nstates, learning each capital, and locating various capes, small towns, insignificant mountains, etc. Above all, we shall be unwilling to drop into the\nstate-treatment of our theme, which means the severing of a connected story\ninto disjointed parts, a mere aggregation, dry enough to cause a healthy child\nto long to play hookey, not for the pleasure anticipated, but for the pains\nescaped.\nMy three suggestions aim at a better organization of subject-matter. The\none study that is not an offender in this direction is hterature. It shows a\nfew large thoughts supported by innumerable details; but the latter are so\nsubordinated to the former that the outline of the whole is simple; also the\nconsequence from fact to fact is so close that reproduction from memory is easy.\nHere is an example of ideal organization of subject-matter. The problem is:\nShall other studies, likewise containing an abundance of rich thought, aim at\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": null, "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nsimilar organization; shall they approach a narrative form, thus providing an\neasy perspective, and abandoning all detail that is irrelevant or that fails to\nfall into line?\nThis is evidently a life-problem; for reform, in the main, is not to be\neffected by lopping off here and there, but by changing the present aggregation of ideas in each study to an organized body of thought. It is not the\ntask of grade teachers either, or of the scientists in the ordinary sense, but\nof the most advanced and ablest students of education. But more than\ninsight is necessary in bringing about such a change. The violence of complaints among teachers against overcrowding has been equaled only by their\nobstinacy when it came to definite omissions. But we must honestly agree\nto be willing to omit many things, even tho they have long been held sacred,\nand were even instrumental in bringing many of us to our present high state\nof perfection. All of us have been radicals for some years in admitting new\nthings. Let us apply the same spirit now to the omissions.\nDISCUSSION\nE. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky. — ^While I agree with the\nauthor of the paper on many points, yet there are some on which I cannot agree. I do\nnot beUeve that the main subjects in the present course of study for elementary schools\nhave been increased. On the contrary, the topics in arithmetic have been materially\ndecreased in the past twenty-five years. Much more technical arithmetic was taught\na quarter of a century ago than now. In the amount of technical grammar taught there\nis a great decrease. The basis of the course of study in the elementary, secondary, and\nhigher schools will be determined, in a great measure, by the object of school instruction.\nThere has been a rather definite agreement as to this object, so far as the work of many\nof the higher institutions is concerned, as is attested by professional and technical schools.\nBut our ideas as to the work of the elementary and secondary schools lack definiteness; in\nconsequence, the courses of study in these schools have become \"catch-alls\" for everything\nthat human ingenuity has conceived as necessary for the needs of the children of the present day. I am not convinced that either the present needs or the interest of the child\nshould play important parts in the selection of the course of study. There are two positive results that the successful school must achieve: (i) it must reveal the world to\nthe pupil; (2) it must reveal the pupil to himself. But, before the world can be revealed\nto him, he must have a command of the forces within himself. The first efforts of instruction must be education for culture, for the purpose of gaining command of what Dr.\nHarris has aptly termed the \"conventionalities of intelligence.\" These conventionaUties\nare the arts of reading, of writing, of the use of figures, of drawing, etc.\nSchool instruction in its elementary and secondary stages should be largely given to\nthe acquirement of the technique of reading, of writing, of arithmetic, of language, of literature, of geography, of history, and of science. There must be a mastery of these\ntechniques before the pupil is able to make any considerable progress in his efforts at\ngaining an insight into the world in which he lives. They are to be the tools by which he\nis to attain a knowledge of the world and a command of its resources. The acquisition\nof these techniques may be neither interesting nor pleasurable. I believe in making\nthem as nearly so as possible. But as in life much of the work of the child will have to be\ndone from necessity, so in school I would make prominent the acquirement of knowledge\nbecause necessary.\nI would not have the drill and drudgery taken away because they\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nare not interesting. The early training should look to the future\nand not be confined to\nthe present. The one great aim of education is the forming of good\nhabits. Good habits\nin reading, in writing, in language, in mathematics, etc., are the chief ends\nto be attained\nin elementary and secondary schools. Elementary education should\nnot be made so\neasy that the child can in any way mistake the work of study for play.\nThe child must\nlearn that there is \"no excellence without great labor.\" Huxley\nhas well said that\nthe most valuable result of education is the abiUty to make yourself\ndo the thing you\nought to do, when it ought to be done, whether you like to do it or not. I would\nintroduce the pupil thru the \" conventionaUties of intelHgence\" to the world made up of modem\nUfe, modern conditions, modern forces, and modern responsibilities. I\nwould not put\nhim to the study of literature until he had acquired the technique of reading.\nI think\nthere is not so much a demand for ehmination as for substitution in our present course\nof\nstudy.\nThe complete ehmination of much of our so-called nature study would be a long\nstride in the right direction. Much of the material and many of the books on this subject which we now use in our schools need to be ehminated for the good of the pupils in\nour schools, and in the interest of science. Again, too much of the dim past caUing for a\ngreat amount of time in the study of mythology, legends, and ancient history has crept into\nthe course of study of the elementary schools. Are not the duties of an American citizen\nmore important than the manner of hfe of a Roman in the time of Pliny, or the intricate\nformation of Caesar's army in the time of battle ? Are not the facts of modern science more\nwonderful than the fancies of the Greek and the Roman as revealed in their mythologies ?\nIt is true that many obsolete topics have been eliminated from the arithmetics, but are not\nthe same problems found in our present text-books that were found in those of fifty years\nago ? Does not the most abstruse of all the subjects of the school curriculum— formal\ngrammar— still hold its place in the elementary schools as the chief factor in consuming\nan immense amount of time without giving the pupil any command of himself, so far as\nthe use of good language is concerned? Does not this subject belong in the category\nwith psychology and logic, and should it not be a study in the secondary schools, as recommended bythe Committee of Ten ? Does it not come under the second of Dr. McMurry's\nrequirements for elimination, viz., \"beyond the comprehension of the child\"? Finally,\nI do not know that I am wiUing to accept the courses of study of England and Germany\nas models for our own, for Alfred Russell Wallace, one of the foremost thinkers of England, has said, with reference to education: \" Compared with the astounding progress in\nphysical science and its practical appUcations, our system of government, of administrative justice, and of national education, and our entire social and moral organization\nremain in a state of barbarism.\" And Haeckel, the great German thinker, says: \"To\nour great regret, we must indorse these words \"\nJ. H. Phillips, superintendent of schools, Birmingham, Ala. — The overcrowding\nof the curriculum of the school may be traced to several specific causes. The most important of these causes is the ever-expanding circle of knowledge and the increasing complexity\nof our civilization. Coupled with this is the evident lack of discrimination in the selection of essentials. Another cause is the rehance placed in the pubUc school as a social\nagency. This faith in the power of the school has induced the introduction of much\nsubject-matter with the hope of accomplishing certain reforms. The so-called enrichment\nof school programs has consisted too often in the addition of subjects to subserve immediate ends. There seems to be an increasing tendency to hold the scHool responsible for all\nthe sins of the American people, and to utiHze it as an agency of social and civic reform.\nRight or wrong, this tendency is responsible for much of the congestion in our school\nprograms. There is no question of the fact that our school curricula reflect the commercial spirit and the material demands of the age in which we hve. The dominant spirit of\nexpansion has affected our courses of study; and it is well to check this spirit, for a time\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": null, "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nat least, and to consider whether the flag of the pubHc school may not be withdrawn from\na few provinces without disadvantage or dishonor.\nDr. McMurry's adoption of the principle of interest, even in a modified sense, as a\ntest of the subject-matter introduced, may be questioned. I am not prepared to accord\nto his principle of interest equal validity with the other factors named, in the determination of admissions to, or exclusions from, the course of study. If the subject-matter\nconforms to the other two requirements laid down; if it is adapted to the child's comprehension, and provides that which is required by the civilization into which he is born, it\nseems to me that the question of interest should be considered solved, except of course so\nfar as concerns that kind of interest which properly belongs to method rather than matter.\nI heartily indorse Dr. McMurry's suggestions in his treatment of thoroness. He presents here a fruitful theme for our consideration. Unquestionably, the proper organization of subject-matter in text-book and in recitation, so that nonessentials shall be omitted,\nwill serve to abbreviate our school courses, and will thereby result in economy of time\nand effort.\nRight here I wish to suggest another criterion which, in my judgment, should not\nbe overlooked — one that has not been suggested in the paper, unless it is implied in\n\"social needs and requirements.\"\nIn the biological field the selective principle seizes upon the permanently useful\nrather than the fleeting and the temporary. Those individual variations that contribute\nto the permanent welfare of the species are appropriated by the colony, while those characteristics ofthe species that cease to be of service become atrophied and disappear.\nThe young animal, as it comes into the world, finds its inheritance stored in its physical\norganism. Its individual life, therefore, consists merely in the discharge of this stored\nbattery. The human child finds its inheritance principally outside of its physical organism, stored in civil and social institutions, in history, literature, science, and art. It is\nthe business of the school to induct the child thru self-activity into this external inheritance. The appropriation of this vast heritage of the race which we call civilization is\nimpossible. Besides, all the elements of this civilization are not equally important; all\nsocial demands are not equally imperative. Some of these elements are temporary and\nephemeral, while others are constant and permanent elements of progress. In our selection, shall we consider only that which may prove useful to the individual, or shall we not\nregard those elements which tend to promote the permanent welfare of the race, as equal,\nif not greater, in value ? Those elements which are permanently useful and conform to\nthe highest ideals of the race should be embodied in our school programs. This leads us\nto an ethical criterion for the evaluation of material. All elements, therefore, that are\nnot ethically sound, and are not permanently useful to the race, should be eliminated\nfrom the curriculum. It seems to me that we need the ethical principle today to supplement the principle of utility, which too often has regard for expediency and temporary\nsocial ends. We need to apply more rigidly to our courses the criterion of ethical and\nspiritual values — a criterion which transcends in importance the test of social needs and\nrequirements. We should demand in our school programs, not simply that which is\nwithin the comprehension of the child and t at which embodies the demands of the society\nof today, but also that which is ethically pure and calculated to Hft the individual into\nthe highest and richest spiritual life of the race.\nThe application of this principle to the several subjects in our courses of study will\nplace some of the omissions suggested in the paper in a new light. In arithmetic, for\ninstance, money values would play a less important part, and the commercial ideal would\ngradually become dethroned. We should have fewer problems in interest, profit and loss,\nand brokerage, and more in measurement and quantitative nature study. In geography,\nthe memorizing of a mass of ephemeral facts, and a multitude of details that change\nwith each decennial census, would be abandoned; the geographical attainment dictated\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ELEMENTARY\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nby social needs could be acquired more rationaUy in connection with history\nduring the\nlast two years of the elementary course.\nUnder the application of the ethical criterion, a vast amount of useless, and.\neven\ndemoralizing, material could be profitably omitted in the study of history. The\nmilitary\nideal would be less prominent, and heroism would not be confined to the battlefield. From\none-third to one-half of the average text-book in United States history now used is devoted\nto war and bloodshed. The application of the ethical principle would reduce the treatment of wars to a statement of their causes, the names of decisive battles, the personnel\nof the commanders of the contending armies, and the general results. In biography and\nliterature the principle would find wide appHcation, and much of the rubbish now passing as hterature in the schools would be omitted because it lacks the elements of permanency and ethical value. The omissions thus made within each topic, together with the\nimproved presentation of subject-matter as suggested by the paper, would probably reduce\nthe average elementary-school program so that at least one year could be saved to the\npupil in the accompHshment of the work.\nClinton S. Marsh, superintendent of schools. Auburn, N. Y.— The child acquires\nthru his five senses all that he comes to know; his home experiences open for him to a\nvery limited degree the commonest avenues of life thru which he acquires a small vocabulary. To him, sense-training is as necessary to unfoldment as oxygen to the lungs. By\ntouch and muscular sense he adjusts himself thru the kindergarten and manual training;\nand in the adjusting of his brain-cells and muscular sense he shapes objects in clay, wood,\niron, raffia, and other materials to correspond to the things that are not a part of himself,\nand gains a knowledge of relations of things, without which training he sees things apart,\njust as he sees a play upon the stage which he can in no sense reproduce. \"To increase\nrational joy is one of the objects which pubHc education should always keep in sight.\"\nThe subjects below the high school that have become quite commonly established\nmay be classified into five correlated groups: (i) reading, spelHng, literature and language,\nhistory, and geography; (2) history, geography, nature study, and language; (3) kindergarten, manual training, drawing, nature study, and number; (4) music and hterature;\n(5) number apart from its connection with other subjects.\nEliminate number from the first two grades, except as an incident of the schookoom\nand life.\nIf it can be done without too greatly disturbing present standards and calculations\nof engineering and science, substitute the metric system for our compound system of numbers, and thus save nearly three years in the study of arithmetic.\nGrammar must be simplified so that pupils shall acquire by the drill of the last two\nyears below the high school the parts of speech, case-relation, inflection, principal parts\nof verbs, and classification of phrases and clauses. The time usually given in earher\nyears to grammar should be devoted to expression, oral and written.\nGeography should be treated as a separate subject from the .fifth to the seventh grade\nonly, and then in such a way that place and mathematical relations are but an addition\nto the scientific, historical, and general knowledge gotten by correlation to other subjects.\nSpelHng should be taught largely as a part of reading and language, and the study of Usts\nshould be confined to Grades V to VII only.\nWith arithmetic thus reduced to five years (or to six, if we supplement it in the seventh\nand eighth years with algebra) ; with formal grammar reduced to two years, by emphasizing\nat the proper psychological period the elements of English grammar, and by trusting to\nthe study of foreign languages in the high school to formulate further grammatical principles; with speUing largely taught as a part of language work, and with emphasis placed on\ngeography as a separate subject in the fifth to the seventh year, we make these the drill\nperiods in the essentials of knowledge; emphasize, not minimize drill, and by ehmination\nfree the program from overcrowding.\nTwo important factors to make these better taught\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthan they have ever been taught are correlation and a method of teaching that shall teach\nthe pupil how to study. It is true that children no not know how to study. I beHeve\nthe great factors responsible are three: (i) poor preparation of the lesson on the part\nof the teaching force, and a failure on its part to grasp the pupil's mental attitude; (2)\novercrowded schoolrooms; (3) two divisions or sets of pupils in a room. By far the greatest error is the last. Any system that seeks the brightest pupil, rather than every individual,\nis to that extent a failure. The number of pupils per teacher should be reduced to thirtyfive or forty; but, far more, the teacher should stand before one set of pupils, holding\nevery moment the attention of every pupil in recitation or in study — the latter quite as\nmuch as the former.\nEvery superintendent and teacher should recognize the oneness of reading, literature,\nspelling; the oneness of literature, spelling, composition; the oneness of composition and\nevery other subject in school, by giving credit in composition for written work well done\nin history, geography, arithmetic, domestic science, and every interest of school and life;\nthe oneness of drawing, nature study, and manual training, by making the supervisior\nof drawing the correlator of manual training to his subject, by having the pupils do all the\nmechanical and decorative drawing of the manual-training department in the graderooms as part of the drawing lesson, and by recognizing that drawing is a method of selfexpression in its application to nature study. Three things are necessary for successful\ntreatment of nature study in the public schools: correlation of nature study to language,\ncorrelation of nature study to home geography, and correlation of nature study to drawing. It is not necessary to give any time to nature study outside of the three studies\nnamed. Let reading in the grades become, not an art, but a means to the end of acquiring\nacquaintance with literature, history, geography, art, and language.\nThru a full comprehension of the possibiUties in the principle of unity of interest in\nrelated subjects, by eUmination of topics, by regarding the psychological period for study\nand drill upon any given topic, and by attention to teaching the pupil how to study, the\nourses of study of the grades should not be overcrowded.\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAND COLLATERAL ACTIVITIES\nSECONDARY SCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nF. D.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nN.\n\nBOYNTON,\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nITHACA,\n\nY.\n\nWe all have a somewhat definite notion of what is meant by the term\n''athletics,\" but the phrase ''collateral activities\" is all-comprehensive and\nmay include everything outside of regular class-work. For the purpose of\nthis discussion, the term \"collateral activities\" will be made to include the\nwork of musical and literary clubs; concerts and theatricals given by the\nstudents; the work of congresses and debating societies; and the social functions of the school, such as receptions at which dancing is permitted. Under\n\"athletics\" will be included football, baseball, basket-ball, track-work,\ntennis, hockey, golf, and rowing.\nIt is conceded that the public-school system is the bulwark of American\ninstitutions; that without it the problems resulting from immigration could\nnot be solved; that without it American institutions would soon become\nEuropeanized. For strength to perform this fundamental task, it relies\nchiefly upon its hold on the affections of the American people.\nTo the boys\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n207\n\nand girls in the schools today it must look for a continuation of that future\nsupport which its enlarged field and increased burdens demand. I hold,\ntherefore, that those activities that tend to make the public schools more\nuseful by increasing the attendance, that tend to endear them as institutions\nto the hearts of our boys and girls, will also tend to retain for them the love\nand enthusiastic support of these boys and girls when a few added years shall\nhave made them men and women, and make more certain the perpetuity of\nAmerican institutions. To encourage such activities is not only legitimate,\nbut the only sensible thing to do.\nThat such activities do attract and hold in school many students who would\nnot otherwise continue, probably few teachers who have been closely associated with student life will deny. This is an age of doing. The spirit of\ndoing seizes a lad long before he has outgrown the compulsory-education\nlaw. In obedience to this spirit, many a boy who has been misunderstood at\nschool has entered prematurely the ranks of wage-earners rather than submit\nto the monotonous grind of an educational machine. This spirit of wanting\nto do something is a force ever present in the boy of parts, and often dictates\nand controls his actions. We want such boys in the schools; and not them\nonly^ but their less gifted brothers as well. It is not true that we are educating too many people. It is the business of the schools to educate, so far as\npossible, all the people that are not actually abnormal — the poor and the rich,\nthe mentally strong and the mentally weak, the morally good and the morally\nbad. We want the people in the schools. If it is necessary to have concerts\nand lectures and debates and receptions and athletics \"to have and to hold\"\nthem, by all means let us have these things. In adding them we are only\nfollowing the precedent we have already estabUshed by admitting to our schools\nthe elective system.\nIn the last twenty-five years the curriculum of the public school has been\nrevolutionized. It has been broadened and enriched in order to better train\nthe pupil for citizenship. Training for citizenship is the supreme test, the\nultimate aim of popular education ; it is this result which justifies the state\nin expending public money in the support of schools and warrants local taxation to supplement the efforts of the state. In order to train for citizenship,\nwe must do more than cultivate the intellect. The school must be more than\nan intellectual machine. Great as is the intellectual work to be done for the\nboys and girls in our public schools, it is only a part of the program. More\nand more must our schools look after the moral, the spiritual, the economic,\nand the social welfare of their pupils. The signs are so plain that he who\nruns may read. Witness music, drawing, sewing, cooking, manual training,\npermanently added to our school programs. Note the breaking away\nfrom tradition shown in the liberalizing of the high-school programs, the\nincrease in the number of courses of study, the injection of electives into all\nof them, the addition of bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, and of all\nthat the laboratory stands for. Horace Greeley, were he living today, would\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": null, "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[AUanta\n\nchange his advice to young men. He would say, not \"go west,\" but \"go\nto school;\" for school now means a multiplied contact with life. We no\nlonger hold that a subject is educationally valueless in proportion as it is\npractically valuable. On the contrary, we now think that a subject that\nLa no connection with the real issues of life, that furnishes nothing but an\nopportunity for mental gymnastics, is a waste of time; and we have no time\nto waste.\nNow, the widening of school activity along the lines we are here considering is only an extension of this movement. The question to be asked in\nregard to it all is: Is it educative? Does it subserve the purpose for which\nthe public school exists ? If so, then time should be found, or made, for the\neducation of our pupils along thesQ lines not set down in books and not represented in the class-room. Personally, I am persuaded that a secondary\nschool that has no musical clubs, no literary or debating societies ; that does\nnot give concerts, receptions, simple theatricals, public debates, lectures,\ndeclamation contests, and the like ; and that devotes no time to the various\nforms of physical training, falls far short of what it should be, and of what the\nsecondary school of the future is going to be. In or out of school such\nactivities are bound to exist, or some substitute, possibly a dangerous one, to\nbe found for them. Properly guided and controlled by the school authorities,\nthey can be made a valuable means toward the education of our pupils. Such\nguidance requires the expenditure of additional time and energy on the part\nof the teachers, and the objection is always raised that teachers have quite\nas much as they can attend to already. Unquestionably, much the easiest\ncourse would be to shut our eyes to the existence of such activities. But that\nis impossible; we have already passed beyond that stage of the question. The\ntime is not far distant when teachers who are unwilling to devote time \"out\nof hours\" to the proper development, guidance, and control of such student\nactivities, will need to seek employment in another occupation.\nMy position, then, is this: I would countenance the existence in all\nsecondary schools of musical, literary, and similar clubs and societies, and\nsuch other activities as above mentioned; in addition, I would sanction all\nthe previously mentioned forms of athletics; but I would have athletics and\ncollateral activities as much under the direction of the teachers of the school\nas are the classes in algebra. I would have them all conducted at the\nschool building, or at such places and at such times as the authorities of\nthe school should designate: and a teacher would always be present to direct\nthe policy of the organization, whether in the school building during school\nhours, or outside the school building or the town, outside of school hours.\nBut the interest in this subject centers chiefly around athletics. So long\nas it is a question of extending the countenance of school authority merely\nto such activities as those of debating, musical, and literary societies, little\nopposition develops. The connection of these organizations with the former\nideals^of the school as a place for the intellectual training of youth is obvious\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n200\n\nenough to make the step easy. But when we face the question of sanctioning\nathletics, however, we find that the ideal has changed somewhat. The hero\nof the school is no longer the youth with immense head and prodigious learning, with pale face and fragile body; but rather the lad who breaks records\nin athletics, and at the same time keeps his scholarship well above the average.\n' The real boy loves play. If he does not play and does not love to play,\nhe is abnormal; he is unhealthy mentally, morally, or physically. No matter what marks he may be getting in his studies, he is a freak.\" By \"play\"\nI mean diversion from his academic studies between the close of school and\ntea-time, and on an occasional evening. Play should not, therefore, be\neliminated from the school program; rather, it should be made an integral\npart of it. Schoolboy sports are as old as boys and schools, and will continue\nuntil that dreadful day arrives when the last boy shall have grown into a\nman.\nSpringing, as it does, out of the universal play instinct, the demand for\nathletic sport is but a logical result. That the schools, as they attempt more\nand more fully to provide for the complete development of their pupils,\nshould sooner or later have to face the demand for physical training is also\ninevitable.\nIn truth, we need in the schools all the athletics we can have, provided\nonly that they are properly directed. The problems confronting us today\nare far different from those that grew up with the men who \"made and preserved us a nation.\" They were trained, for the most part, on the farm,\nin the open air. Those of you who have tried farm Ufe know that it is a\nstrenuous lif , that the physical training is long and hard. For men so trained\nthere was no need of athletics or physical training in the schools. But\nthose conditions have changed. The rapid movement of our population into\ncities and towns has made the physical training of urban boys and girls a matter\nof vital importance, both to themselves as individuals and to the nation as a\nwhole. Superintendent Maxwell is credited with having said recently that\nmany of the graduates of the city college, tho they had passed the examinations\nfor teachers' licenses with high marks, were breaking down completely as\nteachers because of inadequate physical preparation for their life-work;\nAndrew Carnegie has said that the men who have won the great prizes of\nthe world have been men who were physically able to endure the strain when\nthe crisis came in the race for success; and Thomas Hughes says that the\nbattle of Waterloo was won on the playground of the great English public\n'schools. If the boys and the girls reared in the congested centers of population are to be made into men and women with the physical vigor and endurance,\nwith the ruggedness of character, possessed by their country-bred ancestors,\nthey must be given physical training. Where shall they get it, if not in\nthe schools ?\n\nMoreover, the question is not one of economic efficiency merely. It is\nDuring the periods of recreation on school\nof vast moral import as well.\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": null, "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ndays and Saturdays, and during the long vacation, there is for most of the\nchildren in our cities absolutely nothing to do. Therefore, while their parents\nare at work or amusing themselves, the children roam the streets and acquire\nthe language and the morals of the streets. It is idle to say: \"It is the function of the home to prevent such things; that the school must not usurp the\nfunction of the home.\" Meantime, what becomes of the boy ? Compulsoryeducation laws and curfew ordinances in nearly every state of this union\nbear eloquent testimony to the neglect of childhood on the part of the home.\nCertainly, the school must not supplant the home, but where the home so\nwretchedly fails it should supplement it. The schools are the guardians\nintrusted with the. care of the rights of childhood. The country boy roams\nthe hills and has free access to \"God's first temples.\" What can we offer\nto the city boy in exchange for' his paradise lost ? His only road to paradise\nregained is thru the gymnasium, the athletic field, and the playground.\nMore and more will playgrounds, out-of-door and indoor gymnasiums,\nand athletic fields, properly supervised and controlled by educational authority, become recognized parts of the educational plants of our larger towns\nand cities. When this condition prevails, systematic physical training will be\nprescribed for every pupil in the public secondary schools, as it now is in\nmany of the best private schools. Pupils will report to the playground\nduring the open season with the same regularity with which they now report\nto the gymnasium in those few fortunate public schools where gymnasiums\nexist. We will add to Commissioner Draper's statement, that no school should\nbe built without an assembly hall, that no high school should be built without\na gymnasium. Boys and girls who do not care to play will be made to play\nin the open air and in the gymnasium, under the guidance and supervision\nof teachers. In other words, physical exercise will be compulsory; and all\nforms of physical exercise, including athletics, will be put upon a strictly\neducational basis; which means that the abuses now so loudly complained\nof will for the most part disappear.\nThis may seem an ideal condition, but its realization has already begun.\nOne principal writes me that his board of education owns a playground of\nseven acres within the city limits; another says that his school has thirty-four\nacres devoted to out-of-door sports; and still a third, that his board controls\nseventy-five acres on which, among other things, are nine baseball diamonds\nand eleven football fields. In many places principals and men teachers are\ndevoting much time to the personal supervision of student activities outside\nof school hours. They are advising and directing their pupils in their athletic undertakings, playing with them in practice games, and lending them\naid in the management of their finances, in the arrangement of their schedules,\ngoing with them in their out-of-town games — all to the general betterment\nand uplift of the whole school. Our public schools are suffering from a lack\nof men in the system — men who are willing to associate with boys and who can\nstill be men.\nJust as we have demonstrated that there was plenty of room\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n211\n\nfor other things and for the three R's at the same time, so we are to prove\nthat there is ample time for all students to become interested in some form\nof student life outside of academic studies without injury to the latter; or, if\nit should prove that there is not room for both, it is by no means certain that\npublic opinion would not demand the curtailment of the purely academic.\nBut these conditions are ideal and do not exist generally. Under present\nconditions, would it not be better to forbid altogether interacademic football\ncontests? This is the key to the whole situation. This game more than\nany other, with its defects and dangers, and the abuses that have grown up\nin connection with it, has brought upon school athletics a storm of adverse\ncriticism. But these defects and abuses should be removed by school authority, and the game permitted to proceed. It must be admitted at the outset\nthat football as it is played today is a dangerous game. The casualties of\nlast season include fourteen men killed and fifty-two seriously injured. These\nfigures do not include the Purdue University team that was wiped out in a\nrailroad wreck. Any game fraught with such dangers is a matter for the\nserious consideration of all thoughtful people. We are inclined to agree with\nPresident Eliot when he says: \"It is magnificent, but it is— war.\" And yet\nthe game must not be condemned offhand simply because of its dangers.\nThere can be no question that the game stands first in the esteem of the\nAmerican youth. It is idle to ask whether or not it should. We are hard\nup against the fact that it does. The story is told of Professor Wright, of\nYale, who, finding that his classes took little interest in the exploits of Homeric\nheroes; that neither Ajax, the swift of foot, nor the warlike Diomed, nor the\ndeeds of brave Achilles could compel their attention; that they showed no\nfondness for ox-eyed Juno, and were not even attracted by the beauties of\nthe white-armed Helen, conceived the idea of infusing the modern athletic\nspirit into the old Greek forms by substituting modern names and deeds for\nthe time-worn achievements of half-mythical heroes. He told his students to\ncelebrate in epic verse modeled on the hexameters of Homer the exploits of\nYale's football heroes. Inspiration was no longer wanting. The results\nsurpassed expectation.\nHere is a specimen:\nThis is the noble array which Rafferty, mighty in battle,\nLed to the glorious conflict, under the bonny blue banner.\nFarmer, the mighty line-hitter, low, smashing, firm as a mountain\nGuarded the center backfield; Metcalf, the speedy, stood next him.\nHolding the line at his right hand, and Mitchel stood hard by his left hand.\nShevHn, whom Hermes, they say, had given his wonderful sandals.\nGuarded the right far wing, strong on offense or defensive.\nRockwell, the crafty, was there, close behind Rorabeck, center,\nWhom Bloomer, the mighty Hne-smasher, and Batchelder, strong as a bullock,\nAided on either side.\n\nThe story may be taken for what is worth. True or not, it is illustrative\nNot our great universities only, but our secondary schools as\nof a condition.\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": null, "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nwell, are devoted to football. There must be something at least interesting\nin the game when, as President Merrill of Colgate puts it \"Thirty thousand\npeople are willing to forsake comfortable homes and profitable business, to\nsit several hours upon boards in chill November winds\" to witness it. Just\nwherein the fascination lies is a question upon which it is neither possible\nnor necessary to enter.\nThe game has been so much discussed that its virtues and defects may be\nquickly summed up. Let us first consider its defects. It is argued against\nit, that it is highly dangerous; that it is not a game of skill, but one of\nmere beef, in which ten pounds extra to a man will win the game, in which\nthe object is not to show skill, but to win at all hazards. Besides these\nevils of the game itself, it is charged against football that, because of the\nintense competition inseparable from it, it fosters the evils of betting, of\nprofessionalism, of dishonesty and chicanery in the making up of teams.\nThese evils are serious, and if they cannot be remedied, or greatly minimized,\nit is incumbent on school authorities to prohibit the game. This brings us\nto the questions: How valid are the objections? and. Can its defects be\nremedied ?\nIt has already been admitted that football is dangerous; but it grows\ndaily less dangerous. It is hedged about by rules, and officers are placed in\nthe game to see that the rules are observed. If the rules are not what they\nshould be, let school authorities change them. They are not the laws of the\nMedes and Persians. But if we oppose football on the ground of its being\ndangerous, then consistency requires us to take the same position with reference to all other forms of student diversion in which the element of danger\noccurs. I am willing to shift some of the responsibility for my stout championship ofathletic sports, in spite of their admitted evils, to the broad and\nrugged shoulders of President David Starr Jordan, who says that \"there is\nless danger for a young man on the ball-field than* in the ball-room.\" Dr.\nJordan would have us believe that there is a worse condition than physical\ninjury or death ; and his remark clearly points to the possible results, physical\nand moral, of all-day and all-night and all- week \"festivities,\" to which many\nof our colleges are committed at the middle and close of the year's work.\nAs to the charge that football is simply a game of \"beef,\" in which skill\ncounts for little or nothing, I cannot but think that it rests either upon ignorance or upon a misconception of the game. No game that involves nothing\nbut brute force could possibly develop the powers that football admittedly\ndoes develop. I feel sure that those who make the charge would w^ithdraw\nit, should they make a study thru but one season of any good team.\nThe evils of betting, of professionalism, etc., which have grown up in connection with football have no inherent connection with the game, and are by\nno means confined to this branch of athletics. Moreover, with the possible\nexception of betting, they are matters absolutely within the control of the\nschool authorities, and upon them rests the responsibility for making this\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nATHLETICS\n\nIN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n213\n\ngame, along with other branches of athletics, an agent for good instead of\nevil. We can make of our student activities what we will, provided we are\nwilling to pay the price in time and thoughts and energy and interest.\nSchool authorities have been somewhat slow in accepting this responsibility. They tried at first the policy of noninterference, particularly in\nthe matter of athletics. But regulation of some sort soon became necessary.\nIt became impossible to treat these activities any longer as nonexistent.\nRecognition then became necessary, either for the purpose of opposition and\nextinction, or for the purpose of control. Opposition and extinction are in\nmost cases manifestly unwise; and thus it is gradually coming about, that\nschool authorities are shouldering the responsibility so obviously theirs, and\nare assuming more and more the control of such activities. In athletics\nparticularly considerable progress has been made in this direction. Many\nschools and colleges have succeded in excluding from all their athletic teams\nany but bona fide students. Others have gone farther and have excluded\nthose who are not registered primarily for academic purposes. Some require,\nin the case of a student who has attended any other institution, a year's residence as a prerequisite to eligibility for the teams. Many require a definite\nacademic standing of all students on the teams. Graduate managers, and\nathletic councils made up of members of the faculty as well as students, have\ndone much to regulate the matters of accounts and the arrangement of\nschedules, and to secure the elimination of professionals, and the retention of\nthe sports for those regularly enrolled with definite purposes of education. It\nis a most encouraging condition, and one that is sure to improve. Governing boards have accepted this responsibility. They realize that the key to\nthe whole situation lies in the control of student activities; not in opposition\nor extinction.\nThe battle is already half -won.\nOn the other hand, it is argued in its favor that it is a manly game, which,\njust on account of its risks, is Hkely to foster courage to a marked degree;\nthat it is a game that ''demands self-control under the most intense excitement; that it trains the judgment in quick and accurate decision; that it\ncultivates observation, gives power to detect, remember, anticipate, interpret\nand thwart the plans of opposing minds; that it inculcates prompt obedience; and so preoccupies the attention of all students, to the exclusion Cx\nmuch that was formerly mischievous in college (and school life), that it has\n\nI\n\nbecome ally to good order and reasonable living.\" Courage, quick and\naccurate judgment, power of observation, prompt and unquestioning obedience— good qualities these, surely!\nOr, to put these results into another form: they mean- a careful and wellpoised manhood of great physical endurance; a spirit of working together\nearnestly, enthusiastically, and intelligently for a given end, which is the\nspirit of our democracy; the desire of working for one's institution with one's\nwhole mind and heart and strength, which in the world outside we call patriotism; and, finally, the determination to succeed in the face of great diffi-\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": null, "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nculty, against odds, and at personal risk — a spirit which, carried on into Hfe's\nwork, means the continued supremacy of American institutions. We should\nthink seriously before prohibiting a game that produces such results.\n\nHERBERT\nI\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\nW.\n\nT.\n\nCOMMISSIONER\nOF EDUCATION\nOF\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nHARRIS,\n\nAND\n\nSPENCER\n\nHIS INFLUENCE\n\nON\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\nUNITED\n\nSTATES,\n\nBetween 1850 and i860 Herbert Spencer published four essays on education. The first of these, under the title of \"What Knowledge Is of Most\nWorth?\" appeared in the Westminster Review, July, 1859; the second, on\n''Intellectual Education,\" appeared in the North British Review, May,\n1854; the third, on \"Moral Education,\" appeared April, 1858, and the\nfourth, on \"Physical Education,\" April. 1859, in the British Quarterly\nReview. A reprint of these four essays, by D. Appleton & Co., appeared\nin New York in July, i860.\nMore interest was excited by the publication of Spencer's First Principles in 1862. This was the first part of a complete system advertised in\ni860 as a \"System of Synthetic Philosophy\" in five parts: (i) First Principles, (2) Principles oj Biology, (3) Principles oj Psychology, (4) Principles ofSociology, and (5) Principles oj Morality. It is noteworthy that\nthis distinguished man lived to complete the system announced forty-three\nyears before his death. His autobiography is advertised by D. Appleton &\nCo. (in New York), to appear some time in March.\nHowever much one may differ from Herbert Spencer in his views of the\nworld, and however much one may be disposed to place a low estimate on\nthe permanent value of his contributions to science and philosophy, all candid men can have only admiration for his love of truth, for his industry, and\nfor his earnestness.\nIn 1866 I wrote the following words in a review of the First Principles,\nin which I criticised the arguments by which he established the groundwork\nof his system:\nThe persistence and sincerity, so generally prevailing among these correlationists,\nwe have occasion to admire in Herbert Spencer. He seems to be always ready to sacrifice\nhis individual interest for the sake of truth, and is bold and fearless in utteiing what he\nbelieves it to be.^\n\nIt had happened to me, as to many others born before 1850, to come into\ncontact with the development theory, especially as popularized in a book\ncalled The Vestiges oj Creation, written by Robert Chambers early in the forI \" Herberc Spencer,\" Journal of Speculative Philosophy, Vol. 1, p. g.\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n2It;\n\nties. The development theory had appeared in astronomy a hundred years\nbefore. Indeed, it is worthy of note that the greatest philosophical thinker\nin modern times, namely Immanuel Kant, had set forth the nebular hypothesis and theory of planetary formations as early as 1755 in a book on the\ntheory and history of the heavens. About 1850 this idea had become\nfamiliar thru many bold speculations that were proposed by enthusiasts. It\nwas this idea in the mind of the pubUc that inspired Spencer with the scheme\nof his life-work, namely, the proving of evolution in biology, sociology,\nmorality, and psychology, as others had done in astronomy. The Vestiges of\nCreation was especially devoted to the principle of evolution in biology. By\nthe time the First Principles of Herbert Spencer began to be read in America\nthe idea of evolution was quite familiar, and while one set of minds were\nready to welcome Mr. Spencer's ideas, which leaned toward the establishment\nof a mechanical first principle for the universe another set of minds were\nready to contest his arguments and to set up a spiritual principle as the proper\nsource of evolution. The latter class of persons took special offense at his\ndenial of self-activity; for instance this:\nThe mental act in which self is known implies, like every other mental act, a perceiving subject and a perceived object. If, then, the object perceived is self, what is the\nsubject that perceives ? Or if it is the true self which thinks, what other self can it be\nthat is thought of ? Clearly, a true cognition of self implies a state in which the knowing\nand the known are one — in which subject and object are identified — and this Mr. Mansel\nrightly holds to be the annihilation of both.^\n\nIt follows that consciousness is not possible in the sense that the self is a\nsubject which knows itself as object. This makes consciousness, itself, an\nillusion. The reasoning which is involved here overthrows equally well\nthe explanation of all vital phenomena thru the idea of self-activity. He\napplies a similar argument to refute the doctrine of the will and of its\nfreedom:\nEach manifestation of force can be interpreted only as the effect of some antecedent\nforce; no matter whether it be an inorganic action, an animal movement, a thought, or a\nfeeling.\nEither this must be conceded or else it must be asserted that our successive\nstates of consciousness are self-created\nEither mental energies as well as bodily\nones are quantitatively correlated to certain energies expended in their production, and\nto certain other energies they initiate; or else nothing must become something and something nothing.'\n\nHe expresses in varied forms this conviction of his that the phenomena of\nmind are products of nature and not forms of self-activity:\nPsychical changes either conform to law or they do not. If they do not conform to\nlaw, this work, in common with all works on the subject, is sheer nonsense; no science\nof psychology is possible. If they do conform to law, there cannot be any such thing\nas free will. 3\n\nIn particular he explicitly mentions will, the most noteworthy form of\nself-activity:\n1 First Principles^ 1864, pp. 63-65\n2 Ibid., p. 2R4.\n\n3 Data of Psychology, p. 220, ist Am. ed.\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThe development of what we call Will is but another aspect of the general process\nwhose other aspects have been delineated in the last three chapters. Memory, Reason,\nand Feehng simultaneously arise as the automatic actions become complex, infrequent,\nand hesitating; and Will, arising at the same time, is necessitated by the same condition.*\nSince all modes of consciousness can be nothing else than incidents of the correspondence between the organism and its environment, they must all be different sides of,\nor different phases of, the co-ordinated groups of changes whereby internal relations are\nadjusted to external relations.'\nLong before reaching this point, most readers must have perceived that the doctrines\ndeveloped in the last two parts of this work are at variance with the current tenets respecting the freedom of the Will.^\nThis subjective illusion in which the notion of free will commonly originates.''\n\nConsciousness and will, two forms of self-activity, are thus denied by\nHerbert Spencer's psychology. The phenomena of mind are not examples\nof self-activity, according to him, but are links in a chain of causality. The\ncausal influence comes from beyond, indefinitely, and the ego has no power\nof its own by which' to modify the links of this causal chain. The ego does\nnot originate anything; it merely receives and transmits causal influence\nfrom beyond. If Spencer admitted that the ego by its own act could interfere with the chain of causality and modify some one of its links, he must\nnecessarily admit that the ego can originate a new causal chain, annulling\nor modifying the previous chain. But he conceives that an example of freedom\nor power of origination of this kind would make psychology impossible, and\nhe does not see, on the other hand, that unless such a power to originate exists,\nthere are no facts left on which a psychology may be based, for feelings, volitions, and thoughts all imply self-activity, and hence the origination of causal\ninfluence. For in a volition the self acts as will; in thinking the self affirms\nor negates predicates of some object represented in the mind; and lastly,\nin the case of feeling, the self is engaged in a reaction against some passive\nstate of body or mind; in all these cases the self is active. Hence to deny\nthat the ego can originate is to deny the basis of psychology.\nThe student of Spencer's First Principles cannot fail to notice the adoption\nof Hansel's Metaphysics, and especially its application by the author to fix the\nlimits of rehgious thought. Mr. Spencer's doctrine of the unknowable depends\non the validity of Hansel's theory. It is worth while, therefore, at the outset\nto look at the foundations of this theory. It is well known that Hansel borrowed the idea from Sir William Hamilton, his master, who claimed that\nthe ideas of the Absolute and Infinite are negative ideas, expressing our incapacity to conceive the Infinite rather than our positive comprehension of it.\nHamilton says:\nI lay it down as a law which, though not generalized by philosophers, can be easily\nproved to be true by its appUcation to the phenomena: that all that is conceivable in\nthought lies between two extremes which, as contradictory of each other, cannot both\nbe true, but of which, as mutual contradictories, one must.s\n1 The Principles of Psychology, Vol. I, chap, ix, p. 495.\n2 ZWt^. , pp. 495 , 496.\n\n3 Ibid.,p. S02.\n\nA Ibid.,p. S02.\n\nS Metaphysics, p. 527.\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n217\n\nHe proves this by applying it. to space and time:\nIt is plain that space must either be bounded or not bounded\nBut though\nspace must be admitted to be necessarily either finite or infinite, we are able to conceive\nthe possibiUty neither of its finitude nor of its infinity. We are altogether unable to conceive space as bounded, as finite; that is, as a whole, beyond which there is no further\nspace.\nEveryone is conscious of this impossibility\nThe one contradictory is\nthus found inconceivable; we cannot conceive space as positively limited.^\n\nThink of this as we may, we all must agree with Hamilton that the thought\nof space always brings us to the insight that any limited space would require\nspace to exist in. Space can only end in or be bounded by space beyond it;\nin other words, it can only be limited by itself. But such a limitation is a\ncontinuation and not a cessation. The attempt to conceive space itself as\nlimited results in thinking the Hmited space as within a larger space. Space\nis of such a nature that it can only be thought as self-continuous. But\nHamilton goes on to say:\nOn the other hand, we are equally powerless to realize in thought the possibiUty of\nthe opposite contradictory; we cannot conceive space as infinite, as vidthout Umits. You\nmay launch out in thought beyond the solar walk, you may transcend in fancy even the\nuniverse of matter, and rise from sphere to sphere in the region of empty space, until\nimagination sinks exhausted; — with all this what have you done? You have never gone\nbeyond the finite; you have attained at best only to the indefinite, and the indefinite,\nhowever expanded, is still always the finite. Both contradictions are equally inconceivable, and could we limit our attention to one alone, we should deem it at once impossible and absurd, and suppose its unknown opposite as necessarily true.\n\nWith this Hamilton thinks that he has proved that the intelligence contradicts itself in the endeavor to decide upon the extent of space. But there\nis really no contradiction at all here, for the first view is confirmed by the\nsecond view. The first view sees positively that space is infinite, because any\nsupposed boundary to it requires space to exist in, and continues space rather\nthan limits it. Space is therefore infinite. But if infinite, it cannot be imagined as a whole. If it could be imagined, if we could form a mental picture\nof all space, it would follow of necessity that the whole of space is finite. A\npicture includes a portion of space, but not all space. This is exactly what\nHamilton finds in his second view which tries to fancy or imagine space.\nThe result is just what we should be led to expect as a consequence of the\nfirst view: ''Imagination sinks exhausted.\" Imagination tries to picture\nspace as a limited whole, but the mental picture finds boundaries to its picture, and these boundaries imply space beyond them; all limitations fall\nwithin a larger space, and do not include space as a bounded whole. Thus\nboth mental operations agree; the one is a negative confirmation of the other.\nThinking reason sees positively that space is infinite, while imagination sees\nthat it cannot be imagined as finite. The infinitude of space is a positive\nidea, not a negative one. The idea would be a negative idea if our thinking\nof it could not transcend the limit; that is to say, if we could not think space\nbeyond the limit.\n1 Ibid.\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": null, "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nTime is also infinite. We can see this by considering that any beginning\npresupposes a time previous to it. If we suppose a beginning of time itself,\nwe suppose that there was a time before the beginning of time. Time is\ntherefore not limited, but continued beyond all boundaries set to it.\nThus examined, the law of the conditioned, which Hamilton acknowledges is\"not generalized by philosophers,\" fails altogether. It is seen to be\na fallacy resting on a confounding of thought with imagination. The infinite is\nnot shown to be a negative idea by Hamilton in this argument, nor does it\nexpress the ''impotency of thought\" as Hamilton asserts in his Law of the\nConditioned. We see that the mind thinks a positive infinite space as a\npresupposition of any finite space, according to the first view which Hamilton\ndescribes. And over against this first view he shows that imagination cannot\nget this infinite space into a finite image or picture.\nIt seems to us at this time incredible that any person of reputation in psychology could ever have set up such a law and claimed it as a valuable discovery (Hamilton says of it: '*If I have ever done anything meritorious in\nphilosophy, it is in the attempt to explain the phenomena of these contradictions,\" etc.). But the fact remains. Hamilton deceived himself, and his\ndisciple Mansel spent his life in undermining the intellectual foundations of\nfaith. Herbert Spencer adopted the doctrine from Mansel in order to overthrow what he calls \"ultimate religious ideas,\" such, for example, as selfexistence and an eternal first cause. If the ideas infinite and absolute are\nunthinkable, it is true, as Spencer teaches, that \"the fundamental conceptions\nof rational theology are thus self -destructive. \" Spencer says:\nSelf -existence necessarily means existence without a beginning; and to form a conception ofself-existence is to form a conception of existence without a beginning. Now,\nby no mental effort can we do this. To conceive existence through infinite past time\nimplies the conception of infinite past time, which is an impossibility.\n\nBut Spencer was not consistent. He found it convenient to use the\nHamilton-Mansel doctrine against theology and silence the clergy who found\nmetaphysical difficulties in the theories of natural science. But Spencer\nhimself in his First Principles reproduces the arguments used in dogmatic\ntheology in his demonstration of \"ultimate scientific ideas.\" He makes\nthem inconceivable in religion, but quite conceivable in science. He offers a\nmetaphysical proof of the compressibility of matter;' again he proves the\nindestructibility of matter;^ he proves the persistence of force ;3 he proves\na priori that \"mental energies as well as bodily ones are quantitatively correlated to certain energies expended in their production, and to certain other\nenergies they initiate;\" ^ and he proves, likewise a priori, that vital movements,\nthoughts, and feelings have their origin in persistent force. Spencer calls\npersistence of force \"the sole truth which transcends experience by underlying it.\" ^\nHere he has entirely forgotten his polemic against self-existence, as quoted\nabove :\n^ First Principles, ^.$1.\n\n^ Ibid., p. 241.\n\n3 Ibid., p. 254.\n\n4 Ibid., p. 284.\n\n5 Ibid., p. 258\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\nTo form a conception of self-existence is to form a conception of existence without\na beginning. Now, by no mental effort can we do this. To conceive existence through\ninfinite past time implies the conception of infinite past time, which is an impossibility.'\n\nThat is to say, any ideas which imply infinite past time are inconceivable,\nand hence they are mere words to which no possible thought can correspond ;\nor, rather, we should say they are not ideas, but words. But persistence of\nforce implies infinite past time, and hence Mr. Spencer's \"sole truth which\ntranscends experience by underlying it\" is a mere word without any possible\nthought corresponding to it. And so the indestructibility of matter or force,\nor of anything else, implies existence thru infinite future time. And to deny\noriginating causality to the human will implies an infinite series of antecedent\nforces, and an infinite series is inconceivable; hence Mr. Spencer might have\nargued from this with equal force that the will necessarily originates a new\ncausal series, and that any causal series must originate in a first cause, because\nthe opposite is inconceivable.\nThis somewhat prolix examination of the doctrine of the unknowable,\nas taught by Hamilton, Mansel, and Spencer, is called for here because anyone who wishes to form an opinion as to the philosophical merits of Herbert\nSpencer encounters this Hamiltonian law of the conditioned at every step.\nNo one claims that Spencer added to science any new discoveries. His\nclaim rests on the establishment of a philosophical basis for science. The\nSpencerians, in general, have intrenched themselves on this ground against\ntheological attacks, and equally in defense of their scientific dogma of a\nmechanical evolution of the world of things and events without the intervention of causal self-activity either as a first cause or as a causal free will of\nliving beings.\nThat such a preoccupation of the mind by a fatalistic chain of causation\nconducts to a new view of education has been made clear, not merely by\nabstract reasoning, but by the history of education itself the past fifty years.\nHerbert Spencer, as we have seen, early in his career made a contribution\nto the literature of education in which he challenged the course of study as he\nfound it in operation in the schools of his country, and he proceeded to lay\ndown the laws by which a better course could be formed. In general, he\nadopted the same principle as Rousseau, namely, that of the return to nature;\nbut with him ''return to nature\" means the study of natural science, and not\nthe return to a state of nature; natural science should be the chief subject of\nstudy. The highest division of natural science, as he understands it, is sociology; next to it is biology.\nThe education that he proposes he tells us is for the purpose of complete\nliving. Each child should be brought to school to learn 'the art of complete\nliving. What is Spencer's definition of this art of complete living? With\nhim education is something useful for showing how to take care of the body\nand how to perform the lower social functions— the preparation of food, clothing, and shelter. The first education, according to him, is not that which relates\n^ Jbid., p. 31.\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": null, "text": "220\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nto man's spiritual life and to the preparation of man to understand the view\nof the world ente;rtained by his civilization ; that would be the religious ideal\nand the social ideal. *'The first knowledge which man should seek is the\nknowledge which goes to direct selj-preservaiion.''^\nTo test this, suppose, on the other hand, the definition of complete hving\nto be the elevation of each individual into participation in the life and experience of his race. Then each one would find complete living to involve\nthe initiation into the civilizations of the past that furnish the elements out\nof which our own civilization is formed: the manners and customs of men,\ntheir views of life and the world, the matters of right conduct toward one's\nfellow-men, so that one may live with his fellows without quarrels and hatreds.\nThis would seem to be the knowledge which would lead to direct selfpreservation. If one cannot combine with his fellow-men in such a way as\nto co-operate with them, and assist them in producing a reasonable result — if\nhis behavior toward his fellow-men is such as to destroy the works of their\nhands, he will force them to turn their endeavors against him, and the result\nwill be his destruction.\nMorals and religion relate to this kind of knowledge of how to behave\ntoward one's fellow-men. They are the best means of self-preservation.\nBut Mr. Spencer thinks that the first business of the child is to know physiology. The second step in knowledge, according to him, would be the selection of a vocation or trade and the mastery of the means of livelihood. This\nleads to his third step, namely, to training in citizenship; and the fourth and\nlast of the studies which the schools should encourage includes literature\nand art, and whatever belongs to relaxation and amusement — these to be\nstudied in the leisure of later life, as being of only minor importance. But\nAristotle characterized man as the symbol-making animal. Human nature\nhas to be expressed by symbols. The poets of the people set up and describe\nin symbols the ideal which makes civilization possible. Literature, according to this, furnishes the most essential branch of education, in so far as its\nfunction is to help the child understand that ideal; it assists the child to\nunderstand human nature, to understand the motives of his fellow-men.\nWithout a knowledge of human nature the child will become misanthropic;\nhe will think that everyone's hand is against him, and it will result that his\nhand is against his fellow-men. In whatever man does in work or play he\nexpresses in some way his ideals. The child in school should be taught\nthe art of understanding the symbols which men have made to express human\nnature.\nThe church announces the divine plan of the universe; the fundamental\nideal by which all things are to be understood; the final standard by which\nall things and events ire to be measured. This is the most educative of all\ninstitutions, because the person who harbors a religious ideal puts himself\ninto the process of applying its standard to every experience of his life.\nThe school has a narrower function, but a very important one; it must\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n221\n\ngive to the child a knowledge of those instruments or conventionalities\nwhich make possible for him the acquisition of human learning by means of\nhis own efforts. The school teaches consequently the arts of reading and\nwriting and arithmetic; the technical terms of geography and mathematics\nand history; the methods of study in the various departments of human\nlearning. It teaches incidentally the kind of behavior which enables the\npupil as a member of the school to aid the work of the school as a whole,\nand enables him to get the benefit of its instruction. Regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry make possible the concerted action of the school,\nand make possible the aid of the individual by the teacher and by the class.\nIn the course of three or four years in the elementary school the child\nwill add to his own the vocabulary of geography and arithmetic, many technical words from other sciences, and the most important words and phrases\nof literary writers who have written intense passages describing situations\nof the soul and explorations of thought which may be understood by children\nand uneducated people. These situations and thoughts which before he\nhad no means of expressing, and hence no means of objectifying to his mind\nnow become utterable, and to a great extent thinkable, by the child who\nreads in the school readers. The writers who hold their places in literature\nhave seen nature from a point of view different from that of the child, and\nthey have presented their thoughts in gems of literary style. Such gems of\nstyle have been explored and collected by compilers of school readers, and\nthe child has a collection numbering some two hundred of what is best in\nthe literature of the language. Every one of them adds to the child some\ninsight and gives him the power to express it. Literature lifts up the pupil\nto the window which looks out upon human nature and discloses the motives\nwhich govern the actions of men. It shows how these actions begin in mere\nfeeHng; by and by these feelings become clear ideas and then convictions;\nlastly they become actions.\nLiterature gives us this, the most important of all intellectual views, and\nyet Spencer puts this third study of the elementary school last among the items\nof knowledge of most worth. After learning all that science has to give, after\n\nlearning one's trade and the care of his body, Spencer would permit literature and art— \"if there is leisure for it.\" He can see nothing except idle\namusement from this window of the soul. But the philosophic educator,\nthe man who studies scientifically, will readily see that literature is the greatest educator that we have. Newspapers, periodicals, and books, with pictures of human Hfe and the motives governing our actions, go to make the\npubKc opinion which rules in an age of freedom; only tyranny and absolute\ndespotism can exist where public opinion is not based upon free discussion\nand a true insight into the motives of one's fellow-men.\nIn the light of a study after the manner of biological research, wc see why\nschool education has formed for itself the course of study as it is. We see\nalso how hopeless is a crusade against this course of study with the Ught which\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": null, "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nHerbert Spencer throws upon it. Not knowing why the unconscious minds\nof the directors of education have taken the line followed in secondary and\nhigher education, he takes for granted that there is no adequate reason for\nit, and proposes to abolish their work entirely. But it is evident that his\ninventory of our civilization is an utterly inadequate one; he omits from\nview the most important of all elements of human nature. He does not see\nthat literature arid art, exclusively devoted to the portrayal of human nature\nin its transmutation of feelings thru thoughts into deeds, are necessarily the\ncentral branch of study in the school education thruout its entire course. It\ndoes not occur to him to consider the method of his favorite science, biology,\nand he therefore does not see that Latin and Greek and the Hebrew oracles\nare in our education a study of the embryology of civilization, just as the study\nof growth of animals and plants as eggs and seeds furnishes the explanation\nof their development and shows the present trend also — for embryology is\nprophetic as well as historic. In secondary education we begin to come to the\nstudy of this spiritual embryology. In the higher or collegiate education\nwe come to the comparative method of research; each branch is more or less\nstudied in the light of its own history, and each branch is studied in the light\nof the other branches in the course of study. In a word, the philosophy of\neach subject is learned..\nEducators, it is true, have adopted the course of study as it exists, not so\nmuch by a rational investigation as by an unconscious selection prompted\nby a blind impulse. But Herbert Spencer should have investigated and\ndiscovered its purpose, which is a far deeper one than he has thought out,\nwhen he advocates its overthrow for the sake of knowledge that leads to direct\npreservation. Had he been studying the habits of bees and ants, he would\nhave taken for granted that these habits have a deeper explanation than what\nhe would expect to find in the consciousness of those insects. It increases our\nsurprise, in fact, when we remember that Spencer as well as Darwin searched\nfor the explanations of the habits of men in reasonable precautions adopted\nin prehistoric days, and whose rational purpose had long since been forgotten.\nHe supposed, in fact, that Latin and Greek had been useful once as the language of learned men, and that these branches had been retained in the\ncourse of study much as the habits of former days had been retained when\ntheir conscious purpose had long since ceased to exist.\nIn another direction than education we are bound to make a grateful\nrecognition to a positive service of Herbert Spencer. From the beginning\nhe has insisted on the value of science as organized knowledge rather than\nmere information. In his illustrations of universal progress he made this\nfertile suggestion, that science may be called an extension of our perceptions\nby means of reasoning. And again he says that *' undeveloped science [mere\ninformation, mere unorganized knowledge] is qualitative prevision — developed\nscience is quantitative prevision.\" That is to say, mere experience enables\nus to anticipate events to some extent, but accuracy can come only of\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n22-?\n\norganized experience made systematic by means of the introduction of\nmathematics.\nI doubt not his autobiography, when before us, will increase our high\nadmiration and love of Herbert Spencer as a man, as well as instruct us more\ndirectly in all that was really positive in his contributions to the philosophy\nof science.\n\nJOHN\n\nW.\n\n11.\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER'S\n\nCOOK,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nFOUR\n\nFAMOUS\n\nNORTHERN ILLINOIS\nDE KALB, ILL.\n\nESSAYS\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt is more than forty years since the Appletons first presented Mr. Spencer's four famous essays on education to the American reading pubUc. They\nhad appeared in British magazines, and thus were not entirely unknown in\nthis country. Their titles are familiar to you doubtless: (i) \"What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?\" (2) ''Intellectual Education;\" (3) \"Moral Education;\" (4)\"Physical Education.\"\nWhen they appeared, the Education Act of 1870 was ten years in the\nfuture. England was at the rear of the procession of modern states, so far\nas any organization of public education was concerned. It was not this\nfact that inspired the essays, however; for the laissez-faire attitude of the\ngovernment in this particular was in entire harmony with the political philosophy of Mr. Spencer; and nowhere does he make a plea for greater activity\non the part of Parliament. It was the unphilosophic method of the existing\nschools that aroused his opposition and that explains his biting criticisms.\nHis own education had been so free and individual that it was a protest\nagainst the stupid conservatism of the masters; and it is surprising that he\nremained so long silent in the presence of practices which he so unqualifiedly\ncondemned.\nEngland has had a hard time with this problem of popular education.\nEcclesiasticism has so interpenetrated the national life that the separation of\nchurch and state is nominal rather than actual. The Toleration Act secured\nunquestioned freedom of worship, with some social handicaps; but, while\nthe only pubhc education that France will tolerate is secular, the Enghsh\npublic has never seriously considered it. And this applies to the dissenters\nas well as to the Establishment. The religious question has been the perplexing problem ever since Lancaster opened his school for poor children,\nclose of the eighteenth century, and introduced his ill-conceived\nthe\nabout\nmonitorial system to the world. He declared for \"religious but undenominational\" education. While the first word suited the pubHc taste, the second\nwas unpalatable. Dr. Andrew Bell represented the protest of the Anglican\nchurch. Each class was jealous of the religious influence of the other; as\nwell try to mix oil and water. So they divided the education of the Enghsh\nyouth between them.\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": null, "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nOf course, the schools were poor. How could they be otherwise?\nThere were no training schools for teachers; particular religious affiliation\nwas the first condition of employment; tradition, with its iron rule, was the\ninfallible guide; and every communicant, Anglican or dissenter, was a\nminute man and ready for the skirmish line on the warning of the leaders.\nThey were bad enough, no doubt. Certainly this critic handled them without gloves, and in a fashion that always draws a crowd. In consequence,\nthe essays are good reading. They raise a clear and unmistakable issue.\nNo one else has done it in so masterly a style. They bring their author into\nclose touch with the schoolmaster, and make so noteworthy a contribution to\npedagogical literature that to confess ignorance of them is to acknowledge\nunfamiharity with what every fairly informed teacher is assumed to know.\nIt is to the first of the series that the sharpest objections have been leveled;\nand properly so, for it attempts to settle the most fundamental of educational\nquestions. While method can never be a matter of indifference, the content\nof the course of study is of the supremest importance. It is often said that\nit is not so much a matter of importance as to what one studies as to the way\nin which he addresses his mind to it; but this is an exaggeration of the value\nof method. There are certain kinds of knowledge that are indispensable,\nand no refinement of method can ever take their place. You have listened\nto a protest against the ruthless manner in which the humanities have been\nset aside in Mr. Spencer's analysis. I am in no small degree of sympathy\nwith the view to which you have listened. I am not disposed to take the\nauthor of the essays altogether seriously, however.\nWith all of its acuteness, it seems to me that this essay must be denied a\nplace in Spencer's philosophical writings. It lacks the judicial attitude.\nOne seeks in vain for that disinterested holding of the scales, that unbiased\nestimation of the different departments of human knowledge, that should\ncharacterize one who attempts to speak the last word in summing up the hot\ncontentions of rivals who have passionately pleaded for their opposing causes.\nHe is the advocate rather than the judge; the strenuous reformer, who feels\nthe necessity of an overstatement of his view and an understatement of the\nvalue of existing conditions. He employs the torch rather than the winnowing fan, and follows the lead of the revolutionary Rousseau rather than\nthat of the devout and reflective Comenius.\nKeeping this view as a perpetual footnote, and as at least a partial protection against the dominating influence of the author's overmastering genius,\nthe essay must be regarded as having immense value. In one sense it indi\ncates a return to the Renascence ideal, for it manifests an idolatry of knowledge. Ifwe substitute science for the humanities, we may imagine ourselves\nHstening to the panegyrics of John Sturm, the German Cicero. Of course,\nthe intense utilitarianism would prove a quick corrective. There is the\nsame incapacity to understand the limitations of the child that is manifested\nby all of the reformers.\nLocke and Rousseau certainly underestimated the\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\nability of the child yet under twelve, and even Pestalozzi overestimated it.\nSpencer is as far afield in the latter particular as the old classicists were.\nHe also attaches an exaggerated value to knowledge as related to the conduct of the young. If his contention were true, the reformation of the\nworld could be successfully accomplished by the schoolmaster.\nBut one thing the essay has done : it has shown that the sciences must\nnever be denied recognition, and generous recognition, in the course of study.\nSpencer has stated the weaker side of the argument. He has slighted the\npedagogical significance of his contention in urging its economic claims.\nMany of the subjects which he champions lie in the child's familiar world.\nHe presses against them every hour of his waking life. He realizes their\nreality, and they never take on the conventional or artificial aspect of much\nthat we attempt to teach him. He can assimilate them. Spencer is by no\nmeans the first to see this truth, but he has approached it from a new point\nof view. We may be impressed afresh by this vital truth, while we smile\nincredulously at the idea of instructing youth in matters of such remote\ninterest as the bringing up of a family. But I cannot hope to do more than\nto offer the faintest suggestion in the brief space allotted me.\nThe remaining essays are not characterized by the radicahsm nor by the\noriginality of the first. They resay in an admirable manner much that has\nalready found utterance in the literature of the innovators. The best thing\nthey do is to hold clear and white before the reader the truth which Pestalozzi\nstruggled so hard to express in his theory, and especially in his practice:\n^^ There is a certain sequence n which the faculties spontaneously develop,\nand a certain kind of knowledge which each requires during its development,\nand it is for us to ascertain this sequence and supply this knowledge.\"\nSpencer would therefore turn upon the problem of education all of the\ndeveloped knowledge and acumen with which scientific culture has equipped\nthe race. What he so superbly urged upon parents and teachers forty-four\nyears ago is doubly imperative now. The age is essentially scientific. This\nis but another way of saying that educated mind has stripped itself of the\nlast vestige of that supernaturalism which has made men cowards and kept\nthem so thru all the long cycles of evolution. The fundamental postulate\nof science is also the broad foundation of religion. The conception of a\nsplendid unity is slowly forcing its way into the common consciousness.\nScience is only another name for that unfolding revelation that discovers\nreason as immanent in all of the phenomena of the material and spiritual\nworld. Education is the oldest of the arts and the newest of the sciences.\nFor centuries it was left in largest part to blind imitation. At last it has\ncaught the attention of the masters of thought. Spencer declares that \"the\nsubject which involves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in which\nthe education of everyone should culminate, is the theory and art of teaching.\"\nWho has placed a higher value upon the appHcation of the choicest intelHgence\nto the instruction and training of the young? His reiteration of Rousseau's\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": null, "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nfamiliar doctrine of the employment of the law of natural consequences in\ncorrective discipline is as timely today as it was in the eighteenth century\nwhen the French genius gave it to the world in the pages of his charming\nEmile. His declaration that the aim of education is the production of a selfgoverning being has peculiar force when addressed to a people who have\nestablished a government upon the principle of self-direction, and whose hope\nfor its perpetuity rests upon the conviction that thru suitable education a\nrace may be developed to whose hands may be intrusted with safety the priceless jewel of political freedom.\nIt was pecuHarly fitting that the man who attempted the prodigious task\nof producing a complete system of philosophy should have left to his fellowman his ideas of the kind of education that in his thought must be employed\nto secure that progressive development thru which in the processes of evolution the great problems of life are to find their solution.\n\n///.\nW.\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER'S\nINDIVIDUALITY\nAS\nHIS EDUCATIONAL THINKING\n\nS.\n\nPROFESSOR\nUNIVERSITY\n\nSUTTON,\n\nOF\nOF\n\nTHE\nSCIENCE\nAND\nART\nTEXAS, AUSTIN, TEX.\n\nMANIFESTED\nOF\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThe educational world is greatly indebted to more than one outsider for\nvaluable criticism and direction. The beneficial influence of Rousseau's\nEmile, despite its many palpable absurdities, cannot be easily overestimated.\nMontaigne, and Bacon, along with other men who were not practical teachers,\nhave contributed in no small degree to the art, as well as the science, of\nteaching. Herbert Spencer also finds a place, and a commanding place,\namong this class of man's benefactors; for the fact that, when he was only\nseventeen years of age, he served as a supply-teacher for three months does\nnot justify us in enrolling him in the ranks of the schoolmaster.\nIn this brief paper it is obviously impossible to discuss many of the important questions in education upon which Spencer has written with so much\nvigor and persuasiveness. I have, therefore, decided to invite your attention\nto only one topic, ''Spencer's IndividuaHty as Manifested in His Educational\nThinking.\"\nIn dealing with school problems, as with those in other fields of thought,\nhe was singularly free from the influence of traditional opinions, and was\nat the same time little moved by the beliefs of his contemporaries. In his\nlast work, pubHshed in 1902, is found this sentence, disclosing a marked\nindividualistic type of mind: \"Early in life it became a usual experience for\nme to stand in a minority — often a small minority, sometimes approaching a\nminority of one. \" Quick, in his Educational Reformers, very properly devotes\na chapter to Spencer, in whom are to be found the essential attributes of\nleaders in reform — ability, disposition, and courage to expose error, however\nold and well-beloved, and to champion the truth however new and unpopular.\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n227\n\nThe four essays on education which Spencer contributed to British magazines in1854, 1858, and 1859 are almost fierce in denunciation of the educational\ntheories and practices of his times. It is no wonder that many conventional\nschoolmen in the English-speaking world read his philippics with mingled\nfeelings of disgust and dismay. If Spencer was right, they were wrong; if\nhis teaching should triumph, theirs would go, and they likewise. Teachers\nof the classics especially looked upon him as the chief of the Philistines, and\nwith tongue and pen sought to punish him for what they called his pedagogic\npresumption and wickedness. It is believed (and I share the opinion) that\nhis estimate of the value of Latin and Greek was false; that he did not accord\nto the languages and literatures of the ancient Greeks and Romans the high\nculture-value they actually possess. It is thought, furthermore, by some eminent educators, our own United States Commissioner of Education among\nthe number, that Spencer's conception of the educational value of the fine\narts — including Hterature, the noblest of them all — is not to be justified upon\ngrounds either a priori or a posteriori. Still other objections are urged against\nhis conclusions with respect to what knowledge should find a place in the\ninstruction of children and youth; but, in spite of the floods of criticism that\nhave swept over his essay on \"What Knowledge Is of Most Worth?\" the\nunprejudiced student of educational history will not fail to honor him for his\nvaliant championship of the cause of natural science. It is because of the work\nof Spencer, Huxley, Agassiz, Eliot, and men of like minds, that the studies\npertaining to the natural world have at length gained admission to the charmed\ncircle of the liberal arts. Even in our own day are to be found educated men\nwho yet regard these studies with indifference or distrust; but a half-century\nago- Spencer was not far from speaking the literal truth when he said:\nHad there been no teaching but such as is given in our pubHc schools, England\nwould now be what it was in feudal times. That increasing acquaintance with the laws\nof phenomena which has through successive ages enabled us to subjugate Nature to our\nneeds, and in these days gives the common laborer comforts which a few centuries ago\nkings could not purchase, is scarcely in any degree owed to the appointed means of\ninstructing our youth. The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown as a nation\nto what we are, and which now underlies our whole existence — is a knowledge that has\ngot itself taught in nooks and corners; while the ordained agencies for leach ng have been\nmumbling httle else but dead formulas.\n\nAgain, he was not wholly wrong, tho perhaps not altogether just to the\ntraditional curriculum, in the closing paragraph of the essay, in which science\nis lauded for both its disciplinary and its practical value :\nParaphrasing an eastern fable, we must say that in the family of knowledges, Science\nis the household drudge who, in obscurity, hides unrecognized perfeptions. To her has\nbeen committed all the work; by her skill, intelligence, and devotion have all the conveniences and gratifications been obtained; and while ceaselessly occupied ministering\nto the rest, she has been kept in the background, that her haughty sisters might flaunt\ntheir fripperies in the eyes of the world. The parallel holds yet further. For we are fast\ncoming to the denouement, when the positions will be changed; and while these haughty\nsisters sink into merited neglect. Science, proclaimed as highest alike in worth and beauty,\nwill reign supreme.\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": null, "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThe denouement has been reached, but with a different result from that\nprophesied by Spencer in 1859; for neither science nor the classics nor mathematics nor philosophy, nor any other subject, is now allowed to exercise\ndominion over her sister-subjects, or even to display aristocratic airs in their\npresence. Thanks to the characteristic spirit of this age, there has been\nfirmly established, not only democracy among men, but also democracy\namong studies, including even the science and art of education.\nFrom what has just now been said one would conclude that, in his plea\nfor the teaching of science, Spencer refers to natural science alone. With\nhim, however, \"science\" is a much more comprehensive term, including the\nnew subjects (the natural sciences), and also the old subjects, but the old\nsubjects so transformed by rational thinking as to render them practically\nnew. For history, language, and other human-nature subjects, as he found\nthem, he had no word of commendation whatever, strenously insisting that\nonly thru the understanding of the science of these subjects can results in\nany wise desirable be attained. What he means by knowing the science of\na subject he expresses in many different phrases, some of which are here\ngiven: (i) Knowledge of realities; (2) knowledge of the constitution of things;\n(3) knowledge of the content of things, not of mere symbols; (4) organized\nknowledge; (5) rational knowledge; (6) knowledge of general truths; (7)\nknowledge of fundamental principles, or laws — with all of which ideas the\nmodern conception of education is in hearty accord. He nowhere better sets\nforth his view with respect to the dominating spirit of science than in this\ndescription of the scientific man:\nWhile towards the traditions and authorities of men its attitude [the attitude of\nscience] may be proud, before the impenetrable veil which hides the Absolute its attitude\nis humble — a true pride and true humility. Only the sincere man of science (and by\nthis title we do not mean the mere calculator of distances, or analyzer of compounds, or\nlabeler of species; but him who through lower truths seeks higher, and eventually the\nhighest) — only the genuine man of science, we say, can truly know how utterly beyond,\nnot only human knowledge, but human conception, is the Universal Power of which\nNature, and Life, and Thought are manifestations.\n\nHerbert Spencer, not content with attacking the traditional curriculum,\npleads vigorously for reform in the theory and practice of the several phases of\neducation. In place of ignorant, if not wicked, neglect of training the body,\nhe prays for scientific physical education; in place of arbitrary and artificial\nmeans of moral development, he asks that rational and natural plans be\nadopted; and in place of the old-time principles of authority and pain in educating the intellect, he advocates with convincing eloquence the doctrines\nof self-activity and interest. In these several departments of education\nhe called upon men everywhere to repent, and he may not improperly be\ncalled the educational John the Baptist of the nineteenth century.\nBut some school superintendent or college professor who finds, for reasons\nfamiliar to us all, his tenure of office more or less precarious, may retort that\nit is very easy for a great layman like Spencer to play reformer.\nThe school-\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n220\n\nmaster, on the other hand, must needs be a more timorous soul. He cannot\nafford to break with his environment, especially with that part of it which\nincludes the board giving him employment, for, if he does, another locality\nis most probably added to the itinerary of his professional life. It is not to be\ndisputed that the teacher has long been extremely diplomatic, not to say lacking\nin nerve, when brought face to face with progressive measures. It is none\nthe less his business to cultivate that open-mindedness to truth and that\ncourage of conviction characteristic of Spencer; for personal independence\nis an unmistakable attribute of manhood, and the first great qualification\nof the teacher is that he be a man. Of course, in manifesting his academic\nfreedom and in laboring for reform, it is by no means necessary that one\nabandon the sense of the righteous opportunist, or the speech and the*behavior\nof the well-bred gentleman.\nAgain, it may be suggested that Spencer, having neither wife nor children,\ncould well afford to stand on the \"firing Hne\" of educational reform. Death\nunder such circumstances would not involve unoffending victims. In reply\nto this view, it might be said that, if a man love house and lands, wife and\nchildren, more than he loves truth, he is not made of the sterner stuff the\nreformer needs. To him who falters in the discharge of professional duty,\nlet these words of the Psalmist bring consolation and courage: \"I have been\nyoung and now am old; yet have I not seen the righteous forsaken nor his\nseed begging bread.\" Let him, furthermore, remember that courage is bom\nof doing things, and that the world is now looking, as never before in the\nhistory of the race, for men neither unable nor afraid to think their own\nthoughts and then to act upon their own responsibility.\nTime is left to call attention in briefest word only to the fact that Spencer's\nindividualistic spirit was so intense as to prevent him from tolerating, or even\nseeing, the natural trend toward social unity. When but twenty-two years\nof age he published in the Nonconformist an article emphatically condemning\nthe education of the people as a function of government. In Facts and Comments, pubHshed in his old age only a year before his death, he reaffirms his\nbelief that state education is both unjust and unwise. This view is sadly\nout of harmony with that of the modern pedagog, philosopher, and statesman. If there is any one sign of our times more significant than any other,\nit is that the state, with ever-increasing activity, is to provide for all the people\ngenuine education, which involves far more than intellectual training (a fact\nnot taken into account by Spencer), and which has for its supreme purpose\nthe enrichment of institutional life thru the generous development of the free,\nself-active spirit of the individual. In ancient Sparta man belonged, body\nand soul, to the state, there being two inevitable results— the atrophy of the\nspontaneity of the individual, and, in consequence, the final'overthrow of\nthe state itself. In the eighteenth century individualistic sanctions became\nsovereign, and the individual, as well as the state, was compelled to endure\nThe modern state, realizingTthe necessity of both\nthe Reign of Terror.\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": null, "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nindividual strength and social solidarity, seeks, thru proper educational\nmeans, to harmonize these two forces, which are at times apparently antagonistic, but which, in reality, are mutually -helpful. Strange, indeed, that so\nplain a lesson in history did not reveal itself to the great mind that so convincingly taught the world the value of the term \"Evolution\"!\nBy way of summarizing this brief paper, these two supplementary principles are submitted as worthy to guide the practice of modern education:\n1. The sanctity of the individual human being is to be kept inviolate.\n2. The law of social service — a law opposed not to individuality, but to\nindividualism — conditions the spiritual progress of humanity.\n\nIV.\n\nHERBERT\n\nA. E. WINSHIP,\n\nSPENCER\nEDITOR\n\nAS AN EDUCATIONAL\n\nOF THE \"JOURNAL\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nFORCE\n\nOF EDUCATION,\"\n\nHerbert Spencer was the greatest educational force of the latter half of\nthe nineteenth century. As an individual opinion this would have no significance but it is as near an official utterance as is possible for the United\nStates government to deliver on such a question. In the Congressional\nLibrary in Washington, our noble shrine, the government has placed the\nnames of ten educational* leaders selected from the world's history. Only\none of these was chosen from the latter half of the nineteenth century, only\none was alive when his name was blazoned on the roll of honor. That was\nHerbert Spencer. In the presence of such a fact, it matters little what we\nmay say here tonight by way of criticism. The edict has gone forth from an\nauthority higher than that which now sits in judgment.\nThis honor is all the more significant when we remember that he was not\nidentified with any institution ; that he failed to create as a genius, to develop\nthe skill of an artist, or perfect the power of a master. Germany gave the\nworld more than one educational genius in his day. Sweden produced more\nthan one pedagogical artist. France made more than one attempt at the\nmaking of a master; but Herbert Spencer was a greater force than genius,\nartist, and master combined.\nWhat Bushnell, Beecher, and Brooks were in theology and in ecclesiastical courage, Spencer was in education. His was the fascination of personality in phrasing, of relish in thinking. In whatever he thought or said there\nwas a nervous impulse that set the schoolmen of the world aglow with interest\nin proportion to the spasms created among the philosophies before which he\ndid not bow.\nWhat Darwin and Huxley were in science, Spencer was in education. He\nwas an evolutionist in spirit, tho not as a scientist; in the social order rather\nthan in the animal kingdom, in human nature as much as in nature.\nWhat Sheridan was in the Shenandoah, Spencer was among the school\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n23 1\n\nmen who awaited a leader. He was never an architect, but a fountain of\nheroic inspiration.\nSpencer was a literary man before he was a philosopher; a writer before\nhe was an educator. He never knew the masters as a worshipful disciple.\nHe bowed before no master, for he had been trained by none. His training\nwas as a railroad engineer, and for eight years he threaded railroads over the\nBritish Isles. Thus he came to philosophy unbiased by tradition, and was\nable to think independently, to project ideas as he had projected railroads.\nThis prevented the customary arrested development which afflicts so many\nphilosophers, who, when once under the spell of a scheme of thought, are\nunable thereafter to think of or experience anything without being classconscious from the standpoint of their theory.\nIt is evidently a satisfaction for anyone to have the conceit of seeing everything in time and eternity as fitting into a philosophy as clear as crystal to\nthemselves, as hazy as the milky way to everybody else; but such a state of\nmind often operates as an undertow, carrying one backward from the shore\nwhenever he attempts to land. Spencer was always being carried forward\non the crest of a wave, being a part of its foaming billow as it broke upon\nsome new shore.\nHe was not always right, and was rarely consistent; but he was always\ngetting somewhere, was always attractive, always alert.\nHe would have lived and died a railroad engineer, and never have disturbed the equanimity of the self-satisfied philosophers, had he hved in America, where railroad building never ends; but in great Britian the end of the\nrailroad boom came early in his career.\nHe could be enthusiastic over the projecting of railroads into new parts,\nbut he could not be content to play the part of a repairer of roadbeds, or of\nlaying side-tracks of steel. Thus he abandoned the profession for which he\nwas trained, and suggested new tracks for philosophy and pedagogy; and our\nmighty educational locomotives are freighting new philosophies into new\nfields because he refused to be a repairer of old lines of thought or a builder\nof side-tracks for the philosophies of Germany and Greece.\nEvery flush of life and flash of light that reinvigorates the university of\ntoday is due to the rays that purpled the dawn when Herbert Spencer said:\n\n\"Let there be Hght in every nook and corner of the educational world.\"\n\nV.\n\nI\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\nAS A PHILOSOPHER\n\nW. ROSE, PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION,\nTENN.\nKNOXVILLE,\nUNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE,\n\nHerbert Spencer gave his life, with pecuHar devotion and singleness of\npurpose, to the cause of science. He has the rare distinction of having comIt is less than a decade since his\npleted the task which he set for himself.\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": null, "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLAtlanta\n\nlast volume was given to the public; and yet he is a recognized authority in\nno departm nt of science. He has never been an authority in science. In\nfact, he was not a scientist in the sense in which Darwin was a scientist.\nNot from nature, but from books, he derived his facts; and upon this experience taken at second hand he based his broad generalizations. Darwin\nrepeatedly expressed regret that Spencer had not been taught to see; while\nSpencer in turn was unable to sympathize with Darwin's lavish expenditure of time and energy with meaningless details. Clearly, Spencer could not\nbecome an authority in any department of science, when he lacked the methods\nessential to the scientific specialist.\nBut it may be said, and with justice, that he should not be held responsible\nfor failure to accomplish that which was not only outside his life-purpose,\nbut in opposition to it. His interest lay in the direction of generalization\nrather than in that of special discovery and experimental verification. Following this interest, he deliberately chose the field of scientific speculation, and\nset for himself the tremendous task of synthesizing the whole of experience\nand stating it in terms of universal law. He was not a botanist, and made\nno effort to become one; but he formulated the law of evolution and\nillustrated its application to vegetable life. The genetic method has g'ven\nus a new botany, and in the hand of the specialist is today giving us a\ncontinued revelation of the law of evolution in the plant kingdom.\nBut if, on the other hand, Spencer is to be ranked as a philosopher and\njudged accordingly, he fares no better. Of the deeper problems of philosophy\nhe had not even an intimation. He assumes the order of nature, and assumes\nexperience as a part of that order. The more fundamental problem of how\nsuch an order of nature is possible, of how knowledge is possible, Spencer's\ndoctrine of evolution does not touch. The real problem of Kant and of\nHegel did not exist as a problem for Spencer.\nThen, when we take him on his own level, we find his first principles\ninvolving essential contradictions. He juggles, for example, with two systems\nof reality. Hume found it necessary to negate the reality of the world-order\nthat he might identify reality with feeling. Spencer accepts both systems\nand passes from one to the other with the facility of an expert riding two\nhorses. The critical student of the First Principles finds his chief difficulty\narising from the confusion of these two opposing systems.\nAn example of this double dealing is found in his well-known theory of\nthe Unknowable. After identifying the real with an absolute Unknowable,\nwhich should once for all preclude any further reference to it, especially on\nthe part of a philosophy of experience, Spencer proceeds in a later paragraph to define the real as ''persistence in consciousness;\" and on the basis\nof this assurance informs us that the Unknowable is one, not many; that it\nis the causal energy on which phenomena depend and from which they\nspring; that it is omnipresent, persistent, unchangeable, etc., etc.; thus\ngiving us, in Mr. Mill's happy phrase, \"a prodigious amount of knowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\n'\n\nHERBERT\n\nSPENCER\n\n233\n\nabout the Unknowable.\" Then a scrutiny of these attributes of ultimate\nreality reveals the fact that it is both static and dynamic. The Unknowable\nas changeless absolute becomes on occasion a causal energy with a succession\nof changes paralleled by a succession of changes among appearances.\nThese are a few examples of the fundamental inconsistencies upon which\nhis system rests. These inconsistencies, however, are not surprising when we\nknow that he was unacquainted with the history and the problems of reflective\nthought.\nBut while we thus frankly admit that Spencer is not an authority in any\nscience, and that the fundamental principles of his synthetic philosophy do\nnot bear the test of philosophic criticism, it remains, nevertheless, that he\nwas a vigorous and independent thinker, and that he will occupy a prominent place among that group of men who in science and scientific speculation\nmade Victoria's reign illustrious. In what, then, does his service to modern\nthought consist? Without attempting to be exhaustive, I will suggest two\npoints at which his service has been conspicuous.\nIn the first place, his genius for broad generalization and his tremendous\ncapacity for stating abstract truth in concrete form enabled h'm to bring\ntogether into one articulate system ideas, doctrines, domains of experience,\nwhich had developed independently and had stood apart. This synthesis\nof the sciences brought to consciousness new problems and new clues. The\nbroader relations thus revealed by mutual cross-reference between phases of\nexperience hitherto fsolated gave to scientific activity at once a new stimulus\nand a new leverage. It is a significant fact that most of the young sciences\njust now manifesting so much of energy and yielding so much of promise spell\ntheir names with a hyphen; as witness physiological-psychology, psychophysics, physical-chemistry, etc. And not only have new sciences been bom\nbut old sciences have been rejuvenated by this interrelationship. It is a long\ncount from the old botany, with its herbarium of abstract plants, its artificial descriptions and classifications, to the new botany, with its concrete\n\nI\n\nliving plant — a plant conceived as a member of a life-colony, a plant facing\nand solving the problems imposed upon it by the complex relationships of the\nenvironment, organic and inorganic, under which its life is being lived out.\nIn like manner have not only the physical and biological sciences, but psychology and the social sciences, been quickened into larger life by this mutual\nco-operation, and the broader outlook which it yields.\nThen, to the specialist in a given field there comes from this conscious\nkinship, not only the larger meaning, but a larger criterion of truth. For\nwe demand that experience hang together. And in so far as the worker in\na special field finds that his contribution dovetails into the whole system of\nexperience, he feels added confidence in its validity. The functional point\nof view in psychology, for example, derives support from the fact that it is\nparalleled by present tendencies in mathematical theory, in physical theory,\nin ethics, logic, and epistemology.\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": null, "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThese are bare suggestions of the significance for modern thought of the\nfree interplay between the various phases of experience within the larger\nsynthetic view. It is not here claimed for Spencer that this result is the\nproduct of his genius. It is not the contribution of any single man. I do\nthink it safe, however, to claim for Spencer's synthetic philosophy that at\nthis point it has rendered conspicuous service.\nA second service to contemporary thought worthy of recognition Spencer\nrendered in formulating the theory of evolution, and using that as the unifying principle in his synthesis of the sciences. The notion of evolution is as\nold as Greek thought. In modern times Goethe had stated the law of development as progressive differentiation and subordination of parts in terms\nwhich strikingly resemble Spencer's own formulation. Hegel had given the\nlogic of evolution and had applied it in a synthetic view of experience. The\nnotion of development was in the air. But it remained for Darwin to demonstrate the theory as a working principle in biology, and for Spencer to\nformulate it, give it broad application, and make it current in popular as\nwell as in scientific thought. These two men, supplementing each other in\ngenius and method, have thus co-operated in establishing evolution as a\nworking h5^othesis in the domain of science, and have put every man, in\nwhatever field of thought, under the necessity of reinterpreting his world\nfrom this point of view. Evolution once established as a general point of\nview, the genetic method is inevitable. This method in the hand of the\nspecialist has developed into the most effective instrument of contemporary\nscience.\nWe should have had the genetic method without Spencer; but, again,\nour recognition is that of conspicuous service.\nFinally, it seems pecuUarly fitting that this body should pay tribute to\nthe memory of Herbert Spencer; for nowhere, perhaps, has his influence\nbeen more pronounced than in educational thought and practice. This\ninfluence has come not so much from his Essay on Education as from his\nsystem of thought as a whole. Here again it is the genetic method and the\nlarger synthetic view that have been effective. It is easy to criticize his\nevaluation of classical culture, of the national tongue, the national history,\nthe national literature; it is equally convenient, on the other hand, to commend his crusade against verbalism and education as a system of cram;\nto recognize his restatement and emphasis of the Pestalozzian principles of\ninterest and education thru self -activity. But this indirect service to which\nI refer has affected education in a much more fundamental and organic way.\nMy illustration of the contrast between the old and the new botany, with\nchange of terms, finds application here. The abstract child of the older\npsychology, with its equipment of abstract faculties to be artificially developed, has, in response to the genetic method and the larger synthesis, given\nplace to the concrete child frankly recognized as a living organism, with a\npast and a future, carrying on its life-processes, Hke the plant, as a member\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n235\n\nof a life-colony, and under conditions of environment which set for it practical problems to be met and solved. The entrance of this concrete child\nupon the stage has forced upon educational theory a tremendous expansion.\nWhen the child was primarily a thinker and education an intellectual affair,\nthe problem was relatively simple. But now we must see the child as a\nmarvelously delicate mechanism organizing for efficient response to stimuli;\nand in this process we are seeking rational control. Or, viewing him at\nany moment as a bundle of developing instincts, we must interpret these\ntendencies in the light of both their backward and their forward reference;\nmust state them, on the one side, in terms of the animal series, as revealing\ntheir origin and organic significance, and, on the other, in terms of civilization, as revealing the child's destiny as free personality. Education thus\nbecomes something vastly broader than applied psychology, in the older sense\nof that term; it is applied physiology, applied biology, applied sociology.\nThe most hopeful sign, perhaps, in modern progress is just in this rescue\nof the problem of education from the narrower sphere of the pedagog's peculiar interests by making it the problem of dynamic sociology, which it is.\nThe same method which is giving us the concrete child is revealing the law\nof social progress, and the child as the key to that progress. The child thus\nbecomes the focal center of all social interests. And education, as selfconscious evolution, as rational control in the most complex phase of all\ndevelopment, becomes, in Herbert Spencer's own words, ''the subject which\ninvolves all other subjects, and therefore the subject in which the education\nof everyone should culminate.\"\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCHARLES\n\nW. DABNEY,\n\nPRINCIPLES\nI\n\nFOR THE\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nKNOXVILLE,\nTENN.\n\nSOUTH\n\nOF TENNESSEE,\n\nSocial evolution, like everything else in the universe, is continuous. As\nthe southern civilization of today is the product of that of yesterday, so the\ncivilization of the future will be the outgrowth of that of today. The present\neducational needs of southern people arise from circumstances which to a\nlarge extent grew out of peculiar conditions in the past. The schools for\nwhich we strive must,' therefore, be built by southern men and women on\nthe foundations already laid and in accordance with the estabUshed principles\nof southern civilization.\n\nIn the old South there was a caste system of four general classes: the aristocracy ofwealthy planters and slave-owners; the small farmers, living chiefly\nin the hills; the poor whites of the low country; and the African slaves. The\nThe\nnumber of the planter class is greatly exaggerated in the popular mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": null, "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nbody of the people belonged to the class of the small farmer, a sturdy yeomanry,\nwho by energy and thrift sometimes broke into the upper class. The planter,\nhowever, domineered all classes, and to a great degree repressed the small\nfarmer and the poor white man, filling the role of the feudal lord in his relation to his poorer neighbors.\nWe speak of the Civil War as a revolution, and it was a complete revolution of our whole life, political, social, and economic; but to the scientific\nstudent of history this cataclysm was only a phase of the regular evolutionary\nprocess, a necessary step in the development of our institutions. It has served\nmuch the same purpose in our social evolution that the French Revolution\nserved in the development of the European peoples; it led us to form a new\nconception of the rights and powers of the individual, be he lord of the land,\nsmall farmer, poor white man, or negro. True it is that the southern conception of the rights of the individual is still far from ideal, but it is growing, and\nwill continue to grow with the educational and economic improvement of the\ndepressed classes.\nThe war not only freed the black man, it freed the white man as well.\nIt made a way for the small farmers, liberated the poor white man from the\nbonds of a semi-feudal system, and established both for the first time in full\ncitizenship. It also freed the minds and spirits of the aristocratic classes, and\nby throwing them upon their own resources made them a stronger and a better\npeople. In setting free all classes of southern people the war cleared the way\nfor the true democracy which will come when all the people are trained to\nthe responsibilities of the new day. The old civilization, whose ruling class\nwas an aristocracy of land and slaves, has given place to a political and industrial democracy with no ruling class. But herein lies our danger, and out of\nthis fact grows the special necessity for a system of popular education which\nshall train all our citizens to think clearly and act fearlessly each for himself.\nNow, this growing conception of the rights and powers of the individual\nis accompanied by a growing consciousness of his need of preparation for\nall his functions, especially for the performance of his duties as a citizen.\nWitness the great conventions of colored people like the one held recently\nat Tuskegee. Witness the political uprising of the poor white man a few years\nago under the Farmer's AUiance and the PopuUst party. Witness, also, the\ngreat movement for better schools now stirring the whole South. The plain\nwhite man has awakened and is pressing for the rights of his child, and to\nhim we now look as our chief supporter in this effort for the improvement of\nthe schools.\nThe actual development of such a system of free public schools has been\nlong retarded by the conservatism of the aristocratic class which refused to\nrecognize the new individual and held as long as possible to old institutions\nand ideals. It has been delayed further by the poverty of the people, by the\nsparseness and consequent isolation of the population, and by the absence\nof roads and other adequate means of communication; but this new concep-\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n237\n\ntion of manhood has now caught the mind of the plain man, and will soon\ngive rise to a great new system of education, supported by all the people for all\nthe people.\nHistory teaches us that systems of education are even more dependent\nupon economic than upon political and social conditions. Political and\nsocial institutions are, in fact, largely the outgrowth of economic environment.\nIt will help us, therefore, to get a better view of the situation in the South if\nwe recall a few simple facts of its economic history.\nThe industrial organization of the old South was largely rural. A system\nof slave labor compelled the South to remain almost exclusively an agricultural section. It drove out all other labor, and so banished all manufactures\nexcept those of the plantations. Most of the simple arts and industries were\nrepresented upon the old-time plantation. The spinning and weaving\nhouses, the wagon and blacksmith shops, the carpenter and cooper shops,\nwere the factories of those days. They were also the industrial schools of\nthe South.\nAs the white family was the only social unit, so the plantation with its\nslaves grouped around that family was the only industrial unit. Commercial\ncenters there were, but there were almost no manufacturing towns. The old\nplantation was similar to the old English manor, a community in which the\nlabor of the members supplied all their wants except the finer groceries, the\nbroadcloth, the silks, and satins. My grandfather, an old Virginia planter,\nboasted that he ordinarily bought nothing except cotton, bar-iron, and wool\nhats.\nIn a society built on these foundations, education and all forms of culture\ndeveloped along strictly aristocratic lines. Tho numerically in the minority,\nthe wealthy planter, with his intensely individuaUstic ideas, was the controlling\nforce poKtically and socially; consequently he alone determined the forms of\neducation. He employed private tutors for his children, and sent the older\nboys and girls to the North for their higher education. In some cases several\nfamines might combine to support a school, but it was a private institution\nstill, and the upper classes looked down on the common school as a thing\nbeneath them. Some of the states had a few schools for the poor, commonly\ncalled ''poor schools\" or \"hedge schools,\" which did little good even for the\nclasses they were designed to benefit.\nThere were few teachers of southern birth in the country. It was a profession not highly thought of, and the tutors of the children were either wandering adventures, or young persons from the North who were sometimes\nordered along with the fine groceries and silks. A letter from an old South\nCarolina planter to his factor in Providence inclosed a long bill of goods whose\nlast item was: \"One school marm, not too young or good-looking, who can\nteach French and drawing.\" The South was greatly indebted to the young\n\"Yankee school marm\" and to her brother, frequently a graduate of Yale,\nAmherst, or Williams; their office was duly recognized, and they rarely failed.\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": null, "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nif they remained long enough, to attain to a high social position and to become\ndevoted southerners. This service of the northern school-teacher was a\nbroadening influence for both North and South, and I doubt not, if the author\nof Uncle Tom's Cabin had taught school for a period on a Georgia plantation,\ninstead of in a Connecticut* village, she would have greatly modified many\nstatements in her famous book.\nIn such a society as this, with a population essentially rural and intensely\nindividualistic, scattered over a country sparsely settled, without towns or\nany larger social units, it has taken a long time to develop the social spirit\nand the habit of co-operation, so necessary for the support of good public\nschools. When to these conditions was added the burden of establishing and\nmaintaining a duplicate system of schools for the two races, side by side in\nthe same village or neighborhood, the difficulties in the way of the public\nschools became greater than any people of equal power had ever faced. The\nstruggle of the southern people with this problem will, when fully known,\ncommand the admiration of every student of history.\nLet us next seek to learn something of the present educational conditions of the southern populations. In 1900, out of the 8,500,000 whites ten\nyears of age and over in the eleven south Atlantic and Gulf states, including Tennessee and Arkansas, one million were iUiterate. One-third of the\nilliterates of the United States are found in these states, which have, however, only one-fifth of the population. Of the 5,000,000 blacks in the same\nstates ten years of age and over, 2,500,000 were illiterate. In the same states,\nof 4,400,000 males twenty-one years of age and over, 1,200,000 were illiterate.\nMore than one-half of all the illiterate males of voting age in the United\nStates live in the South. Disfranchisement can be only a temporary and\npartial remedy for this awful condition. We can never build a true democracy from this kind of material.\nHow about the children and their schools ? In the same southern states\nthere were last year about 4,000,000 white and 3,500,000 black children of\nschool age. Sixty-two per cent, only was enrolled in the schools. Only 45\nper cent, of the school population was actually in school eighty to ninety\ndays. The reports of the superintendents show that the average child who\ngoes to school at all stops with the third grade, which means that he barely\nlearns to read and figure a little. One white child in every five is left practically illiterate, and one-half the negro children never really learn to read.\nNo wonder that 24 per cent, of the grown people in these states, whites and\nblacks together, cannot read and write. Three terms of schooling, at best,\nis what we are giving the average child as preparation for citizenship in the\ngreat republic!\nHow, then, but by universal education shall we qualify the members of\nthe democracy for the discharge of their duties? No selection of persons\nto be educated is possible. When you limit education to any class, you sow\ndiscontent over all the land, and the ignorant portion of the population simply\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n230\n\nadds to the state's burden, rather than to its wealth and power. Besides\nwhen we select a portion of the people to be educated, we are sure to neglect\nthe very ones who most need training. In a democracy the free public\nschool is the only efficient agent. There is no way to reach all those\nwho need to be educated except by training all the children at the public\nexpense.\nUniversal education by the state is the solution of the southern problem.\nThis was the doctrine of Jefferson, the prophet of our American democracy,\nand this principle is now embodied in the constitution and laws of every state\nin the Union. It remains for us to carry out this doctrine in practice. Schools\nmust be provided for all the children, both whites and blacks, and, when we\nonce have the schools, we must have compulsory laws to put the children in\nThis is the supreme duty of the day.\nthem.\nFour-fifths of the southern people live in the country. The vital question, therefore, is how to provide elementary rural schools which shall be\nwithin the reach of every child. Every other consideration is a minor one\ncompared with this one of good elementary schools for the people of the\nrural districts. Matters of school legislation and organization, plans for consolidation and transportation of pupils, and other such details must be decided\nin accordance with local conditions. They need not be discussed here. The\nvital question for the South at this stage is that of more money for the schools.\nIn schoolhouses costing $300 each, with teachers receiving an average salary of $27 a month, we are giving the children in attendance 5 cents worth\nof education a day for eighty or ninety days in the year. Georgia paid 6\ncents a child a day to the teachers in her \"poor\" schools seventy-five years\nago. So long as these conditions prevail the money for the schools must be\na chief consideration.\nThe question as to whether the South should accept national aid in performing this national duty is an academic one at the present time, but since\nit has been recently raised by such authorities as the president of Harvard\nUniversity at the North, and the president of the University of Georgia at\nthe South, it may be well to mention it here.\nAny plan of national aid should provide, not a largess for the South, but\na consistent, rational plan for uplifting the retarded and depressed populations in all portions of the country. The people in some counties in Maine\nand in New York are as illiterate as those in counties in the southern Appalachians. This is truly a national problem, not one for the South alone;\nand we need, therefore, to take a broad view of it.\nSome persons speak of national aid to the states for the purpose of popular education, as if it were aid from the outside which it would be humiliating, or at least unwise, to accept. It is a characteristically southern and a\nnoble sentiment that suggests this idea. But do we southern people fully\nrealize that we are an inherent part of the government of the United States,\nand that all matters of national concern demand national consideration and\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": null, "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nassistance? Is not the national treasury our treasury? Is not the money\nin it our money, put there in part by us ? Is not the negro as much a ward\nof the nation as the Indian ? If the nation provides for the education of the\nIndian, this wild child of the plain, is it not under an even greater obligation\nto provide for the education of the negro, our fellow-citizen in these states ?\nDuring the recent wars the South was deeply stirred by national feeling and\ntook a large part in the struggle for humanity and the redemption of the\nCuban people. When we give the blood of our sons to the nation in a service of war for aliens, may we not honorably accept the aid of the national\ntreasury in this greater service of peace for our own children ?\nBut some may fear that in national aid there lurks danger of federal\ninterference with our state systems of schools. This, of course, we cannot\npermit. The right of the state to the control of its schools and all their\naffairs is a principle that has never been questioned in the national councils.\nAndrew Jackson himself favored the distribution of the accumulated national\nfunds to the states for the purposes of education. There is a precedent\nalready in the appropriation of national funds to the states for the support\nof their agricultural colleges and stations. No attempt at federal control of\nthose institutions has been made or is likely to be made. When measures\nof national aid are actually proposed, if they ever are, our representatives\nwill be sure to maintian firmly the rights of the states to control their schools\nthru their own officials in accordance with their own methods. It will be\ndone in this way or not at all.\nMethods can also be found to aid needy communities without paralyzing\ntheir powers, either of initiative or support. Assistance can be used in such\na way as to arouse their initiative in improving educational conditions and\nin encouraging local support of the schools. National aid should be given in\nproportion to the needs of the people as shown by school population, illiteracy, and poverty, and in proportion to their sacrifices to help themselves.\nWhile we are helping the Porto Ricans and Filipinos to establish their\nschools, we should aid our own neglected peoples wherever they need\nassistance.\nIt is not a new Blair Bill that we want; we rejected that long ago, and\nI hope, for my part, that that particular measure may never again be brought\nforward, but that some plan may be adopted which shall make the wealth\nof the whole nation contribute to the education and general social improvement of all peoples who, by reason of their poverty, their isolation, their race\nor recent condition of servitude, or from any other cause, have not been able\nto take their place in the grand army of American citizenship, or to catch\nstep with the march of modern progress.\nWith these principles accepted, we need not add anything on the subject\nof the education of the negro. Our belief in universal education necessitates\na belief in the education of the negro, for it presupposes that every human\nbeing, white or black, has a right to be educated.\nGod has a purpose in\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n241\n\nevery soul he sends into the world. The poorest, most helpless infant is\nnot merely an accident, a few molecules of matter, or a few eons of energy\nmerely, but a \"plan of God,\" as Phillips Brooks has said, a part of the divine\nplan of creation, and as such deserves to be trained for its work. This, it\nseems to me, is the fundamental argument for a universal education — that\nevery child has a right to a chance in life, because God made him and made\nhim to do something in the universe.\nEvery intelligent southerner now believes that the right kind of education\nmakes the negro a more thrifty, a more useful, a more moral, and a more\nlaw-abiding citizen, as it does every other man. Every southern state is\nnow committed by its constitution and laws to the principle of negro education, and, in their legislatures and courts, they have, so far, successfully\nresisted all proposals to divide the school funds, or to reduce the resources\nof the schools of the colored race to the taxes paid by the people of that race.\nIf we disfranchise the negro, it only makes more binding our duty to prepare\nhim for the proper use of the prerogative of citizenship. In fact, the disfranchisement acts are all working to compel his education. The southern\npeople will be fair to the negro in these matters. Any other course of conduct will not only dishonor, but will injure, their own race.\nThe chief question now is not the kind of education we shall give these\npeople, whether exclusively industrial, or partly literary, but it is the simple\nelementary training of the people of a child-race to perform the ordinary\nduties of life and to become decent American citizens. It will be time enough\nto discuss the merits of industrial education, as against those of the higher\neducation, when we have provided good elementary schools and teachers for\nthe negro children.\nWith or without national aid, the southern people will find a way to\neducate the negroes. It is merely a question of time and methods; but we\nwill do our duty to these our childhood friends, the laborers in our fields and\nin our homes. We people of the South have already led the African slave to\nheights which he never could have reached without our assistance, and so,\nin freedom, let us lead him on thru the school to character, usefulness, and\nprosperity. In the words of that splendid young hero and prophet of Georgia,\nwhose statue stands here in these streets to remind southern men in all generations ofa Hfe spent for the salvation of his beloved land:\nLet us make the negro know that he, depending more than any other on the protection and bounty of his government, shall find in alliance with the best elements of\nthe whites the pledge of safe and impartial administration. And let us remember this:\nthat whatever wrong we put upon him shall return to punish us. Whatever we take\nfrom him in violence, that is unworthy and shall not endure. What we steal from him\nin fraud, that is worse. But what we win from him in sympathy and affection, what we\ngain in his confiding alliance, and confirm in his awakening judgment, that is precious\nand shall endure— and out of it shall come healing and peace.\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": null, "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nII\nCHARLES\n\nD.\n\nMcIVER,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF STATE\nCOLLEGE,\nGREENSBORO,\n\nNORMAL\nN. C.\n\nAND\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\n[abstract]\n\nLocal taxation, better school supervision, and stronger local educational\nleadership are the three great needs of education in the southern states.\nOne hundred and fifty dollars a year for school-teachers and less than five\nhundred dollars a year for county superintendents, on the average, tell the\nstory of school inefficiency, and no elaboration is needed. Whatever other\nimprovements are needed, and however desirable they may be, the length\nof the school term, arid the salaries of teachers and superintendents, must be\nincreased.\nIn order to discuss the question of educational needs in the South intelligently, the following facts and conditions must be kept in mind:\n1. Area. — The area of the southern states is about 800,000 square miles\n— sixteen times the area of New York state.\n2. Urban and rural population. — In all this territory there are only about\ntwenty-five cities with a population above 30,000, and only 150 other cities\nwhose population is over 5,000. Three states — North Carolina, Florida, and\nMississippi — have no city in the former class, and four or five others have only\none such city. Of the 1,800,000 people in North Carolina, 1,600,000 live in\nthe country or in the villages of less than 2,000 population, leaving only\n200,000 living in the cities and towns of more than 2,000 inhabitants. The\nproportion of urban population is a little lower in North Carolina than in\nthe entire South.\nMississippi is even more rural than North Carolina.\n3. Local tax exists practically in all urban and in no rural communities. —\nIn practically every community with more than 2,000 inhabitants a local\nschool tax has been voted by the people to supplement the school fund provided by the state levy and otherwise, and the result is public schools in these\ncommunities that compare favorably with those in communities of similar\nsize elsewhere; but probably not 5 per cent, of the rural communities in the\nSouth have voted a local school tax. There are comparatively few counties\nthat have voted a special tax on all their property. At least six states have no\ncounty that has levied such a tax on all its property.\nWhen it is remembered that wherever satisfactory public schools exist in\nthis country, north or south, east or west, whether in urban or rural communities, from one-half to nine-tenths of the school revenue is raised by local\ntaxation, the above conditions appear in their true light.\n4. The county superintendent. — What is needed most urgently now is\nstronger men to lead the people in the rural sections to do what their neighbors in the cities and towns have already done. Unfortunately, ever since\nthe Revolution, which was fought on a tax issue, the loudest- talking political leader has taught the people to hate the w^ord \"tax;\" not any particular\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\n243\n\ntax, but just \"tax.\" To persuade the people that the levying of any tax is\na profitable investment demands more power than is possessed by the average\ncounty superintendent. The average salary of the county superintendent\nin several southern states is less than $300; the average in Georgia is $480.\nIt ought to be said in this connection that there are some strong superintendents, and in their counties public schools are growing in favor and in strength;\nbut $400 or $500 a year will not secure the services of a strong man for all of\nhis time, nor the best service of the strongest man for even a part of his time.\nMen are now needed in these positions who can teach the truth that an industrious community may become rich by levying certain taxes for its own\nimprovement; that taxation is one of the chief characteristics of civilization;\nand that the savage pays no tax. The adoption of local taxation for schools\nis the fundamental need of the South, and men must be secured who can\npersuade the people to vote this tax upon themselves. A persistent, tactful\ncampaign alone can do this.\n5. Salaries and school terms. — The fact that the average salary of the\nsouthern public-school teacher.in the rural districts is only about $150 a year,\nand that the annual school term is only a little more than one hundred\ndays, gives painful emphasis to all that has been said concerning the necessity\nfor a local tax. There is nothing within sight of the audience in this hall\nwhich a doUar-a-day laborer would be allowed to work upon, except the\nbrains of the people.\n6. Strong educational leadership thru county superintendents demanded. —\nIf strong superintendents could be secured for ten counties in each of the\nsouthern states, it would soon bring about a revolution in education in those\ncounties, and their example would be followed by other counties. If the\nstate legislatures, or if philanthropic funds now being invested in the South,\ncould be used to bring about this result, the educational dividends from the\ninvestment would be enormous and almost immediate. I have seen the\nresult of such an investment in one county. By special local aid the salary\nof a certain county superintendency was increased from $800 to $1,600, and\nan experienced superintendent of teachers was secured last July. Since\nhe began his work , the annual school revenue of his county has been increased,\nby local taxes, voted, more than $3,000, and it is probable that within a year\nthe annual school income of the county will have been increased by about\n$10,000, which is 33J per cent, more than it was when he took charge of\nthe schools.\n\nI\nI\n\nAn able, tactful superintendent will conduct a constant campaign for\nlocal taxation, and in addition he will raise the standard of the teaching\nprofession in his county, not only by examination of teachers and inspection\nof schools, but also by conducting a teachers' institute or teachers' school\nannually for several weeks for each race. The securing of strong county\nsuperintendents everywhere would be the surest method of training the\nteachers, white and black, who are destined to teach a large majority of the\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": null, "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nchildren in the South for the next ten years. It should be remembered in this\nconnection that the majority of rural school-teachers, and perhaps even of\nurban school-teachers, thruout the country have never attended a normal\nschool. I will use Massachusetts as an illustration. According to the\nofficial report of that state in 1900, we find that only 43 per cent, of the publicschool teachers, urban and rural, had attended any normal school, and only\n36 per cent, had graduated at a normal school. In 1890 these figures were 35\nper cent, and 29 per cent, respectively. This is very significant and pertinent when it is remembered that Massachusetts has a total population of\nnearly 3,000,000, with a rural population of only about 200,000, while North\nCarolina has a total population of about 2,000,000, with an urban population\nof only about 200,000. It must be remembered, too, that Massachusetts\nhas thirteen state normal schools, and has had at least one normal school\nsince the days of Horace Mann.\nUntil the term of the rural schools is at least eight months, most of the\nteachers employed in them will have had no normal training when beginning\ntheir work, and must depend for that training largely upon their county\nsuperintendents. The local tax necessary to secure an eight-month school\nterm also largely depends upon the county superintendent's ability to lead a\ncampaign among the people.\nAll this emphasizes the fact that the strategic point in the educational\ndevelopment in the public-school systems of the South is occupied by the\ncounty superintendent.\n\nTHE\nLAWTON\n\nB.\n\nEVANS,\n\nFACTORY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nCHILD\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAUGUSTA,\n\nGA.\n\nThis is the day of problems in education. The city-school problem is\nsolved, except the elimination of the personal equation. The normal-school\nproblem is almost behind us. We are about saying the last word of what\nshould be in the rural schools; and the problem of the negro has been discussed to a standstill.\nThere are three problems for the southern educators: that of the fields,\nwhich is the question of the rural school; that of labor, which is the question\nof the negro ; that of the factory, which is the question I present to you today.\nThe first of these questions has been discussed until it is threadbare; the\nsecond is in an inextricable tangle of contradictory practices and propositions; the third, no less important, is pressing upon us for our consideration.\n•This latter problem is present wherever there are factories or mills, and a\ndistinctive population known as operatives. In those sections of our country\nwhere no child-labor laws prevail the question is how to get them passed by\nthe legislature. In those sections where child-labor laws prevail, and compulsory school attendance does not, the question is how to lure the idler out\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFACTORY\n\nCHILD\n\n245\n\nof the streets and into the schools. In those sections where child-labor laws\nand compulsory school attendance both exist the question is what kind of\neducation is best.\nThe factory child always will be and must be. Therefore we should not\neducate him out of the mill and into other activities; for that is avoiding, and\nnot solving, the question. Rather we should make of hun a better citizen,\na happier man, and a more capable operative.\nTo prove the importance of this problem for those of us who work in\nsouthern schools, allow me to call your attention to the remarkable shift of\nmanufacturing emphasis in the last decade. The center of cotton-mill\nindustry is moving to the cotton fields. In 1890 the South operated 26.4\nper cent, of the total number of cotton factories in the Union; in 1900 it\noperated 41. i per cent. Between 1890 and 1900 there was an increase of\nthe number of cotton mills in the United States equal to 7.5 per cent.; in the\nSouth the increase was 67.4 per cent. During that decade the number of\nspindles increased in the entire country 34 per cent.; in the South the increase\nwas 176.6 per cent. The number of cotton wage-earners in cotton mills in\nten years for the whole country increased 36.1 per cent.; in the South the\nincrease was 167.7 P^^ co^vii. In wages paid during those years there was a\ngeneral increase of 28.9 per cent.; in the South the increase was 145.9 P^r\ncent. In the amount of capital employed there was a general increase of\n30.2 per cent.; in the South the increase was 13 1.4 per cent. In the whole\nUnion the increase of the value of mill products was 24.2 per cent.; in the\nSouth the increase was 128.6 per cent.\nIt is known and honored of men that capital is finding its way into southern enterprises, and that mills are building on every stream; and the sweet\nhum of industry betokens an awakened and prosperous people.\nThe mill operative is exclusively white. He has generally come from\nthe farm, which he abandoned because it was unprofitable, and because the\nallurement of ready pay, steady work, indoor occupation, and the Hkelihood\nof making every member of his family productive was too great a temptation for him to resist. So the factories are building at the expense of the fields,\nand the increasing cry of labor for the farm intensifies the already acute\nfeeling regarding the proper destiny of the southern negro.\nOne of the incentives that draw the operatives to the mills is the fact that\nchildren, generally from twelve years and upward, are allowed to work and\ngain a small amount that adds to the family income. In many instances\nchildren of tender age are received into the mills and allowed to do work far\nbeyond their strength. In some instances children have been allowed to\nwork at night, and the only sunshine they knew was that which came to them\nupon the sabbath.\nThe heartless greed and often the laziness of the parents are at fault in\nlarge measure. They beg the authorities to receive the children in the mills.\nThey claim that their necessities demand it; that the children had better be\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": null, "text": "246\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nin the mills than on the streets; that they are often unprotected at home.\nThe mill authorities generally prefer not to employ children, and would in\nmost instances gladly dispense with them ; but they allow it at the pressure of\nthe insistent parent. And so the unprotected child is caught between the\ncupidity of his parent and the apprehension of the mill-owners, and his life\nis ground into a joyless, hopeless, pitiable existence.\nIn all agitation for better child-labor laws the child is the last thing considered. Itis thought better to have more mills and to make larger dividends,\nthan to care for the workers. The lawmakers are beseiged by the millowners to let things alone. The delegates declare that the operatives prefer\nto decide some questions for themselves, and all the agitation for reform is\nlaid at the door of a few philanthropists who take upon themselves the impertinent office of meddling with other people's affairs. And so the wheels whir\nand turn, and by them stand the tired little workers, who drop into their beds\nat night to forget their troubles, and awake to other days of debasing monotony. The slaughter of the innocents goes on, the insatiable thirst of the capitalist isunslaked, the greed of the ignorant laborer is unrebuked, and there\ncreeps about the reeking, withering mill the child with the pale and oldlooking face and stooping shoulders that tell of long and hot hours of work,\nof little food and that badly cooked, of insufficient sleep and that in an unventilated room.\nAnd so after many years there comes about a startling condition of ignorance among mill operatives, of general listlessness to other things in life, and\nan indifference to any of the comforts or joys of living. The children know\nonly work and sleep. They have never learned to live. I know of no population apparently so joyless and helpless as that surrounding the ordinary\nmill. Nearly all the children are allowed to chew tobacco, to smoke cigarettes, and know how to swear. Not long ago. I accosted a group of boys\nnear a mill and challenged them for tobacco. They responded, every one.\nand one confessed he had been chewing since he was six years old.\nAside from the moral danger arising from this condition, there is an\nindustrial one. Children put to work at tender years, at a monotonous and\nunvaiying machine, develop a fatigue for work and a distaste for it that beget\nidleness in later life. Work with them is something to escape from, since it\nhas no joy with it. They have worked out and wasted their energies before\nthey were mature and before there was any power of renewal.\nThe enlightened sentiment of the world has come to recognize the proposition that the most productive and profitable labor is that which is happy\nand content, well cared for, with comfortable conditions for work, and wholesome occupation for the leisure hours. It is expensive to neglect or depress\nor subdue the working force. It begets carelessness, inability, stupidity,\nand revolution. We have come to know that the happiness of labor is the\ntrust of capital, and that under no other conditions can a people prosper, or\nthe best product be obtained from their efforts.\nThere is a duty that is\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFACTORY\n\nCHILD\n\n247\n\nowing to the homes, the children, the comforts, the amusements, and the\neducation of the mill operatives resting upon the mill-owners, and upon\nthose who have to do with the training of mill children.\nThose of us who have worked with this problem know that many parents\nenter the mills at daylight, leaving the children to rise, eat their breakfast, and\nmake off to school or to play in the streets. The very young ones are the\nfirst problem, and that is solved by the kindergarten. If the kindergarten\nhas any righteous work anywhere, and has a mission on earth, and a message to the Kttle ones, surely the best place for its deliverance is in the crowded\ndistricts surrounding a mill. There they are, the tots from four to six years\nof age, in everybody's way— a problem to the home, a menace on the streets,\nwaiting to be washed and cleaned and cared for. If it be true that our lives\nare set or bent for good or evil by the time we are seven years of age, the\nrescue of children under school age in mill settlements presses for consideration.\nThe education of the school is only one phase of the training we get for\nlife, and in school there should be emphasized those things which the business and home neglect. In the study of mill homes and children we observe\nthat they are oppressed with much machinery. They know httle else than\nthe whir of wheels, the noise of loom and spindles, and they are beaten down\nby the click of the shuttle, as it weaves back and forth into the gray warp of\ntheir lives a fiUing of unutterable dullness. They want relief from tools\nand to get away from the sound of wheels. They want schools to give them\nthat which hfe otherwise would not know. The emphasis of their education\nshould be placed upon the spiritual rather than upon the industrial side\nof hfe.\nThey need the rounding influence of a training in habits of neatness and\norder, of love of books, flowers, and decorations, and of resources for the\noccupation- of their leisure hours. They need to be inspired with hope and\ndesire. They need to learn how to play, how to smile, how to love, how to be\ncheerful, and content.\nI have seen them enter school at the beginning of the year, with sullen,\ndowncast, fearful faces, feeling that all the world was against them and school\nwas a place of distrust. Their minds were bound, hard, sterile. At the end\nof a few months they learned that we meant no harm, and began to take notice\nand respond. They had awakened to better things. At last we have seen\nthem enterprising noble things for others, preparing decorations for their\nhomes ; and all with the ffank, smiling, upturned face of the free.\nUnquestionably, domestic science is one of the studies most needed in all\nschools. The training in how to keep a house is of the most vital importance\nto girls; and the training in how to support one and to stay in it with pleasiu-e\nis equally important for boys. The simple science of how to keep a house\nclean, how to decorate its walls, how to make it cheerful, how to cook and\nserve food, how to make up a bed, how indeed to live at home instead of\nPublic schools, with\nstaying in a house, is vital to the welfare of all people.\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": null, "text": "248\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ntheir limitations, can reach this problem only indirectly, but the home training school is as necessary an adjunct to the mill school as is the kindergarten.\nThe success of the experiments in Columbus, Ga., in conducting a school\nfor home-keeping and domestic science shows the value of teaching children\nthat which they have no other opportunity to learn.\nAlong with such instruction will come better and neater dressing for\nboys and girls, more ribbon, more flowers, cleaner bodies and souls, and a\ngreater self-respect which is at the basis of all culture and of all morals.\nWhen we can get the men and women to love their homes, take a pride in\nthem, respect themselves and their surroundings, we have gone a long way\ntoward redeeming them.\nThere must necessarily drift into the mill comniunities many persons\nwhose early advantages were limited, and who have grown to man's estate\nwithout education. They must work all day, and for such a night school\nshould be provided. Into the night school should be admitted only those of\nmature years, who could not find admittance into the day schools. These\nnight schools should deal with the most necessary and elementary education,\nand should teach the illiterate how to read and write and calculate the simple\nproblems of everyday life. We have kept the record for many years of the\nresults of night-school work among mill operatives, and while we register\nsome failures, the large majority of cases have been able to earn higher wages\nand live in more comfortable and respectable surroundings.\nIn conjunction with the night school we have experimented largely with\nthe free lecture course. These lectures will be on all sort of subjects, designed\nto entertain and instruct — lectures on travel, simple science lectures, humorous lectures, anything indeed that will lift their souls out of the gloom of perpetual and uninteresting labor. Likewise a library has. been established in\nconnection with the school, with books to be carried home by the children\nand read to their parents ; also a reading-room, open certain nights, with papers,\nmagazines, and games, as a place to spend those dangerous hours that we\ncall the leisure hours.\nSo, if we can realize, as they have at the National Cash Register Co. at\nDayton, Ohio, that the comfort and happiness of the laborers add to the\nvalue of the mill's output, that a contented employee is one of the sources of a\ndividend, and that the way to raise a prosperous mill population is to begin\nwith the children, we shall be face to face with the problem and its answer.\nAnd the child will become grown — knowing how to have a decent home,\nclean and well ordered; how to have an abundance of wholesome, simple\nfood, well cooked and neatly served; how to care for bodily wants and spiritual nature; how to love plants and flowers and music; how to dress neatly\nand becomingly; and, above all, how to exercise that restraint and self-respect\nwhich is fundamental in all true spiritual establishment.\nThen the mills will not grind at the expense of the children, and lives\nwill not be sacrificed to increase profits, but a healthy, upright, contented\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence] ETHICAL\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n249\n\npopulation, with readiness for labor and resources for leisure, will add their\nvoices to the music of the mills and swell the mighty diapason of a prosperous\npeace.\nTHE\nWALTER\n\nETHICAL\n\nB. HILL, CHANCELLOR\n\nELEMENT\nOF THE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF GEORGIA,\n\nATHENS,\n\nGA.\n\n• The text for this paper is to be found in the following statement:\nTHIS\n\nIS A\n\nCHRISTIAN\n\nNATION\n\nIf we pass to a view of American life, as expressed by its laws, its business, its customs, and its society, we find everywhere a clear recognition of the truth that this is a\nreligious people. Among other matters, note the following: the form of oath universally\nprevaiHng, concluding with an appeal to the Almighty; the custom of opening sessions of all\ndeliberative bodies and most conventions with prayer; the prefatory words of all wills,\n\"In the name of God, Amen;\" the laws respecting the observance of the sabbath, with\nthe general cessation of secular business, and the closing of courts, legislatures, and other\nsimilar pubhc assembhes on that day; the churches and church organizations which\nabound in every city, town, and hamlet; the multitude of charitable organizations existing everywhere under Christian auspices; the gigantic missionary associations, with\ngeneral support, and aiming to estabUsh Christian missions in every part of the globe.\nThese, and many other matters which might be noticed, add a volume of unofl5cial\ndeclaration to the mass of organic utterances that this is a Christian nation.\n\nThese words, which sound like the language of some bishop or doctor\nof divinity, are taken from a decision of the Supreme Court of the United\nStates.' The \"organic utterances\" to which the paragraph refers are set\nforth in the same opinion with great fullness, being taken from the language\nof the early charters of the colonies and the constitutions of the states. The\nSupreme Court adopts as its own the decision of the state courts that Christianity isa part of the common law of the land. The case arose on the\nconstruction of an act of Congress, and the principle of interpretation adopted\nis that ''no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legislation, state or national, because this is a religious people.\"\nThe Supreme Court of the United States— the living voice of the Constitution—has thus declared that the nation is in a legal aspect a Christian\nnation. If so, its public functions necessarily partake of the same character.\nPublic education is one of these governmental functions. ' The administration of justice is another public function. In a Christian nation such\nadministration is Christian. Let us first examine this contention • carefully\nwith reference to the administration of justice. An analysis will help us to\ndeal with the main point, as it affects pubUc education in the United States.\n\nI\n1\n\nTHE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF JUSTICE\n\nIS CHRISTIAN\n\nWhat is meant by the statement that in this country the administration\nof justice is Christian ? We have already seen that the Supreme Court has\nI 143 U. S. 457-\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": null, "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nadopted and approved the doctrine that Christianity is part of the common law.\nThis does not mean that Christianity and the law are coextensive ; on the contrary, we know that there are many police and sanitary regulations — such\nas municipal ordinances against expectoration in public places, or building\nwooden tenements within fire limits — that are devoid of moral quality. On\nthe other hand, we know that there are heinous moral offenses — such as\ningratitude, avarice, impurity of thought — over which the law assumes no\njurisdiction. If we use a diagram to represent the state of the case, we\nmight draw a circle within an ellipse. The space within the circle — and\nthus within the ellipse — would represent the large domain in which law and\nmorality. Christian morality, are coextensive; while the respective ends of\nthe ellipse outside of the circle would represent the domain already mentioned\nin which they are not coextensive. This circle, or common ground, it is\nwhich supports the announcement of the court that Christianity is a part of\nthe law of the land; and with the progress of society this circle is expanding,\nfor the growth of the law is always in the direction of ethical enlargement.\nThe lawyer who stands before the jury of American citizens invokes in his\nappeals to their consciences the maxims of Christian justice, so far as they\nare distinct from or an advance upon the maxims of pagan justice. The\njudges, in finding a ratio decidendi in the numerous cases not directly controlled byjudicial precedent, look for it in the principles of Christian ethics,\nas distinct from Confucian, Buddhist, Mohammedan, or naturalistic ethics.\nDoes this violate any right of conscience ? Has the Chinaman just cause of\ncomplaint if in a controversy in the courts of this land the judges refuse to\nenforce the maxims of Confucius? Can the Mohammedan complain that\nthe Koran is not recognized in the case to which he is a party, as the source\nof ethical rules that define justice ? For such grievances the American has\nbut one answer. If you want Confucian or Moslem justice, you must go\nto China or to Turkey to obtain it. Historically and legally, this is a Christian nation. Its character, its genius, is Christian; and its administration of\njustice necessarily partakes of that character.\nThe analogy may be carried farther. I ask your patient consideration\nof these prolegomena; for we are now upon solid, undisputed, ground, and\nthe object is to prepare the way for the less accepted application of the same\nprinciples to public education. We raise again the question: How far is the\nadministration of justice in this country Christian ? In a democratic country\nthe law comes from the people. This is not legal fiction; it is fact. Legislation isby the representatives of the people, but legislation plays a very\nsmall part in the administration of justice, as compared with the evolution\nof the law thru the courts. How does this evolution go on ? Whence does\nit start ? It starts with the people. Some citizen thinks that he has a legal\nright in his dispute with his neighbor, or that a wrong has been done him\nfor which he wants redress. Observe that here is the beginning-point: the\nnotion of some private individual about a right or a wrong.\nIf he has no\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nETHICAL\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n2^1\n\nsuch notion, if he is too ignorant to conceive it, or too doubtful or indifferent\nor timorous to act upon it, there will never be a case or a trial, or a decision.\nBut if he believes in his own sense of justice, he will take his crude conceptions to a legal adviser, and in the lawyer's office the legal right will be canvassed and investigated, as well as it can be done in an ex parte examination.\nIf the counsel advises the assertion of the right, the controversy becomes\na case, and then in open court, with both sides as parties in the presence\nof a disinterested tribunal, the whole case is investigated and finally issues\nin a decision which is the rule, not only for the parties in that case, but\nfor all parties who may ever have a like case.\nThe process may be illustrated by gold-mining, where the crude ore\nmixed with earth is brought to the stamping-mills, and the final outcome\nis the dollar of the mint, the current coin of the realm. Now, the crude\nore in the process is made up of the crude ethical notions of the people as to\ntheir rights and wrongs. Unless such notions are set into self-activity, no\nlawyer's advice is sought, no judge's ruling pronounced. In this sense, then,\nthe law originates with the people, and in a democratic community the law\nrepresents at any given time the social standard of justice prevailing at that\ntime. Now, the religion of the people is the principle source of popular\nnotions as to right and wrong. By forming and influencing these popular\nconceptions, the churches of the land, its corporate religious organizations,\nplay an enormous part in the evolution of social justice. And just to the\nextent that any community is a Christian community the administration of\njustice will be Christian. It is no more certain that a river will be made\nup of water from springs that supply its tributaries than it is certain that\nthe stream of justice will emanate from, and will represent, the ethical sense\nof right and wrong prevailing among the people who constitute the state.\nPUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLIKEWISE\n\nCHRISTIAN\n\nAll this, I now submit, applies to that other public function with which\nwe are specially concerned — education. Christianity is certainly no less a\npart of the education than it is of the law of the land. Its materials are\nsuffused with Christian conceptions. Geography cannot be taught in a\nnation where Christianity is the prevailing religion without bringing out the\nsubstantial identity between this system and the higher civilization — the\nmost potent argument of apologetics. History is, as Froude has well said,\n\"the voice of God sounding across the centuries the laws of right and wrong,\"\nand it cannot be taught in Christendom without a Christian interpretation.\nThe weekly recurring holidays of Sunday, and the annual hoHdays of Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter, make a recurring religious impression. The\nsituation is illustrated by the story of a father who, in a spirit not hostile to\nreligion, but desiring to institute an experiment, determined that he would\nkeep away all Christian prepossessions from his boy's mind — preserving his\nmind in youth as tabula rasa, so that when he arrived at the age of reason\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": null, "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nhe could address himself without bias to the consideration of the subject.\nThe father found that he would have to keep the boy shut in at home, for\nthe lad could not walk abroad without seeing the spires of splendid buildings\ncalled churches, whose character and meaning he would wish explained.\nThe newspaper must be excluded, or else the very year of publication, anno\ndomini, would disclose the fact that a significant event in history had come\nto be an era from which men counted the calendar of time. In other words,\nthe father soon realized that the subject of the experiment must be blind,\ndeaf, and dumb — a price he was unwilling to pay for so doubtful an advantage as was sought. To state the situation in other words, the enveloping\natmosphere of education in a Christian state and nation is Christian. But\nthe chief influence of this character is yet to be noticed. It is in discipline.\nIf it were possible to separate education into the two divisions of knowledge\ntaught and conduct inculcated ; if we were denied the privilege of blending the\ntraining of intelhgence and the training of character; if we were puti;o the\nnecessity of surrendering one or the other, I suppose no one would hesitate\nfor a moment to say: *'We will sacrifice the knowledge of the schools and\nkeep their discipline.\" Illiteracy, fearful as it would be, is preferable to\nanarchy. Now, the discipHne of education in a Christian land is Christian.\nDiscipline requires, in the first place, personal abstinence from evil practices;\nand, in the second place, it regulates the conduct of individual pupils in relation to their fellow-pupils by the principles of Christian ethics; not ideally, of\ncourse, but with such practical approximation as is possible under existing\nconditions. To be effective, discipline must not be coercive, but must win\nthe affection and the will. If the child never heard in school one word\ncolored by moral sentiment, he could not possibly pass through its discipline\nwithout training in individual and altruistic morality; and the morahty is\nthat of the Christian type as distinguished from other types.\nThe general view here presented finds the support of actual testimony\nin the replies of nineteen college presidents made to a questionnaire sent out\nby the Outlook. These replies justify the conclusion that pubHc-school\nstudents who go to college exhibit as high a type of character as those who\ncome from private or church schools.'\nWhen, therefore, we hear the cry for \"Christian education,\" our answer\nmust be that given to the crew of the vessel which signaled to a passing ship\nthat they were in want of water. Without knowing it, the distressed crewhad drifted into the waters at the. mouth of the Amazon, and the only help\nthey needed was given in the words signified in the reply: \"Let down your\nbuckets.\"\nRELATION\n\nOF\n\nCHURCH\n\nAND\n\nSTATE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBut usually the cry for Christian education means sectarian education;\nthat is, Christian education plus an element of distinctively sectarian instruction, which the state is forbidden by public policy and by written constitutions\nI Outlook, Vol. LXXVI, No. 2.\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nETHICAL\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\nto supply. The precise situation is this: The two most important organizations ofcivil society are the church and the state. Each is bound by the\nlaw of its life to educate. A democratic state must educate, because intelligence is necessary to its existence, and thus education is a self-protective\nnecessity to the state. The church must educate or perish, for any church\nthat does not believe itself to be the depository of religious truth so essential\nand so vital as to justify that church's separate organization, and so essential\nand so vital as to prompt missionary zeal for its propagation, is dead or dying.\nUnless the state and the church undergo radical transformation beyond any\npresent power of prediction, both must continue to educate; and those who\nexpect either church or state to abdicate this function are victims of vain\nexpectation. No true patriot would be willing to cancel either of these two\ngreat forms of education from our public life. We in America are prepared to\nunderstand the correlation and harmony of these dual systems by our dual\nsystem of federal and state government, each discharging its separate functions, and yet both working in co-ordination. When we were using the\nadministration of justice as an illustration, it was stated that.law in a democratic state represented the social standard of justice and really emanated\nfrom the people. It is an ethical barometer which registers the public concept of justice. To change the figure, law at any given time is a composite\nphotograph of the mental images of justice in the bosoms of its citizens. So\nprecisely education will always represent in a democratic state the social\nstandard of intelligence. The people mirror themselves in their schools.\nThe churches, by reason of their high ethical and spiritual mission, powerfully affect the standard of public opinion and conduct. They are the saving\nsalt of society, and if their members are concerned for Christian education,\nthey have the satisfaction of knowing that, while they are keeping church\neducation sectarian, as it necessarily must be, they are powerfully aiding to\nkeep state education Christian. So long as the fires of pure reUgion burn on\nthe altars of the church, so long will its glow be transfused in the teaching\nand training of all the schools. It would seem that Christian people ought\nto rejoice in their opportunity to influence pubHc education in the ways\nwhich have been pointed out. Especially should this be true of Protestant\nchurches, which, by general acceptance of the public schools, have practically\nabdicated the function of church education during the plastic period of childhood and early youth.\nTHE\n\nAGNOSTIC\n\nATTITUDE\n\nWe have now reached the great paradox of our subject. In this Christian\nnation religion cannot be taught in the pubUc schools. One court (Wisconsin) has decided that the Bible cannot be used in them, even by reading\nwithout comment; another court (Nebraska) has decided that it cannot be\nused as a part of religious exercises. If an intelligent visitor from another\nsphere, to whom we sometimes appeal for an a priori judgment, should be\nconfronted with this problem, he would say at once:\n\n''Certainly, I under-\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": null, "text": "2 54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nstand this. It is because among your citizens there are some who are agnostics and some who may be opposd to religion, and they interpose their objections against these practices.\" But this natural inference would not be\ncorrect. Mr. Huxley, the great protagonist of agnosticism, in a well-known\npassage has advocated the use of the Bible in the public schools:\nI have always been strongly in favor of secular education, in the sense of education\nwithout theology, but I must confess I. have been no less seriously perplexed to know by\nwhat practical measures the religious feeling, which is the essential basis of conduct,\nwas to be kept up, in the present utterly chaotic state of opinion on these matters, without\nthe use of the Bible.\n\nI wish that space permitted the introduction of the entire paragraph. It is\nimportant to notice that Mr. Huxley advocates the use of the Bible in the\nschools, not as literature, but, as he says in the opening sentence, as a practical measure to keep alive religious feeling. Renan is quoted as having\nexpressed a substantially similar view.\nNo living writer has shown more genuine concern for Christian education\nthan Mrs. Humphrey Ward. She has uttered an almost impassioned plea\nin its behalf. * In the April number, 1903, of the International Journal of\nEthics,\"^ Ellen Darwin has a striking article entitled \"The Religious Training of Children by Agnostics. \" She earnestly deprecates the danger that an\nagnostic parent may cause his children to \"suffer, as it were, a spiritual blight\nby cutting them off from the spiritual life and traditions of mankind. \" She\ncounsels such parents to say to their children:\n.The world is shut to you, if you do not understand and feel the behefs of mankind.\n... Unless you have an insight into the higher spiritual life of man, repellant and\ndistorted on the surface, the best part of life is closed to you.\nTHE\n\nBARRIER\n\nOF\n\nSECTARIANISM\n\nThe planetary visitor would open wide his eyes at these amazing utterances, and ask whence then came the objections to education in the \"best\npart of life. \" He would open his eyes wider at the reply that it is sectarian\nChristianity that stands in the way; and this reply receives an astonishing\nemphasis in the fact that, so far as the record discloses the motives of the\ncomplaining parties, every law case in which a rule of exclusion or limitation\non the use of the Bible has been invoked has been brought, not by an agnostic\nor infidel, objecting to religious instruction, but by a sectarian, objecting\nthat the instruction was not in accord with the tenets of his sect. This is\nthe situation which will some day bring the blush of shame to the most bigoted\nof sectarians. It looks back to the past, to the period of the Middle Ages,\ndescribed by Judge Bleckley, \"when every good man thought it his duty\nto burn some man who was better than himself. \" In those days each orthodoxy said to every \"other-doxy\":\nQuisquis qui credit aliter\nHunc damnamus aeternahter.\n\n^Happily the old order changeth.\nI Vol. XITI, p. 269.\n\nAs far back as 1873 the Protestant\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendencej\n\nETHICAL\n\nELEMENT\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n255\n\ndenominations united in an Evangelical Alliance, and no representative of\nany one of them felt disloyalty to its special traditions because he spoke under\na motto (printed across the stage) which announced: ''unity in things essential;\nliberty in things doubtful; charity in all things.\" The most significant sign\nof the times in the direction of Christian tolerance and unity is in the growth\nof the Young Men's Christian Association. The inevitable tendency of such\na movement will be to discover and to emphasize the vital and essential\nin religion. There are some college communities in which, I am informed,\nthe Roman Catholic young men have united with the Protestants, and Hebrew\nstudents have enrolled themselves as associate members. One of the most\nimportant Association buildings in the southern states was presented to the\nyoung men of the city by a Jew.\nCOMPROMISE\n\nON\n\nA\n\nMINIMUM?\n\nThe question may be raised: Is it now possible to find some common\nground of belief which may be the basis of religious teaching ? The supreme\ncourt of Wisconsin, which has rendered the most radical of all the decisions\nagainst the use of the Bible in the public schools,, indicates that this might\nbe legally done. The court defined sectarian instruction as \"instruction in\ndoctrines beheved in by some sects and rejected by others,\" and as an\ninstance of a doctrine not sectarian refers to that of \"the existence of a\nSupreme Being of infinite wisdom, power, and goodness, and that it is the\nhighest duty of all men to adore, and obey, and love him.\"\nNow it may be asked: Why not find the irreducible minimum of belief\nand use it as the basis of common agreement for religious instruction ? Might\nnot the parties agree on what Dr. Martineau has called the three fundamental\npostulates of religion, which he has thus expressed:\nThe universe which includes and enfolds us round is the Ufe-dwelling of an eternal\nmind; this world of ours is the scene of a moral government incipient, but not yet complete;\nand the upper zones of human affection, above the clouds of self and passion, take us into\nthe sphere of a divine communion.\n\nThere is certainly no religion extant which would dispute these elementary\npropositions, but the scheme of finding by ehmination the residuum of behef\nand proceeding with religious instruction to that extent is liable to the fatal\nobjection that, according to the belief of some of the churches, this residuum is\nnot religious truth at all, except as interpenetrated with the peculiar tenets\nwhich are excluded by the compromise. The English Education Act of 1870\nseems to have been framed by Mr. Foster on the conception that, if all the\ndifferences of English Christendom were stricken out, there would be found\nthe beating heart of a common Christianity; but the difficulty of the view as a\nworking scheme was perceived by the astute mind of Dr. Martineau long\nbefore the agitation emerged in the comphcated legislation of 1903. It will\nbe interesting to reproduce his criticism. In 1893, in a letter to the Times,\nhe wrote : '\nI Lije and Letters of James Martineau, Vol. II, p. 182.\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": null, "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nIt is often supposed, especially by latitudinarian thinkers, that religious unity may\nbe reached by lopping off and disregarding the differentiating elements of sects and churches,\ntreating them as a separate appendix to the mass of common elements which they superfluously vary and deform. Under the influence of this idea reformers intent on heaUng\ndivisions and promoting union have invariably made hght of the distinctive features of\neach religious party and tried to negotiate for their relinquishment\nBut this\nfascinating theory of \"a common Christianity\" on which the essentials are to settle, after\nleave of absence has been given to all else, will not work. It is doubtless true that there\nmay be spiritual sympathy underlying great doctrinal differences; but the central concordance thus reached is affectional, not logical, and will baffle all attempts to hft it into\nexpression. And, on the other hand, every creed-maker or creed-mender, every theological innovator, is apt to become the enamored victim of his own little discovery till it\nblinds him to a universe beyond, as a sixpence may hide the sun. He at once enters his\nfavorite doctrine among the \"essentials,\" or in such relation to them that it is against his\nconscience to suppress it.\n\nHowever, Dr. Martineau himself, in 1894, in a letter to the Time.s,'^ propounded what seems to be the best solution of an insoluble problem. His\nsuggestions will well repay perusal. How the present situation as to sectarianism affects the school life among us is dealt with in Mr. Marden's\ncapital story Emmie Lou, Her Heart and Her Book. The chapter to which\nI refer is entitled \"The Winds of Doctrine.\" The fearful charge of heresy\nbecomes current among the children of the school. I make no apology for\nthe citation, for the book is equal to a course in child study. The chapter,\nhowever, suggests the question : If such things as are there described happen\nwith religion kept out of school, what would happen with religion in it ?\nRELIGION\n\nNOT\n\nTEACHABLE.\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nHow shall we appraise the gain and loss of these conditions ? In so far\nas it makes impossible the teaching of formal religion in the schools, I count\nit wholly good. It would be a sad day for religion when it was cut and quartered into the paragraphs of a text-book, and placed alongside of arithmetic\nand geography in courses of study. The natural heart of piety cries out\nwith Sidney Lanier:\nGrim creed, with categoric point forbear\nTo feature me my Lord with rule and line.\n\nThere is no better proof of the vitality of Christianity than the fact that\nit has survived the catechism. The truth that is in religion is like the truth\nin poetry and art: unless it affects the imagination, it is moribund. The\nadult can verify this by comparing a noble hymn with a paragraph of a\ntreatise on theology. He will find himself singing the hymn, but repelled\nby the statements of the dry-as-dust book. The primary sentiment in religion\nis reverence; nothing can be more fatal to reverence than to place religion\non a parity with the other studies in a curriculum.\n^Ibid., p. 185.\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nETHICAL\n\nELEMENT\n\nTHE\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nIN\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\n257\n\nBIBLE\n\nBut, in so far as sectarianism stands in the way of a distinctly religious\nexercise of worship in the state schools, it unquestionably leads to a serious loss.\nIn a great majority of schools thruout the United States such an exercise is\nheld without challenge; but it is mournful to reflect that sectarianism may,\nunder the provisions of many state constitutions, lay its forbidding hand\nupon these beautiful and wholesome practices. The precise point ruled in\nthe last case on this subject ' was that, while the Bible could not be excluded\nfrom the public schools — while it can be read as literature or taught as ethics\n— yet it cannot be used as a part of the devotional exercises against the protest of an objector.\nWhat then ? Should those who believe in religious education take advantage of the poor boon thus offered and introduce as literature the Bible rejected\nas religion? My individual answer would be in the negative. I have\nseen the Bible used as a text-book in church schools, assigned as recitation\nwork for Monday morning, in order to encourage its reverential study on the\nsabbath. In spite of these favoring conditions, the result was quite the\nreverse of edifying. The Bible, as the book is universally called, was irreverently described as ''Bible,\" in the same slang that reduces mathematics\nto \"math\" and political economy to \"polit.\" The higher criticism seems\nto have caused confusion on this subject. Its proposal to study the Bible\nas literature is a wholly distinct proposition from that of placing the Bible\non the footing of other documents in the study of literature. There are\nschool readers in which chapters of Scripture are placed along with literary\nexercises. Is the gain of the little knowledge thus acquired offset by the\ndiscount of reverence? They reckon without their host who hope by such\ndevices to retain the hold of the Bible upon the affections of mankind, and its\ninfluence upon thought and speech. Dr. W. T. Harris attributes the maximum power of suggestiveness in the symbolic language of the psalms, prophets, and gospels to the fact that the Bible has been kept apart from other\nliterature, and held in such exceptional reverence as to be taken out of the\nnatural order of experience. In a strong article on this subject in the Atlantic\nMonthly, September, 1903, Mr. Herbert W. Horwill shows that\nThe old-fashioned saturation of style with scriptural terms and theology was not produced\nby any conscious selection of the Bible as a Hterary model, but was an indirect result of\nthe emphasis upon its theological importance;\n\nand he quotes the Nation as pointing out Ruskin as an example that the\nEnglish of King James's version became second nature to our forefathers\nby means of repeated reading and compulsory memorizing under the father's eye and at\nthe mother's knee; and the imaginative association and the indelible memory of epithet\nand description were borne away frequently by children who read it in trembHng and\nholy reverence.\n\nIn Morley's Lije 0} Gladstone there is given an autobiographical note, in which\n^ State vs. Scheve, 97 N. W. Rep. 169.\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": null, "text": "258\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nMr. Gladstone refers to various passages of Scripture which in times of stress\ncame to him as directly as if borne on angel's wings.' For instance, after\nthe decision in the Gorham case, which seemed to him to be a great blow to\nthe Church of England, he refers to the following passage:\nAnd though all this be come upon us, yet do we not forget Thee; nor behave ourselves frowardly in Thy covenant. Our heart is not turned back, neither our step gone\nout of Thy way. No, not when Thou has smitten us into the place of dragons and covered us with the shadow of death.\n\nIn the dry ah: of the schoolroom \"the place of dragons\" would have disappeared as mythology. It is not conceivable that the strong hold of such a\npassage could have been taken on the mind of the great Englishman except\nthru the operation of the religious sense, and in connection with the spirit\nof worship.\nMORALITY\n\nMAY\n\nBE\n\nTAUGHT\n\nWhile there are restrictions on religious teachings and exercises in the\nschools, all the authorities agree that morality may be taught, and it is no\nvalid objection to an ethical text-book that it is founded on the Bible. The\nWisconsin case, which goes farther than any other decision in the extent of\nits definition of what is sectarian, expressly holds that ethics is not sectarian.\nThomas Jefferson made provision for such teaching in the original plan of\nthe University of Virginia. But while there is no legal or constitutional\nbarrier to the teaching of morality, and while there are some manuals on the\nsubject that are recognized as fairly good and are in use in some states, yet\nthere is probably no point on which professional opinion is more unanimous\nthan that little is to be expected from direct ethical instruction. President\nFaunce has said:\nTo force little children into moral philosophy, into analyses of their own mental\nstates and deeds, is to produce insufferable prigs.\n\nWhether the general opinion could be changed by the production of an ideal\ntext-book for schools cannot be determined in advance of its appearance.\nTeachers have sometimes found that a subject hitherto regarded as unteachable is made teachable by a book of great excellence. At present the consensus\nis that the best results of moral education are secured by indirect teaching,\nand there is much encouragement in considering the extent and variety of\nthe indirect methods that may be employed. In glancing over the index to\nthe Proceedings of this Association, I find that specialists in almost every\ndepartment have contended that morals can be best taught indirectly thru\ntheir special subjects. Thus I find two references to sustain the proposition\nthat morals should be taught thru art; seven to the point that the subject\nshould be taught thru biography and history; three, thru the kindergarten;\nfive, thru literature; ten, thru music; three, thru the natural sciences and\nnature study; two, thru physical training; and one, thru sociology.\nI Morley's Life of Gladstone, vol. I, p. 201.\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nINHERENTLY\n\nETHICAL\n\nIn conclusion, the ethical element of education is intrinsic; it develops\npower, and while some of it goes to the bad, the most of it goes to the good.\nThe tendency at least is always upward*. To one who points out the failures\nof Christianity there is the one sufficient reply that Christianity has never\nbeen tried. So to the critics of educational failures it may truly be said that\neducation has never been tested. It is amazing that some people talk of the\nexperiment of negro education as having failed, as if forsooth the little done\nin that direction was an adequate trial of the experiment. Macaulay said:\n'^The only cure for the evils of Hberty is more liberty;\" and the same is true\nof education. President Washington of Tuskegee is able to say that no\ngraduate of his institution has added to the heavy percentage of negro criminality. The ethical element is inherent in education, for humility and reverence are its products. The human mind, as it faces the universe, asks three\nquestions? \"What?\" *'How?\" and ''Why?\" Science answers the first\nand the second; it does not even attempt to answer the last. The more it\nshows of the what by analysis, the more it finds of evolution as the method;\nor the how, the more mysterious becomes the why. Science modestly, and\none might say reverently, 'passes over that question to metaphysics — and\nmetaphysics surrenders it to religion.\nThe ethical element in education is permanent because of the nature of\nthe teacher's work. That work is a self-bestowal. No teacher does his\nwork without feeling that ''virtue has gone out of him\" — it has gone at the\ncost of his vitality into the souls of his pupils. No teacher would ever say of\nhis calling: \"Great is Diana of the Ephesians, for by this craft we have our\nliving.\" There are some professions and some businesses in which a man\nworks for the money there is in the job, and keeps the job. A teacher who\nworked just for the money in his job could not possibly keep it, even if he so\ndesired; he would be a manifest failure and fraud. There is this inherent\nnobility in a teacher's work that, while it is performed in part for himself, it is performed chiefly for others. ^ It is not too much to say that the\nfaithful teacher imitates in a humble, and yet not far-off, way that transcendent example of service and sacrifice that has forever fixed the wonder and\nthe love of men.\n\nADMINISTRATION\nI.\nWILLIAM\n\nAND\n\nTHE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nH. MAXWELL,\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nAS A MAN\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF AFFAIRS\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN. Y.\n\nThe primary objects of school administration are, first, to take the measures necessary to secure for every child his natural and constitutional right\nto an education that shall equalize for all, as far as education may, the oppor-\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": null, "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ntunities for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; second, to provide\nproperly qualified teachers for our children; and third, to create those\nconditions under which each teacher may do his best work. The chief\ninstrument in accomplishing these pbjects is, or ought to be, the school\nsuperintendent.\nFrequently we hear it said that the administrative rules which govern\nthe work of a superintendent in a large city do not apply, because of changed\nconditions, to a superintendent in a small city; and that the methods of work\nin a small city or village must necessarily be very different from those used\nin a large city. Such statements are only partially correct. True, the superintendent ina large city is compelled to devote his time chiefly to administration, and sees comparatively little of the work in the schools; the superintendent in a small city has much greater opportunities of coming in contact\nwith teachers and pupils. And yet, the difference is but a difference in\ndetail. The superintendent in a large city should be both a schoolman and\nan administrator; so should the superintendent in a small city. Each, if he\nis to be instrumental in carrying out ideals of school administration, should\nbe both a schoolman and a man of affairs. The only difference is that in\nthe small city or village the superintendent performs the work himself, by\nhis own personal exertions; in the large city the superintendent acts thru\nagents. The objects of public education are the same in a Rocky Mountain\nvillage as they are in The City of New York; in a hamlet of Mississippi as\nin the city of Chicago. And these objects are to bring the young of America,\nwhether home-born or foreign-born, into harmony with American civilization,\nto put them into possession of their intellectual inheritance, to inculcate\nhigh ideals of life and of conduct, to develop power and skill, and to cultivate those virtues of reverence, courage, and devotion to duty, without which\nthe citizen cannot succeed and the republic cannot endure. These are the\nchief objects for which public schools have been established. The superintendent and the whole administrative machinery exist only for the purpose\nof accomplishing these ends; and the three great services which the superintendent can render toward their accomplishment are, first, to aid in securing\neducation for all children; second, to provide properly qualified teachers;\nand third, to create those conditions under which each teacher may do his\nbest work.\nIn order to secure education for all children, to the end that all may have\nequal opportunities for life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, legislation\nis necessary to require all children to go to school, to prevent children from\nbeing set to work while they ought to be playing and learning, and to curb\nand punish the greed of parents and the greed of corporations, that would\ncoin money out of the flesh and blood of these little ones.\nIn order to secure properly qualified teachers, the first essential condition\nis to establish a high standard of scholarship and of professional training\nfor entrance to the teaching profession.\nWhen, in 1895, the law was enacted\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n261\n\nby the legislature of the state of New York that no one should be licensed\nor appointed as a teacher in the public schools of any city or village of the\nstate who had not as a minimum quahfication a high-school course of three\nyears and a professional course of one year, the most important step ever\nmade in this country to raise the standard for entrance to the teaching\nprofession was taken. Already in that state, thru the co-operation of the\ncity and village superintendents with the state superintendent, this minimum\nhas been raised to four years of high-school work and two years of professional training. But we are still far from ideal conditions. Our teachers\nhave not, even with these qualifications, that breadth of culture, that familiarity with our intellectual inheritances, that insight into human affairs, which\nare necessary to enable them to discharge in the most stimulating and economical manner their duties as teachers. The next step forward should be to\nrequire at least two years of purely college work above and beyond the ordinary high-school course. It may be said that many of our colleges and\nuniversities, thru their chairs and departments of education, are already providing such teachers. But, in the first place, it may be observed that there\nis no immediate prospect that the colleges and universities will be able to\nsupply anything like the number of teachers required. In the second place,\nexperience does not pronounce an unqualifiedly favorable judgment on the\nelementary-school work of the college graduate. When he enters on actual\nwork, he is a pure theorist. He knows little or nothing about practice. He\nis like the physician who should commence to practice medicine after listening to courses of lectures and reading a few text-books, without having attended\na clinic or tried his nerve and his skill in a hospital. What is needed is\nnot college men who have taken pedagogical courses as part of their work for\nthe A.B. degree, but college men and women who have laid broad and deep\ntheir foundations of culture, and then devoted all their energies for not less\nthan two years to learning, thru study, observation, and practice, how to teach.\nThe second condition for obtaining properly qualified teachers is some\n\n^^\n^B\n^B\n^K\n^K\n^B\n^B\n^B\n^m\n\nmethod of appointment and promotion under which the teacher's self-respect\nshall be maintained, and under which no influence — not social influence,\nnot religious, not political — except that of merit, shall prevail. How can\nwe expect to attract to the teaching profession ladies and gentlemen of culture\nand refinement, if, in order to obtain an opportunity for the exercise of their\ntalents, they are compelled to beg the favor of pohticians or humble themselves in the dust before a little brief authority ? How can we expect teachers\nto inculcate by precept and example the duties of reverence, courage, and\ndevotion to duty, if they are constrained to despise themselves for the methods\nby which they obtained their appointments? In some places, and with\ngreat success, an attempt has been made to root out this great evil by placing\nall power of appointment and promotion in the hands of the superintendent.\nIn the\nThe objection is that too much depends on the personal equation.\n\n\"\"\"■-\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": null, "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nof moderate size. If, however, this power falls into the hands of a politician, or even of a feeble man or a timorous, the last state of that city is\nworse than the first. My own view is that the best plan yet devised is that\nin use in Greater New York — appointment and promotion by competitive\nexamination. This plan, however, is open to the objections of being somewhat mechanical, and of being too often vulnerable, as the civil-service laws\nare vulnerable, when unscrupulous teachers take advantage of legal technicalities that are sustained by the courts. Upon the whole, however, it has\nworked well, and has generated an enormous enthusiasm for self-improvement among the New York teachers. It will doubtless continue until a\nbetter plan is devised.\nSuppose an adequate supply of properly qualified teachers, what conditions shall the superintendent seek to establish to the end that each teacher\nmay be enabled to do his best work ? They may be classified under four\nheads: (i) proper school accommodations; (2) adequate remuneration for\nteachers; (3) the assignment of each teacher to that work which he can do\nbest; (4) the development of a code of professional ethics that shall be binding\non all members of the teaching and supervising force. A few words upon\neach of these topics.\nI.\n\nPROPER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nACCOMMODATIONS\n\na) Schoolhouses should be sufficiently large and sufficiently numerous\nto provide accommodations for all of the children of the community, distributed inclasses of moderate size. Our aim should be to reduce the number\nof pupils to a teacher until a point is reached at which no teacher shall be\nrequired to teach more than thirty pupils at one time. Those who know the\nconditions in New York and Boston and Chicago may regard this as a counsel\nof perfection. It is, however, a perfectly feasible aim, and will be attained\nin a few years if the superintendents of the country unite in demanding it.\nh) Schoolhouses should be so distributed thruout the community as to\nafford convenient opportunity to all the children of the neighborhood to go\nto -school. The importunities of real estate speculators, and the opposition\nof rich and socially exclusive communities, are as much to be dreaded and as\nmuch to be opposed in the location of schoolhouses as is the interference of\npoliticians in the conduct of the schools. While the superintendent should\nhave no direct voice in purchasing a school site, his judgment should be potential in its selection. There is no extravagance or waste in school-building\ncomparable to that caused by the erection of buildings in unsuitable places.\nc) Schoolhouses should be not only properly heated, lighted, and ventilated, but properly furnished and equipped. Much progress has been\nmade in these respects. Good high schools are now better equipped with\nlaboratories than the colleges were twenty years ago. The old school benches\nhave given way to the separate seat and desk; which in the near future will,\nI trust, disappear in favor of furniture better adapted to the needs of modern\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n263\n\neducation. I venture to say that ten years from now we shall be surprised\nthat we ever allowed furniture to remain in our elementary schools, which is\nsimply an obstacle in the way of every school activity except reading and\nwriting. The school furniture of the future will subserve many different\npurposes — scientific experiment and observation, carpentry, drawing, modeling, and the other forms of manual training that have found their place as\nessentials in the elementary curriculum, alongside of work in the ordinary\nbranches. Here again, in every respect except the making of contracts, the\nsuperintendent's voice should make itself felt.\nII.\n\nADEQUATE\n\nREMUNERATION\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\nThe last report of the Commissioner of Education shows that the average\nsalary of men teachers in the United States is $49.05 a month and of women\nteachers $39.77 a month, while nearly one-half the teachers in the country\nchange their positions every year, owing to the widely prevalent plan of\nappointing teachers for but a single year. Are these the conditions under\nwhich a teacher can do his best work ? Can he always be cheerful and gentle\nwhen chill penury freezes the genial current of his soul and prevents his\nundertaking any sustained measures of self-improvement? I submit that\nit is one of the first duties of a superintendent to secure adequate remuneration for the teachers under his supervision. Under this term I include\na living wage increasing with years of experience, permanent tenure of\noffice after a probationary term and during efficiency, and a pension when\nold age or infirmities render the teacher no longer fit for active service. I am\nnot pleading for luxury or wealth for the teacher. Luxury and wealth have\nno place among his ambitions. The teacher's way of life should always be\nfrugal; but it should be the way of life of the cultured lady or gentleman. If\nhe is to fulfil his mission, he must travel, he must study, he must mingle in\nrefined society; and these things he cannot do on forty dollars a month.\nIII. ASSIGNMENT\n\nOF EACH\n\nTEACHER\n\nTO THAT\n\nWORK\n\nWHICH\n\nHE CAN\n\nDO BEST\n\nAs there is no source of economic weakness so great as setting men to\nwork for which they have no fitness, so there is no more fruitful cause of\nwaste in the schoolroom than setting teachers to work for which they have no\nadaptability; as, for instance, requiring a teacher whose taste runs to language\nand literature to teach mathematics; or a teacher who has no ear for music\nto teach singing. The assignment to duty should, therefore, always be made\nby an expert — an expert not merely in school- work, but in human nature.\nTo do this work, or to see that it is done right, is one of the chief duties of a\nsuperintendent.\nIV.\n\nI\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOJ>MENT\n\nOF A CODE OF ETHICS\nALL TEACHERS\n\nTHAT\n\nSHALL\n\nBE BINDING\n\nON\n\nSuch a code will transcend legal enactments and school-board ordinances.\nIt will be binding upon all teachers solely by reason of their own sense of\nhonor.\n\nSuch a code will forbid the teacher's appeal to any social, religious,\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": null, "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nor political influence to secure appointment or promotion. Such a code will\nenjoin never-ending preparation for life-work, gentleness toward all children\nas becomes the \" under-shepherds of the Lord's little ones,\" and that optimism\nwhich, thru the mist of opposition and the obscurity of apparent failure, discerns the uplifting of humanity thru the genius of universal education.\nSuch are the conditions under which a teacher may do his best work —\nproperly located and equipped schoolhouses, adequate remuneration, assignment to the work for which he is adapted by natural aptitude and by training,\nand a code of professional ethics that shall regulate all his professional conduct.\nWhat are the means by which a superintendent may bring about, or aid\nin bringing about, these conditions ? I answer, all means which an honorable\nman of affairs may employ. The time has gone by when a superintendent\nmay confine his efforts to the class-room, his office, and his study. He must\nwork with his board of education, if that is in any way possible; against it,\nshould that course unfortunately be necessary. Thru conferences, public\nand private, and by taking the leading members of the teaching force into\nhis confidence, he must secure the co-operation of his principals and teachers. By his own written and spoken word, by inciting others to write and\nspeak, and by encouraging local school exhibitions, he must strive to enlighten\npublic sentiment and secure its support for progress in the schools. And,\nlastly, he must unite with his brother-superintendents to secure necessary legislation for the protection of the schools from the baneful influences of politics;\nlegislation to insure a steady supply of funds, not dependent on the will of\nlocal authorities, and increasing automatically as population increases, so\nthat the best energies of the teachers may not be diverted nor progress\narrested by the whims and caprices of local politicians; and, lastly, legislation to protect all children in their God-given right to an education. In a\nword, the superintendent should be, not merely a schoolmaster, but a statesman who has a definite policy to carry out, and who knows how to take\nadvantage of time and opportunity to secure results. Defeat he may often\nsuffer, but he will never be cast down. If his cause is just and his motives\nare pure, and if he has the perseverance as well as the far-sightedness of\nthe true statesman, success will eventually crown his efforts.\n\nII.\n\nTHE\n\nMISS\n\nASSISTANT\n\nALICE\n\nE.\n\nTO THE SUPERINTENDENT— HIS FUNCTIONS\nAND METHODS OF WORK\nREYNOLDS,\nNEW\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF\nHAVEN,\nCONN.\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES,\n\nThe functions of an assistant to the superintendent must vary with the\nsize of the city. In order to speak intelligently, I wish to proceed from a\nconcrete basis, and must ask your attention to the work in cities having a\nschool population of not more than thirty thousand — cities which employ a\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n265\n\nsupervisor rather than a board of supervisors, and which delegate to him\nduties which are purely professional.\nThe superintendent sets forth policies, the assistant must execute them;\nthe superintendent edits courses of study, the assistant must carry them into\neffect; the superintendent employes teachers, the assistant must be ready to\ngive them aid and advice. His time is spent in the schoolrooms — observing,\nlistening, judging, encouraging, praising, suggesting, correcting. Using\ndata thus gained, he should be ready to consult with the superintendent at\nany time, and to report skillful teachers who deserve recognition and promotion; misplaced teachers who should be transferred to other grades or other\nsections of the city; incompetent teachers, with a statement of their specific\ndefects; crying evils which should be rectified as soon as discovered; questionable practices which need to be considered and modified ; special courses which\nmerit extention; sources of strength and weakness in the schools as a whole.\nAn assistant whose time is devoted to schoolroom visiting comes to have\na superior bird's-eye view of the whole situation. As year after year he\ngoes from one end of the city to the other, he forms the truest kind of\nestimate of the relative value of teachers, and can establish standards of\ncomparison not possible to the sectional worker. \"The best primary\nteacher in my district\" is often second-rate measured by highest ideals,\nand \"the finest principal in the eighth ward\" may be mediocre when compared with the progressive women who are developing in other sections.\nThe assistant, then, is the one person who has an opportunity to discover\nthat Miss F. out in the suburbs is the very woman whose missionary instincts\nfit her for work in the slums; that Miss S., located in the intermediate grades\nof an immense building, is full of the executive ability which fits her for a\nprincipalship ; that an unsuccessful high-grade teacher looks happy when\nshe steps into a kindergarten; that someone else who detests arithmetic and\nhistory is the joy of the special teachers in music and drawing. The funny\npage of the magazine dealing with our foibles treats teaching as a pastime:\n\"What is your daughter going to do when she finishes at college?\" \"Wall,\nI kinder reckon she'll teach school. She thinks she'd enjoy the vacations.\"\nIt becomes the business of all school officials to ascertain what is enjoyed\nover and above vacations; to create the professional spirit, if it does not exist;\nto cultivate it, if it does. The recognition of diverse abihty even in a given\noccupation is a first step toward securing the enthusiastic co-operation which\nworks wonders. The dawn of the school millennium will have come in any\ncity when every vacancy is filled by the most deserving person; when each\nman's burden, so far as possible, is fitted to his bent; and when those who\nhave no bent schoolwise are dismissed. An assistant to the superintendent\nshould act as an entering wedge which will open the way for reducing these\ntheories to practice.\nIn his relation to the superintendent, an assistant's duties may be broadly\noutlined under five heads.\nHe should be able —\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": null, "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAtlanta\n\n1. To sense the essentials of the superintendent's pohcy.\n2. To elaborate, adapt, and enforce them.\n3. To put the superintendent into intimate touch with the teaching corps, by furnishing facts which differentiate the especially strong and markedly weak teachers from\nthe average.\n4. To give information which will economize the superintendent's visiting time;\nStating where he may see nature study well handled, which schools are in the van as\nregards seat-work, which teachers are originating the best plans for elementary number\nlessons, which rooms emphasize the need of a school for defective children\n5. To receive at any time a temporary assignment of a definite block of the superintendent's responsibihty and authority.\n\nThe all-important attribute of the assistant in his relation to the superintendent isan absolutely candid frankness. The man who delivers an ambiguous opinion, or who hesitates to express a conviction, or who dislikes to be\nquoted when an issue is at stake, will prove a poor sailing mate in rough\nweather. The man who is truly an assistant is willing to state his evidence, to\ndraw his conclusions, to stand behind his gun, and to shoulder responsibihty.\nService rendered to the superintendent represents one-tenth rather than\nnine-tenth's of the assistant's working duties, and the end rather than the\nmeans. He should be the leader and director of the teaching force, exercising\nfirst of all an influence which dulls antagonisms between workers, which\nallays sectional jealousy, which places the common weal of the children and\nthe good name of the city above petty local excellence. I can remember a\ncity in which each district husbanded its good ideas under seal of greatest\nsecrecy, lest some other school might hear of its plans and try the same general\nscheme with equal or greater success. The assistant should stand openly and\navowedly as a clearing-house for good ideas. A first business of his should\nbe to collect worthy plans and devices, and to disseminate them broadcast.\nHe knows more about the educational outlook than most teachers, and should\nbring it into their range of vision. He knows what our leading psychologists\nhave each said about teaching reading; and they ought to know. He went\nto Boston last summer, and came to Atlanta this winter; and their rank and file\nwere absent from both places, and need to go by proxy. He read the November number of the Teachers College Record, and appreciated its exposition\nof the actual needs of a modern kindergarten; and they need have it read to\nthem — figuratively speaking. Similarly the west end of the city needs to\nawaken to the excellence of the east side. The fourth-grade teacher who\nkeeps to a dreary routine of long division needs to see what a wide-awake\nroom her sister is teaching a few blocks away The teacher who will\ndescribe the woodpecker as if it were a feather duster needs to visit a neighboring district, where an animal cage costing $2.50 houses endless friends in\nfeathers and fur; or she needs to take a bird walk with some school which is\ntaught birds so that \"their habitations in the treetops even are half-way\nhouses on the road to heaven;\" or she needs to hear some other teacher read\nThompson-Seton's ''Molly Cotton Tail\" as if it were true — even if it isn't.\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSVPERVISION\n\n267\n\nGrade meetings which discuss common problems, which voice common\ndifficuUies, which collect evidence from this one, specifics from that one,\nobjections from the other one, help to strengthen the bonds of mutual dependence and friendship. Such meetings should enlist the sympathy of teachers\nin various sections by bringing together contributions from all quarters.\nOne teacher may give a short clasS exercise in phonics; a second may read a\nbrief paper on the subject; a third may have prepared a list of phonograms;\nanswers to enquiries in a question box may involve others. As the result of\nsuch a conference the interest in phonics will be somewhat stimulated, and\nthe interest in each other vastly increased. Such quotations as these show\nwhich way the wind blows:\n1. \"I have arranged an index to the arithmetic which classifies the problems so that\nit is easy to find thirty which illustrate the same principle. Do you think it would help\nthe other teachers ? If it would, I'd like to hectograph enough copies for everyone.\"\n2. \"I used to dread to visit schools, because I thought teachers didn't want me;\nbut lately everyone shows me good things, and teaches any class I ask to see. I stayed\nuntil\n\nfive o'clock talking over work the afternoon I visited in Elm Street.\"\n3. \"Miss Graham has the best games I've ever seen. I wish we might have a meeting and hear from teachers who have succeeded in originating good plays for rooms filled\n\nwith stationary furniture.\"\n\nGeneral and free discussions, plus definite directions which are given,\nshould foster unity in the work — unity as opposed to uniformity. It is not\nnecessary that \"every child in France\" should be reading at ten o'clock,\nbut it is extremely desirable that every child in the primary room should\nbe spending at least one quarter of his school day on reading or tributary\nsubjects; it is desirable that he reads eight books instead of learning one by\nheart; it is expedient that from the first he appreciates and delivers thoughts\ninstead of focusing his attention on words; it is necessary that he be furnished with knowledge which will help him to help himself, instead of depending on his teacher for every one of the thousand words which he may meet.\nWhether the third-grade pupil- learns his multiplication table by adding\ntwo's, or by piling up two-inch blocks, or by measuring off two-inch sections\non the yardstick, or by counting groups of two apples, or by committing the\nfacts to memory as you and I did, does not seem to me, in the last analysis,\na vital point, provided he has a level-headed, keen, interested teacher; but\nif he is ever to perform problems involving typical business transactions, it\nis extremely necessary that those same facts be rooted and grounded in his\nmemory— and at the time, too, when his word-memory is strongest. Definite general directions rarely cripple a teacher, especially if she understands\nthat a valid objection or a reasonable experiment will meet with approval.\n\"Why, you can't find a teacher who wishes any more 'freedom than that,\"\nsaid a leader among the free lances; \"the person who keeps on talking about\nfreedom isn't a teacher, but someone who wants you to have freedom to do\nas he says.\"\nThe assistant not only interprets the course of study and helps teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": null, "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nto work more out of it than any printed page can ever work in; but from\nseeing it in operation, and from considering it thru others' eyes, he comes\nto realize how it needs to be modified, either to meet certain local conditions,\nor to adapt itself to the present educational creed. A language scheme in\nEnglish which is admirably planned for your sons may prove Greek to the\nchildren of the Ghetto; or the course may call for quotation marks in the\nthird grade; but if the children are calHng for stories and pictures and games,\nthe marks had best be promoted to fifth grade. In all such matters the\nassistant has an especially liberal background for action.\nIn spite of the fact that very many seem to remain in the service for a\nlong period, supervising officers realize that the schools are actually taught\nby a body of workers who pass thru the grades in a long procession. After\nany five years the percentage of change is about 75, and the percentage of\nnew material 45. Yet the school system must do more than maintain an\naverage; it must adjust itself to a population which is ever increasing in\nquantity and decreasing in intellectual quality; and it must continually\nconform to current educational findings. Superintendents in large cities\nwould wrestle with an impossible task if the friction caused by constant\nchange was not overcome thru the efforts of assistants whose knowledge\nof details is minute, and whose time can be placed at the disposal of teachers\nwho are meeting new problems in organization, instruction, or discipline.\nThe intimate familiarity of an assistant with the conditions pertaining in\ncertain quarters will often enable a teacher to accompHsh in a single week\ntasks which could scarcely have been analyzed and arranged for in a month.\nNo teacher is too thoroly experienced not to welcome the help of a m.an\nwhose knowledge of the situation can make rough places plain. In this\nconnection, then, the assistant represents a force which prevents the loss of\ntime and energy incident to change. Moreover, most city vacancies are filled\neither by recent graduates of normal schools, by college graduates with no\nexperience, or by the most enterprising teachers from the small towns and\nrural schools. The members of each group are blessed with youth, ambition,\npurpose, and zeal; but each needs the counsel and advice which flow from\nlong and intelligent experience. When the novice faces a condition and not\na theory, a dozen difficulties which she could not foresee take form, and a\ndozen others which she might never see lurk in ambush. The assistant\nshould be a right-hand man to these beginners, helping them to distinguish\nbetween the substantial and the showy, to do thoro teaching, to secure reliable results, to interpret their experience, and to avoid pitfalls. He can\nmeet them in conference, and pour oil on the wheels of the first month's\ndifficulties; he can anticipate questions which all are waiting to ask; he can\nteach with the teacher and for the teacher, thus enlarging her plan or changing her prospective; he can discuss individual methods and emergency cases.\nNot infrequently by suggestion, advice, and correction he can raise the standard in individual rooms from helow to above the average.\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n269\n\nIt is imperative that a certain time each week be set apart for office hours,\nso that each member of the force knows when she may be sure of a hearing.\nThe effect of an assistant on the temper of the schools depends primarily\non the spirit of the worker. I am inclined to believe that we too often magnify method, and overlock manner or, more truly, character. Whether his\nvisit be long or short, whether he go with or without a notebook, whether\nhe teach the class or hsten, whether he commend, suggest, or correct, is of\nsmall moment, provided he stands to the teacher for a loyal, kindly, helpful, interested friend^and in the long run of the years he will stand for exactly\nwhat he is.\n\"How did you know that Hercules was a god?\" \"Because I was content the moment my eye fell on him. When I beheld Theseus, I desired that I might see him offer\nbattle, or at least guide his horse in the chariot race; but Hercules did not wait for contest, he conquered whether he stood, or walked, or sat, or whatsoever thing he did.\"\n\nLess speedily perhaps, but not less surely, comes the verdict which labels\neach of us. Go in the spirit of a critic, and if you smile and say nothing,\nyou leave an uncomfortable atmosphere behind you; go as a helper, and a\ndirect criticism meets with ready appreciation, and leaves no scar. Any\nteacher worth her hire recognizes the visitor who is as quick to see merit\nas defect, who is more willing to mention improvement than failure, who\nis more eager to serve than to be served. There is rarely a person who has\nnot some well-defined characteristic excellence : the wise worker finds it, gives\ncredit where it is due, and seeks to develop each teacher along the line of\nleast resistance.\n\"You have often helped me by appreciating what was good. I wonder if you think\nI'd mind a scolding.\nDon't you wish to tell me today about something dreadful?\"\n\"Yes, I do feel like making a criticism. I can't magnify the point into something\ndreadful; but there is a httle fox that spoils a good many of your vines.\"\n\nNow, the talk which followed opened no chasm between the assistant and\na particularly sensitive, high-spirited girl; it rather cemented bonds of friendship. A single sentence from Superintendent Blodgett's address at Cincinnati epitomizes the whole story: \"Teachers need the helpfulness that reaches\nthem from honest hearts, friendly hands, and plain words.\"\nThe kindliest sympathy, the readiest tact, and the most constructive suggestions are not incompatible with searching insight, nor, on occasion, with\nstraightforward criticism. There came a time when Nathan dropped his allegory and faced David with four words of condemnation: ''Thou art the man!\"\nSo in this business of supervision there come times when no sugar coat should\nsweeten the medicine. \"Do you think I shall ever get a first-grade room ?\"\nsaid a notoriously lazy teacher immediately after such a vacancy had been filled.\n\"I know you never will until you ccme to school every morning prepared\nfor your day's work.\" Or again: \"You feel disappointed; but I can't say\nmuch for a teacher whose voice and manner show petulance and arbitrary\ndecision, and whose lessons do not ring true.\"\n\nThe above may represent\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": null, "text": "270\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthe unusual measures, but my contention is that on every city pay-roll there\nappear the names of teachers who do not stand for honest effort, and whose\nconstructive criticism must be preceded by what seems destructive and\ndrastic. The great majority are earnest, hard-working, ambitious, trustworthy\npersons, but interviews with the unscrupulous, the indolent, the intolerant,\nor the hopelessly incompetent are among the disagreeable duties which face\nevery public servant and which must be met without flinching.\nAny influence which helps the teacher towar 1 higher ideals and sounder\nresults must, of course, react on the pupils, but a direct benefit accrues to\nthem from the frequent visits of any interested expert. His coming should\nenliven the routine, his praise should be sweet to their ears, his intimations\nregarding desired ends should be a goal to strive toward, his disappointment\na thing to be regretted. So long as older people crave human companionship and appreciation, it is safe to assume that children receive a wholesome\nspur by feeling an interest in their room and their achievement as a body\nwhich is not bounded by the school fence nor the district lines. \"The children have learned a new song for you.\" ''We have a new picture since\nyou visited us.\" \"The third class wish you to see if they are doing better\nin reading.\" \"Children, what was that fine news about attendance which\nyou had to tell?\" \"Our regular language lesson was to be a story reproduction, but I promised the children that whenever you came they might\ntell about their visit to the stone quarry.\" Scores of such remarks give evidence of a healthful desire on the part of pupils to do well, to give pleasure,\nand to earn commendation.\nIf kindly relations exist between special teachers and the assistant, he\ncan be an invaluable help to them by co-operating with them to secure good\nresults in season and out of season, and by preventing their subjects from\nbecoming sharply defined and empirical. His plan of work should be known\nto them, and theirs to him. Any difference of opinion should be settled out\nof the presence of the teacher who is quick to exaggerate a minor difference\nof opinion into serious disagreement between doctors. Frequent consultations should lead to full understanding, and in the main to concerted action.\nI am inclined to think that the main argument against supervision gains force\nbecause we who dictate appear to vary more widely in our directions than\nwe actually differ in our beliefs. Such a course should be sharply reversed:\nafter compromise, directions should harmonize, however much opinions may\nremain at variance. Circulars and pamphlets on which special teachers and\nthe assistant have worked together possess peculiar force. He should report\nteachers who need prompt help along special lines; he should note good and\npoor instruction here as elsewhere; and he should be as interested in these\nresults as in those of what we are wont to call the regular branches.\nThe assistant, in common with all school officials, over and above his\nroutine duty as a pubKc servant owes a special duty to the public. A wellregulated school system managed by professional educators is always ahead\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n271\n\nof the community at large in both method and outlook. Now, unless school\nneeds and school aims are understood by the people, a gulf widens between\nthem which is finally bridged only by criticism and protests from ''taxpayer.\"\nThe assistant should lend a hand to any undertaking which dignifies his\noffice, or which seeks to establish points of contact between the public schools\nand the public they serve. If there be parents' meetings, he had better\nattend; if there be mothers' clubs, he had better speak when asked; if the\nSunday-school teachers wish an address, he had better give it; if someone\nasks the rather dubious question ''What do you do anyway}'^ he had better\nexplain himself in simple, indisputable terms, so that mothers and fathers\nshall grow to feel that no community should be without him.\nLastly, then, remembering at the same moment the great public in the\nbackground, and pupils, teachers, and co-workers in the foreground, I should\nHke to mention the assistant as one whose personality and work will add to\nthe sum of zeal and enthusiasm which should radiate from the office of a\nsuperintendent of schools.\n///.\nC.\n\nN.\n\nTHE\n\nKENDALL,\n\nMANAGEMENT\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SPECIAL\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nDEPARTMENTS\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nIND.\n\nThe special department appeared when the necessity of broadening the\ncurriculum appeared. The regular teacher was generally unprepared to\nteach the special subject, so the special teacher was brought in. The subjects were often novel and external. They were sometimes dragged in\nbodily, either at the demand of the pubKc, or by the fiat of school boards\nand superintendents.\nWhat attempt was made to educate the pubHc to the importance of these\nsubjects — a public clinging to the traditional view of the common-school\ncurriculum ? What attempt was made to prepare teachers to teach the new\nbranch or branches? What adjustment was attempted of the old to the\nnew in the course of study and in the organization of the school? What\neffort was made to secure a supervisor or director or special teacher with\nbroad academic scholarship and with pedagogical training? The answers\nto these questions are factors affecting the management of special subjects,\nand determine whether they are to be permanently educative or temporary\nand sporadic. No pretense is made that these questions are to be answered\nthis morning to the satisfaction of everybody or anybody. Only a few\nobservations are offered bearing upon the questions, and therefore, if my\npremise is sound, upon the management of special departments.\nThe management is far easier if public opinion sustains the teaching of\nthe subject. The education of this opinion sometimes requires more patience\nthan the education of the children themselves; but it is hardly less important,\nif there is to be permanence and stability, and the hue and cry of fads avoided.\nI believe the education of this sentiment is one of the most important and\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": null, "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ndifficult of the superintendent's duties, and one which is most likely to be\nneglected.\nWhen we can secure the co-operation of a few influential men and women\nof the community, the support of two or three newspapers to whose opinion\nthe public listens, the influence of clubs — clubs of the gentler sort — the\nindorsement of a chamber of commerce perhaps, we have taken a long step in\nthe direction of making outside conditions favorable to successful management.\nIn one city it was proposed to introduce cooking or domestic science\ninto the schools. Only one kitchen or school was established, altho perhaps\na half-dozen were required to take care of all the seventh-grade girls. Whether\npublic sentiment sustained this movement was uncertain; but, to make it\nrelatively certain, a series of luncheons was arranged, to which, from time\nto time, men and women were invited. The luncheons prepared by the\npupils were appetizing, the teacher was a young woman of refinement, and\nthe kitchen was open for inspection. In this way were secured the interest\nand active co-operation of these fifty people.\nI suppose that we who are in the thick of educational movements little\nreaHze how far we may have left behind ordinary public sentiment as regards\nthe course of study.\nThe management is affected by the training, the education, and the\nstandards of the regular teachers. This training begins, or should begin, in\nthe high school, with those young women who are to become teachers, or who\nthink they are. In the high school should begin instruction in music, in drawing, in color, in hand-work, in physical training, in natural science. In the\ntheoretical department of the normal school, whether city or state, this training should continue; a half -day each week perhaps, to be given to drawing\nand the various forms of art- work, under the direction, of course, of the supervisor of drawing ; an hour each week in learning to read music, in the cultivation of the singing voice and of the choice of songs; a half-day each week in\nmanual training; an afternoon to nature study, including field excursions; two\nhours a week to physical training and the training of the voice; an hour each\nweek in learning how to teach penmanship.\nThere is nothing subtle about the pedagogy of the special subjects. It\nis no more difficult to teach music or drawing than division of fractions,\nbut one must know how to divide fractions, to read music, or to use the\npencil, before he can do any effective teaching of any of these. As any\nteacher should, broadly speaking, endeavor to make himself useless to his\npupils, so should the supervisor, by education of teachers, make them less\ndependent.\nConsiderable time in the training school therefore should be used in\nacquiring facility in the arts named.\nPedagogical training will be of little\nreal value to a teacher who finds herself called upon to teach technical subjects without any training in these subjects.\n, Teachers should not be expected to teach things they know nothing about.\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n273\n\nTeachers' meetings in which Httle is done other than talking about drawing,\nmusic, nature study, penmanship, or physical training should give way to\nmeetings in which some of the time is spent in practice. The week before\nthe schools open may wisely be used in this kind of teachers' institute. Afternoon meetings during the term, when the schools are dismissed — not too\noften, of course — when the teachers take off their shawls and bonnets and\nare prepared to do a good afternoon's work; and special meetings on Saturday mornings for new and weak teachers, are practical means by which a\ncorps of teachers may be educated.\nFor the time being, the young women should work at their desks as the\nchildren work at theirs, but here under the guidance or inspiration of the\ndirector. The vital thing in the management of these special departments\nis to have a corps of teachers who have been brought into first-hand relation with these subjects. This is essential and fundamental. The special\nteachers should, of course, teach lessons to children. If he teaches all lessons, the energies of the regular teacher are stunted, and there is no growth\nin his power or skill or equipment. To promote the growth of teachers,\nto enlarge their interests, to raise their standards, is no small part of the\nwork of the director. If there is to be any vigor or life or spirit or interest, the teachers themselves must be on the move in the same direction as\nthe children. The management should work constantly, patiently, and\njudiciously with this end in view, bearing in mind, of course, the limitations\nupon the teacher's strength and endurance and ability.\nThe better the training of the regular teacher in the special branches,\nthe broader will be her view, the greater the unity of all subjects, the more\nwill correlation be practiced, the more is economy in the organization of\nthe school day in evidence, and, withal, the less will be the danger of sidetracking either the regular or the special subjects.\nIn visits to schools the special teacher should give more of his time to\nsome teachers than to others. Some teachers need little of the so-called\nspecial supervision; others need constant help. If this be so, then it is a\nmanifestly wasteful process for the supervisor to divide his time equally\namong teachers, rooms, or buildings. Therefore, a supervisor working by\nmere rote among teachers, without regard to their varying degrees of efficiency, isnot working, in my judgment, at the maximum of his efficiency.\nHe should be a co-operative officer with the superintendent. His business\nis to promote the efficiency of the schools, particularly along his own line\nof work, incidentally along all hnes of work. If there is a weak spot, he\nshould go there. If this half-day can best be spent looking at the penmanship papers from his own schools or from those of other cities, he should do\nthat. If the drawing in a particular building is weak, then he should focus\nhis attention there.\n\nI am assuming that the supervisor is a person you can trust. I am also\nassuming that the superintendent shall exercise some directive power over\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": null, "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nhis movements and how he shall distribute his time and his work. The\nsuperintendent of schools will not distribute his own time equally among\nhis teachers, unless he wishes to be a mere piece of mechanism or a nuisance. He goes to poor teachers to strengthen and suggest. He goes to\nstrong teachers for ideals, for standards, and for inspiration. The supervisor should be allowed to work on similar lines.\nThe danger of specialization is overemphasis in one direction — the magnifying of the subject and the subordination of the child, who is the being\nto be educated.\nHow can this evil be minimized ?\nFirst, by teachers who know something of the subjects, and a specialist\nwho is really competent. A young woman appears as an applicant for\na supervisorship of music. What is her training ? She names a well-known\nconservatory of music. Of what college or university is she a graduate?\nNone. Of what normal school? Not any. Of what high school? \"I left\nat the end of the first year.\" What experience as a teacher? None at all.\nWhat pedagogical books have been read ? The reply, of course, is negative,\nwith the mental reservation that the question is absurd. Is it good management to employ such a person ? On the other hand, here is a music supervisor with college training; a penmanship teacher who is a normal-school\ngraduate, and one who has given time to the systematic study of children.\nHere is a penmanship teacher who has taken a course of lectures in a university or college; an elementary-science director who is called to the pedagogical department of a leading woman's college; a manual-training supervisor who has taken a degree at a college and has spent two summers studying art; a physical-training teacher who has studied at Yale with Anderson,\nat Harvard with Sargent, who has been abroad to study the German and\nSwedish systems at first hand; an art director who has been successively a\ngrade teacher, a school principal, a graduate of an art school, and a constant student of art. These are not fanciful cases, but real ones, not in any\none system of schools, but in selected instances from several systems of schools.\nBroad-minded persons are likely to see things in relation. When the specialist regards his field of work as restricted to his subject, when he blindly fails\nto see its relation to other subjects, there is a chance that he may be regarded\nas an interloper, especially when his salary is one or two or three times as\ngreat as that of the regular teacher.\nSo far I have discussed the question from the point of view of those cities\nwhich have supervisors or special teachers. Some of the problems of management would disappear if the supervisor or director were competent, and\nrecognized as such by the teaching body. But how can the small town with\nlimited funds employ a supervisor who will also be a leader and an inspiration to teachers? An answer may be found in two or more neighboring\ntowns combining and engaging a good man or woman to divide his time\namong them. Objections of a practical sort may be suggested, but they\nare not insurmountable.\nThis is the day of combination and organization\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n275\n\nin economic lines; indeed, this plan is in operation in several parts of the\ncountry. The supervisor of penmanship in Nev^r Haven supervises, not\nonly the work in New Haven, but that in West Haven, in Middletown, and\nin two of the three Connecticut normal schools. Good results are obtained\nin each place. Each secures the services of a two-thousand-dollar man.\nMiddletown, a place of twelve thousand inhabitants, alone would hardly pay\ntwo thousand dollars a year for penmanship. Not so much attention can\nbe given to each individual room in the city of New Haven as when the supervisor gave his attention exclusively to the schools of that city, but many\nrooms do not need such personal supervision.\nMight not a similar plan be carried out in other subjects and in other\nplaces? The combination of several towns in Massachusetts in employing\nsuperintendents is a well-known application of the principle of organization\nand combination in order to secure good ability. There is, in my judgment, danger of too much time spent in the schools by the supervisor in the\nsmall city, if you accept my proposition that a supervisor should not be a\nteacher of children merely, but of teachers as well. Here are four small\ncities, each paying seven hundred dollars a year for a supervisor of drawing,\nor twenty-eight hundred dollars. Why should not these towns combine,\noffering a salary of, say, two thousand dollars — a net saving of eight hundred\ndollars — and secure a director who is far abler than any one of the sevenhundred-dollar teachers? The teachers in each of these four towns might\nthen have a real leader. They would gradually feel able to do a considerable\npart of the work themselves. This would not only promote their own growth,\nbut would result in the unification of subjects. Where a supervisor gives\nall the instruction in music, and the regular teacher during the process sits\nback of her desk as a mere spectator, you will, in the long run, create stagnation inthe teacher's growth, and have nothing like correlation of studies,\nand the instruction in music will not be so good as by the other process.\nThe management of the special departments calls for some adjustment\nof the special subjects to other subjects of study. There is no need in this\npresence to speak of the growing importance of the correlation of studies.\nNew subjects almost press themselves upon us, and school hours remain the\nsame.\n\nI\n\nI have time to mention only a few instances of attempts at correlation\nwhich have come und.er my observation. The supervisor of penmanship\nexamines systematically the daily written work of pupils, and confers with\nteachers about it, whether they teach penmanship or not.\nThe physical-training teacher and the manual-training supervisor cooperate in making apparatus for gymnastics. The -physical-training teacher\nsuggests games and plays for the recess, and earns his salary in making the\nrecess a time of real recreation for girls as well as boys.\n\nThe manual-training department and the teacher of arithmetic co-operate\nA miniature house is built in the shop— a\nin the study of measurements.\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": null, "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nmodel, by the way, of a house actually going up in the neighborhood. Observe\nthe interest of the boys in the problems which relate to the cost of lumber\nfor this house, cost of labor, of papering, of carpeting, of painting, and numerous other details.\nManual training and history: in the actual building of a model of the\ncotton gin, of a lock on a canal, of a model of the Parthenon, models of\nprimitive agricultural implements, of the log cabin in which Lincoln lived,\nof the house at Mount Vernon, etc.\nManual training and the equipment of the school: a screen for a stove,\na dictionary-holder, window-boxes, boxes to protect newly planted trees on\nthe play grounds.\nThe drawing and manual-training departments, it is obvious, should\nwork in active co-operation. The application of art, design, and color to\nthe work in manual training is a field of correlation relatively new, it is true,\nbut bound to grow as we realize in this country the necessity of making the\nuseful also beautiful. In my own city the manual-training and the art\nteachers spend two hours each week working together. The art teachers,\nat one time, work in the manual-training shop, and the manual-training\nteachers, at another, study constructive and decorative design with the art\nteachers.\nNature study and the art department: The teacher of nature study\nwithout color or design to reinforce her work depends upon language only\nfor expression. I know of one director of art who distributes flower seeds\nthruout the schools; the subsequent results are used by the teachers in exercises which are both drawing and nature study.\nThe field excursion is at once a lesson in geography, in nature study,\nand in drawing, if the teachers are working in co-operation, as some\nteachers do.\nThe competent and tactful director of art will revolutionize school decorations, as many of us know.\nThe illustrated composition gives new life to a subject often of little\ninterest to pupils. The director of art can make profitable suggestions in\nmeetings of teachers with this end in view. The director of art who sees\nthe wide relation of his subject with other school subjects will be no stranger\nin meetings called to discuss English or history or geography.\nThe management of the special department, as it has been reviewed,\ndepends upon healthy pubHc sentiment; upon the training, equipment, and\nideals of teachers; upon competent directors — directors who are leaders, who\nknow how to create intelligent interest, and who are willing to co-operate\nin adjusting the special subject to the school organization and to the child;\nand, finally, upon relations of confidence between the superintendent and\nthe head of each special department.\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nAND\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n277\n\nDISCUSSION\nE. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss.— The paper has spoken for\nour large cities and for the more densely populated states of the North. It has covered\nthe ground so thoroly and well that along those lines there is little left for me to add.\nHowever, I represent a class of schools of the smaller cities peculiar to the South, too far\napart to combine and avail themselves of the services of an expert teacher of the special\nstudies, as suggested. How are they to broaden and enrich their courses of study ? My\nanswer is: The superintendent or principal must become the expert. He must feel the\nneed of the subject for his school, and must be able to demonstrate that need. He must\nbecome an enthusiast for physical culture, for art, for manual training; but let him not\nforget that he must temper his enthusiasm with patience.\nI have in mind two cities in the same state, about one hundred miles apart, which introduced physical culture and vocal music at about the same time. The first, the larger\nand richer city of the two, added these subjects without opposition. The experiment\nseemed to have worked well. I was surprised to find that both were dropped from the\ncourse at the end of the first year. The patrons of the school were delighted, the teachers\nand pupils enjoyed the work of the special teachers, and yet after fourteen years the subjects have never been reintroduced. Why ? Because the man behind the system knew\nUttle of them and had no real enthusiastic desire for their continuance.\nBy way of contrast, let me give the experience of the smaller city. The superintendent saw gymnastics and vocal music taught in other schools. He recognized that thev\nwere good things, and determined to have them for his own school. His board said:\n\"We have not the funds to employ a special teacher.\" Not to be overcome by sUght\nopposition, he mastered a system of gymnastics, and then taught it to both teachers and\npupils. There were some croakers in that neck of the woods, and the subject of their\ncroaking was this: \"That man is making our girls bend their bodies to the detriment of\ntheir physical beauty.\" At the very first intimation of this and similar opposition, he\ndetermined to get on his side public opinion — that very essential commodity, which the\npaper has so well pointed out. He asked the children to invite their parents and friends\nFriday afternoon to an outdoor performance. The children of all the schools went through\nthe manual, and there went up a shout of approval that killed the croakers in the first\nditch; and today that school has a teacher specially trained by Dr. Anderson, of Yale,\nand there is more likelihood of tearing out one of the beloved three R's by its roots than\nof taking gymnastics out of that school course. So it has been with vocal music. Let\nme say that the superintendent must not only appreciate the importance of the special\nsubjects, but he must have the tact and backbone to put them into execution.\nBack in the 8o's, when Colonel Parker went about in that region as a lion, seeking\nwhom he might devour; when there was a chaotic state of doing and making, of molding\nand modeling, of painting and imaging, I was infected with the art microbe, and I took\nit home. The board said: \"We can't afford a special teacher.\" I did the next best\nthing. I introduced a system which I knew was very thoroly wooden, and yet it was\nthe entering wedge by which I could make an opening for better things. Greenville has\nnot only been infected, but we have spread art malady to several of our sister-cities, and I\nbeheve the day is not far distant when all of the schools in Mississippi will have special\nteachers of art. I can say this, that, so far as the Greenville schools are concerned, it's\nplace is quite as well fixed as is that of any other common-school study. We no longer\nlook upon it as a specialty, but consider it a staple.\nThe introduction of manual training into the Greenville schools has been so recent,\nand my last encounter with opposition so new, that it may be set down as a current event.\nI shall confine my remarks to the opposition to the introduction of sewing. The board\nsaid: \"Already our course is infringing upon the common-school studies; there is no\ntime;\" and again:\n\"Sewing should be taught at home; you are trespassing upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": null, "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Atlanta\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nwork of the mothers.\" I pleaded for a trial and got it. Now the problem was, first, to\nprove that no time was lost to arithmetic, language, etc., but that there was an actual\ngain; second, that the homes were really made better and brought nearer to the school by\nthis manual art. I said to my teachers: \"The teaching of seven stitches and the making\nof garments are trivial matters compared with the things that sewing must do for these\nWe had the children get from their fathers, or from friends, the actual cost of progirls.\"\nducing abale of cotton. They took no one result, but from a summary got the average.\nThis is an important item in sociology, that no one man can estabHsh the price or cost\nof a commodity. From this they got the actual cost of producing a pound of raw material.\nWe then had them go to the field and actually pick a pound of cotton, noting the time.\nThey separated the lint from the seed. These operations brought them into contact\nwith labor and wages, and made them appreciate what work meant. It impressed upon\nthem the great importance of the cotton gin and the debt they owed to Eli Whitney, from\nwhose brain that useful machine came, and to whom the South owes a magnificient monument in marble or brass.\nWe had them buy cailco and gingham, not by the yard, but by the pound. They\nequated the pound of the raw material with the finished product, and compared the\nprofits earned by the producer with those earned by the manufacturer. Thus we started\nthem on a problem for life.\nWashington's birthday we celebrate in our schools with the purpose of inculcating\npatriotism. This year I had the above data charted and made a display of the arithmetical and manual-training work of our children as a part of the celebration. I left\nfor Atlanta before the conclusion of the day's program, but I was there long enough to\nsee that mothers and fathers had been convinced that manual training did not consume,\nor take away from, other studies; and that it did not infringe upon the domain of home,\nbut rather had the effect to make better pupils, better citizens, and better keepers of home.\nIn conclusion, whenever I find a subject taught in Boston or California schools,\nthat I believe to have a real worth, it has been and ever will be my aim to get that subject in my own schools; for I believe that the best is none too good for the children of our\nSouthland.\n\nL\n\nTHE\n\nEXTENSION\n\nTHE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nTHOMAS\n\nM. BALLIET,\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\nOF A SYSTEM\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\nOF EVENING\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSPRINGFIELD,\n\nMASS.\n\nA system of public evening schools must differ in certain important respects\nfrom a system of day schools, and many of the defects of our evening schools\nare due to the fact that these points of difference have not been sufficiently\nrecognized by school authorities.\nIn the first place, the two kinds of schools must differ to a considerable\nextent in aim and purpose. The day school is attended by immature boys\nand girls, for whom the most important consideration is that they should\ngrow up physically strong, and acquire that general education which will\ndevelop mind and character and lay the foundation for special training\nlater. While the day school should be practical and not ignore the demands\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n279\n\nof daily life, its chief aim must be to give its pupils general rather than special\ntraining. On the other hand, the evening school is attended mostly by mature\nyoung men and women, who are employed during the day in some gainful\noccupation, and with whom attendance at school in the evening is incidental\nto their daily work. A limited number of these attend an evening school\nfor the purpose of broadening their general education, and for such ample\nprovision should be made in our evening schools for instruction in the studies\npursued in the elementary and secondary day schools ; but the large majority\nof evening-school students have a more directly utilitarian aim, and can be\ninterested only in such studies and in such phases of studies, as have either\na quite direct bearing on their daily work or will fit them to do a different\nkind of work which is more remunerative. Their chief object is to increase\ntheir earning capacity.\nThe dominant aim of a system of evening schools must therefore be prac^\ntical in the utilitarian sense. While such schools must give an opportunity to those who desire it to pursue studies for general culture, they must\nalso provide for special training to an extent impracticable, if not undesirable, inday schools.\nIn the second place, the course of study of an evening school must be\ndifferent in some essential respects from that of a day school. Attendance\nat the day schools is compulsory, or ought to be, for the majority of pupils;\nat the evening school it is wholly voluntary in most states. In a day school\nstudies may be made compulsory, and, in fact, are made compulsory in all\nelementary schools and in some secondary schools. Persons who attend an\nevening school not only do so voluntarily, but most of them come for a definite purpose, to learn some specific thing. If the school does not give them\nwhat they most want, even if it is not what, in the judgment of the teacher,\nthey most need; or if the school fails or neglects to ascertain what they want,\nas is not infrequently the case, such persons will soon drop out. While there\nshould be a definite plan pursued in an evening school, which may be outlined on paper in the form of a course of study, a rigid adherence to a fixed\ncourse, such as is prescribed for day schools, is undesirable and will inevitably\nreduce the attendance.\nIn the third place, the work of the evening school must differ not a little\nin method from that of the day schools. In the day schools each subject\nis developed systematically from beginning to end, and the various phases\nof it are presented in the order in which they are most readily apprehended\nby the immature mind, regardless of whether they have a direct bearing on\npractical life or not; in an evening school even the most backward students\nare mature, and this order need not be adhered to at all to the same extent,\nnor is it always desirable to develop a study systematically. In the case of\nmature students, who come to study a specific thing to help them in their\ndaily work, only so much of the subject should be taught as is necessary to\nmake intelligible the special point in which they are immediately interested.\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": null, "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nVery often such narrow interest can be made the means of arousing a broader\ninterest in the general subject and in other subjects. The point which I\ndesire to emphasize is that, in order to secure and hold a large attendance\nin our evening schools, we must ascertain- the wants as well as the needs of\nstudents, and then try to broaden these wants until they become identical\nwith their needs, instead of forcing upon them arbitrarily what we may think\nthey should study and so drive them out of school. Such a policy would\nmaterially increase the attendance in our evening schools.\nIn the fourth place, the evening school must differ somewhat from the\nday school in the grading and classification of its students. Grading and\nclassification are necessary in evening schools to make them effective.\nWhile more individual instruction, especially in elementary evening schools,\nis necessary than in day schools, all instruction which can be given to an\nentire class should be so given. The ungraded evening school is as wasteful of time and energy as the ungraded day school. But while this is true,\nthe principle of grading and classification must not be the same in the two\nkinds of schools. In the day schools pupils are classified according to their\nknowledge and ability alone; in an evening school age and occupation should\nbe largely taken into account. Many men, and not a few women, would\nattend an elementary evening school, if they could be allowed to join classes\nof adults, and would not be obliged to be seated in the same class with boys\nand girls in their teens, who may be their neighbors' sons and daughters,\nand who, having but recently left the day schools, may be able to answer\nquestions more readily and appear more intelligent than themselves. When\nyou place in the same class persons of equal intellectual ability and education, but differing by almost a generation from one another in point of age,\nthe older members will not remain very long; and yet this is precisely what\nis done in many evening schools.\nMoreover, in classifying students in an evening school, in so far as may\nbe possible, those of the same or closely related occupations or trades should\nbe grouped together. This does not apply so much to classes in which the\naim of the instruction is general culture as to classes in which the instruction\ncan be given a quite direct bearing on the occupation of the members. In\nsuch cases it is desirable that the teacher be familiar with the occupation of\nhis class as well as with his subject, and be able to apply the instruction to\ntheir daily work. This will involve the necessity of employing more men\nas teachers than are now employed.\nA large number of men who might attend public evening schools free of\ncharge are attending the evening classes at the Young Men's Christian Associations thruout the country, and are paying a fee large enough to cover\nall cost of instruction, mainly because the public evening schools ignore these\ntwo principles of classification.\nSo much as to the general aim and character of the public evening school.\nWhat different kinds of schools should be included in a system of evening\nschools?\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n281\n\n1. There is need of elementary evening schools, such as are now found\nin many cities, in which instruction may be given in the so-called \"common\nbranches.\" Such schools should enable boys and girls, and young men and\nwomen, who were obliged to leave the elementary day schools before completing the course in order to \"go to work,\" to continue their general education. This function of the elementary evening school is similar to that of\nthe so-called \"continuation school\" in England and Germany. Our elementary evening school has, however, another function to perform which,\non account of our large foreign immigration, is in point of importance scarcely\nsecond to this. I refer to the instruction of adult foreigners in the English\nlanguage, in American history, and in civics. As the public day school is\nthe most effective means of Americanizing the children who come from foreign lands to our shores in such large numbers every year, so the pubHc\nevening school should be made the institution which shall Americanize their\nparents by teaching them our language, our history, and the principles of\nour government. In order to attract these foreigners to our evening schools,\nthose of each separate nationaUty should at first be placed in classes by\nthemselves, and given a teacher who can speak their own language and can\nmake them feel at home; and such teacher's tenure of service should be\nmade dependent on his ability to secure and retain a large attendance in\nhis classes. As soon as they have mastered the language sufficiently, they\nshould receive all their instruction in P^nglish, and should be mingled with\nother classes to prevent the fostering of a spirit of clannishness.\n2. There is need of evening high schools in which instruction may be\nprovided in the usual high-school studies, for the purpose of giving students\nwho were obliged to enter practical life at the close of their grammar-school .\ncourse an opportunity to broaden their general education. This feature of\nthe evening high 'school would correspond to the higher grades of continuation schools in foreign countries. But the Evening high school should\nalso provide instruction of a vocational or technical character, for the benefit\nof men and women who are employed in the daytime in technical lines\nof work, and who are in need of such academic training as will have a\ndirect bearing on their special work. Such evening high schools should\nprovide courses in bookkeeping, stenography, typewriting, and other commercial branches; they should include instruction, not only in pure mathematics for general culture, but also in applied mathematics, in which all\nthe varied applications of both the elementary and advanced mathematics\nmay be made to the different lines of mechanical and scientific work. They\n\nI\n\nshould include classes in applied chemistry, in which men engaged in technical work in different manufacturing estabhshments in which a knowledge\nof chemistry is essential may receive thoro technical instruction in this branch.\nThere should be classes organized in applied physics and in mechanics, for\nthe benefit of men employed in the mechanical trades and in various manufacturing establishments in which mechanical work of a high grade is done.\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": null, "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nIt is thru such schools that foreign countries are training their skilled workmen in the theoretical phases of their work to an extent not realized in this\ncountry. Both the manufacturing interests and skilled workmen of our\ncountry demand that more provision should be made for such technical\ninstruction in our public evening schools.\n3. There should be evening schools in cooking, sewing, dressmaking,\nand millinery, for the benefit of young women who are obliged to earn their\nliving by unskilled and underpaid labor in the daytime, and for whom such\ninstruction is the only means by which they can fit themselves to do skilled\nlabor for which they can secure higher remuneration.\n4. There should be organized in every city evening schools for the teaching of free-hand drawing, designing, modeling, carving, house decoration,\nand various other forms of industrial art, for which there may be a demand\nin the community. The instruction, except in the elements of free-hand\ndrawing, should be given, as a rule, not by professional teachers, but by\npersons who have had thoro technical training in the particular form of\napplied art to be taught, and who have had practical experience in the industry to which the art is to be applied. In other words, the instruction should\nbe given by highly trained specialists who have had practical experience in\nsome productive industry of applied art.\n5. There should be established on a large scale evening schools for the\nteaching of mechanical drawing in all its manifold applications to architecture, the mechanical industries, and the various mechanical trades. While\nsuch schools exist today in many cities, the instruction is for the most part\nvery elementary in character, and does not appeal to any but beginners.\nThe teachers are usually professional teachers of drawing instead of practical draftsmen, and have but a theoretical knowledge of the trades and\nindustries to which their instruction should be applied. *While all students\nmay profitably be placed together in a class to be taught the elementary\nprinciples of the subject, for the advanced instruction they should be grouped\nin classes according to their trades or occupations; and the teacher should\nbe a person who not only knows drafting, but who also has a practical knowledge of the trade or occupation of the members of his class. This is the\nplan on which the best drafting schools in foreign coun tires are organized,\nand the superiority of their work and their large attendance prove its\ncorrectness.\n6. There is great need of the organization of evening trade schools in\nall our cities of considerable size. In this respect our own country lags far\nbehind the progressive countries of continental Europe. The city of Berlin\nalone has twenty-eight evening schools, nearly all of which are strictly trade\nschools, attended by over twenty-five thousand students. Trade schools of\nalmost every variety, both as day schools and as evening schools, may be\nfound in all the principal cities of the German empire and of France, and\nin the manufacturing centers of most of the other countries of western Europe.\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n283\n\nThe fierce competition in the markets of the world will soon force upon us\nalso the necessity of providing more thoro training for the skilled labor\nemployed in our own industries.\nThe particular trades to be taught in any given community should be\ndetermined largely by the local industries; in this way there would naturally\ndevelop in different cities a variety of schools, differing not a little in character, each of which would meet in an economical manner a limited variety\nof local needs. Such schools need therefore not necessarily involve the\nteaching of many trades in any one community, nor become a financial\nburden to the taxpayers. In all cities in which there is a manual-training\nhigh school, provision can be made, at comparatively small expense, for\nthe teaching of a number of the mechanical trades by using the equipments\nof the shops of these schools, which would otherwise be idle after the session\nof the day school. The teachers in such a trade school must be men who\nhave learned the trade which they are to teach and have had practical\nexperience in it. The teacher of manual training who has never actually\nlearned a trade is not qualified to give instruction in trades in such a school.\nIn admitting students, preference should be given to men already employed\nat their trade, but who have never had an opportunity in the shop of learning more than a small part of it, and who come to such a school for the purpose of broadening their mechanical education. The training of such men\nin the shops in which they learned their trade in many cases has been confined to the running of a single machine, and has consequently been so narrow\nthat the learning of the complete trade is to them a liberal education. The\nevening trade school should meet the needs of such men, and of young apprentices, before it admits boys and young men not engaged in productive labor\nin the daytime, for whom provision should be made for instruction in trades\nin a day school.\nI would emphasize the importance of giving preference to journeymen\nand apprentices in such schools, both as a matter of right and as a matter\nof policy. Men already engaged at their trade have, as a rule, families\ndependent upon them, and ought to have every opportunity that can be\ngiven them to increase their earning capacity. Moreover, apprentices have\nentered upon their trade as their life-work, and ought to have the preference over other boys, who in many cases would enter a trade school in which\nthe instruction is free without any serious purpose, and without any intention of pursuing the trade as a life-work. As a matter of policy I would\nurge it, because any trade school which would flood the labor market with\nsurplus labor would be likely to incur at once the opposition of the labor\nunions. A school which gives the preference to men already engaged at\ntheir trade, either as apprentices or as journeymen, will have the support\nof the employers of labor because it trains their workmen to do a better\nquality of work, and it will win the favor of the labor unions because it trains\ntheir members to do a higher grade of work, and enables them to obtain\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": null, "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nhigher wages, instead of flooding the market with surplus labor and depressing wages.\n7. I wish finally to call attention to the necessity of providing a special\nschool for the married women of our foreign population in the large cities,\nwho find it impossible to attend an evening school because of their families,\nbut who would be able to attend a school in the afternoon when their children are cared for in school. Such afternoon classes should be established\nin every school building in the foreign quarters of our large cities, and instruction should be given in the reading and writing of the English language, in\nthe rudiments of arithemetic, in personal hygiene and household sanitation,\nand, if possible, in cooking and sewing. Much of the work that is now done\nby various charitable societies, by social settlements, and by numerous other\nagencies could be done legitimately, and far more economically, thru the\nexisting machinery of the public schools. All educational work which must\nbe done for the public good should be done at the public expense.\n\n//.\nHENRY\n\nM. LEIPZIGER,\n\nADULT\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF LECTURES,\nYORK\nCITY\n\nBOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nNEW\n\nWe are co-workers in the cause of the education of a democracy; and\nwhen we reflect on the power which public opinion exerts today — that the\nwill of the people is virtually the will of God — we see how important it is\nthat public opinion should be sound and sane, and that the democracy which\nwields the power shall wield it in obedience to lofty ideals and pure motives.\nIt is being seen that the history of the world is not the history of dynasties, but the story of the people, and that to each individual man there is a\nmission. Up to the very beginning of the last century, education, even of\nthe most limited sort, was the privilege of a very few. It is only seventy\nyears since primary education was made public in Boston. It was only as\na result of the defeat by Napoleon at Jena that the Prussian government\nheeded the counsel of Fichte and began its superb system of universal\neducation; while the common school system in England dates only from\n1870. During the present generation, what a marvelous development in\neducational lines there has been: the spread of the kindergarten, the increase\nof secondary schools, the increase in institutions for the hberal education of\nwomen, the spread of the free library and the free museum of art and science,\nall having as their purpose what?— the emancipation of the individual man\nand woman, in order that he and she may be free.\nThe extension of the public school in great cities has during the past\nten years taken on all of the following additions, tho elementary evening\nschools have been longer in operation: first, elementary evening schools,\nwhere the rudiments are taught to those who are obliged early to begin breadearning; second, evening high schools, where advanced studies are taught.\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n285\n\nAll these schools are not yet as thoroly organized as the day high school.\nIn New York city the elementary evening-school term is ninety nights; beginning this year, school is held but four nights weekly. The evening highschool term is one hundred and twenty ni^ts. The school term begins\nabout October i. There are elementary schools and high schools (evening)\nfor young men and young women.\nA striking feature in New York is the instruction given to foreigners.\nTo acquaint them with English, instruction is given in Yiddish, Russian,\nItalian, and other languages.\nThe most recent extension of the public school has been the establishment of vacation schools, originally an experiment of a philanthropic society.\nThe excellent work done, and the need of it being done, were recognized\nby the city authorities, and now vacation schools and playgrounds form\npart of the school system of our great city. Special directors, under the\nsupervision of a district superintendent specially assigned, insures the educational character of the work.\nThe course of study is so arranged as to call into play the manual and\nartistic skill of the pupils. There are roof gardens where music is played,\nand baths where swimming is taught. As many of the exercises as possible\nare done in the open air.\nThe further extension of the use of the public school has been the establishment ofplaygrounds and recreation centers in schoolhouses in the thickly\nsettled districts. In these playgrounds the games of the children are directed\nand physical exercises taught. In the recreation centers amusement is provided in the shape of innocent games and small selected libraries.\nThe extension of the uses of the school in the ways that I have mentioned\nis for those who either attend school or are very near the school age. There\nseems to be little doubt as to the wisdom of ingrafting them on the educational system. The admission, however, has broadened our understanding\nof what the word \"school\" once meant. The question now arises: Shall\nthe education furnished by the state end with the high school or the university; or shall the state furnish opportunity for the continuance of education to those whose school life has been limited, or who acquire, later in\nlife, some yearning for higher things? In other words, shall we not now\nbe compelled to admit that man needs knowledge, not alone as a means of\nlivelihood, but as a means of life?\nA friend of mine, a librarian, tells me that a little boy went into one of\nthe circulating libraries of the city and said he wanted a book called How\nto Get Educated and How to Keep So. Unconsciously, he spoke a great\ntruth. It is one thing to get educated, and it is another thing to stay so.\nThe school gives us the beginning of education, but some provision for adult\neducation is necessary tp enable us to stay so.\n\nMark Twain, in one of his happy moments, said: ''If you repeat a lie\nlong enough, it becomes history. \" Paraphrasing that apparently sage aphor-\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": null, "text": "286\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nism, we say that, if you repeat the truth often enough, it becomes a fact.\nNo more clearly is this seen than in the growth and development of the free\nlecture system in New York city, the thirteenth season of which has just\nbegun. We can now hardly realize how we moved from one part of the\ncity to the other in the days of the horse car; similarly we can hardly imagine New York city without its provision for adult education, known as the\n\"Free Lecture Course.\" Without pomp, parade, and with little advertising, ithas won its way, and is regarded by the taxpayer of our city as one\nof the most judicious of civic investments. Compared with material construction, how insignificant is the expenditure for the wealth of intellectual\nand moral inspiration, gathered from the treasures of talented men and\nwomen, and distributed among our citizens, for the making not only of a\ngreater, but also a better. New York 1 And its success has been so genuine,\nits growth so steady, its popularity so marked, and it has been so adaptable\nto each city in the land, that the lecture system of New York may seem to\nmark the crowning glory of public-school extension.\nLet me briefly state what it is. Its underlying principle is this, that \"education should be a means of livelihood, and that education should be unending;\" that the adult's taste can be cultivated as well as the child's; that the\nwork of instruction and education begun in the elementary school must be\ncontinued and completed. Of the school population of our land about 3\nper cent, attend the high schools, and less than ij per cent, the colleges,\nuniversities, and professional schools. The great body of our citizens has\nbut limited education, and the very persons best fitted to profit by education, and who need it most, are in most cases denied its beneficent influence.\nThose most in need of it are between fourteen and twenty years — the time\nof adolescence, when conscience is disturbed, when character is being formed.\nAt that time all the safeguards of true culture must be put around youth.\nThen there is that large class of mature people who have a knowledge of\npractical life, and who appreciate the value of education most keenly. It\nis from such a class that our students — I call them that rightly — of electricity,\nof physics, and of history are recruited. A lecturer on physics wrote to me\nthe other day: \"The questions put by my hearers were, as a rule, more\nintelligent than are asked inside of many a college.\"\nFourteen years ago the system was tentatively introduced into six schoolhouses. Now there are more than one hundred and forty places where\nsystematic courses of lectures are given, and to the 4,200 lectures during the\npast season there came a total of more than 1,200,000 listeners. Begun in\nthe old city of New York, by the operation of the new charter it is now\npart of the educational system of the city, and its influence is extended to\nevery borough, so that not alone in the various halls of Manhattan is the\nlecturer heard, but even on Rockaway Beach he may be found contending\nwith the roar of the waves, like Demosthenes of old.\nThe fact should be emphasized here and always that this is a movement\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n287\n\nfor the education of adults. Ample provision is now made for kindergartens,\nelementary schools, secondary schools, and colleges. New York is the pioneer in this noteworthy movement for the education of grown-ups. Each\nyear the sum appropriated for the worthy purpose has been increased; for\nthe free-lecture movement has won the appreciation, not alone of the people,\nbut also of the student of education. Bear in mind the fact that, according\nto good authorities, but 6 per cent, of the people of this country are systematically educated after leaving the common schools, so that the inclusion\nof a provision for adult education in our educational chapter is one of the\nmost noteworthy deeds performed in the last decade of the nineteenth\ncentury.\nThat there is a large body of men and women who believe that they are\nnot too old to learn is proved by the figures to which I have referred. They\nare volunteer students. They come not \"like snails unwillingly to school,\"\nbut come rather to realize the original idea of school as a place of recreation\nand leisure. It is a movement to afford complete opportunity for education\nto teach the truth that.it must extend thru life, that it is not to be concentrated into a few years, but that the stimulus shall grow and increase in\npower with the years. The people are awakening to the fact that education\nis a continuous performance; that the school gives the alphabet, but that\nthe word must be formed during life. It is a movement to give men and\nwomen whose lives are lives of monotonous labor a wider outlook, and to\nbring them, in the most interesting form, in touch with the principles of\nscience and recent discoveries, with the result of travel, and with the delight\nof music, literature, and art.\nA very gratifying feature evidenced during the course of the past twelve\nyears has been the increasing demands made by the audiences which have\nbeen trained. The courses of lectures are arranged at many centers systematical y. Atone center, fifty lectures on history and literature were given.\nAt another, each Saturday night, for the past four years, a lecture on some\nsubject in natural science has been given. At a third center, subjects relating to education have been the chief theme. It has been delightful to note\nthe increasing number of those who wish to pursue a subject more thoroly,\nand who take pleasure in the application of the best methods that characterize the university.\nThe audiences have been mostly adults — in many cases entirely so.\nInteresting it is to see, in a meeting-place Hke Cooper Union or the Institute\nin the Bowery, an audience composed almost entirely of men. Here the\nsubject is perhaps political history or physical science. Where the subject\nis literature, or music, or art, or astronomy, the wom.en predominate.\nContinuity of attendance is noticeable, and in the letters sent to me by\nlecturers who have given courses the returning of the same faces has been\nobserved. Some of the auditors have written to me that they have been\nregular attendants of these courses for the past six or seven years. Does\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": null, "text": "288\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nnot such an evidence of continuity compare favorably with the attendance\nat any university or college in our land? Is not, in fact, the ideal of the\nuniversity being realized? For both in ancient Greece and in mediaeval\nEurope education was for the adult. And are we not taking a step in the\nright direction in preserving the harmony that should exist between all departments of education, in the restoration of a belief in the old ideal ?\nA course of eleven lectures on problems of education, in which six college presidents, the city superintendent of our schools, and other prominent\neducators took part, attracted an average audience of one thousand, while\na course of lectures on \"The Development of the Nation\" found equal popularity. A course of twelve lectures on \"Art History\" was attended by an\naverage audience of four hundred, and reading and questioning accompanied this course. The geography of the United States was exhaustively\ntreated. Literature received its due proportion, one play of Shakespeare,\nOthello, being treated, to the great delight of the audience, in a course of\nsix lectures. In the realm of music many lectures and recitals were given.\nA course of eighteen lectures, six of which included a course on the Wagner\nmusic dramas, was attended by auditors many of whom came long distances,\nwhile all the musical lectures appealed to delighted audiences. At two of the\ncenters a course of eighteen lectures with practical exercises in singing was\ngiven with marked success. A course of eighteen lectures on \"Electricity\" at\nthe West Side Auditorium drew an average attendance of 250 — nearly all\nmen who were engaged in work in which a knowledge of electricity would\nprove helpful.\nI cannot do better than to read a few extracts from the hundreds of appreciative letters which I have received from the people:\nA college graduate writes:\n\"I believe there are many who think the lectures are only for those who have not\nhad an opportunity to receive a high-school or college education. The more intelligent\nthe hearer, the greater the benefit derived. As to benefits received from these courses,\nthey are too numerous to mention; but I can gladly say that through my knowledge of\n'First Aid to the Injured' I have been of use to different persons, from taking a cinder\nout of the eye of an elevated-car conductor, to fixing up the sprain of a relation.\"\n\nAnother:\n\" I have attended seven years and noted the improvement in tone and quality. To\nlearn is to live.\"\n\"I think it [music] is best suited to our locality, as they are all working people; there\nis nothing does a tired body more good.\"\n\"To keep up with all the lectures, I have read books.\"\n\"In connection with the lectures, I have re-opened my Shakespeare, opened my\nencyclopedia for the first time, although I have had them two years, and read Fiske's\nCritical Period and Channing's History.\"\n\"In placing before our minds new ideas that set us to thinking, and aiming at higher\nand nobler things than we have known in the past.\"\n\"I always look forward to them as a hungry person looks forward to a good meal.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\nOne woman requests lectures on \" How to Bring up Children. \"\nwho has attended forty lectures, writes:\n\n289\n\nAnother,\n\n\"A busy and often very tired woman, unable to spare much time or sight for reading,\ngives thanks for the pleasure and comfort I have enjoyed through this means of instruction. cannot\nI\nadequately express my feelings.\"\n\nAnother writes:\n\"I have been going to school over again.\"\n\nAnother:\n\"The majority of us know nothing but paved streets and brick walls. Nature\nstands at our doors, but we know nothing of her. These lectures give us instruction and\nmental exhilaration.\"\n\nAnd yet another:\n\"I shall try my best to pass the examination [referring to a course on \"First Aid to\nthe Injured\"], although I am very absent-minded and nervous, having been a victim of\ntyphoid fever a year ago, and of remittent fever last fall. If I fail, I shall at least have\ntried my best and learned something to my advantage. I cannot say anything in favor of\nthe Monday lectures, as my husband only attends them, because I have three small children who cannot be left alone. I am glad my beloved spouse stays with them Thursday\nevenings, to grant me the benefit of the lectures.\"\n\nThis movement not only gives a broader and truer conception of the\nterm \" education,\" but is making a larger demand upon the equipment of\nthe teacher; or shall we say, rather, will call into being a new kind of teacher,\nwho will not only possess the gift of scholarship, but will combine with it\nthe art of proper presentation and the gift of pleasing speech. He must\nnot only have the power to teach, but the power to inspire. His must be the\nvoice of the prophet, for it is his duty I0 awaken interest and to lead souls\nfrom \" the lowlands of vulgarity, high up the mount where guile desolves\nin fire, that burns the dross away.\"\nJudging by the results of the past ten years in our city, and by rhe many\ninquiries from all parts of our land, it would not seem improbable that ten\n>ears from now every great city in this Union will make provision for adult\neducation, and that a class of teachers particularly adapted to dealing with\nthe adult mind will come into being. Teachers are now classified into elementary teachers, secondary teachers, and university teachers; and the most\ngifted from the ranks of these should be selected to engage in the work of\nadult education. We are beginning to recognize more generally that education does not belong to either sex, or to any particular period of life.\nIt seems to me, therefore, that no more honorable task could be placed\nin the hands of the teacher than to stand before such audiences as gather\nin our schoolhouses and halls and bring them messages of tr^th. The teacher\nmust be saturated with his subject. He must be a believer in the message\nwhich he is to deliver. I know of no more sacred task than that of the\nteacher in a democracy, organizing, as he does, public opinion, directing\nreading, stimulacing thinking, and inspiring to the higher life; and, as some-\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": null, "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\none has said, ''the ideal teacher in a scheme of adult education must combine, with the university professor's knowledge, the novelist's versatility,\nthe actor's elocution, the poet's imagination, and the preacher's fervor.\"\nThe term \"adult education,\" it seems to me, is to be preferred to the\nterm ''university extension.\" University extension is included in the term\n\"adult education,\" and is a portion of the means to that end. As heretofore\npracticed, all the teachers in the university-extension movement are connected with the university. The subjects are mainly confined to literature,\nhistory, and art, and the majority of the lectures are not given to what may be\ncalled \"the working people.\" The free-lecture movement endeavors to secure\nthe best-trained minds from the university, to illustrate the fact that the\nhighest scholarship must be brought in touch with the people and to emphasize the belief that scholarship must go hand in hand with service, and that\nthe duty of the university to the city and the state is to lift up our citizens\ntoward higher ideals. But, in addition to those men who are connected with\nan organized university, there are men and women in the university of life\nwho have traveled, have investigated, have observed; and they are included\nin our teaching staff, for they, too, have a message to dehver. Credentials\nalone cannot make the scholar or the teacher. Particularly in the realm of\nscience is adult education comprehensive. It is to spread abroad the scientific\nspirit — the spirit of investigation, of observation, of accuracy, and of truth;\nthat is the end to be aimed at. The scheme of adult education, then, taking\nthe trained teacher with his potent word, stimulates to study and to reading.\nThe personahty of the speaker has not lessened in our time. As has been\nsaid, \"No power in human experience has wrought such mighty results as the\nspoken word;\" and the spoken word of the lecturer stimulates, not alone\nfine conversation, but reading of the best kind, and leads the hearer into\nthat greatest of all universities — the public library.\nThe fact has been established that the people will come, and that the\nnation will go to school; so that there are now two kinds of lectures — one\nfor larger audiences, where subjects which appeal to large bodies can be\ntreated; and the other, more special in its nature, where those only will come\nwho are interested in a particular subject. The entire winter, at some\ncenters, should be devoted to but one or two subjects, and a definite\ncourse of reading and study should be followed. I am sure that by this\ntime we have prepared some such body of students. The division satisfies\nthose who are already prepared for higher study and those who are just\nentering on the appreciation of the delights of intellectual pleasure. For\nbelieving, as I do, in the educational purpose and value of these lectures, I\nalso believe, to an extent, in their wisdom from the recreative side. The\ncharacter of our pleasure is an index of our culture and our civilization.\nA nation whose favorite pastime is the bull-fight is hardly on a plane with\none that finds pleasure in the lyceum lecture. So, if we can make the pleasure of our people consist in the delights of art, in the beauties of literature,\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n291\n\nin the pursuit of science, or in the sweet influence of music, and gradually\nturn them away from so much in our midst that is lowering, are we not doing\na real public service, and is not this theory the real foundation on which\nthe support of the free public library rests ? Is not refinement, too, one of\nthe ends for which we are aiming — not alone knowledge, but culture; not\nalone light, but sweetness ? And if we can turn our youth from the street\ncorners to the school playground, transformed into a temple of learning,\nare we not helping to that end ?\nOne thing can positively be stated: As a result of this lecture movement\n— for it is a movement, since it is full of life — there is a constantly growing\nelement, in this New York of ours, that is looking for intellectual and spiritual guidance, that welcomes the knowledge of the scientist, is moved by the\nskill of the artist, is touched by the words of the orator, and is inspired by\nall to loftier lives. And it seems to me that the men who spend their lives\nin accumulating knowledge, in adding to the world's treasury of wisdom,\nshould find the greatest delight in its dissemination.\nIt has given me the greatest pleasure to receive from university professors, who in the beginning looked with some sHght scorn at the attempt to\npopularize knowledge, letters in which they now admit their change of view.\nThey certainly have carried out the advice of one of the speakers at a certain\ncollege dinner to some professors, that they \"should rise superior to their\nsuperiority.\"\nThe scholar owes his highest duty to the state. It is his duty to do what\nhe can to raise the moral tone of the community in which he lives; to be\nof it, not above it ; not to be lost in the mass, but to help leaven it. And never\nwas that duty more demanded than in a great democracy; for our republic\nis still on trial. Nobly is it weathering the gales that beset it; for the popular conscience has always responded to the right. So, I say, the highest\nduty that our scholars can perform is to bring their knowledge and raise the\naverage. We have faith in democracy, and we believe that thru popular\neducation, as Mr. Lamed says, \"the knowledge of the learned, the wisdom of the thoughtful, and the conscience of the upright will some day be\ncommon enough to prevail over every factious folly and every mischievous\nmovement that evil minds or ignorance can set astir.\"\nThe university is the steward of the wisdom of the past, and part of its\nduty is to spread that knowledge, to diffuse it, to bring in all possible ways\nits treasures within the reach of the masses. Thus will the university be a\nveritable light- and power-house. For we beheve, as has has been well said,\nthat the period of mental plasticity is lengthening. Men do not fossilize so\nearly in life as they once did. There are more men wTio are capable of\nexpanding and changing their opinions at an advanced age than was once\nthe case. In this respect Gladstone is not so much the prodigy of the era,\nbut paving a way as the herald of that which is just begun.\nNot alone has there been given a new interpretation to education and to\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": null, "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthe teacher, but a new definition of school has come into being. A schoolhouse is no longer closed at three o'clock daily, but is open at all hours,\nsummer and winter. Ten years ago there were, it is true, elementary evening schools and two or three high schools. Now the schoolhouses are open,\nnot alone for free lectures, but for recreation centers, play centers, libraries,\nand vacation schools.\nWhy not carry this conception of the schoolhouse even a little farther ?\nYou may walk in portions of our city where block after block consists of\ntenement-houses, many of these occupied by hundreds of human beings.\nLittle that is sightly attracts the eye; and yet in the midst of these unsightly\nblocks one comes upon a splendid school building, whose doors are closed.\nIt is Sunday. The authorities of this city are now considering the proper\nmeans of grappling with the excise law; how to recognize the demands of\nhuman nature and obedience to public betterment. You close the saloon.\nWhere shall the youth of the city in these districts gather? Why should\nnot the schoolhouse be open on Sunday afternoon, and in its main hall the\npeople gather to listen to an uplifting lecture of a biographical, historical,\nor judicial nature? Would not such use of our school buildings be justified? Why should settlements need to exist at all? Why should not the\nschoolhouse represent all that is best in the so-called social settlement; and\nwhy should not every man and woman engaged in the work of public education be fired with the same spirit which is said to make the settlement\nworker? It seems to me that the tendency should be toward including in\nthe public education all that is best in the movements for philanthropy which\nseem to mark our time. It is gratifying indeed to find an increasing response\non the part of the churches in this work. \"Schoolhouses are in many cases\nunsuited for adult education; and the committee on lectures at a recent\nmeeting took a wise step in recommending to the building committee that\nin all buildings hereafter to be erected by the board of education provision\nshould be made for adult education, and that a proper auditorium, with\nproper seats for adults, should be provided.\nThere is an added value in the establishment of a lecture system for\nadults in our schools. The whole object in the maintenance of our schools\nhitherto has been the education of minors. Generally, when our children\nreach the age of fourteen or sixteen, they have been weaned from the schoolhouse. How few adults ever visit the scene of their school days! By the\nextension of the school, in the ways to which I have referred, it is made to\nextend its enlightening influence to the old as well as to the young, and the\nschool becomes, not only, as Horace Mann says, \"a nursery for children,\"\nbut a place of inteUigent resort for men. The school will no longer be an\ninstitution for diffusing the mere rudiments of knowledge, but for the bountiful diffusion of knowledge itself.\nThere should be no necessity for citizens, desiring to add to their culture,\nsitting either in the low and ill-ventilated and unattractive school-yard, or\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n293\n\nclimbing sixty or seventy steps to sit upon a bench built only for children ;\nso that a change in the construction of our schoolhouses may result from\nthe expansion of this use.\nThe gratuitous use of church halls for lecture purposes is a most significant sign of the times. Church work must by this means increase in\nefficiency. The church has for its purpose the strengthening of morality,\nand as true enlightenment breeds morality, it surely approves of spreading\nthe gospel of the free-lecture movement.\n\"Let there be light.\"\nThe experiment of the platform library — i. e., of books being distributed\nfreely from the platform — was successfully made. An examination was\nheld at the close of the series, and after each lecture critical and intelligent\nquestions were put to the lecturer by interested auditors. Part of the series\nwas repeated in another section of the city. Three lecturers were engaged\nin giving a course of five lectures on ''First Aid to the Injured.\" This course\nbeing the same that is given for the instruction of policemen.\nThe libraries feel the impetus created by the demand for good books;\nand as a result the public is being educated to the importance of the free\ncirculating libraries.\nThe lectures on science enable the visitor to the Museum of. Natural\nHistory to look with different eyes on the collections; and those on art prepare men and women for the proper appreciation of our collections of paintings and sculpture. So an interest in life has been given to many. To\nsome the lectures have proved the only bright spot in a cheerless existence;\nto others, a social factor; and to others, refining influences. The boisterous\nyouth has been toned down, and those who came to scoff remained to learn.\nSumming up the value of this movenient, it may be said, first, that the\nfree-lecture movement has broadened the meaning of education, and forms\na continuation school in the very best sense; it enables the professor to come\nin touch with the people; it reaches all classes of society, for the audiences,\nare as democratic as all intellectual gatherings should be; it binds together\nthe high and the low in education; it brings culture in touch with the uncultured and produces the true solidarity of the spiritual life. Secondly, it has\ngiven a new meaning to the uses and possibilities of the schoolhouse; and,\nfinally, its chief purpose is spiritual and not commercial.\nThe lectures do indeed increase the productive power of the listener,\ndo add to his stock of information ; but their true end is to saturate the people\nwith ideals. Without ideals one cannot live. It is by the help of noble\nideals that purity and peace are given to masses of our fellow-men; and to\nhelp in shaping the ideals of a democracy is the purpose of. adult education.\nYear by year our system will improve. Year by year more gifted men\nand women will come to these great aggregations which gather in cities,\nand leaven the whole lump by their uplifting message. In these days of\nshorter hours and larger opportunities, the toilers will find in adult education the stimulus for the gratification of their intellectual desires, and thru\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": null, "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthe means of this movement a larger world will be given them to live in.\nThe best characters in literature will be brought to influence them; their\ndaily labor will be transformed into a noble task; new joy will come into\ntheir lives from this association of literature and science and art; this influence will affect their homes and their lives; and it will be found that the\ntrue joys of life do not come from wealth, but from sympathy with and\nappreciation of the bounties and wonders of nature that lie round us.\nAdult education is just in its infancy, and it seems to me that in the future\none of the chief jewels in our civic crown will be this movement for the education of the masses.\nMay the other cities of our land deal as generously as New York has,\nand may the work of adult education go on, freeing thousands from error,\nyear by year, and so bringing nearer that ideal city in which all of us would\nfain dwell 1\n\nIII.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nR. H.\n\nHALSEY,\n\nEXTENSION\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTATE\n\nFOR\n\nTEACHERS\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIN SERVICE\nOSHKOSH,\n\n'\n\nWIS.\n\nDuring the past twenty years school officials have been paying much\nmore attention relatively to the preparation of those intending to become\nteachers than to increasing the efl&ciency of those already engaged in teaching. There is no doubt that if we cannot, with the means at our command,\naccomplish both results, the former, as the more elementary, is the more\nimportant. But there is no good reason for our not giving due attention to the\nagencies by which the training of the teacher is secured while in service as\nwell as previous to entering upon service. The problem that has confronted\nthe superintendent in his effort to help his assistant teachers to gain greater\nskill and broader culture has been the old one of trying to put thirty hours\nof work into a twenty-four-hour day. The requirements upon the average\ngrade teacher have been such as to leave her neither time, strength, nor disposition for a systematic course of reading and study that shall give her a\ngreater professional efficiency, or the larger usefulness that comes from\npursuing studies purely cultural. If we would secure the greatest degree\nof serviceableness from a corps of teachers, we must reduce to a minimum\nthe amount of purely clerical work that is demanded of them, the number\nof exercise papers to be corrected; and we must bring it to pass that the\nteacher is enabled to turn her back upon the school building each afternoon\nwith her school-work finished for the day. What work she undertakes after\nthat should be of a nature that will tend to refresh her instead of exhausting her for the duties of the next day. , For this reason it seems to me that\na teacher is likely to do more efficient work who is carrying along with her\ndaily school duties two distinct lines of study — one of a professional nature,\nand the other an academic branch, undertaken, not for its immediate service\nin her schoolroom, but because she feels that, by gaining the larger outlook\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence!\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n295\n\nupon life which a purely cultural study is likely to give, she will come back\nto her school- work rested each day by the consciousness of increased knowledge and multiplied power. School officers have not always been quick to\nrecognize the value of the culture studies to the teachers in their actual work\nin the schoolroom. We have been much more ready to admit the value of\na course in pedagogical methods in particular subjects, or, to the teacher\nin the secondary school, a course in physics, biology, or whatever branch\nhe may be teaching, than of a course that would appeal equally to the person not a teacher — a course of study that would help to give him a clearer\ninsight into some of the graver problems of society.\nI shall not undertake to enlarge upon the value of university extension\nin general. This movement may be safely said to have passed the experimental stage in its history and to be nearing the time of larger harvests.\nIt is with the movement directly aimed at providing the opportunity for\nteachers in active service to carry on one or more courses side by side with\ntheir regular school- work that I am concerned. Inquiry from the registrars\nof higher educational institutions in about twenty of our largest cities develops the fact that there are eight such institutions now offering from eight\nto seventy-eight regular courses more especially intended for teachers. I\ndo not include in this enumeration the valuable summer schools maintained\nby many of our universities in which courses for teachers are provided. These\neight institutions are the University of Chicago, the University of Cincinnati,\nColumbia University, New York University, Northwestern University, the\nUniversity of Pennsylvania, Rochester University, and Yale University.\nAbout three thousand five hundred teachers are enrolled in the extension\nclasses of these eight universities. Five report that they find teachers preferring the academic to the professional line of work. In all but one regular attendance is required upon classes, and an examination at the close of\neach course is also required. Two do not recognize the work done in such\nclasses as a portion of the work required for a degree, but the other six willingly grant it such recognition. One reports that work done in the university in this way is recognized by the school authorities; two say that it is\nencouraged; one says that it secures preference in appointment and promotion for the teachers; one states that it secures exemption for a teacher\nfrom regular teachers' examinations; two do not know that it receives any\nrecognition whatever from local school authorities; and one says that these\nauthorities do not recognize such university work on the part of the teacher\nin any way whatever.\nProbably the most noteworthy instance of such extension work is that\nundertaken during the past two years in the city of Chicago on the initiative\nof Superintendent Cooley, and largely under the tuition of the faculty of\nthe Chicago Normal School. Seventy-six courses were offered, the school\nauthorities holding themselves in readiness to start a class in any quarter\nof the city convenient for the teachers indicating their desire to join such\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": null, "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nclass, and offering to provide such instruction as the members of the class\nmight elect. Nearly three thousand of Chicago's teachers have availed themselves of this privilege. It is to me one of the most hopeful signs of intellectual and professional awakening on the part of a large body of teachers,\nto note the spirit with which the Chicago teachers have seized the opportunity thus afforded them for increasing their effectiveness in the public\nservice.\nIt would seem that some recognition of a teacher's desire to fit herself\nbetter for her school- work should be accorded, and therefore we are not\nsurprised to find the authorities in both New York and Chicago rewarding\nthese teachers by making the maximum salaries for teachers who have successfully completed a number of courses in these extension classes higher\nthan that attainable by teachers who depend upon length of service alone\nto reach their maximum of efficiency. The regulation of the Chicago board\nof education upon this subject reads as follows:\nTeachers in elementary schools are promoted from the second to the first group\nof salaries by a vote of the board of education, on recommendation of the superintendent\nof schools, and those teachers are eligible for such recommendation and promotion who\nhave reached the maximum salary of the second group, and who shall receive upon the\n] romotional examination a final mark of at least 80 per cent., made up of three items,\nwhich shall receive equal credit, as follows: (a) efficiency mark for the preceding year,\nas equalized by the board of district superintendents; (&) mark obtained upon the professional study paper of the promotional examination; and (c) mark obtained on the academic paper of the promotional examination, provided that no examination mark below 70\nshall be considered.\n\nA plan similar to that adopted by these two cities is certain to appeal\nto school officials who are looking anxiously for some systematic course for\ntheir teachers to pursue, to replace the old haphazard plan of individual\nstudy. Still more strongly will it recommend itself in places where the\nsuperintendent has had reason to feel that one of the most serious evils\nthreatening his schools was the lack of incentive for teachers to improve\nthemselves in a broad way.\nAltho the conditions favorable to the formation of extension classes are\nmore evident in a large city, yet opportunity for participation in such advantages are by no means limited to the teachers of such a system. One of\nthe greatest improvements in our modern system of university education is\nthe manner in which thru extension lectures and classes ''Mahomet has\ncome to the mountain.\"\nThere is every reason why a body of teachers in a smaller center should\navail itself of the privilege of securing a lecturer from the nearest university\nand pursuing extension work along some line that may be attractive to the\nlargest number of teachers. It is a good thing if the teachers shall simply\nattend these lectures, absorbing what they can of the carefully prepared and\npresented material. It is a better thing if they will organize a class in connection with ihese lectures, and do thoro and systematic work in prepara-\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\ntion for each meeting of the class. It is still better if they come to see that\nthese short courses of six lectures each give but a bare introduction to the\nsubject, and the desire to gain something of a mastery of the subject leads\nthem to extend the number of lectures upon one subject to eighteen or thirtysix, so that the course actually runs thruout the school year, and thus legitimate university or collegiate work may be carried on. This latter plan of\na more extended, in place of the \"synoptic,\" course of lectures is one of the\nnoteworthy features of the extension work for teachers as planned and carried\nout by Teachers College in New York.\nA number of the universities offering courses in science to bodies of teachers\nat a distance have provided that the lecturer should not only deliver a lecture,\nbut should also conduct a field excursion, so as to demonstrate the subjects\nof the successive lectures.\nIf it does not seem feasible to adopt one or more of the lecture-study\ncourses for a body of teachers as a whole, there is no good reason why individual teachers should not be encouraged to carry on this work in the correspondence-study department which has been organized in several of the\nuniversities previously named. The University of Chicago reports that 87\nper cent, of those carrying on such work in its classes are teachers. This\nplan has the advantage of allowing a much wider range of choice on the\npart of the individual teacher in the selection of the line of study to be undertaken; but, on the other hand, it loses in inspiration what it gains in freedom. It is at a disadvantage in much the same way as is the work of the\nstudent under a private tutor when compared with work undertaken in a\nclass of vigorous students of about the same degree of advancement. Nevertheless, itis unquestionably true that much valuable help has come thru\nthe agency of the study classes to teachers already in service, who were so\nsituated as to be beyond the reach of the regular lecture classes of the extension work.\n\nTime will not permit more than a passing mention of another most valuable source of training for teachers thru the summer schools, such as those\nconducted by Harvard, Cornell, Tennessee, Minnesota, and other universities. Altho these are not technically classed under the term ''university\nextension,\" yet they are very properly considered as a very efficient means\nof extending the university influence and privileges to teachers now in service. The number of teachers actually receiving training from such schools\nthan that taking teachers' courses in the regular universitymuch larger\nis\nextension\nwork.\n\nb\n\nThe university values the opportunity afforded it to reach the public thru\nclasses of teachers. It is true that in most cases where extension work has\nbeen carried on among teachers the initiative has been taken by the teachers\nthemselves rather than by the university. Thus we have a repetition of the\nhistory of the inception of the university-extension movement, which was\nwith the general public rather than with the university.\n\nAnd yet the uni-\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": null, "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nversity, conservative, slow to move in such matters, has come to realize that\nthe innovation has been of great value to it. Next to its body of regular\nstudents, the university where extension work has been carried on among\nteachers, states that the classes of teachers furnish it with its most satisfactory\nconstituency. This is but natural when one considers the movement in university circles of late years to bring higher education into closer touch with\nthe general public.\n•\nWe may thus look upon the attempt to bring university training to teachers\nin active service as one of the greatest value from the standpoint of both the\npublic school and the university.\nIV,\n\nVACATION\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nPLAYGROUNDS,\nCENTERS\nYORK\n\nAND\n\nRECREATION\n\nCITY\n\nIn cities the problem of unemployed adults always confronts the philan •\nthropist; the problem of unemployed children is ever before the superintendent of schools. Custom has established for city schools a long vacation\nin the summer. Necessity has forced a large proportion of the city's inhabitants into cramped and straitened homes. What relation have the educational authorities to those who seldom see the country, to those whom\nnarrow homes force to the streets in the evenings for recreation ?\nI think it a conservative statement that on every fair night in New York\ncity, more than one hundred thousand children emerge from the tenements\nand wander up and down the streets seeking the excitement necessary for\ntheir circumscribed lives. During the early years of their lives a majority\nof them virtually live on the street. Ugly impressions are made which all\nthe poHsh of high schools cannot obliterate. Even the street is often denied\nthe children. The police and tradesmen drive them from their only playground, force them back into narrow alleys, and compel them to wait, like\nnocturnal birds, for the business world to sleep and to give them the right\nof way.\nIf we knew the life-stories of many of our criminals, we should find that\nthe first act of rebellion against municipal law was prompted by revenge for\ninterference with some childish sport, or was committed to outwit. the policeman, whom they regard as the personification of tyranny.\nTo restore in part to childhood the pleasures which normal conditions\nwould grant, the board of education of the city of New York has instituted\nrecreation work and divided it into three departments: the vacation school,\nwhere manual training is the feature, for five mornings in the week, for a\nterm of six weeks; the afternoon playground, where systematic sports are\nenjoyed for two months of the vacation; and the evening recreation centers,\nopen all the year.\nThe cost of this work during igo2 was $275,000.\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nVACATION\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n260\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThese were fifty-four in number. The industries taught included basketry,\nbenchwork, Venetian iron work, chair-caning, carpentry, fret-sawing, whitthng, work in burned wood and leather, sewing, embroidery, crocheting,\nmiUinery, and domestic science. Pupils who had attended previous vacation\nschools took advanced lessons. Some girls cut and made dresses for themselves, and a large number of boys showed so much skill in handling wood and\niron as to suggest the natural fields of labor for them to enter.\nIn addition to this, we employ several trained nurses to instruct the ''little\nmothers\" in bathing and feeding babies, caring for the invalid, and giving\nfirst aid to the injured.\nThe immediate results are apparent in betterment of conditions in the\ntenements. Table cloths have been introduced where none were used, and\nfamines have gathered around the board and eaten a well-cooked dinner when\nour Httle housekeepers have from chaotic disorder evolved something akin to\ncomfort.\nThis means a great step toward civilization.\nPLAYGROUNDS\n\nThe first week in July one hundred and ten playgrounds were organized.\nSome were in school-yards, some on roofs of schoolhouses, and others in\nparks, vacant lots, and on piers. As a typical one I shall select the ground\nroom floor of a large school building, and ask you to enter and watch the two\nthousand children thru one afternoon.\nIt is one o'clock. The pianist has struck the welcome chord, and all\nthe children assembled fall in Une for the grand march. At a signal, the flag\nis saluted; then two or three patriotic songs are heartily sung, after which\nthe order is given to \"break ranks,\" and the boys go to one side of the yard\nand the girls to the other.\nThe various ball games attract a large number; others take gymnastic\nwork. Some use the first hour for free play, when ropes, swings, bean bags,\nand ten pins are in demand. Attracted by music over in one corner, you\nbecome deeply interested in observing how the kindergartner makes her\nflock so happy. Some are playing ring games ; others are shoveling and carting sand, building houses, having doll parties, or doing some one of the makebelieve things so natural to their age. In a httle while you notice that all\nover the ground groups have changed amusements. Here a number of girls\nare practicing calisthenics and fancy steps; yonder the champions of several\nathletic clubs are arranging for a tournament. Presently visitors from a\nneighboring school are announced who have come to measure swords with\nthem. An exciting scene follows. They have their tug of war, basket-ball\nand gymnastic contests, and the victors are as proud of their triumphs as\nwere the knights of olden times. The rest period comes; and you will see\nthe principal gather a crowd of lads around him, and in his friendly talk some\ngentle reproof may be given for actions not quite honorable, followed by a\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": null, "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nstory of some real hero, who became such by patiently doing right. Some\nof the children have gone to an upper room, and they too Hsten to a story\ntold by the librarian, designed to make imagination more active and aspirations more noble. A great many quiet games are now going on, and in the\nreading-room the story- and picture-books suffer no neglect. Those desiring\nto work are weaving raffia, modeling clay, or making scrap-books. All are\nhappily busy; not a moment is lost in sighing for something to do.\nIt is five o'clock before you realize it. The brigade known as ''white\nwings\" is now pushing carts around the yard, gathering all the rubbish that\nhas accumulated. Soon the last child has left the building, and you share\nin the weariness and in the pleasure of every one of them.\nAnother afternoon, when the heat is excessive, you may perchance visit\nthe piers and divide your attention between the games of the children and\nthe ever-changing panorama of the river, or at the swimming-pool watch the\naspirants for this accomplishment receiving instruction from professional\nteachers.\nIf you go to the vacant lots temporarily equipped as playgrounds, or to\nthe parks, where for the first time some of these children enjoy the luxury of\ntreading bare ground, your sympathy in their pleasure will be keener than in\nany other place. To those who have never seen diminutive farms of eight\nor ten square feet there is something pathetic as well as amusing in the manifest delight of the two hundred boys elected to raise thereon radishes, corn,\nand potatoes.\nWe require every principal, gymnast, and kindergartner to sustain his\nreputation for ability and adaptation to his peculiar work. After the first\nweek, they rarely have trouble, even with the most troublesome boys. The\nchildren are quick to recognize the dignity as well as the responsibility of\nbelonging to a team ; and they work with a will to maintain the honor of their\nown playground.\nn\nWe have tried to show how at least two hundred thousand of New York's\nchildren spent a day last summer. Do we hear the question: \"Watchman,\nwhat of the night ?\" If so, and if you are willing to cHmb six long flights of\nstairs to one of our school-roofs, we will introduce you to about three thousand\nas contented people as are often seen together. Many of them cannot speak\na word of English, and you must needs be a remarkable linguist to converse\nin their native tongues with half of them. You scan their faces and begin\nto pick out racial types. Possibly you may count more than a score (we had\ntwenty- three in one school). Then you wonder what motive has brought\nthese mothers with their babies, these men and mischievous boys, these tired\nworking-girls, into such a promiscuous assembly. The invigorating breezes\nsuggest relief from the sweltering streets and foul odors of the tenements;\nbut the voices of the night whisper that up here nearer the stars they all catch\nglimpses of a beautiful hope that is rarely seen in the dismal corners of life.\nThe principal in charge of the roof sees that all his guests have a pleasant time.\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n301\n\nA brass band is stationed on each of the eleven roofs, and as Dr. Frank\nDamrosch, director of music, supervised all the programs, we were sure of\na musical treat every night. The last number is usually \"America,\" and\nwhile listening to the hundreds of voices that sing ''My country, 'tis of thee.\nSweet land of liberty,\" the thought comes that, altho rough ore is here from\nthe mines of many nations, much of which, even when freed from grosser\nelements, can become only Uke the amalgam in American coin, yet the magnet\nwhich will find every grain of metal is the power that changes misery into joy.\nRECREATION\n\nCENTERS\n\nThe word \"recreation\" given to this activity means far more than amusement. While the play spirit is prominent in every center, fun is only a segment\nin the circle. Giving occupation to the idle and entertainment to the weary\nand training for future citizenship by developing the body, the mind, and the\nheart, is really creating a new life; and this is the aim and purpose of the\nrecreation center.\nA writer in the December Century has given such a graphic description\nof a boys' center that I think it may help those not famihar with the scene to\nlook at it thru her eyes.\nShe says:\nPushing open the door into one of these play centers, the visitor meets a composite\nrush of sound hke the roar of the ocean, and is confronted by a vast kaleidoscope of\nhumanity vi^hich gradually resolves itself into figures, long and short, tidy and unkempt,\nJew and gentile, of a thousand boys gathered at long tables all up and down the big room,\nplaying checkers, dominoes, and other harmless games. Over in a corner a few Httle\nchaps are reading or with careful thought selecting books from a small library. In a\nroom beyond athletic boys in all sorts of costumes are preparing under their director for a\ncontest with another team.\n\nThis scene can be duplicated in twenty-three school buildings, tho in some\nof them girls instead of boys would appear in the picture.\nThe throngs that nightly sought admission made it necessary to exclude\nchildren under fourteen years of age. Our efforts are chiefly directed toward\nthe working-girls and boys, who need these retreats to save them from the\ndegrading amusements which too often appear to be their only alternative.\nNew York has the honor of organizing the first boys' club in the world.\nIts members were six as wicked Httle urchins as ever roamed the streets;\nbut it has grown in these twenty-two years, and now has a membership of\nfive thousand, exerting an influence in political and social life.\nHundreds of wild, rough boys Hving in New York city, if accosted, would\nproudly inform you that they belonged to \"de gang.\" A peculiar bond of\nsympathy formed in early childhood often holds these lads together for years.\nIf the arm of the law touches one member, the others resent it to the extent\nof doing all the evil deeds their united brains can concoct.\nTo get these gangs into a recreation center, offer them the use of warm\nweU-Hghted rooms, lead them to organize as clubs, formulate constitutions\nand by-laws, elect officers, and conduct regular business meetings, is the\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": null, "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nwork of the recreation center. Its teachers require a great deal of tact and\nmuch wisdom to handle successfully such material. The new environment\ndiffers from the cold street corner. Never before has the ''gang\" had a\nroom in which to meet.\nPhysical comfort is the first appeal that touches them. Then follows a\npride in their organization. The officers magnify their importance, and the\nmembers rigidly exact a faithful performance of duty from them. Parliamentary law becomes to them the most important thing in the world. The\nclub director, who is always a visitor, pilots them when they get into difficult\nstraits. To give them practice, he suggests simple subjects for debate, leading\non to subjects which necessitate consulting reference-books. A reading and\nthinking habit is thus unconsciously formed, and soon these \"gangs\" are\ntransformed into groups of young men having a purpose in life far different\nfrom that with which they entered.\nNot all of our clubs are composed of this kind of material. We have\nlarge numbers of self-respecting youth, clerks, stenographers, and college\nstudents, who desire profitable recreation and find it in these centers. The\npublic-school training they received enables them to form literary clubs where\nessays, recitations, and dramatic readings are finely rendered.\nMusic lovers naturally find one another. In one center we have two\norchestras, and several glee clubs in others. After spending an hour together,\nthe club goes either to the reading- or to the game-room or to the gymnasium.\nMen of mature years find equal pleasure with their sons in the social life\nthat is fostered in the evening center. Politics, current events, Old World\nreminiscences, and the trials connected with daily toil furnish ample subjects\nfor dis ussion.\nThe circulating library travels from one center to another every month,\nand the tables have always been supplied with good magazines and papers.\nThe women are quite as enthusiastic as the men over their own clubs.\nThey are fond of games and light gymnastics.\nA principal, literary club worker, gymnast, and librarian constitute the\nexecutive force of each center. Many of them have a real missionary zeal,\nspending their leisure hours in a house-to-house visitation. This personal\ncontact with the people is a mighty lever in lifting them to the ranks of\nself-respect.\nOf the thousands of immigrants who tread our docks by far too large a proportion never go more than two miles from their landing-place. No city in\nthe world has ever worked more strenuously to provide school accommodations for an ever-increasing population than the city of New York. The need\nis imperative, for every day one meets scores of men and women whose lives\nhave been a failure because in childhood they were started on the wrong\nroad. The recreation center touches more of this class probably than any\nother agency. Last year about six thousand people every night sought our\nhospitality.\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n7.0-1\n\nWe have already begun to introduce manual training in the centers and\nhope soon to extend the work.\nMany a hstless boy who does not know whether Georgia is east or west of\nAlabama has an innate love for measuring angles which, if cultivated, would\nenable him to survey a fine road thru this or any other state; but he is losing\nhimself in the dark forest of poverty and uncongenial labor; and unless opportunity, such as we want our recreation centers to offer, can find him, he is\ndefrauded of his rightful place in life. By the sensible interchange of work\nand play we should not only discover what the child can best do with his\ntalents, but use these as agencies in breaking down the prejudices, customs,\nand superstitions which centuries of oppression have hardened in the minds\nof the toilers of the Old World.\nLong after the Ottawa joins the St. Lawrence it keeps its own distinctive\ncolor, and the two streams refuse to mingle until they are churned into union\nby the rapids of Lachine. The blood of eastern and southern Europe gives\na darker tinge to the cheek than is seen in the Anglo-Saxon race, and in\nthoughts and habits of Hfe these races differ even more widely. We can\nnever unite into one people a \"congeries of races\" until we teach them to\nspeak our language, to read our books, to appreciate our institutions, and to\nfind happiness in honest toil and wholesome recreation.\n\nDISCUSSION\nB. E. Nelson, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, 111. — This subject is quite too\nbroad, and the paper read is too suggestive, to make it possible, in the short ten minutes\nallotted to me, to attempt to do more than partly cover the topic and Hghtly touch the\nexcellent paper just read. I shall therefore omit any reference to \"recreation centers,\"\nsimply because they have been most fully dealt with by Miss Whitney.\nIn the interesting experience related in That Printer of Udells, Uncle Bobbie Wicks\nannounces to his wife at the breakfast table his new discovery \"that some fellers go to the\ndevil just because they ain't got nowheres else to go.\" The demoralizing influences in a\nlarge city, already suggested, confront us and hinder a decent degree of success in all of the\nwork we attempt. The schoolmen of this country have seen the danger of long vacations\nfor many years. Only a few have tried hard to apply the remedy. Thanks to Newark,\nNew York, and Chicago, something has been done The way is showing clearer, even\nwhile the dawn has hardly begun.\nScientific investigation shows that the child develops physically about three times\nas fast during the vacation months as during the school months. More plainly stated,\nhe develops as much during three months of vacation as during nine months of schooL\nIs this condition normal ? Is it well for the child ? Is there on this score demand for\nvacation schools or a readjustment of the school-work and school-year ?\nThru the moral and physiological demand suggested, we are brought emphatically\nto the conclusion that from four to two months' absence from school means a loss to the\nchild of something more than time only. It has been impossible for him to remain at\nrest on the upgrade, and now that the advance is again attempted it is found that the\nwheels have sunken well into the rut, the boxes have become dry, and the overcoming\nof inertia has become a problem.\nMuch is lost. Is anything gained ?\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": null, "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nThe summer months, in the business or commercial world, are not months of idleness,\naltho there may be sluggishness at times. Summer Chatauquas thrive even under tents\nmuch warmer than our buildings. Sunday schools — the dullest schools of the age — go\non successfully. Churches modify their program somewhat and keep at work. The\ndevil is not given the field.\nIn vacation schools the hours should be rearranged and shortened, the work made\nlighter and radically different, the liberties and priveleges of pupils increased, and out\ndoor work be always a factor. The teacher should be left free to use the time in any\nmanner, and just so much of it as seems, under the circumstances, wise.\nHere is my suggestion: Do away with the term \"vacation schools\" as soon as\npossible. It smacks of charity and private support. Talk and work for continuoussession schools. Arrange a course of study which shall contain about three months'\nwork in nature study, drawing, and the manual and domestic arts. Let the schoolyear consist of twelve months, arranged so that one week out of school shall follow four\nweeks in school, except that two weeks out may be had in August and at Christmas\ntime. Or, if thought better, let two weeks out follow two months in. I prefer the former\nsuggestion.\nThus you have teachers in constant employment, and the salary would soon adjust\nitself to this condition. The teacher going thru the year should be no harder worked,\nand therefore as able to stand a year's occupation, under the new arrangement, as the\nbusiness or professional man.\nThe pupil will thus develop normally, physically, and mentally. His development\nwould come at the time for development, and the beginning of school again would not be\nsuch a trial. His mind would continue active and his memory good. He would save\ntime.\nWith the course rearranged in the light of vacation-school experiences, the whole\nyear would mean much more to him. There is not one change in the plan of the pubhc\nschools demanded to meet the requirements of the vacation school that should not be\nmade this minute, and determine the plan of all public schools now, anywhere. Whenever a special school, a special experiment, a special plan, demonstrates special aptitude\nfor interesting, holding, helping, elevating the child, then it must be so that that plan makes\none more link in the golden chain that should bind boy-life to school-life anywhere.\nMy special interest just now centers about the third division of this topic, and it was\nmy desire to give most of my time in this discussion to the play-ground idea. To this I\nhave given most thought. Put it aside as you will, treat it as indifferently as you please,\nyet the fact remains that the boy at play is the natural boy, and that at play that nature\ndevelops more rapidly and more deeply than while he compels attention upon 1 is books.\nOn the playground the dishonest boy cheats and lies, the bully bulldozes, the tyrant\ntyrannizes, the profane and vulgar reveals his nature at critical junctures. These are\nmatters that the teacher only hears about. Here the vulgar and gentle, the leader and\nthe led, the native-born and the foreign-bred, influence the one the other. Can that\ninfluence be safely and easily bettered ?\nIt is a common remark that children soon after beginning school learn and know quite\nas much as is well for the mature brothers and sisters, even the father and mother to know.\nOn this account, more than any other, teachers cognizant of this deplorable condition are\nnever so anxious to start their children to school as are the parents less familiar with these\nconditions. This same state gives us our most serious disciplinary problems on the\nplayground.\nIf this statement is true, a duty is entailed and a solution called for.\nWho said: \"If I may write the songs of a nation, I care not who makes her laws\" ?\nAnd who, if not Macaulay, claims that Welhngton won the battle of Waterloo on the\nplaygrounds of Eton college? Tell me of a boy's play and I'll read you his character.\nHere he is himself.\nHere his likes and disHkes, his weakness and strength, his aptitudes\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nOF PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nPRIVILEGES\n\n305\n\nand faults, grow upon him as they are encouraged. Is it wrong to hold that an hour\nupon the playground does more to shape a life than an hour in the class-room? Do\nyou know?\nWhy not let the teacher into the confidence of the child in the class-room, and then\ninto his life on the playground ? Can that be done ? Schoolrooms are usually too small\nfor school, and therefore too small for play, except under stress of unfavorable outdoor\nconditions. But at such times the teacher might throw ofif restraint and enter into the\nplay, and thus into the confidence, of the children. The next step will be to do away\nwith that educational annex, the playground, inclose all under one roof, and make the whole\none structure, where the teacher is as much at home as she is in the class-room, and where\nthe child will think her no more a stranger.\nSchool gardens have come with a vengeance, and to stay until something better takes\ntheir place. Their strongest claims are the claims we set up for co-operative play — play\nthat is co-operative only in the sense that suggestions rather than directions bring desired\nresults. Nothing more is claimed for it. Such co-operation is always easily secured in\na vacation school; then why not thruout the entire year? What objection is there to\na closer relationship of pupil and teacher ? The child under twelve rejoices in play with\nthe father or mother. In the kindergarten work and play combine, or work thru play\ngoes on. Can you tell me just when this close relationship between pupil and teacher\nshould cease ?\nHave you noticed that immediately upon the appearance of a teacher who not only\ntalks of children, but who loves children, they gather about and urge play of any sort.\nI am not sure to what extent the teacher may safely enter into play, but I feel that I do\nknow how long she should be interested. In the high school the most popular teacher is\nthe leader in athletic interest.\nMake a child happy, and his tasks so lighten that there is no difficulty in interesting\nand teaching him. Coming in from honest play, he settles down to honest work and\naccomplishes honest results.\nLet the interest of the teacher settle first about games for inclement days indoors.\nHere is an opportunity. Children should have recesses and recreation periods, but the\npractice of driving children outside during rough weather is barbarous.\nThere are scores of decent games that can be introduced into the schoolroom, not\nonly interesting and enjoyable, but instructive as well. This last characteristic must not\nbe insisted upon. It is not essential. With the teacher and pupil all ground should be\nneutral. The playground and schoolroom should be alike to both. Neither should be\na stranger in either place. The appearance of a teacher on the playground is too often\nthe signal for cessation of play while pupils crowd about to learn who now has been doing\nwrong and what the punishment is to be. Such a condition is deplorable, to say the least.\n.This condition has grown thru a mistake in disciplining on the grounds, no doubt. The\nteacher who will win the pupils' toleration and co-operation will never criticise openly\nanything but serious infringement.\nIn Lincoln we expect half the teachers at each building to be on the grounds observing, suggesting, sometimes playing. Women umpire games of baseball, basket-ball,\nand even football. I saw one lady hopscotch so gracefully as to emphasize my awkwardness oftwenty years ago. This absence from the building was our only suggestion.\nThe other problems have arisen and have been met since.\nThe time is not left to emphasize or summarize these suggestions.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nROUND\nROUND\nTHE\n\nTABLE OF ST A TE AND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nTABLES\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nRECOGNITION OF CERTIFICATES AND DIPLOMAS GRANTED\n(a) BY STATE AND COUNTY AUTHORITIES, (6) BY SCHOOLS OF\nEDUCATION\nL.\n\nE.\n\nWOLFE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nSAN\n\nANTONIO,\n\nTEX.\n\nThe limits of this paper render it inexpedient to attempt to set forth the legal provisions in the different states relative to the recognition of certificates and diplomas. Suffice\nit to say that a large percentage of the states have some provisions on the subject; but\nthese provisions are often inadequate, and difficult to put into practice. For instance,\nthe state of Texas has a provision authorizing the granting of a permanent certificate to\nthe holder of a diploma from an institution of a high order; but only after the applicant\nhas taught three years in the state, and, of course, has already been obliged to undergo\none or more examinations.\nThe first question of importance is security to the state recognizing or validating\ncertificates and diplomas of other states. This security could be assured by Hmiting\nsuch recognition to state authorities and making the recognition optional with them.\nThe state authorities could assure themselves of the teaching ability of the applicant by\ncommunicating directly with the superintendent familiar with the applicant's work, and of\nhis scholarship by communicating with the board of examiners. As a condition of recognition, doubting Thomases among state authorities might be empowered to demand\ncertified copies of examination manuscripts. Of course, fees would be charged the\napplicant sufficient to cover the expenses attending above inquiries and investigations.\nFrom the above it is evident that state authorities can assure themselves beyond a\nreasonable doubt of the scholarship, teaching ability, and moral character of an applicant from another state. No good reason can be adduced why an appHcant, often obhged\nto remove to another state on short notice, should be compelled to undergo an examination. Quite frequently the applicant goes to another state with an invalid relative in\nsearch of health. The applicant may be an excellent teacher; and yet just at the time\nthat misfortune has increased the demand upon his earning power he is obliged to remain\nout of his chosen profession, or to spend time and energy in cramming for a certificate.\nBut I wish to base my reason for the recognition of certificates and diplomas upon*\nthe fundamental principles of sociology; namely, that the highest demand of society is a\nmaximum of social service. But the teacher serves society best in preparing pupils for\ntheir life-work. At each step in life, whether in business, professional, or other occupation,\none is confronted with a problem which calls for interpretation and solution thru the\nUse of the means at hand — the known. In a word, he is best equipped for life who has\nformed the habit of most efficiently organizing his resources (the known) in the solution\nof life's problems. Therefore, the great aim of the teacher should be the formation in\nthe pupil of the habit of using the known effectively in the acquisition of the unknown.\nThe pupil who has for many years, self -actively, used the known in the acquisition of the\nunknown in school has so firmly fixed the habit that it follows him out into the problems\nof life. Only such teachers can do this as possess in a strong degree the power to organize\nthe subject-matter of instruction. Therefore every available energy of the teacher should\nbe dedicated to acquiring this organizing ability. Time spent in preparing for the average\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n307\n\nexamination is practically wasted. The efficient teacher does his best professional work\nin his daily preparation. No matter how often he has taught the same subject before,\neven to the same grade of pupils, he must again and again organize the subject anew, and\nbreathe into it the breath of professional Ufe.\nNot only does it violate the principle of social service for an applicant from another\nstate to be cramming for an examination, but likewise for applicants to be doing so in their\nown states. Who will estimate the amount of energy, time, and money wasted in preparing for examinations, taking these examinations, and passing upon the manuscripts!\nInstead of our present system of examinations — county, city, and state — together with the\nsystem of county summer normals, or institutes, there should be, in every state, a system\nof schools of methods, with pupil practice departments, dedicated to the organization of\nsubject-matter and to self -active co-operative effort in the interest of the school, the home,\nand the community. The best available teaching power of the country should be placed\nin charge of these schools of methods.\nAll certificates now authorized or granted by state, county, and city boards should\nbe issued by these schools of methods as an incident to the instruction. Certificates\nthus issued would be a much better index to teaching abihty than those issued by the\npresent system. In the first place, the boards issuing them would be much stronger. In\nthe second place, these boards, during the several weeks' session of the school of methods,\nwould be given much better opportunity to judge of the appUcant's power to attack subjects pedagogically. The boards would also have opportunity to become acquainted\nwith the teacher's personality, and finally to see him handle a class of pupils in the practice department.\nBut not only should schools of methods under state authority be utilized, but private\nschools of methods, summer schools thruout the land, and especially the great schools of\neducation, such as the College of Education of the University of Chicago and the Teachers\nCollege of Columbia University. Many an ambitious teacher is prevented from spending\na summer in these great schools by being obliged to renew his certificate in the grind of the\ncounty institute, with its accompanying examination. By all means, state authorities\nshould be authorized to recognize certificates from schools of education and summer\nschools of high character.\nThese summer schools, instead of frittering away their time upon the promiscuous\n;rowd of students who drift in upon them, should be permitted to devote their energies\nlargely to carefully selected representatives from the different states, who would be able\nto carry back to their constituencies the educational reforms inculcated, and would become\nleaders in their respective communities. These representatives might be sent by counties,\nsenatorial districts, congressional districts, or by county, district, or state associations;\nor they might be sent by state schools of methods, by cities and towns, or by men of wealth.\nIt might be expedient to send them on condition that they donate a certain amount of\ninstruction in local schools of method on their return. The schools of education would\nprobably be willing to meet this movement by granting a limited number of free scholarships on properly guarded conditions.\n\nIn a word, it is proposed to take the energies now squandered upon certificate-getting\nand utilize it for gaining teaching power. The sacred demands of social service are that\nthe energies now put forth in certificate mills be as unerringly dedicated to the good of the\nchild as is the conscientious preparation by the teacher for his daily work.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nState Superintendent G. W. Nash, of South Dakota.— This is an age of marvelous activity. The United States, our beloved country, is extending her power comBut to\nIn world-affairs she is outstripping her neighbors.\nmercially and poHtically.\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": null, "text": "3o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nretain her proud position as leader in the affairs of the world, she must be pre-eminent\neducationally. Gratifying progress in education is noted in all the states. Georgia,\nTexas, Florida, and the Carolinas, with their sisters of the South, are in touch and sympathy with present-day advancement. States of the North now vie with one another in\nundertakings that count for genuine development. All commonwealths, east and west,\nare included in the general forward movement.\n\"In union there is strength\" — educationally as otherwise — and we must unite our\nstate educational plans into a tangible whole, if what we attempt is to be recognized as in\nany sense a national system. To establish national standards of qualification for those\nwho shall teach in our public schools will be of substantial assistance in effecting the\ndesired unity. The topic under discussion bears directly upon this general proposition\nand is, therefore, of great importance to the large body of American teachers who are well\nequipped scholastically for their responsible work. Shall the states of the Union remain\npetty educational monarchies, separated by walls of law, and given merely to the worship\nof local institutions; or shall they establish a national standard of excellence — neither too\nhigh nor too low — to which all sections may measure up and thus secure suitable recognition ? This seems to be the question, and the biased manner in which I have stated\nit indicates my view-point. The query may be an old one — it may have been debated\nmany times — and yet it is pertinent today. I entertain the belief that we should have\ngeneral recognition of state certificates and life-diplomas. This concession should be\nmade, no matter whether such credentials are based upon graduation from the advanced\ncourses of accredited normal schools, upon completion of approved college and university\ncourses leading to degrees, or upon passing examinations in certain required subjects.\nCompetent graduates of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Cornell, or of the State\nUniversities of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, Virginia, South Dakota, who\nhave taken satisfactory courses in pedagogy, should be recognized everywhere as entitled\nto receive, without examination, licenses to teach. Universities, colleges, and normal\nschools of high grade located anywhere within the borders of our Union of states are\nentitled to due consideration, and their graduates should be encouraged to enter into\neducational leadership thruout the land. But who shall fix the standard and accredit\nschools? To such inquiry I reply that the national Commissioner of Education could\nfittingly perform such service. The Commissioner's judgment would naturally govern\nwith the several state departments.\nSome objector may advocate a less liberal policy. He may insist that the present\nNew York or Nebraska attitude should prevail, and that teachers, regardless of training\nor experience, should serve successfully for a number of months in their adopted state before having original credentials recognized. But such contention seems to me untenable. It stamps as valueless everything except local examinations and experience, and\ndiscredits many courses and schools especially fitted to develop superior teachers. Its\ntendency would be to eliminate entirely the young blood. Is it just and fair thus to ignore\nadvanced credentials, and to require that a teacher shall be put to the test and serve as a\nprobationist ? The law of comity demands that skilled teachers shall be permitted\nwithout embarrassment to pass beyond the borders of their own commonwealth.\nIt was my privilege last summer to communicate with the various state superintendents on this subject. Replies to my letters indicate a healthy sentiment in favor\nof interstate recognition of advanced teachers' certificates. \"I believe in reciprocity\nalong the line suggested, but regret to say that the laws of this state do not give the superintendent any latitude in the matter,\" is a typical answer. Several letters expressed a\nwillingness on the part of superintendents to make certain concessions to the South Dakota\ndepartment, provided that, in return, similar concessions should be granted. One would\nreciprocate on state certificates and life-diplomas granted purely on examination; another\nwould agree to an exchange of courtesies based on certificates issued as a result of graduation from university, college, or normal school; and still another would join in an indis-\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n300\n\ncriminate recognition of state certificates of high grade. If one is to reciprocate along\nthe various Hnes suggested, a definite policy is impossible, and exact justice to the individual teacher is out of the question.\nSuperintendents, generally, recognize the need for legislation upon the point at issue,\nand will, I believe, be willing to urge the passage of wise laws bearing upon the situation.\nThe standard of education in South Dakota is high, yet we shall gladly raise it, if need be\nso as to secure recognition under interstate reciprocity. If practically uniform laws\ngoverning the issuance of limited state and life certificates shall be secured, and if then,\nin generous mood, the state superintendents shall exercise their rights under such laws,\none of the barriers to real educational progress in America will be removed.\n\nARTHUR\n\nINCREASING\n\nTHE EFFICIENCY\n\nLEFEVRE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nOF RURAL\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nAUSTIN,\n\nTEX.\n\nSo many things are requisite for such efficiency of the rural schools as would even\napproximate practicable reforms that it would be futile to attempt to describe details in\nthe time allowed. The problems are many-sided, and emphasis might be greatly varied\nas bearing more on skill in education as a process, or on the right essence of education as\na result, or on administrative questions of ways and means. Whatever may be the point\nof emphasis, however, wise discussion of any aspect is possible only among those able\nand willing to consider each in the light of all. Perhaps few men can successfully specialize inmore than one of the three departments; but whether he be teacher, or organizer\nof courses of study and executive officer in general, or representative and administrator\nof the social energies which furnish the physical basis, each, I say, needs intelligent sympathy with the functions of the others. Only when teachers, school superintendents, and\neducational boards work with such reciprocal comprehension can they cease to work at\ncross-purposes. As for state superintendents, is it possible for anyone of narrow interests\nto be a useful counselor and friend of all these, and in addition do his part toward arousing\nand guiding the social forces that supply the motive power which it is the business of\nteachers and school officers to apply? Truly, none is sufficient for these things; but in\nthis heyday of specialization there is need to uphold the idea that in education specialization ought to be a matter of emphasis, not of exclusion.\nBefore any system of instruction can be rightly called educational, it must be ascertained, not merely whether its pupils have learned something, but whether they have been\nput on the way of education; for it is a process which lasts as long as life lasts. To be\nintelligently sympathetic with every sort of human activity is to be educated. Neither\nblind sympathy nor unsympathetic knowledge yields genuine education, but only the\nunion of sympathy with knowledge. An essential object of the first stages of formal\ninstruction is to awaken and maintain interest; of the last stage, to lead to independent\ninvestigation and judgment, nowhere tending to dry up the fountains of sympathy, nor to\nconfine the waters of understanding from all save certain regions.\nThis ideal is not mentioned with any rhetorical purpose, but to indicate a potent line\nof action. To have ideals simply means to have a \"clear head,\" to know the ends striven\nfor. Effort without ideals is anarchy; effort under false ideals is thraldom. Every, practical\nexigency should be dealt with as such; but the true purpose ought 'to be kept in view.\nIt has often been shown that education, when it is dallied with or mistakenly attempted,\nis costly, troublesome, and skeptically regarded; but those who have perceived its true\nnature and aim never complain of its cost, never harbor a doubt about it. The high aim\nis the practical and efficient one, because all incidental utilities are included, and if inner\nqualification for the right use of wealth does not keep pace with its acquisition, society\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": null, "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nplunges toward ruin like a runaway locomotive engine. We should never confine pleas\nfor the proper support of schools, or for progressive educational enterprises, to the scope\nof a hard-headed debate with a close-fisted computer of pecuniary returns to the individual. It is the doom of selfishness that it cannot see clearly; and the people are not as selfish\nas they are supposed to be by many men who, while priding themselves on their practical\nsense, are blind to some of the most practical laws of nature and human nature.\nIt is the purpose of this round-table session to bring the fruits of experience and reflection to bear upon means of increasing the efficiency of those schools which belong to our\nvast expanses of rural Hfe, the very foundations of the commonwealth. The four subheads for the discussion wiiich is to follow this preliminary paper have been chosen by the\ndesigner of our program with wisdom and insight. They embrace all the phases of our\nproblem, and pointedly bring out the need of considering each in the light of all, which\nhas been responsible for my somewhat discursive introduction to the suggestions which I\nnow offer under the four assigned heads.\nI.\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIt is important that leaders should be able to look ahead, but it is almost equally\nimportant that a new movement should not be advocated until conditions have been\nripened for it. The time seems to have come for the application all over this country,\nwhere suitable to local conditions, of a remedy for the peculiar embarrassments of rural\nschools. The remedy is no longer an experiment. In the execution of any design it is\nthe individual that counts; but in so far as organization can secure results, every condition changed by normally developing consolidation is changed for the better.\nThe consolidation of rural schools is a broad administrative question requiring, as a\ncondition precedent, the formation and guidance of an effective public opinion. It is\nonly upon this phase of our first subtopic that it is fitting for me to speak in this company.\nIn Texas I write and speak about consolidation, reporting as best I can the experience\nof others, and our State University \" and our College of Agriculture and Mechanics are\nresponding to my appeals for bulletins giving detailed accounts of the work of leaders in\nthis reform; but the movement in Texas is only in its inception.\nIn Texas we need no legislation on the subject. Compulsory laws ought to be avoided.\nIf necessary, simply repeal restrictive, or enact permissive laws. Zeal for uniformity has\nwrought much damage in the educational work of states. I am opposed to compelling\npeople to do things better left to their free will. Simply break the shackles and let the\nrural school districts be permitted to help themselves by consolidation and local taxation,\nwhere the majority of their citizens are so disposed. It would remain for us to inform\nthe people of assured facts, in order that they may learn what the most satisfactory way of\nmanaging rural schools is, unless local conditions compel the continuance of weak little\nschools. We should not be in over-weening haste — that bane of many reformers. It\nis often profitable to reflect upon the long centuries which have led to the stadium at\nwhich we find ourselves. Misapplications of theory may thus be avoided; and each\nstep could be a permanent advance.\nII.\n\nIMPROVEMENTS\n\nIN COURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nAND\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF GRADING\n\nThese problems of educational processes concern some of the ends of administrative\nmeasures like consoUdation; but they in turn need to be dealt with as means to supreme\naims. We consoHdate in order to improve courses of study. We should frame courses\nof study, and make assignments of time for completing them, in order to develop the selfactivity which is the object of any truly educational regimen, and in order to direct that\nself -activity to ma' e suitable advances toward the comprehensive intelligence and sympathy and efliciency which belong to the full stature of a man.\nIt is one of the reasons for consolidating poor little rural schools, that it thereby\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n311\n\nbecomes feasible to provide suitable studies in subjects relating to agriculture, together\nwith teachers capable of offering such instruction. No one need dream, however, that\nthe complaints of those who are justly dissatisfied with the results of schools can be cured\nby so simple a remedy as changing the course of study. Such improvements make good\nteachers more effective, and may diminish stultifying effects of incompetent teachers;\nbut there is no help for the results of attempts to educate the young by means of uneducated teachers hired at starvation wages, except to quit the absurd attempt.\nRefreshment of courses of study, and especially a genuine correlation of subjectmatter such as has never yet been attempted, demands now and will ever require the best\nefforts of the best schoolmen. There is more than time — priceless as time is— to be thus\ngained by the mutual reinforcement belonging to cognate studies. How neglected this\nmeans of increased efficiency has been is apparent upon the mere mention of present\ntext-books, which almost completely ignore it.\nThe easiest and most definite improvement in prevailing systems of grading is to\nreduce the number of years assigned for the elementary course of study. The one advantage that the old-fashioned rural school has enjoyed is represented by the significant fact\nthat pupils, there fitted to enter high schools, have been prepared in a much shorter time\nthan the preposterous eight years of the city elementary school. Vital correlation of\nsubject-matter of instruction must remain the chief means of improving and economizing\nteaching in the old-style country schools; but for the reformed rural school conditions of\nsystematic grading will not differ materially from conditions in cities and towns. Such\nis one of the chief claims, and justly so, of the donsohdating reform. In this, therefore, as\nin most other matters, we shall hear less and less of differences, and more and more of the\nessential Hkeness, of country and town schools; and it is of immense importance that the\nnew rural school should be saved from imitating city schools in grading to a twelve-year\nstandard for elementary and high-school courses combined.\nAll that is attempted in the prevailing twelve-year course can be better accomplished\nby the same teaching force in ten years. The twelve-year plan was foisted upon our\nAmerican systems by would-be imitators of the German system, who did not understand\nit; because that system accomplished in nine years all that they tried to spread over twelve.\nThe last two or three years of the usual eight years of elementary school, by common\nexperience, present the most troublesome problems. It is more difficult to walk mincingly than to step out along the pathway. It is hard, also, to make an empty bag stand\nupright. It is chiefly here (and not in the high schools) that the boys take a disgust for\nstudy and an undue proportion of them leave school. And how can this be wondered at,\nif we face the fact that they are asked to spend eight years preparing to enter the lowest\ngrade of the high school, and find themselves at fifteen or sixteen conning infantile manuals\nunder female tutelage? There is not the slightest difficulty in \"telescoping\" an eightyear course into a six-year course. If you will adopt six years for the standard elementary\ngrades, among other benefits too numerous to mention, you will begin to keep the boys\nfor the high school. (In consoHdating rural schools, talk about six-, not eight-, room\nhouses.) The most discouraging experience of my own professional life has been the\nslowness with which protests against the eight-grade system have gained a hearing, even\namong students of its evil consequences. How will diminishing the college course by\nhalf help the boys who rightly spurn the stultification of the elementary schools ? And\nif two years be saved at the stage where they are worse than wasted, what need for lopping\noff at the top ? I hope for speedy results from the investigations of our new Society of\nEducational Research. No statistics could make the truth clearer to me than it has been\nfor many years; but those researches will place the facts beyond the sphere of individual\ninsight, and will, I hope, cause them to be recognized by all.\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": null, "text": "312\n\nNATIONAL\nIII.\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nIN THE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\n[Atlanta\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nTo secure good teachers two things are necessiry: right discrimination on the part\nof those who select the teachers, and money to pay them. Both are necessary, altho\nthe best human service is too exalted a thing to be priced in the coin of the market; and\nif those who receive such service conceive that they \"hire\" it, they make a mistake whose\ntendency is to pollute the very wellsprings of noble action. Persons charged with the\nresponsibihty of licensing teachers for the rural schools, whether by examination or by\nnormal-school certificates, can do much toward raising standards; but the most effective\nmeasures are those which will gradually preclude incompetent trustees. Districts that\ntake no care for their schools must continue to drag along with short-term schools, housed\nin shanties, and often with incompetent teachers chosen and underpaid by incompetent\ntrustees. Only where public opinion repudiates the notions of economy whereby the\ncheapest teacher is sought regardless of quaHfications is the service of competent teachers\ndeserved. But if leaders do their part, gradually a correct conception of the practical\nconditions of educational work will be formed in public opinion, until, after much consohdating of weak Httle schools, and the consequent election of suitable trustees to manage such larger affairs, the whole tendency will draw the backward districts into line with\nthe general advance. By such means, it may at last be proved that we have dealt wisely\nwith the paramount governmental problem of a free people. A proper conception of the\nimmensity of the work will save from impatience and discouragement. Great things\ndevelop slowly. We must depend in part upon the youths who leave existing good schools.\nThey will soon be electors and trustees, and will help bring to pass all needed reforms.\nIV.\n\nEXPERT\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nThe supervision of rural schools devolves in the main upon the county superintendent, or some officer of similar functions. The conditions of the work vary greatly in\ndifferent states. In the southern states problems of support and organization need expert\nsolution. If the people and school trustees are allowed to sit in darkness, only small and\nincidental benefits can be secured by overseeing teachers as they struggle with impossible\ntasks. Where conditions demand it, it is the superintendent's paramount duty to direct\npublic attention to the plain business propositions which the people must deal with properly, before teachers can accomplish by strictly professional means the vital results of\neducation. The people of our rural regions in the South stand more ready to do their\npart than Mwexpert supervisors of rural schools commonly report, if only the way be clearly\nshown to them. The first duty of supervisors is to explain to trustees and people the\nnecessity of certain improvements and the means of obtaining them.\nThe support of schools nowhere in the United States depends upon the wealth of the\nstate, but upon the local appreciation of pubhc education. As a cold economic proposition,\nevery state can afford good schools of every needed variety, and cannot afford poor schools.\nThe man who claims that his district is too poor to maintain good public schools is not\nonly mistaken as a matter of fact, but he also perpetuates his own and his neighbor's\npresent poverty. A part of the amount contributed by any state for the Cuban and\nPhilippine wars would have given that state public schools as well supported as any in\nthe Union. Tell the people that they may estimate from their own experience with revenue stamps how difficult it would be to resume a part of that now happily abolished expenditure, in order to provide sanitary and refining schoolhouses and grounds, longer terms,\nthe needed libraries and equipment, refreshed courses of study, and efficient teachers for\nthe children for whose good in all other respects they labor with continual self-denial.\nThe method of supplementing state apportionment by local support is not only\naccordant with the fundamental principles and highest hopes of a true democracy, in\nits fostering of self-responsibility instead of entire dependence upon distributions by the\nstate government, but it is the practical method thruout our common country.\nIn the\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n313\n\nUnited States at large 4 per cent, of the money expended on public common schools is\nderived from permanent funds, 16 per cent, from state taxation, leaving 80 per cent,\nsupplied locally.\nNo details of technical supervision can be included in these condensed remarks;\nbut I may say that uniformity is not a criterion of excellence, nor is systematizing an end\nin itself. In such regards there seems to be as much need for self-restraint as for exertion.\nFlat requirements in such matters as daily programs are generally ill-advised, and too\nminutely prescribed courses of study do more harm than good. Those who demand one\nrigidly prescribed course for all the schools of a county, or even of a state, are visionary\nadmirers of uniformity for uniformity's sake, who do not concern themselves with existent\nfacts. Let supervisors require and test results.\nI trust the discussion which is to follow will bring out in some detail many things\nthat I have been able only to refer to in general terms; and, in conclusion, I shall merely\nstate that signs of educational progress are not confined to the advances observable in our\nown profession, but there are many evidences of such encouraging progress made by the\npeople within the last two years in their share of our great undertaking as should inspire\nthe teachers of this country to do their part still more nobly in the future than in the past.\n\nCONSOLIDATION\nJ. Y. JOYNER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nOF SCHOOLS\nINSTRUCTION\n\nOF NORTH\n\nCAROLINA\n\nIn discussions of this sort most benefit is derived from comparison of experience in\ndealing with similar problems.\nI.\n\nFACTS\n\nSUGGESTING\n\nREASONS\n\nFOR\n\nCONSOLIDATION\nCAROLINA\n\nOF\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nIN\n\nNORTH\n\n1. Large number of districts, small area of each district, and small number of children in each district: 5,370 white and 2,346 colored school districts; inhabitable area\nof state, 48,000 square miles; average size of white school district, 8.9 square miles; average\nnumber of white children per district, 84; average number in 1902, only 73; average number of colored children to district, 93; average number in 1902, only 82.\n2. Rapid increase in number of districts until 1902: 47 per cent, of all white school\ndistricts and 44 per cent, of all colored school districts contained less than 65 children of\nschool age — the minimum allowed by law except for sparsity of population or geographical\nbarriers, such as streams, swamps, mountains, etc. In reports of all white teachers of\ntwo entire townships, in township meetings recently attended by the state superintendent\nin one of the most level counties of the state, practically free from geographical barriers,\nonly one teacher reported a census school population of 65 — the minimum fixed by law.\nIn these townships there was a little one-room box of a schoolhouse for every mile or two\nof the public highway, notwithstanding the law which has for years forbidden building\nof a new schoolhouse within three miles of another.\n3. Some natural results of this multiplicity of small districts and schools: From\n1874 to 1902 the state and county school tax had been increased from 6 J to 18 cents on\n$100 of property, the total school fund had been more than quadrupled, and yet a special\nstate appropriation of $200,000 was necessary in 1901 and since, to give even a four-month\nschool term in all pubHc schools. During the quarter of a century before this appropriation was made the public-school term had been increased in length less than three weeks,\nand the average salary of the public-school teacher had been increased not one cent.\nFifty-nine per cent, of all the districts needing aid from this special appropriation for this\npurpose were small districts containing less than 65 children of school age, many of them\ncontaining only from 20 to 30, and some not more than 10 or 15. The increase in the\nnumber of districts had more than kept pace with the increase in population, wealth, and\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": null, "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nschool fund, and the efficiency of schools had been increased but little. With a fixed school\nfund for each county, the larger the number of schools among which it must be divided,\nthe smaller the amount of money each school will receive; the smaller the number of schools,\nthe larger the amount of money each school will receive. More money for each school\nmeans more house, more equipment, more teacher, longer term. Further facts are unnecessary to prove the existence of too many Uttle districts and schools in North Carolina,\nthe folly of retaining them, and the wisdom of consolidating them.\nII.\n\nOBSTACLES\n\nTO\n\nCONSOLIDATION\n\n1. Selfishness and politics. — Most men naturally desire a schoolhouse as near their\ndoors as possible, for the convenience of their own little family circles or for the employment of their own dear daughters, sisters, cousins, or aunts as teachers therein. They\nare naturally loath to give up their little schools for the greatest good to the greatest number,\nwhen once established because of convenience, profit, love of control, attachment to the\nold schoolhouse, and conservatism in clinging to the old rather than trying the new. Politics isoften a cause of little districts and an obstacle to their removal. The cry of a schoolhouse at every man's door is not an unpopular one, and the demagog who is always ready\nto catch votes with any sort of a promise, without regard to the possibility or wisdom of\nkeeping it, is ever ready upon occasion to raise the cry for temporary gain. The political\nsorehead is ever ready to flaunt in the face of the timid the scarecrow of ruin to the party,\nto procure or keep for his selfish ends his little district and his little school. Before the\ndisfranchisement of the negro this was often used very effectively in counties in which\nthe contest was close and no white votes could be safely lost.\n2. A large territory and a sparse population. — It is almost impossible for states with\na comparatively small territory, a dense population, a large school fund, and, only one\nsystem of schools to appreciate the difficulty of this problem of larger schools in a state\nwith a large territory, a sparse population, a small school fund, and two separate systems\nof schools for two races. To illustrate: Average number of inhabitants in North Carolina to the square mile, 39; average number of white children of school age to the square\nmile, 9; average population to the square mile of north Atlantic division of states, 129.8;\naverage of the state of Massachusetts, 348.9; area of Massachusetts, about one-seventh\nthat of North Carolina; her school population, one and seven-tenths that of North Carolina; her school fund, eight times that of North Carolina; she supports one system, while\nNorth Carolina must support two in practically all her territory.\n3. Bad roads. — To make the problem of consolidation in North Carolina, with her\nsparse population, large territory, small school fund, and double system of schools, still\nmore difficult in many of the very districts where the population is sparsest and the need\nfor consolidation greatest, the condition of the county roads is such, during the season\nwhen the schools are in session, as to render transportation of pupils impractical without\ngreater expense than can be supplied out of a small school fund, and to stand in the way\nalso of requiring children to walk far to get to a schoolhouse in a larger district. Without\nbetter roads and larger school funds, transportation of pupils in most rural districts of the\nSouth is hardly practicable. In any event, I believe that, at present, consolidation of districts cannot successfully be carried beyond the point of leaving a schoolhouse within\nreasonable walking distance of every child. In a mild climate any healthy child can walk\nover an ordinary road two or three miles to school without injury. Later, when improved\nroads and more favorable conditions make transportation practicable, these districts will\nprobably become the nuclei of larger districts still and the feeders to the township high\nschools.\n5. Lack of county maps showing townships, roads, streams, centers of population,\netc., and the consequent lack of information in regard to size, boundaries, topography,\ndistances, etc., of small districts and proposed consolidated districts. Such maps are an\nabsolute necessity for consolidating intelligently.\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nIII.\n\nHAVE\n\nWHAT\n\nWE\n\nAND\n\nDONE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nIN CONSOLIDATING\nDURING\nTHE PAST\n\nRURAL\nDISTRICTS\nTWO\nYEARS\n\nIN\n\nNORTH\n\n315\n\nCAROLINA\n\nDuring the year ending June 30, 1902, there was a decrease of 179 in the rurul districts inNorth CaroHna; from July i, 1902, to June 30, 1903, the number of white school\ndistricts was reduced from 5,653 to 5,370— a decrease of 283 white districts during that\nschool year; during the same year there was a decrease of 95 colored school districts,\nmaking a total decrease of 378. This represents a consoHdation of at least 600 white and\n200 colored districts in one year. In two years the total number of districts, white and\ncolored, has been decreased 557, representing a consolidation of at least 1,200 small\ndistricts.\nIV.\n\nHOW\n\nWE\n\nHAVE\n\nDONE\n\nIT\n\nOur general method has been to convince, persuade, lead the people; not to force,\nor seem to force, them when it could be avoided. Radical action, in defiance of the\nwishes of a majority of the people concerned, always brings about harmful reaction.\nThe objections to consolidation are natural and human, and should be met wisely, tactfully, and sympathetically with reason and argument and patience, not with abuse and\ndogmatism and impatience. The final movement for consolidation should come from a\nmajority of the people most concerned, as a result of enlightened pubUc sentiment on the\nquestion, and not from outsiders. The movement in each county must be led, if possible, by home folks; the natural leaders of this and all other educational movements in each\ncounty are the school officers, the county superintendent, the members of the county\nboard of education, the school committeemen, the teachers. If these forces can be organized, informed, interested, set to work, and directed, the battle will be won.\nIn our state and district associations, county superintendents have discussed the\nquestion, committed themselves, individually and collectively, to the movement, and\ntaken counsel together about ways and means of securing consoUdation. Thru circular\nletters and conferences, county boards of education, committeemen, and teachers have been\nreached and interested by the county superintendent and the state superintendent. Thru\nbulletins on the subject from the office of the state superintendent, and such other\nliterature upon the subject as could be obtained, thru the county newspapers, ever wilhng\nto aid in any good cause, the general public has been reached and informed, and public\nsentiment aroused. County superintendents have been urged to talk it privately and\npublicly in districts in which the conditions were favorable for successful consolidation,\nand to interest, if possible, a few influential citizens in such districts in the subject and set\nthem talking it up. Thru blanks sent out for the purpose, each county superintendent\nhas reported to the state superintendent and the campaign committee for the promotion\nof public education districts in which the conditions are favorable for consolidation, and\nsome of the people are interested in it. During the summer, with the aid of the funds\nfurnished by the Southern Education Board, a regular campaign for public education has\nbeen carried on under the direction of this committee, of which the governor, the director\nof the Southern Education Board for North Carolina, and the state superintendent are the\nexecutive committee.\nAt the favorable points in the various counties reported by county superintendents,\nappointments have been made for educational ralHes and addrbsses by state superintendents, local speakers, and speakers sent by the executive committee. When the time\nwas ripe, petitions asking for consolidation were generally circulated and signed by a\nmajority of the patrons of the public schools in the districts concerned.\nFrequently consoUdation has been encouraged and secured by standing offers of the\ncounty board of education to aid liberally in erecting large and comfortable new houses\ncentrally located, provided the people in small districts, with old uncomfortable houses,\nwould agree to consolidation. The state board of education has encouraged and stimulated consolidation by giving preference to the applications of consolidated districts for\nloans from the loan fund for building and equipping schoolhouses.\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nV.\n\nHOW\n\nIT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nWORKS\n\nI have time only for a mere mention of some of the beneficial results of consolidation:\n1. Better teachers, better houses and equipment, longer terms, better classification.\n2. Increase in enrolment and attendance.\nIn many instances these have doubled\nthe combined enrolment and attendance of the two or three little schools consolidated.\n3. ■ Increase in pride and enthusiasm of students, and in confidence and respect of\npatrons.\n4. Stimulation of greater competition to greater effort by students and teachers.\n5. Economy in house and fuel, in number of teachers, and in time and energy of\nteacher, thru concentration on fewer subjects and classes.\n6. Best objective argument for consolidation, and best and surest silencer of honest\nopposition.\n7. Increase in value and demand for property by inducing desirable immigration.\n' 8. Preparation for local taxation and stimulus to this and to voluntary subscriptions\nfor schools.\n\nIMPROVEMENTS\nDELOS\n\nFALL,\n\nSTATE\n\nIN\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nAND\n\nSYSTEM\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nOF GRADING\n\nLANSING,\n\nMICH.\n\nIt can scarcely be claimed for the present course of study for rural schools that it is\nthe natural product of a steady and gradual evolution from its early form to the somewhat\ncompHcated condition in which it now exists. The fact is that that growth has been\nrather spasmodic and irregular. Forty years ago it consisted in the exaltation of the three\nR's to the exclusion of everything else; but gradually, by the persistence and energy of its\nadvocate, the particular favorite study of some enthusiastic educator was somewhat\nreluctantly admitted. He in turn was followed by someone else equally ardent or some\nother study, which was likewise admitted; until we now have a course which is enriched,\nas the common tradition goes, but rather vv^hat some other more thoughtful would possibly\ncharacterize as congested, by the introduction of history, ancient and modern, and science\nin the form of nature study, physiology, civil government, literature, manual training,\nmusic, drawing, elementary algebra, geometry, and several others.\nWe have doubtless outgrown the idea that the aim of the school is to minister simply\nto the intellectual life of the child, filling his mind with facts and figures, laws and principles, all properly labeled and pigeon-holed in the mind, to be called out and utiHzed as the\nexigencies of life demand. Theoretically at least, we assent to the statement, so often\nmade by educational leaders, that a course of study should have as its ultimate and sole\naim the development and enrichment of the child's life-experience, and provide a means\nfor the training of his powers of self-expression and achievement.\nThe rural school must be so improved as adequately and thoroly to prepare a boy\nfor the new and taxing duties which will be required of him when he attains to his majority\nin the middle of the twentieth century. I think it must carry the pupil farther than the\ntraditional seven or eight grades; for I cannot escape the conviction, which I have so\nrepeatedly urged, that the minimum amount of schooling which will train a boy to take\nhis part in the world is that represented by the present high-school course. If a high\nschool training could be given to every boy and girl in the land, it would hft the general\nlevel of citizenship and push America to a position even more decidedly in the front than\nthe commanding one we now occupy among the nations of the world.\nIt is a general principle, applicable to city and country alike, that the course of study\nshould embrace subjects drawn from the environment, and should have constant reference\nto the everyday life, of the pupils.\nIt therefore follows that the rural school course cannot\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n317\n\nbe like that of the city school; and the old saying that \"what is good for the city is good\nfor the country\" is at once destroyed as being illogical and unpedagogical.\nIn several important respects the school must be more distinctly rural than it now is,\nso as to fit its pupils for a life upon the farm, to teach them to acquire an intelUgent appreciation of the country, its beauties, its elevating and refining tendencies, and to adapt\nthemselves to and enter into all its privileges. The course of study must be planned with\nthis in view. It is not necessary that it should be made to conform to the curriculum of\nthe city schools, for many studies which are perfectly adapted to the youth of the city\nhave no appropriateness here. Nature study, agricultural science, a critical study of the\nsoil, the sky, the forest, the field; botany, zoology, meteorology, manual training, and\ndomestic science, will take place of Latin and Greek; ancient history will be replaced by\nUnited States history, special prominence being given to recent and current history; civics\nvdll be emphasized; the study of the human body will be continued, but with a greater\nreference to the maintenance of health and the production of a robust, strong, and virile\nmanhood. I venture to say that athletics, systematized so that all shall get the benefit\narising therefrom — rationalized and modified greatly from the present exaggerated form,\nwhich seeks to take nine or eleven young men, already abnormally developed, and make\nfhem still more abnormal — will continue to be pursued, and will properly supplement the\nphysical exercise incident to farm-life.\nIn the improved course of study attention will be given to such studies of the country\nimmediately surrounding the schoolhouse as will furnish a proper basis for the study of\ngeography, and as will give material for oral and written descriptions to be used in language\nwork. These will include a study of the general features of the landscape — the soil, the\nvegetation, the hills and valleys, the streams, springs, wells, and lakes, and their relation\nto the underlying rock, etc., etc. The great value of this method of procedure over that\nwhich places its main dependence upon the printed statements found in books will be\nthat the pupil will be trained in the habit of obtaining his knowledge at first hand, as a\nresult of his own observation, thereby developing an independence of observation, of making inferences from what he observes, and a power to think for himself, which no other\nmethod can produce. A marked result will be — and the human race has made a great\ngain when this result is reached — that the pupil will have learned to make direct reference\nof his knowledge to the actual conditions which prevail in country Ufe; better still, he will\nbe able to change those conditions and to determine what they shall be. He is no longer\na creature of circumstances, bound to endure whatever the fates bring to him; but he\nrises superior to his surroundings in his power to control and mold them.\nIt is worth repeating that the township high school will not afford all the advantages\nof the city high school; but it is equally true that the rural high school will furnish many\nadvantages which, in the very nature of the case, cannot well be afforded by the city\nschool. At the best, the work of the city high school must be done, so far as the pupils\nare concerned, thru the medium of books. Most of their knowledge must be obtained\nby the method of authority from the printed page, and only in exceptional cases will they\nlearn by an appeal to the real objects of knowledge, thus obtaining their knowledge at\nfirst hand. On the other hand, the student in the rural high school will go to the original\nsource, to nature itself, for the facts of zoology, botany, mineralogy, meteorology, physics,\nchemistry, physical geography, and the Uke. By this method he will acquire the power\nto read and interpret facts at first hand, and he will insist upon carrying the same valuable\nmethod into lines of research. He will be given an independence of thought and a habit\nof reliance upon his own powers; he will be impressed by the largeness and freedom of\nthe country; he will be freed from the artificiality and conventionaUty which more or less\ndominate Hfe in the city and are quite characteristic of the city school; he will broaden in\nspirit and in aspiration by drinking in the free air of the country, by his contact with and\nstudy of the broad expanse, of nature— the sky above him, the fields and forests; and the\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": null, "text": "3i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ncountry will continue in the future, as it has in the past, only in a more emphatic sense,\nto furnish the trwly great men of our nation.\nTo speak more specifically of the actual working and conduct of the school, I suggest\nthat it must exalt the two R's, reading and writing, into supreme importance, teaching\nthem to the exclusion, if need be, of many of the subjects which are now crowded into the\ncurriculum of the public school. In the last analysis of the method employed in obtaining\nwhat is called an education, it will be seen that one effort which must be made is supreme\nabove all others. The pupil must mentally discern the object he is studying, whether it\nbe a printed page in the text-book, a map or a chart, or an experiment in the laboratory.\nHe must not only see the separate parts into which the problem is divided, but he must\nalso see the relation which these parts sustain to each other, and finally see the parts\nforming one harmonious and complete whole.\nBy the same order of mind and by the same process, he will afterward see and interpret the facts of nature, discern the signs of the times, estimate the future of the wheat\ncrop, or divine his pohtical duty. In all this, and in the acquiring of all that which will\nfinally develop the boy into a forceful citizen, there is used a process that has long been\nconsidered as important, but which has not been emphasized as it ought to be — a process\ncalled by the common term \" reading.\" Too great a distinction is ordinarily made between\nreading and the process known as \"study \" To study does not require a different order\nof mind from that employed in reading. Study is only intensified reading, and a large\nproportion of the difficulties encountered by the child in his studies would vanish if he\nwere taught to read properly.\nIn this connection it is urged that a much-needed change in our course in mathematics isto remove altogether all formal abstract number-work from the first four grades\n— all so called figuring and dealing with abstract problems. The number- work of these\ngrades should be wholly concrete, and only that which grows incidentally and naturally\nout of the other subjects pursued. In the place of what was formerly done in arithmetic,\nthere should be more language -work, consisting of conversations concerning objects which\nhave been observed by the pupils. Reading should be so emphasized and taught that the\nchild will have mastered the mechanics of reading by the time he has completed the third\ngrade.\nOn the other hand, it may be affirmed that a proper definition of the process by which\nthe knowledge obtained by reading and study is utilized is the one commonly known by\nthe name of \"writing.\" The expression of thought, by whatever method employed, is\nby a natural and logical expansion of the ordinary definition, only that of writing. These\nwords with which I had hoped to impress you with my point of view were put together\nby a process which is narrowly and technically known as writing. I am now, as I speak\nto you, employing identically the same process, with the same end in view. At another\ntime I might take the brush of the painter, the pencil of the artist, the facile touch of the\nmusician, the skill of the architect, or the marvelous power of the artisan with his tools,\nas he accurately expresses his thought by the creation of his skill and invention. All this\nis writing. The acquirement of a thought is reading, the expression of the thought is\nwriting; and I would have every pupil in our public schools thoroly grounded in these\ntwo arts. Give the boy these two powers, and he will educate himself.\nThe first great end, then, which is to be reached by any course of study is to fix habits\nof study by which the pupil may gather and interpret knowledge of the world in which he\nlives. The second end is to develop the power to express fluently and accurately the\nthoughts obtained by the first method. Both these lines of work may, with a proper\nexpansion of the ordinary definition, be included under the term \"language study;\" and\nthe problem of the course of study and the conduct of the school, for the first three grades,\nat least, may adequately be solved, first, by furnishing the objects of knowledge and\nstimulating the pupil consciously to use the accurate sense-perception which often lies\ndormant until aroused by a skillful teacher; secondly, by so inspiring the pupil as to cause\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n319\n\nhim to express himself freely and accurately, either by word of mouth, by drawing, by the\naid of tools in manual training, or by some other form of expression.\nFor the rural schools the language-work should be based almost entirely upon observations which the pupils may make in what is known under the general name of \" nature\nstudy.\" This observation should not be undertaken so much for the science to be discovered as, rather, to get proper material for language work. For this reason, the work in\ngeography should return more to what may be called local geography, including the study\nof locations, distance, direction, boundaries, etc. The relation of physiography to everyday Ufe should be emphasized, and the ordinary course in geography might well be\nenriched by paying more attention to commercial geography.\nGeography and arithmetic can well be correlated by teaching many of the ordinary\npractical measurements, in fields, bins, haymows, and haystacks; estimates by weight of\nlive stock, and estimates of lumber and wood in standing timber; cost of building fences,\netc., simple forms of bookkeeping, such as keeping accounts with fields of grain, orchards,\nherds of stock, flocks of sheep, etc.\nThe rural school of the future will be a positive and forceful social center, growing\nout of an enlarged appreciation of those adjuncts which inevitably accompany a wellorganized and advanced system of education. Literary societies, debating clubs, women's\nclubs, farmers' clubs, lectures, concerts, grange meetings — these, separately or all combined, will be recognized as consistent and logical factors of the public school. The good\nto be gained by this combination of educational appliances will be realized by old and\nyoung alike, and all will catch the enthusiasm for accurate knowledge and more of it, and\nwill enter into one common campaign for education. Money will be invested in apphances for scientific demonstrations, in laboratory equipments, lecture-room apparatus,\nmaps, charts, and libraries, all of which may be used in the interest of all classes, lecture\ncourses, grange and club meetings.\nIt may be added that the Michigan State Manual and Course 0} Study for Rural\nSchools provides a course which follows the general outUne given in this paper. It provides a course for ten graces.\n\nHIGHER\n\nFRANCIS\n\nSTANDARDS\n\nP. VENABLE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nIN THE\n\nEMPLOYMENT\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH\nNORTH CAROLINA\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nCAROLINA,\n\nCHAPEL\n\nHILL,\n\n• [an abstract]\n\nThe efficiency of the rural or ahy school is practically determined by the qualifications of the teacher. All other matters are side issues and of secondary importance. The\nteacher is the key to the whole situation. The standards in the employment of teachers\nshould be held as high as the supply of available teachers and the rate of remuneration\nwill admit. There are many difficulties in the way of maintaining these standards. The\nquahfications are many and not easy to measure. Among them may be mentioned mental\nequipment, skill in dispensing knowledge, attractive personaHty. high character. No\nsystem of examination will give an absolute valuation of such qualities.\nIn some parts of the country the supply of available teachers is small, and the pay\nso little that it is difficult to secure any, even under very low standards. I maintain that\nit is idle to speak of raising the standard in their employment, unless larger salaries are\noffered. The rate of pay has improved in recent years, but not in proportion to the\nreward in other lines of employment. So many avenues of usefulness have opened up,\nso many ways in which a living may be earned, that the greater number of those who once\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": null, "text": "320\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nsought employment in this direction can no longer be induced to undertake the work.\nThe more ambitious find the prospect uninviting, few remain long in the ranks, and\nfewer still can afford to fit themselves better for the work. The pay does not return the\ninterest spent upon an education. For many of us in the South, then, the question is not\none of raising the standards, but first of increasing the pay.\n\nII\nM.\n\nL. BRITTAIN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFULTON\n\nCOUNTY,\n\nATLANTA,\n\nGA.\n\n1. With the first point argued as necessary by Superintendent Lefevre — namely,\nright discrimination on the part of those who select teachers — I agree most heartily, and\nin doing so I wish to say that to make this discrimination requires proper qualification\non the part of superintendents and boards of education. If there is ignorance and incompetency here, the stream is poisoned at its source, and there is little hope for good teachers\nexcept by the merest accident. It seems only reasonable that there should be the same\neducational qualifications for county superintendents as for teachers. To the average\nmind it is ridiculous to expect proper selection of teachers and competent supervision of\nschool-work where the superintendent cannot make the lowest average required of his\nteachers to obtain a license. Other qualifications^ are, of course, necessary, but it does\nseem only reasonable that, for this office or for a place on the board, men of education\nshould be required.\n2. The petty school-board hindrance. — There is a custom — with some legal sanction\n— in many states and counties that operates seriously against raising the standard of the\nteaching force in our schools. I refer to the practice of leaving the nomination, and in\nreality the selection, of teachers with certain members of the different county school communities designated as local trustees. At first glance it might seem reasonable and proper\nto commit the appointment to these patrons, but in practice it is the parent of serious ills'\nto our educational work. From this custom it frequently results that support is thus\nprovided, at the expense of the children, for some influential family's poor relation —\n\"Cousin John,\" \"Aunt Polly,\" or some other good soul who happens to be out of work.\nWhen there is no local supplement and the dependence is entirely upon state funds,\nthe selection of teachers is a duty and an obligation falling legally and properly upon the\ncounty board of education and the superintendent. If these are not competent to attend\nto it, other men should be found who are. It is no more sensible for the appointments\nto be made by the rural-school patrons of each individual school — farmers as a rule —\nthan it would be for the grocers and machinists, for instance, who patronize one of the\ncity schools to dictate in the matter of their children's teachers. Such presumption would\nbe considered ridiculous on the part of any neighborhood of a city; yet it is not difficult to\nfind a group of cross-roads citizens who still claim it as a right, and hundreds of poorly\nqualified teachers are \"keeping school\" under this arrangement and defrauding their\npupils of an education. There is an instance in this state where a local board of trustees\nplaced three different teachers — all failures — in charge of their school in one year by\nreason of a common desire to share in the spoils. In another instance a most embarrassing situation developed when one member had a son, another a daughter and a third\na niece, all applying for the same position.\n3. Minimum requirements. — In the report of the Committee of Fifteen the statement\nis made that the minimum standard for the teachers of our common schools should be\na high-school diploma. This is a wise recommendation. Hardly anything can be more\ndeadening than to take even the most proficient of the pupils who pass thru our common\nschools for teachers without further training. Not only is new blood needed, but the\nembarrassment to a teacher who is just ahead of her classes in scholarship effectually\nprevents good work.\nIf we can get high-school graduates who have had normal-school\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATE\n\nAND\n\nCOUNTY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n321\n\ntraining, the work is much better; and where, in spite of short terms and poor pay, we can\nsecure teachers with college as well as normal training, fortunate indeed is the situation.\nFrom this combination we should have the right to expect results of the highest order;\nfrom the fact that liberal scholarship is always more certain to succeed than the normal\ntraining which lacks this culture, and for the further reason that in this way the costly\npractice of raw scholarship upon young minds is eUminated.\n4. The real obstacle. — The absolutely essential fact, then, which we must face in trying\nto attain to higher standards in the employment of teachers is the necessity for «iore\nmoney to secure their services after these trained teachers have received proper training.\nHuman nature is much the same in all professions, and it is not to be expected that a\nteacher will be long content to labor in a five-month's school at a small salary after having\nspent much money and several years in preparing herself to teach. The boy on the farm\nshould be given the same opportunities as his brother in the town, and to do this local\ntaxation must come, in order that he may have at his command the same well-trained\ninstructor. The very spirit of the age is in accord with this demand; for never before\nhas mankind been so insistent, not merely upon the worker's finishing his task, but upon\nhis completing it in a workmanhke manner. Gone forever is the time when the common\npeople were satisfied with the clumsy tool or the ungainly garment. As the rude Attic\nspeech of the early Greek flowered forth into the musical cadences of Homer's Iliad, so\nman, as the years go by, seeks more and more to make the work of his hand and mind,\nnot merely fair, but beautiful and true in the sight of the unseen God.\n\nEXPERT\nHON.\n\nISAAC W. HILL, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nSUPERVISION\nOF EDUCATION\n\nOF ALABAMA,\n\nMONTGOMERY,\n\nALA.\n\nThe board of education is the primal cell from which has been evolved the American\nsuperintendent of schools. Boards, in the performance of their duties, met the practical\nproblems of organization, classification, direction, and unification of schools, instruction\nof teachers in the best methods of teaching, arrangement of courses of study for both\nteachers and pupils, adoption of rules and regulations governing the conduct, the teaching,\nand the promotion of pupils. The solution of these problems required ability not found\nin the average man of affairs; and, hence, the school superintendent. From the character\nand nature of the duties to be performed, it seems to us perfectly clear that no one but an\nexpert can do the work efficiently.\nThe distribution of labor which characterizes our higher civiHzation requires system\nand order. \" Where the several portions of a compHcated process are assigned to special\nhands, a general plan must bind together the related parts, and secure their harmonious\nand efficient action; and back of this plan there must be an intelligent guiding influence.\"\nThis \"intelligent guiding influence\" is recognized as the force requisite to \"success\nin every great enterprise in the business world. The man who would essay to direct and\nsupervise any great business enterprise must possess, not only general, but specific, knowledge of the work to be performed. Such requirements are not made in the educational\nworld. The idea too frequently obtains that it requires no special quahfications or training\nto supervise schools. Especially is this true of the rural schools. We often find men\nfining the office of county or district superintendent of schools possessing none of the special\nqualifications necessary for efficient supervision. To this, as much as to any one cause,\nmay be attributed the deplorable condition of many rural schools. Experience has demonstrated, inmy own state as elsewhere, that where the \"mighty engine of supervision\" has\nbeen wielded by competent men— men possessing scholarship, n-en with successful experience in teaching, men of true moral worth, men possessing tact and common-sense—\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": null, "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthe educational interests are in a flourishing condition. The superintendent of schools\nmust possess scholarship; otherwise he cannot arrange courses of study for both teachers\nand pupils, nor examine schools to ascertain whether the outlined work is being performed.\nThe superintendent should be an experienced teacher, in order that he may criticise,\ninstruct, and direct the teachers under his supervision. The superintendent should possess true moral worth, in order that he may give to his teachers and schools a healthy\nmoral tone. The superintendent must possess enthusiasm and untiring energy; otherwise\nhe will not impress upon others the importance of the work he seeks to accomplish. He\nmust possess tact and common-sense; if he do not, much of his labor, tho properly done,\nwill count for naught, so long as human nature retains its imperfections.\nThe man possessing the qualifications necessary for efficient service as a superintendent of schools is too frequently forced into other professions or vocations of life by the\nmiserable compensation offered for such services. The superintendent should not make\nmoney the prime object of his labors, but \"the laborer is worthy of his hire.\" In Alabama the office of county superintendent, with a few exceptions, has simply been an office\nfor the disbursement of the per-capita school appropriation made by the state. A recent\nact of the legislature, however, has changed all this, and, beginning with the new school\nyear in October, the county superintendent will be superintendent of schools under a\ncounty board of education. We hope so to improve conditions by the time the legislature\nmeets in 1907 that the office will be so dignified that the importance of competent men to\nfill the position will be appreciated by our legislators. The salaries of the office vary by\ncounties, and range from two hundred and eighty to two thousand dollars per annum,\nthe average being between five and six hundred dollars. The office is elective by the people\nin sixty-two out of sixty-seven counties in the state. I am glad to be able to report here\nthat, without the assistance of any law requiring qualifications for superintendents, the\ngood people of Alabama have begun to recognize the importance of the office; and whenever and wherever an aggressive campaign has been waged by a practical schoolman for\nthe place, his efforts have proved successful.\nAlabama reports progress all along the line. The principle of local taxation for\nschool purposes is recognized in our new constitution for the first time in our history.\nWe are building better schoolhouses; we have made provision for qualified teachers; and\nwe turn with hope to the future for expert supervision.\n\nCITY SUPERINTENDENTS\nTHE\n\nEXPEDIENCY OF IMPORTING TEACHERS OF APPROVED\nFROM WITHOUT A TOWN OR CITY\n\nSAMUEL\n\nT.\n\nDUTTON,\n\nPROFESSOR OF SCHOOL\nADMINISTRATION,\nTEACHERS\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY\n\nMERIT\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nBefore we can well settle the question of expediency in any particular case of this\nkind, we must consider what the custom has been in the community, and what weight\nshould be given to public sentiment. I have yet to meet the superintendent or the principal\nwho would not wish upon occasion to go outside the town or city, and find that superior\nteacher who could bring to the work newness of life and high professional ability. But\nin many cases my educational friends would deem it inexpedient to do so, because of local\nconditions. While a school officer should always act the part of leader, and should be\ncourageous in doing what is best for the schools and the children under his charge, he may\nwell hesitate before doing anything that is likely to arouse a sentiment of personal hostiHty,\nand so impair his influence and usefulness.\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n323\n\nBeing anxious to know just what the traditions and practice in diflferent parts of the\ncountry are, I wrote to a* considerable number of state and city superintendents asking\nwhat the custom is, and to what extent the community is agreeable to the importation of\nteachers. The returns show a more favorable condition of affairs than I had expected\nto find. It would appear that in the education of the popular mind which has been going\non in recent years, a more friendly sentiment toward this matter has been developed.\nThe officers whom I addressed all appeared to favor an occasional importation of outside\nteachers, and are doubtless throwing their influence in this direction. This fact partially\nexplains the improvement to which reference has been made. It is surprising however,\nto find how the tradition and sentiment of one state differ from those of another. For\nexample, the superintendent of education in Vermont writes that \"there is perfect\nfreedom in importing teachers from abroad. The school officers are as free in making\ncontracts with teachers in law and under public opinion as they are in making any other\ncontracts.\" On the other hand, the superintendents of New Hampshire and Maine\nsaid that the feeling is decidedly in favor of home talent; altho in the latter state teachers\nof recognized abihty are sometimes brought into the larger cities and villages. There\nare several states — as, for instance, Connecticut, Illinois, and Kansas — where it would\nappear that the principle of free trade in teachers has made considerable progress. I\ngather from what the superintendent of Minnesota writes me that a very large part of the\nteachers in that state have been imported, many coming from other states, and that there\nis no serious criticism of this practice.\nLetters received from city and town superintendents show similar conditions. In a\nvery few cases, as in Medford, Mass., appointments are made from without. The opposition to this course is not serious. A majority of the superintendents say, in substance,\nthat they do occasionally import teachers from without, but if they were to carry the practice to any considerable extent, they would expect serious opposition.\nReading somewhat between the lines, I gather from this correspondence that wherever\nschool boards have asserted their right to do what is best for the schools, they have been\nable, partially at least, to educate the community to their position. It would also appear\nthat in the country at large there has been a manifest growth in breadth and tolerance\ntoward this, as well as other attempted reforms in school administration. It should be\nsaid, in passing, that in the larger cities, where an eligible list is formed upon examination,\nas a rule outside candidates have the opportunity of competing for places on this list.\nThis is true in New York city; and the newspapers in that city frequently pubhsh communications attacking the practice, and revealing considerable hostiHty to the open door.\nVery recently a bill has been introduced at Albany which provides that, in order to be eligible for an appointment as principal in any public school, a teacher must have had four\nyears' experience in the public schools of the city, and in order to be an assistant principal\nthree years'. The senator who introduced this bill declared it his intention to prevent\nthe superintendent from going to other states for his principals. This is only one of many\ninstances where a politician, caring nothing for the schools and the benefits which come\nfrom broad and business-like methods of administration, endeavors to curry favor with\nthe people by acting as their champion.\nThe question now arises why it is that almost every intelligent school officer appreciates the value of the occasional outside teacher. It may not be easy to state the reasons\nwhy. It is one of many instances where the advantages of the teacher possessing\nqualifications which especially fit her for a difficult position transcend the power of language. Teaching is to a large extent ethical and spiritual in its essence. Its products\ncannot be accurately estimated or measured; neither can its methods be fully formulated.\nThe working of one personality upon another is mysterious, and the process is difficult\nto describe. Indeed, it is often difficult to say why one teacher is better than another.\nWe feel sure that it is so, but it is only by careful observation, continued for a considerable\nlength of time, that we are able to state, with any degree of fairness or accuracy, the reasons\nfor our conviction.\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": null, "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nMany of you will think of actual instances in your own experience where a new and\nfresh personality has given such an impulse to the working force in a school a? to attract\nthe attention of the whole community. I should like to state one or two instances in my\nown knowledge. In a certain city, several years ago, there was a condition of things not\nunlike what could be found in a number of larger communities. The mechanical features\nof the graded system had in the space of fifteen years been worked out to perfection. The\nmarking, reporting, and bookkeeping would have done credit to any business house where\nfullness of detail was required. In many of the grammar schools, as well as in the high\nschool, pupils were seated by rank, and weekly diaries were sent to the homes giving the\nmarks of the pupils in every study for every period. In the high school a printed list of\nall the pupils in the four classes arranged according to rank with the marks of each pupil\nfor the month, and a supplementary list of those who had fallen below the required standard,\nwere sent to every parent. The use of the high-school library, which was an exceptionally\ngood one, there being no pubUc library in the city, was granted to those students only who\nattained a certain rank, which, I believe, was 70 per cent. About one-third of the pupils\nwere thus deprived of the use of the library. I believe no teacher had been imported for\nat least ten years. Two or three principals had been brought in, and it is the experience\nof one of these, who took charge of a large grammar school, to which I particularly refer.\nWhatever was excellent in the system under which the schools were organized and supervised was, of course, to be seen in that school. The utmost uniformity prevailed in\nrespect to every phase of the school-life. One class-room was very much like another;\nthe curriculum was narrow, and the methods of teaching were formal, so that the atmosphere of the school was somewhat tame and monotonous. There was little initiative and\nenthusiasm, altho the teachers were earnest and did honestly what the regulations required.\nThe school building in its surroundings and appearance was as depressing as were many\nof the events which took place there. The chief function of the janitor seemed to be to\nstir up the dust which had been accumulated for many years It was evident to the new\nprincipal that something new was needed to make the school what it should be, and as he\nhad come from a city where he had seen the advantages of freedom of action, he naturally\nfelt that a new teacher would help to redeem this school. When after a few months a\nvacancy occurred in one of the higher grades, he immediately called, first upon the superintendent, and then upon the chairman of the school board, and got them both to consent\nto his going out and finding such a teacher as he wanted. Without giving them a moment\nto repent their action, or the opportunity of consulting together, he took the first train\nand went to another state to negotiate with a teacher whom he had already known and had_\nseen at work. I cannot describe in detail what happened after the new teacher was\ninstalled; but that a number of things did happen is certain. The newcomer was somewhat commanding in appearance, was entirely self-possessed, and wore somewhat better\nclothes than had usually been worn in that school. She was a brilliant teacher of gymnastics, as well as of reading, and used fresh and cheerful methods in all her work. While at\nfirst there was some jealousy and gossip on the part of the other teachers, they were soon\nglad to visit the new teacher and see her work. Her class, which had been a discouraging\none, began to be proud of itself. The personal appearance of the children became better,\nand on certain public days, when they gave class exercises before the whole school, quite\na profound impression was made. A new and better spirit began to manifest itself. Even\nthe old janitor began to wield his broom more effectually, and appeared during school\nhours in a more decent suit of clothes, wearing a clean collar. Without going further into\ndetail, it is enough to say that in the course of one year quite a remarkable change took\nplace, not only in the superficial appearance of the school, but also in the general tone and\nquality of the school-work. And I beheve the influence and example of the new teacher\nhad more to do with this change than all other causes combined. The result was recog-.\nnized by principals of other schools in the city, and they soon wanted outside teachers,\nand succeeded in getting them.\nIt is more than twenty-five years since this event occurred.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n^2C\n\nand the frequent importation of new teachers has contributed largely to the change which\nhas taken place in that school system.\nLet me state another instance, which occurred in the same city a few years later.\nThe superintendent persuaded the board to erect a new building for a training school,\nwhere the graduates of the city high school could receive some instruction in the theory\nof education, as well as practice in teaching under skilled supervision. He imported three\nyoung women, graduates of normal schools of high standing, with several years of successful\nexperience. One of them was made principal, and the other two were made her assistants. This proved to be a case where the importation of teachers of approved merit\naffected, not merely one school, but an entire school system. Each year from twenty-five\nto thirty young women who had received what the training school was able to impart in\nthe way of skill and enthusiasm were sent out into the schools of the city, carrying with\nthem a new spirit and the newer methods, which in those days were quite in contrast to\nthe old. I feel safe in saying that the school system was renovated and uplifted thru the\nindirect efforts of those imported teachers in the training school. Red-tape and formalism\nhad to make way for things that were vital and fruitful.\nWhen the late Dr. Sheldon began his great work at Oswego, he imported a trained\nteacher from England, who in his estimation played a very important part in the remarkable record made by that normal school. Jt is true also of many of our colleges and universities that their cahber and effectiveness have been greatly increased by going out into\nthe world's market and finding men of rare scholarship and teaching ability. In the same\nway, in the fields of architecture, engineering, music, and art, America has made rapid\nstrides largely because she has extended a hand of welcome to master-spirits who are\nwilling to come and make their home with us. The principle of inbreeding cannot be\nfollowed to any extent without the danger of decadence and inferiority.\nLooking at the side of the teacher, it is true that a prophet is not without honor save\nin his own country, and a person who can begin his professional work away from his own\nhome and acquaintances has some marked advantages. He stands for a little more.\nThere are no prejudices to weigh him down, if he is truly successful. His preferment\ncomes the more quickly, his professional career is richer, and his rewards greater, than if\nhe had remained at home. I believe this to be especially true of men. The personal\nadvantage to young women of going among strangers to teach depends upon their own\nforce of character and the people among whom they are placed. This, however, opens\na field which my theme does not bid me enter. Let me rather summarize some of the practical arguments in favor of the importation of teachers, then some considerations in favor\nof home talent, and finally such conclusions as can be drawn on the question of expediency.\nIn behalf of the imported teacher it may be said, first: He is Ukely to be selected\nfor his good qualities and the promise he gives, rather than because of local influence, or\nthe fact that he is eligible and must be provided for. Second: He enters upon his work\nwith a presumption of abihty and character which is not always accorded a person who\nhas grown up in the community. He is more likely to be taken at his face value than the\none who has come up thru the local schools, and gained his position thru the ordinary\nroutine of examination and appointment. Third: Working in a new field, it is easier to\ncultivate singleness of purpose, and to shun those obhgations of a social and churchly\nnature which it is so easy for a teacher to incur to excess. It is to his advantage that he\ncan choose the circles in which he moves, and to a good extent select his intimate friends.\nFourth: It is easier for a body of teachers to recognize and emulate the excellencies of a\nstranger than those of one of their own circle. Finally: No sUght advantage lies in the\nfact that if the imported teacher is unsuccessful and has to surrender his position, it becomes\neasier for him and the school board than if he were an old inhabitant.\nOn the other hand, I beUeve it better that the great body of teachers in a community\nshould be residents thereof. Under the right conditions, and with a vigorous administraAn appeal\ntion, home teachers may be a powerful influence in shaping pubHc sentiment.\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": null, "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\ncan be made to them on the ground of local pride, and they may become in the best sense\na stable and conservative element. In times of reaction and excitement, scattered, as they\nare, thruout the homes of the city, and being in touch with a large nuniber of people, they\nbecome a sort of balance-v^rheel in steadying popular opinion.\nWith these things in mind, it is quite safe to conclude that, while a large majority of a\ncorps of teachers may well be residents, it should always be possible to go out and find the\nexceptional teacher. It is expedient to do this, even if a yellow press voices the protest of\nthe selfish and unintelligent. There is no better way of educating the public to a broad\nand wholesome view of this matter than by importing now and then such teachers as will\njustify the action by their superior work. I am not saying that a superintendent should\nignore public sentiment in this or any other matter, or do those things which tend to make\nhis position untenable; but the moral questions involved are of such moment that I believe\nthe best people in any community can be brought to view with favor a method which is\nsure to redound to the welfare of their children's schools. Whenever it seems expedient\nto a superintendent to import a teacher, he should, if necessary, argue the matter with the\nschool board and the public, on the broadest grounds of educational policy, and of duty\nto the children whose interests are involved. He should continue to do this until rightminded people are won over to his position. Then duty, expediency, and opportunity\nare all favorable, and he can act, feeling confMent that the end will justify the means.\n\nSHOULD TEACHERS BE REQUIRED TO PRESENT FROM TIME TO TIME\nEVIDENCES OF INCREASED SCHOLARSHIP? IF SO, OF WHAT\nNATURE — EXAMINATIONS, CERTIFICATES, OR CREDITS FROM\nRECOGNIZED INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING?\nWALTER\n\nH.\n\nSMALL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR.\n\nI.\n\nTo what end ? The teacher's stock in trade is scholarship, personal presence, moral\ncharacter. It is necessary and desirable that the incremental part of the stock in trade\nshould be increased as far as may be, but personality with low scholarship is more potent\nthan high scholarship without personality.\nArnold's estimate of a teacher is contained in this:\nI want a man who is a Christian. I do not so much care about scholarship — and yet, on second thought,\n1 do very much care for it, because I think even the elements are best taught by one who has a thorough knowledge of the matter. However, if one must give way, I prefer activity of mind and interest in his work to high\nscholarship; for the one may be acquired far more easily than the other.\n\nThe same thought was in the mind of that superintendent who said that in the selection of teachers he required, first, high moral character; second, fine manners; third,\ngood scholarship; and last, professional training.\nThe ideal teacher contains all these elements; the real teacher with whom our lot is\ncast, not quite all, and the element most frequently lacking is mature scholarship. But\nif the end in view is a mere emphasis of scholarship, if we are to hold that the first element\nin a teacher's work is the cultivation of the intellectual side above all else, I should argue\nagainst the increased scholarship and for the injection of good red blood into his veins,\nto the end that he might become a man and not a pedant.\nThere is danger in the term \"scholarship,\" unless it is properly interpreted. It\nincludes more than mere book knowledge. There is in schools today too much green\nscholarship. As Holmes puts it: \"Knowledge and timber shouldn't be much used till\nthey are seasoned.\" Book and paper reading, attending lectures, spasmodic study, a\nUttle of this and less of that, is not scholarship; there should be something of many things,\nbut there should also be sufficient of one thing to be an effective power.\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\n327\n\nIf the end in view is to broaden the mental horizon of the manly man and womanly\nwoman, for the enrichment of their own hves and that they may exert a broader influence\non those whom they instruct, there is no argument; we are all agreed. Such teachers do\ngrow, as much as circumstances will allow.\nScholastic growth depends on three things: mood, motive, means.\nProvidence furnishes in its normal school, its Rhode Island School of Design, and its\nBrown University peculiarly favorable circumstances to show if present-day teachers\npossess the mood. A questionnaire was sent to the 700 teachers, with a note asking them\nto answer frankly and freely if during their service as regular teachers they had studied\nat any of the above-mentioned institutions, with private instructors, or had increased their\nscholarship by any other means; what studies they had taken; for how long a time; if the\nwork had been done evenings, Saturdays, vacations, or on leave of absence; and if they\nhad received any degrees or certificates for their work. Over 600 repUed. Of the 15\ngrammar masters, 9 have done systematic work at the university; some of them have\nearned their A.M.'s and Ph.D.'s. The general feeling of these men is that study is necessary for their own life and growth. As one put it, he \"wanted the tonic that comes from\noutside work.\" Of the 33 .high-school men, 23 have taken distinct courses at Brown\nor other colleges, and several have studied abroad. Of the 45 high-school women, 31\nhave done similar work at Brown or elsewhere. Eight men have received A.M.'s or\nPh.D.'s, and 17 women have received A.M.'s. These degrees have been given for work\naccomplished; they are not honorary. Many certificates have been received from Harvard, Clark, and the University of Chicago for summer work. Much work has been\ndone privately with Brown professors. In every case there is evidence of quiet, persistent, continuous study. Growth from mood is everywhere evident, the desire to better\nthe scholastic side of their working capital. Of the 45 kindergartners, 40 have pursued\nstudies, some along the line of their work, while others have taken broad-culture work at\nBrown. Of the 464 grade teachers, 151 have not studied, 313 have. Of these, about onethird have taken courses at Brown, one-third have studied privately, andone-third have\nstudied at summer schools or the School of Design, or have taken Uterature and modern-,\nlanguage courses in the Evening High School. This work has been done almost entirely\nevenings, Saturdays, or during vacations. Seldom has leave of absence been asked for,\nexcept by the high-school teachers who desired a year abroad. While about two-thirds\nof both the high-school and grade teachers have studied, the high-school teachers have\ntaken longer and broader courses. Their initial velocity is greater in that they are college\ngraduates, while the grade teachers are normal graduates. The former have the larger\nsalary, and a day so arranged that extensive work is easier. The grade teachers are handi-\n\nI\n\\\n\ncapped by the smaller salary and' by the fact that possible financial rewards will not be so\ngreat.\nYet it is surprising to what an extent mood has carried these teachers in their studies.\nSome have pursued systematic work for ten, fifteen, or twenty years, and they are still\nworking. I apprehend that- this mood is not copyrighted by Providence teachers, but\nthat it is common among the great body of teachers all over the country. It is evidenced\nby the great attendance upon summer schools, some of which add to scholarship and some\ndo not, by the attempts at child study which is not a study of children, and by the attendance on lecture courses of broad culture like the Twentieth Century Courses in Boston.\nWhat is lacking is the motive and the means. Teaching is not a permanent occupation\nto many who enter its ranks. To the men it is a stepping-stone to something else; to the\nwomen it is a way station on the ro.ad to matrimony or some other misfortune. Teaching\ndoes not offer rewards for continuous study and growth. On the average, it furnishes a\nscanty livelihood. The doctor keeps up with new remedies and operations, and frequently\ndiscontinues practice for a period at the best American or foreign schools and hospitals.\nThe lawyer absorbs decisions on new points of law. To each is the reward of renown\nand big fees. The minister grasps the new interpretations; to him appears the vision of\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": null, "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nthe New Jerusalem — the city church with its influence and its salary. But to the average\ncity teacher, what ? Except in a few rare instances, only the $600, $700, or $800 which\ncomes- to her after four or five years of work; and in most cities this comes not because of\nadded worth so much as merely added years of service. Until cities furnish motive in\nthe way of substantial rewards in position and salary, so that there may be means for study,\nwe have no right to require additional scholarship from the teacher who had sufficient in\nthe beginning to enter upon the work. Even under the best conditions I would not\nrequire. Scholarship is desirable both along professional and academic lines, but it should\ncome thru encouragement of the mood inherent in most teachers, rather than thru any\nmandatory methods. Additional scholarship is desired only in those who have shown that\nthey know how to use that which they already possess. Scholarship for mere scholarship's\nsake is no criterion, but scholarship practically applied in the schoolroom is greatly needed.\nFurnish the motive and the means, and scholarship will result. Teachers have a right\nto look for sufficient increase in pay to meet at least a part of the expense of this additional\nstudy. The same motive should be furnished teachers that is furnished every other toiler\nin public or private business — increased power, increased position, increased pay — when\nit is shown that by scholarship, measured by schoolroom results, this increase has been\nearned.\n\"By their fruits shall ye know them.\"\nScholarship which grows out of the mood of the teacher should be encouraged to the\nutmost. We should bless it; we should reward it with the highest material gift in our\npossession; in our every possible act we should manifest our appreciation of the spirit\nshown, that it may say unto all others, \"Go thou and do likewise.\" But to require it\nwithout supplying the motive is unfair and dangerous. It is unfair to expect the sixhundred or seven-hundred-dollar teacher who must support herself and a dependent\nmother, who must aid a sister thru the normal school or a brother thru college, to have\nthe strength and the means for additional study, even when she has the inclination; it is\ndangerous in that we can require just so far as we can pay for the requirement, and no\nfarther. The abler minds that can do better financially in other fields for the same or\nless requirement will leave us, and the present standard of personality and culture will be\nlessened. It is not a matter of sentiment or of what we should like. It is purely a business\nproposition, a matter of dollars and cents. There should be no advance promises, but\nthere should be the fair surety that, as in business, preparation for advancement will in\ntime be rewarded. Such is not the general condition now, but teachers are advanced in\ntoo many places on years of experience rather than on any other consideration.\nTo what extent do cities offer any motive to teachers to increase their scholarship ?\nThe following enquiries were sent to fifty-five leading cities:\n1. In the appointment of teachers in your city, what preparation in scholarship is required ?\n2. Must applicants pass preUminary examinations?\n3. During service, are additional examinations required?\n4. If so, along what hnes and for what purpose ?\n5. Are credits given teachers for study at educational institutions during the year, on Saturdays or during\nvacations?\n6. Is such study required ? Is it encouraged ?\n7. Are teachers granted leave of absence for study ?\n8. If so, under what conditions ?\n9. What reward in the way of advancement in position or salary does your city offer teachers to continue\nstudy ?\n\nReplies were received from forty-five. The initial preparation in most of them is\nhigh school and training school, high school and normal, high school and experience.\nThe majority require normal training. About one-half require preliminary examinations.\nNone require additional examinations during service, except that in those cities where\nthere are different grades of certificates examinations are required in passing to the higher\ngrades. No special credits are given for increased scholarship, but all recognize it indirectly. Study is not required, but it is encouraged in all cities, except one. Leave of\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n.\n\n^o^\nJ-^y\n\nabsence is frequently granted on request, the general condition being loss of pay, tho not\nCambridge, Mass., has a regulation as follows:\nloss of position.\nAny teacher who has served in the city for ten years may, on recommendation of the superintendent\nand vote of the board, have leave of absence for one year for purposes of study or travel, and may receive onethird of his salary, provided the amount in no case shall exceed five hundred dollars.\n\nThis rule was adopted in 1896, and in six years fourteen teachers applied for such leave of\nabsence. In Chicago for the past year and a half the superintendent has had the authority\n\nto grant leaves of absence for the period of one year to successful teachers, who wish to continue their studies\nin colleges, universities, and higher institutions of learning.\n\nHe imposes the following conditions:\nTeachers who make application for leave of absence under the above rule must make a written statement\nof the lines of study they intend to pursue, and at what institutions of higher learning. When they return at\nthe expiration of their leave of absence, they must present official statements of the time spent and work done\nat higher institutions of learning during the period of their absence, as evidence that they have compUed with\nthe conditions of their leave.\n\nIncentives are offered in the form of advancement, in position and salary, based on\nschoolroom efficiency and this increased scholarship. Other cities, so far as heard from\nseem to offer no tangible incentive, tho all favor the scholar, other things being equal.\nThe point of view of the teacher in this connection is interesting and instructive.\nBesides the questions already noted as having been asked the Providence teachers, these\nalso were asked:\nHas your position in the schools been advanced since this study? Has your salary been advanced?\nDo you consider such advance in position or salary due to your increased scholarship ?\n\nThe answers can be summarized in the reply of one teacher: \"Not directly; yet advance\ncould not have been secured without growth.\" Perhaps a dozen believe their advance\ns due directly to this element, but many more feel their scholastic growth has received\nno recognition or reward. Only five men think their advance is due even indirectly to\ntheir increased scholarship; fifteen women think their advance is due, not to the scholarship per se, but to the added power which the increased scholarship gave plus the power\nwhich came from added years of experience in the schoolroom.\nThe replies to the question, \"What returns should teachers expect from this increased\nscholarship ?\" reveal much. It shows the prevalent mood for study, and the feeling that\ngrowth should receive material rewards. In the opinion of the men, there should be greater\nefficiency, self-satisfaction, increased pay. I quote three replies:\n\"None, unless the increased scholarship shows itself in teaching.\"\n\"None, except as their services prove more valuable.\"\n\"Other things being equal, principals and superintendents should regard it as a recommendation for\npromotion.\"\nI quote the following from the women:\n\"Personal satisfaction in better command of their subject is the most evident return.\"\n\"Increased salary in proportion to increased proficiency in school-work.\"\n\"The assurance of ability to enter upon more advanced positions, if such are offered.\"\n\"A broader grasp of their subjects and a greater facility in imparting their knowledge, and hence a bigger\nmarket value for their work.\"\n\"Increased culture, greater efficiency, broadening influence, more joy in living.\"\n\"Increase in salary, providing it is accompanied by an equal increase in teaching and discipUnary ability.\"\n\"Thru their attitude as l-jarners, greater sympathy with pupils.\"\n\"Increased efficiency thru greater famiUarity with subjects they teach.\"\n\"Broader culture and more liberal ideas thru study of subjects they do not teach.\"\n\"The stimulus that comes from contact with greater minds than their own.\"\n\nTo revert to the original question: Should teachers be required to present evidences\nof increased scholarship ? I answer, no. The mood for increased scholarship is inherent in the good teacher. Increased scholarship in the poor teacher is merely increased\nevil. Hence there is no need of requirement.\nWhat is needed is incentive or motive\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": null, "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Atlanta\n\nfurnished by the city in the way of advancement in positicfti and salary, that the mood\nmay be nurtured. There should be a gradation of salaries based on something besides\n\"first year, second year, third year,\" and there should be special salaries which may be\ngiven as a recognition of special scholarship and special ability, on recommendation of\nprincipal and superintendent. Degrees or credits from recognized institutions should be\nproof of the scholarship; the opinion of the principal and superintendent should decide\nthe ability. This is the end toward which we should labor, that out of it may result\nnatural growth in maturer scholarship, its better appUcation in the schoolroom, and hence\nthe elevation of the school system.\n\nDISCUSSION\nSuperintendent J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md. — The plan in use in Baltimore\nis not put forward as ideal under all conditions. We do not have unlimited funds at our\ndisposal, as in New York, nor do we have $10,000 for normal-school extension, as in\nChicago. What we do must be done with small means. We hold that to advance\nsalaries without discrimination as to the quaUty of service rendered is merely to increase\nthe burdens of the taxpayers without adequate return. In deciding upon a plan, our\nproblem was to make a limited sum serve to set a salary standard that would appeal to\nall elementary teachers as worth working for, and to fix conditions that could be met by\nthem without undue strain in view of the very moderate increase then available, $96 a\nyear for one hundred teachers (now two hundred and fifty teachers). We prefer to give\n$96 per year increase to each of two hundred and fifty teachers, rather than to give onehalf that sum to each of five hundred teachers, or one-fourth as much to each of one\nthousand teachers.\nAny plan that discriminates is bound to meet with more or less opposition in its\ninception; but time makes the adopted plan customary, opposition dies down, and professional activity is doubled among all teachers who have a future before them.\nThe rules of the board under which the promotions in question were made provide\nthat those nominated for promotion must have taught in the public schools of Baltimore\nat least five consecutive years; that the nominations must be based upon efficiency and an\nexamination in some one subject selected by the teacher from a list of subjects approved\nby the superintendent; and that continuance on the promoted list shall depend upon continued efficiency.\nIn Baltimore each of twenty-four principals has under his supervision from fifty to\neighty teachers. Each principal was asked to send in the names of a few (not exceeding ten) of the best teachers in his schools, without regard to the grade taught, arranging\nthe names in the order of merit. There were already on file in the superintendent's\noffice two previous annual estimates of efficiency and a personal statement from each\nteacher giving facts as to education, training, experience, date of appointment, and special\ncourses of study pursued since appointment. These personal reports were carefully\nexamined, the principals' Hsts were compared with reports already on file, and changes\nin rating, where any had been made, were carefully inquired into.\nNearly two hundred names were handed in. An entire month was spent by superintendent and assistants in reviving impressions of the schoolroom work of each of these\nteachers by visits to the schoohooms. At the close of the inspection one hundred names\nwere agreed upon, and invitations were issued to the one hundred teachers to meet the\nfinal conditions set by the board. Seven invitations were declined. Seven additional\ninvitations were thereupon issued and accepted. From the first, applications were discouraged. Itis now fully understood that the initiative in matters of promotion is to be\ntaken by the supervisory officers. The examination took the form of an oral defense of a\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": null, "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\ndissertation or thesis written by the teacher at her leisure (the summer\ntopic chosen by her frorri the following list:\n\n33 1\n\nvacation), on a\n\n1. Froebel's Laws Applied to Primary Work.\n2. Educational Value of Plays and Games.\n3. Individuality in Class Management.\n4. Flexible Grouping.\n\n5. A Discussion of Herbert Spencer's Educational Theories. (Any other great name may be substituted, as Herbart, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Comenius.)\n6. My Method of Teaching\n, together with the Educational Principles\nupon Which My Method is Based.(The blank may be filled with any school subject in which the teacher is\nspecially interested.)\n7. Conditions Favorable to the Development of the Child.\n8. The Scope and Purpose of Authority. In school, is it limited, as Bosanquet holds for the state, to\n\"Hindering Hinderances to the Best Life\" ?\n9. Essential Dififerences in Ideas of Old and New Educational Regimes.\n10. Conditions in Modern Life an Index of Requirements in the School.\n11. Reciprocal Relations of Formal and Cultiu-e Studies.\n12. Psychological Value of the Arts as Material for Study.\n13. Development of Social Sense in School-Life.\n14. Humanistic Values and Technical Values in Nature Study.\n15. The Basis and Purpose of Correlation.\n16. Psychological Value of Hand- Work.\nIn the preparation of papers, teachers were purposely left free to consult and to quote\nauthorities, giving proper credit in marginal notes, with page references, to all authorities\ncited. OriginaHty in the absolute sense was not so much expected as grasp of the subject\nand reasonable constructive power. We did not want any attempt at \"fine writing,\"\nbut we did want evidence of the possession of ideas, and the ability to express those ideas\nin clear and concise Enghsh. The oral examination consisted in a defense of all statements made, and, when desired, an explanation of all references and quotations.\nPrevious to the oral examination, each paper was read by each of the three members\nof the examining board, notes being made as a basis for questioning. Each teacher\nspent from thirty to forty minutes with the examining board. We thus came to know\nthe teacher behind the paper — a matter increasingly difficult for the superintendent in\nlarge systems of schools, but of great practical importance. The knowledge thus gained\nhas already served as a guide in promotions to positions calling for personal qualities\nthat might not have been discovered in any other way.\nIt is not an easy thing to determine the relative efficiency of teachers; yet, when considerations such as those indicated above are carefully observed, the result cannot be far\nfrom correct. Enemies of civil-service reform allege that examinations do not examine;\nand its best friends readily admit that there are many important elements of which the\nordinary written examination fails to take account. By our plan of promotion we have\nan additional test of merit which is free from some of the imperfections of the ordinary\nexamination, and, therefore, more conclusive.\nUndoubtedly there are some in the service who think their merit superior to a number\nof those who were invited to prepare papers. But as these critics have not had an opportunity, ashave the supervising officers, to see the schoolroom work of the teachers in question, their opinions gain little support. Our plan has brought forward teachers who, in\ntheir modesty, would have been the last to claim any special merit for themselves. It has\nenabled us to hold up ideals in such a way as to make these ideals immensely influential\nin improving instruction.\nTwo hundred and fifty teachers in all have now been promoted in this way. I beUeve\nthere has been less dissatisfaction with a plan which Hmits invitations to the number for\nwhom the increased salaries are available, than there would have been with a plan which\nwould admit to competition a larger number, many of whom would necessarily have to be\nrejected.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n332\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Atlanta\n\nThere is a great professional activity, not only among these two hundred and fifty\nteachers, but among twice as many more. The advance in salary has been within the\nreach of teachers of all grades. A glance at the list of topics will show that a primary\nteacher could meet the conditions imposed without diverting her attention from the work\nshe was actually doing.\nIt must be remembered that an excellent paper is not the first consideration. Excellent schoolroom work has been considered the prime requisite in all these nominations.\nMany teachers whose schoolroom work is ordinary, or even below mediocrity, are able to\nprepare good papers; their theory outruns their practice. It is better for any school\nsystem that such teachers wait for promotion till their practice overtakes their theory.\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\nCONSTITUTION\nPREAMBLE\n\nThe National Council of Education shall have for its object the consideration and\ndiscussion of educational questions of general interest and pubhc importance, and the\npresentation, thru printed reports, of the substance of the discussions and the conclusions\nformulated. It shall be its object to reach and disseminate correct thinking on educational questions; and, for this purpose, it shall be the aim of the Council, in conducting\nits discussions, to define and state with accuracy the different views and theories on the\nsubject under consideration, and, secondly, to discover and represent fairly the grounds\nand reasons for each theory or view, so far as to show, as completely as possible, the genesis\nof opinion on the subject. It shall be the duty of the Council, in pursuance of this object,\nto encourage from all its members the most careful statement of differences in opinion,\ntogether with the completest statement of grounds for the .same. It shall further require\nthe careful preservation and presentation of the individual differences of opinion, whenever grounds have been furnished for the same by members of the Council. It shall\ninvite the freest discussion and embody the new suggestions developed by such discussions.\nAny member making such suggestion or objection may put in writing his view, and the\ngrounds therefor, and furnish the same to the secretary for the records of the Council.\nIt shall prepare, thru its president, an annual report to the National Educational Association, setting forth the questions considered by the Council during the previous year,\nand placing before the Association, in succinct form, the work accomplished. It shall\nembody in this report a survey of those educational topics which seem to call for any\naction on the part of the Association. The Council shall appoint, out of its own number,\ncommittees representing the several departments of education, and thereby facilitate the\nexchange of opinion among its members on such special topics as demand the attention of\nthe profession or of the public.\nARTICLE\n\nI— MEMBERSHIP\n\n1. The National Council of Education shall consist of sixty members, selected from\nthe membership of the National Educational Association. Any member of the Association identified with educational work is eligible to membership in the Council, and, after\nthe first election, such membership shall continue for six years, except as hereinafter\nprovided.\n2. In the year 1885 the Board of Directors shall elect eight members — four members\nfor six years, two for four years, and two for two years, and the Council shall elect eight\nmembers — five members for six years, two for four years, and one for two years; and\nannually thereafter the Board of Directors shall elect five members and the Council five\nmembers, each member, with the exception hereinafter provided -for (sec. 5), to serve\nsix years, or until his successor is elected.\n3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held in connection with\nthe annual meetings of the Association. If the Board of Directors shall fail, for any\nreason, to fill its quota of members annually, the vacancy or vacancies shall be filled by\nthe Council.\n333\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": null, "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. The term of service of the several members of the Council chosen at the first election shall be arranged by the Executive Committee of the Council.\n5. The absence of a member from two consecutive annual meetings of the Council\nshall be considered equivalent to resignation of membership, and the Council shall fill\nvacancies caused by absence from the Council as herein defined, as well as vacancies\ncaused by death or resignation, for the unexpired term. All persons who have belonged\nto the Council shall, on the expiration of their membership, become honorary members,\nwith the privilege of attending its regular sessions and participating in its discussions.\n^o state shall be represented in the Council by more than eight members.\nARTICLE II— QUALIFICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP\nAll members of the Council shall be either life or active members of the National\nEducational Association.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— MEETINGS\n\nThere shall be a regular annual meeting of the Council held at the same place as\nthe meeting of the National Educational Association, and at least two days previous to\nthis meeting. There may be special meetings of the Council, subject to the call of the\nExecutive Committee, but the attendance at these meetings shall be entirely voluntary.\nA majority of the Council shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at\nany meeting, whether regular or called; but any less number, exceeding eight members,\nmay constitute a quorum for the transaction of business at the regular annual meeting, as\ndefined in this article.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nWORK\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nThe Council shall, from time to time, undertake to initiate, conduct, and guide the\nthoro investigation of important educational questions originating in the Council; also\nto conduct like investigations originating in the National Educational Association, or\nany of its departments, and requiring the expenditure of funds.\nARTICLE\n\nV— THE\n\nAPPOINTMENT OF SPECIAL\nEXPERTS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nAND\n\nIn the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers,\nit shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the\nCouncil or not, as are deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.\nARTICLE\n\nVI— OFFICERS^\n\nAt the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected\nfor a term of three years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary\nfor a term of one year; and thereafter annually the vacancy caused by the outgoing\nofficers shall be filled by the election of one person for a term of three years.\nIt shall be the duty of the president of the Council to prepare, with the assistance and\napproval of the Executive Committee, such a program for the annual meeting as shall\nrealize as fully as practicable the purposes for which the Council was organized and exists.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— STANDING\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n1. There shall be four standing committees: an Executive Committee, a Committee\non Membership, a Committee on Educational Progress, and a Committee on Investigations and Appropriations.\n2. The Executive Committee shall be composed of the president of the Council and\nof three others members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that one new member\nmay be chosen each year, beginning with the year 1899.\n'As amended July i, 1904.\n\n(See Minutes.)\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nOFFICERS\n\nAND\n\nSTANDING\n\n335\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n3. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee tb provide an annual program by\nselecting, whenever feasible, subjects for investigation, and appointing committees to\nconduct such investigations. It shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to carry\nout the provisions contained in this constitution referring to volunteer and invited papers.\nIt shall be the duty of the Executive Committee to provide a place on the program for\nthe report on any investigation which may be ordered by the National Educational Association or its departments.\n4. The Committee on Membership shall be composed of the president of the Council\nand six other members, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that two vacancies may\nbe filled every year, beginning with 1899,\n5. There shall be appointed annually a committee of one to submit, at the next\nmeeting, a report on \"Educational Progress During the Past Year,\" in which a survey\nof the important movements and events in education during the preceding year is given.\nThis committee need not be selected from the members of the Council.\n6. The Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be composed of nine\nmembers, whose terms of office shall be so arranged that three vacancies may be filled each\nyear, beginning with 1903. No proposal to appoint a committee to undertake an educational investigation of any kind, and no proposal to ask the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation for an appropriation for any purpose, shall be acted upon until such proposal\nhas been referred to this Committee on Investigations and Appropriations for report.\nARTICLE\n\nVIII— THE\n\nDUTIES\n\nOF THE\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n1 . It shall be the duty of the Council to further the objects of the National Educational\nAssociation, and to use its best efforts to promote the cause of education in general.\n2. The meetings of the Council shall be, for the most part, of a \"round table\" character.\nARTICLE IX— AMENDMENTS\nThis constitution may be altered or amended at a regular meeting of the Council, by\na two-thirds vote of the members present, and any provision may be waived at any regular\nmeeting by unanimous consent.\nBy-laws not in violation of the constitution may be adopted by a two-thirds vote of\nthe Council.\n\nOFFICERS, STANDING\nOFFICERS\nFRANK\n\nA. FITZPATRICK\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN\nJAMES H. VAN\n\nSICKLE\n\nCOMMITTEES,\nFOR\n\nMEMBERS\n\n1903-1904\n\nBoston, Mass\n\nPresident\n\nSwarthmore, Pa\nBaltimore, Md\n\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nThe President, ex officio\n\nRichard G. Boone\nNicholas Murray Butler\nAnna Tolman Smith\n\nYonkers, N. Y\nNew York, N. Y\nWashington, D. C\n\nOFFICERS\nELMER E. BROWN\nNATHAN C. SCHAEFFER\nJ.W.CARR\n\nBerkeley, Cal\n. . . Lancaster, Pa\nAnderson,Ind\n\nFOR\n\nTerra expires in 1904\n.,. • • Term expires m 1905\nTerm expires m 1906\n\n1904-1905\nPresident . .^\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTerm expires in 1907\nTerm expires m 1906\nTerm expires m 1905\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n33(^\n•EXECUTIVE\n\nThe President, ex-offlcio\nKansas City, Mo\nWashington, D. C\nAlbany, N. Y\n\nJames M. Greenwood\nAnna Tolman Smith\nHoward J. Rogers\n\nCOMMITTEE\nJames M. Greenwood,\nJames H. Van Sickle\nW. T. Harris\nAlbert G. Lane\nChas. D. McIver\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nChairman\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nCharleston. Ill\nON\n\nNicholas Murray Butler\nNewton C. Dougherty\nWilliam R. Harper\nJames M. Greenwood, Chairman\nFrank A. Fitzpatrick\nElmer E. Brown\nEdwin A. Alderman\nAugustus S. Downing\nLorenzo D. Harvey\n\nTerm expires in 1905\nTerm expires in 1906\nTerm expires in 1907\n\nMEMBERSfflP\n\nKansas City, Mo\nBaltimore, Md\nWashington, D. C\nChicago, 111\nGreensboro, N. C\n\nI^ivingston C. Lord\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\n,\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\n.'\nAND\n\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1907\n\nTerm expires in 1907\n\nAPPROPRIATIONS\n\nNew York, N. Y\nPeoria, 111\nChicago, 111\nKansas City, Mo\nBoston, Mass\nBerkeley, Cal.\nCharlottesville, Va\nAlbany, N. Y\nMenomonie, Wis\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1905\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1906\nexpires in 1907\nexpires in 1907\nexpires in 1907\n\nMEMBERS\nNote:\n\nThe\n\nletter \"A\" following a name denotes that the member is of the class elected by the Asso-\n\nciation; the letter \"C,\" by the Council.\nTerm expires\n\nTerm expires\n*W. H. Bartholomew, Louisville, Ky\n*Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston, Mass\n*I. C. McNeill, West Superior, Wis\n*E. Oram Lyte, Millersville, Pa\n*J. M. Greenwood, Kansas City, Mo\n♦Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash\n♦Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa\n♦Nathan C. Schaeffer, Harrisburg, Pa\n♦Lewis C. Greenlee, Denver, Colo\n♦Z. X. Snyder, Greeley, Colo\nCalvin N. Kendall, Indianapolis, Ind\n\nA\nA\nA\nA\nA\nC\nC\nC\nC\nC\nA\n\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1905\n1906\n\n♦J. H. Phillips, Birmingham, Ala\n♦Livingston C. Lord, Charleston, lU\n♦James H. Baker, Boulder, Colo\nRobert E. Denfeld, Duluth, Minn\n♦Lucia Stickney, Cleveland, O\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Emporia, Kans\n♦Aaron Gove, Denver, Colo\n♦J. W. Carr, Anderson, Ind\nGeorge H. Martin, West Lynn, Mass\n♦James M. Green, Trenton, N.J\n♦Augustus S. Downing, Albany, N. Y\n♦A. R. Taylor, Decatur, 111\n♦Charles D. McIver, Greensboro, N. C\n♦E. H. Mark, Louisville, Ky\nWilliam E. Hatch, New Bedford, iVIass\nBettie A. Dutton, Cleveland, O\nCharles H. Keyes, Hartford, Conn\nAndrew S. Draper, Albany, N. Y\nWm. K. Fowler, Lincoln, Nebr\n\nA 1906\nA 1906\nA 1906\nA 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nC 1906\nA 1907\nA 1907\nA 1907\nA 1907\nA 1907\nC 1907\nC 1907\nC 1907\nC 1907\nC 1907\n\n♦ Present at the Council sessions at St. Louis, Mo\n\n♦Charles F. Thwing, Cleveland, O\nA\n♦Albert G. Lane, Chicago, 111\nA\nEdwin A. Alderman, Charlottesville, Va. . . . A\nCharles M. Jordan, Minneapolis, Minn\nA\n♦J. F. Millspaugh, Los Angeles, Cal\n♦W. M. Davidson, Omaha, Neb\nE. W. Coy, Cincinnati, O\nL. E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex\nJames E. Russell, New York, N. Y\nOliver S. Westcott, Chicago, 111\n♦W. T. Harris, Washington, D. C\n♦William R. Harper, Chicago, 111\nCharles R. Skinner, Albany, N. Y\nElla F. Young, Chicago, 111\n♦Howard J. Rogers, Albany, N. Y\nH. B. Frissell, Hampton, Va\n♦Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich\n♦Elmer E. Brown, Berkeley, Cal\nW. H. Black, Marshall, Mo\n\nA 1908\nC 1908\nC 1908\nC 1908\nC 1908\nC 1908\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nA 1909\nC 1909\nC 1909\nC 1909\nC 1909\n\n♦Nicholas Murray Butler, New York, N. Y. . . C\n♦John W. Cook, DeKalb, 111\nA\n♦F. Louis Soldan, St. Louis, Mo\nA\n♦Lorenzo D. Harvey, Menomonie, Wis\nA\n♦R. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis\nA\n♦Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis\nA\n♦Anna Tolman Smith, Washington. D. C\nC\n♦Josephine Heermans, Kansas City, Mo\nC\n♦James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md\nC\nAlbert Ross Hill, Columbia, Mo\nC\n♦Newton C. Dougherty, Peoria, 111\nC\n1904 — forty.\n\n1908\n1908\n1908\n1908\n\n1909\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n1910\n\n"}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nHONORARY\n\nAND\n\nDECEASED\n\nHONORARY\nEarl Barnes, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWilliam N. Barringer, Newark, N. J.\nNewtori Bateman, Galesburg, III.\nAlexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.\nD. Bemis, Spokane, Wash.\nThomas W. Bicknell, Providence, R. I.\nAlbert G. Boyden, Bridgewater, Mass.\nAnna C. Bracket! , New York, N. Y.\nJohn E. Bradley, Randolph, Mass.\nEdward Brooks, Philadelphia, Pa.\nRichard G. Boone, Yonkers, N. Y.\nGeorge P. Brown, Bloomington, 111.\nWiUiam L. Bryan, Bloomington, Ind.\nJohn T. Buchanan, New York, N. Y.\nMatthew H. Buckham, Burlington, Vt.\nDavid N. Camp, New Britain, Conn.\nJames H. Canfield, New York, N. Y.\nClara Conway, Memphis, Tenn.\nOscar H. Cooper, Abilene, Tex.\nOscar T. Corson, Columbus, O.\nWilliam J. Corthell, Gorham, Me.\nClyirles DeGarmo, Ithaca, N. Y.\nV. C. Dibble, Charleston, S. C.\nJohn Dewey, Chicago, 111.\nJohn W. Dickinson, Newtonville, Mass.\nJohn Eaton, Washington, D. C.\nCharles W. Eliot, Cambridge, Mass.\nWilliam W. Folwell, Minneapolis, Minn.\nJames A. Foshay, Los Angeles, Cal.\nR. B. Fulton, University, Miss.\nCharles B. Gilbert, New York, N. Y.\nDaniel C. Oilman, Baltimore, Ind. *\nJames C. Greenough, Westfield. Mass.\nW. N. Hailmann, Needham, Mass.\nG. Stanley Hall, Worcester, Mass.\nPaul H. Hanus, Cambridge, Mass.\nWalter E. Hervey, New York, N. Y.\nEdwin C. Hewett, Normal, 111.\nJ. George Hodgins, Toronto, Can.\nIra G. Hoitt, Sacramento, Cal.\nJames H. Hoose, Pasadena, Cal.\nGeorge W. Howison, San Francisco, Cal.\nJames L. Hughes, Toronto, Can.\nThomas Hunter, New York, N. Y.\nEllen Hyde, Farmington, Mass.\nEdmund J. James, Evanston, 111.\nE. S. Joynes, Columbia, S. C.\nDavid L. Kiehle, Minneapohs, Minn.\nWilliam F. King, Mt. Vernon, la.\n\nDECEASED\n\nMEMBERS\n\n337\n\nMEMBERS\nThomas Kirkland, Toronto, Can.\nHenry M. Leipziger, New York, N. Y.\nJames MacAlister, Philadelphia, Pa.\nAlbert P. Marble, New York, N. Y.\nFrancis A. March, Easton, Pa.\nLillie J. Martin, San Francisco, Cal.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, New York, N. Y.\nCharles A, McMurry, De Kalb, 111.\nLemuel Moss, Minneapolis, Minn.\n.\nWilliam A. Mowry, Hyde Park, Mass.\nMary E. Nicholson, Indianapolis, Ind.\nJohn M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.\nWarren D. Parker, River Falls, Wis.\nW. H. Payne, Ann Arbor, Mich.\nJohn B. Peaslee, Cincinnati, O.\nWilliam F. Phelps, Duluth, Minn.\nJosiah L. Pickard, Brunswick, Me.\nEdward T. Pierce, Los Angeles, Cal.\nJ. R. Preston, Jackson, Miss.\nJohn T. Prince, West Newton, Mass.\nGeorge J. Ramsey, Bristol, Tenn.\nFrank Rigler, Portland, Ore.\nWilliam H. Rufiner, Lexington, Va.\nEllen C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis.\nHenry Sabin, Des Moine«, la.\nJ. G. Schurman, Ithaca, N. Y.\nH. H. Seerley, Cedar Falls, la.\nH. E. Shepard, Baltimore, Md.\nIrwin Shepard, Winona, Minn.\nEdgar A. Singer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nEuler B. Smith, Athens, Ga.\nJ. S. Spaulding, Peoria, 111.\nHomer B. Sprague, Newton, Mass.\nJ. W. Stearns, San Diego, Cal.\nThomas B.. Stockwell, Providence, R. 1.\nGrace Bibb Sudborough, Omaha, Neb.\nJohn Swett, Martinez, Cal.\n^H. S. Tarbell, Pasadena, Cal.\nW. R. Thigpen, Savannah, Ga.\nH. S. Thompson, New York, N. Y.\nL. S. Thompson, Jersey City, N. J.\nArnold Tompkins, Chicago, 111.\nJulia S. Tutwiler, Livingstone, Ala.\nDelia L. WilUams, Delaware, O.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, Washington, D. C.\nLightner Witmer, Philadelphia, Pa.\nH. K. Wolfe, Lincoln, Neb.\nC. M. Woodward St. Louis, Mo.\n\nMEMBERS\n\nRobert Allyn\nIsrael W. Andrews\n\n1894\n1888\n\nW. R. Garrett\nSamuel S. Greene\n\n1903\n1883\n\nJoseph Baldwin\nHenry Barnard\nReuben S. Bingham\nNorman A. Calkins\nAaron L. Chapin\nJ. L. M. Curry\nN. R. H. Dawson\nLarkin Dunton\n\n1899\n1900\n1902\n1895\n1892\n1902\n1895\n1899\n\nJohn M. Gregory\nGeorge T. Fairchild\nDaniel B. Hagar\n\n1898\n1901\n1896\n\nJohn Hancock\nWUliam D. Henkle\nElnathan E. Higbee\nFrank A. Hill, f\nBurke A. Hinsdale\n\n1891\n1882\n1889\n1903\n1900\n\nGeorge Howland\nJohn S. Irwin\nHenry N. James\n^ H. S. Jones\nMerrick Lyon\nJames McCosh\nThomas J. Morgan\nM. A. Newell\n\n1892\n1901\n1901\n1900\n1888\n1894\n1902\n1893\n\nBirdsey G. Northrop\n\n1898\n\nEdward Ohiey\n\n1886\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[National\n\n33^\n\nDECEASED\nGustavus J. Orr\n1888\nFrancis W. Parker\n1902\nS. S. Parr\n1900\nSelim H. Peabody\n1902\nJohn D. Philbrick\n1885\nMatilda S. Cooper Poucher. . 1900\n\nMEMBERS— continued\n\nWilliam B. Powell\nZalmon Richards\nAndrew J. Rickoff\nCharles C. Rounds\nEdward R. Shaw\nJames A. Smart\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\n1904\n1899\n1899\n1901\n1903\n1900\n\nR. W. Stevenson\n1893\nEli T. Tappan.\n1888\nCharles O. Thompson. ...... 1885\nJames P. Wickersham\n1891\nS. G. Williams\n1900\nEmerson E. White\n1902\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Monday, June 27, 1904, 2:30 p. m.\n\nThe Council met in the Lecture Room of the Court of the Education Building, and\nwas called to order by the president, Frank A. Fitzpatrick.\nThe first paper of the session was presented by Howard J. Rogers, chief of the Department of Education, and director of the Congresses of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\non the subject \"The Lessons of the Exposition.\" This paper was discussed briefly by\nF. Louis Soldan and Calvin M. Woodward.\nN. G. W. Lagerstedt, Swedish commissioner to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\nread a paper on \"The Swedish Educational Exhibit and its Relation to the Schools of\nSweden.\"\nHe was followed by M. Matsumura, councilor of the Imperial Department of Japan,\nwith a paper on \"The Japanese Exhibit and its Relation to Education in Japan.\"\nOn motion of William R. Harper, a committee was appointed to consider what changes,\nif any, ought to be made in the order of the work of the Council.\nThe president named as members of the committee William R. Harper, Aaron Gove,\nand R. H. Halsey.\nThe president appointed a Committee on Nominations, as follows: F. Louis Soldan,\nN. C. Dougherty, L. C. Greenlee.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 2:30 p. m.\n\nThe Council was called to order at the appointed hour by the President.\nJ. M. Greenwood submitted the report of the Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations, as follows:\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE\n\nON INVESTIGATIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS\n\n(submitted JUNE 29, I904)\nTo the National Council:\nThe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations begs leave to submit the following report upon matters which have been before them for consideration :\nI. The corpmittee desires to call the attention of the Council and that of the Board\nof Directors to the necessity of formulating careful rules of procedure to govern the making\nof all appropriations, in order that the conduct of the business of the Association may not\nbe embarassed or confused. The fiscal year of the Association ends on June 30, and it is\nimportant, in the judgment of the committee, that all appropriations made for any purpose\nshould be chargeable against current income only, and that unexpended balances should\nbe covered into the treasury on June 30 of each year. Where circumstances require, these\nunexpended balances may be reappropriated, and so made a charge upon the current\nincome of the succeeding year without confusing the Treasurer's accounts.\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n339\n\nThe committee recommends that the Council ask the Board of Directors to adopt the\nfollowing rules of procedure to govern all appropriations:\n1. All appropriations for whatever purpose are chargeable against the current income\nof the Association for the year in which they are made. Unexpended balances will be\ncovered into the treasury at the close of the fiscal year.\nII. When circumstances require, unexpended balances will be reappropriated either\nin whole or in part for the purpose for which the original appropriation was made.\nIII. All appropriations for special purposes shall be made subject to the requirements\nof the conduct of the ordinary business of the Association, including the salary of the\nSecretary and the expenses of his office, the expenses of the Executive Committee, the\npublication and distribution of the volume of Proceedings, and the usual miscellaneous\nand incidental expenses.\nIV. When the current income of any fiscal year is more than sufficient to meet the\ncost of the conduct of the ordinary business of the Association, then appropriations for\nspecial purposes shall become available in the order in which they are voted by the Board\nof Directors.\n2. The investigation undertaken to determine the economic condition of public-school\nteachers thruout the United States has been successfully begun during the year by the\ncommittee of which Carroll D. Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor, is chairman,\nand a preliminary report has been made. Only a small portion of the appropriation of\n$1,500 made for the use of this committee has been drawn upon during the year, as the.\nelaborate task of tabulating and interpreting the statistics which are being gathered is yet\nto be entered upon. The committee hopes to be able to submit a final report within the\nnext few months. We recommend that the unexpended balance of the appropriation\nmade one year ago for the use of this committee — namely, $1,109.29 — be reappropriated\nfor its use during the fiscal year beginning July i, 1904, and that in addition thereto the\nfurther sum of $1,500 be appropriated to enable this committee to complete its investigation andjreport.\n3. At the meeting of the Association held at Minneapolis in 1902 a committee was\nappointed to make a report on taxation for school purposes, and the sum of $1,000 was\nappropriated to meet the cost of this inquiry. (See volume of Proceedings, pp. 313 and 34.)\nOf this amount but $290.75 has been expended. The committee is still at work and hopes\nto report at the next annual meeting of the Council. We recommend that the unexpended\nbalance of the appropriation made at Minneapolis — namely, $709.25 — be reappropriated\nfor the use of this committee\n4. At the meeting of the Association held at Boston in 1903 a committee was appointed\nto make a report upon the subject of industrial education in schools in rural communities\nThe sum of $500 was appropriated for the use of this committee. (See volume of Proceedings, pp. 36 and 37.) It is expected that this committee will report at the next annual\nmeeting of the Council. Of the original appropriation but $187.95 has been expended.\nWe recommend that the unexpended balance of the appropriation made one year ago for\nthe use of this committee — namely, $312.05 — be reappropriated for its use during the\nfiscal year beginning July i, 1904, and that, in addition thereto, the further sum of $500\nbe appropriated to enable this committee to complete its investigation and report.\n5. At the meeting of the Department of Superintendence held at Cincinnati in 1903\na committee of five was authorized to seek the co-operation of like committees from the\nModern Language Association and the American Philological Association \"to consider\nthe need and possibility of a universal system of key notation for indicating pronounciation,\nand to recommend for the indorsement of the societies such a system, or at least a simple,\npractical phonetic alphabet as the universal basis of such a system.\" The co-operation\nsought for was obtained, and the joint conference of scholars and teachers has completed\nits work and has prepared a report which is now in the press. Expenses have been incurred\nOf this amount it is expected that the\nwhich amount in all to, approximately, $400.\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": null, "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLNationa]\n\nNational Educational Association will contribute one-half, on the understanding that the\nremainder will be contributed by the two societies of scholars whose co-operation was\nsought. We recommend that the sum of $200 be appropriated by the National Educational\nAssociation to meet one-half of the cost of the work undertaken by the conference named.\n6. We do not deem it advisable to recommend at this time that investigations be\nundertaken in regard to any one of the following matters, all of which have been urged\nupon the favorable attention of the committee :\nI. Work in physics done in classes not preparing for college and work of a second\nyear in physics, recommended by the Natural Science Department, June 28, 1904.\nII. The courses of study in art schools offering applied-art training and allied topics,\nrecommended by the Department of Art Education, July 10, 1903. (See volume of Proceedings, p.666.)\nIII. \"The Waywardness of children and their treatment in the juvenile court, institutes of charity and correction, at home and in school,\" as recommended by a committee\nof the Department of Child Study under authority of a resolution adopted July 9, 1903.\n(See volume of Proceedings, p. 754.)\nIV. The formulation of contemporary educational doctrine by an existing committee\nof eleven which has submitted to the committee a report upon the specific topics named\nin a supplementary report of the Committee on Investigatioixs and Appropriations, submitted July 9, 1903.\n(See volume of Proceedings, p. 309.)\n7. There was referred to the Council, for the consideration of this committee, by the\nBoard of Directors, a communication from a special committee from the Department of\nSuperintendence, authorized at the meeting held at Atlanta, Ga., February 24, 1904,\nasking for favorable action upon one of two alternative plans to promote by the influence\nand the funds of the. National Educational Association the simplified spelling of the English\nlanguage. The communication bore the formal indorsement of representatives of the\nIllinois, Wisconsin, and Minnesota commissions on simplification of spelling, and was\nsupported by a petition signed by 1,545 active members of the Association, as well as by\nnumerous associations of principals and others.\n(See accompanying Exhibit B.)\nBecause of the manifest importance of this communication, and because of the number\nand authority of those who have signed and indorsed it, the Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations has given to it careful and detailed consideration. As the result\nof this consideration we are unanimously of the opinion that, assuming the importance of\nsimplified spelling and the cogency of the arguments advanced in its support, neither of\nthe plans proposed would be an adequate, wise, or practicable method of promoting the\ncause of simplified spelling. Nevertheless, because of the interest manifested in this subject by so many active members of the Association, we are of opinion that the Council and\nyour committee should seek expert advice upon the subject; and to that end we recommend that Calvin Thomas, Gebhard professor of the Germanic languages and literatures\nin Columbia University; George Hempl, professor of Enghsh philology in the University\nof Michigan — both of whom are past presidents of -the Modern Language Association\nof America and scholars of distinction; Homer H. Seerley, president of the State Normal\nSchool, Cedar Falls la.; and Charles M. Jordan, superintendent of schools, MinneapoHs,\nMinn.^ — both of whom are active members of the Association of long service, who have\nsigned the petition which accompanies the communication referred to us; together with the\nPresident of the National Educational Association for 1904-5 when elected, as chairman,\nbe invited to examine the communication, the petition, and accompanying documents,\nand to report to the chairman of the Council not later than June i, 1905, upon the\nfollowing points:\nI. Is either Plan A or Plan B as submitted in the communication an adequate, wise,\nor practicable method of promoting the cause of simpHfied spelling ?\nII. If so, which of the alternative plans is preferable ?\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n341\n\nIII. If not, will this Committee of Five outline some other mode of procedure which\ncommends itself to their judgment ?\nIV. Does the Committee of Five advise the National Educational Association to lend\nits moral support or to contribute from its funds to any one of the plans suggested for\nthe promotion of simplified spelling ?\n8. In view of the fact that the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was\ninstituted not only to advise the Council upon projects submitted to it by other bodies,\nbut also to initiate plans for educational investigations and report them to the Council,\nwe take pleasure in reporting that we have constituted a subcommittee, consisting of\nMessrs. Fitzpatrick, Harper, and Brown, to report to the full Committee on Investigations\nand Appropriations at their early convenience a plan or plans for suitable and worthy\neducational investigations to be favorably reported to the Council.\nAppropriate resolutions are attached to this report.\nRespectfully submitted,\nJ. M. Greenwood, Chairman.\nSt. Lx)uis, Mo., June 29, 1904.\n\nThe foregoing report was accepted, and the following resolutions were offered and\nadopted without objection, viz. :\n1 . Resolved, That the report of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations\nmade under date of June 29, 1904, be accepted and its recommendations adopted.\n2. Resolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association\nbe requested to adopt the following rules of procedure to govern all appropriations :\nI. All appropriations for whatever purpose are chargeable against the current income\nof the Association for the year in which they are made. Unexpended balances will be\ncovered into the treasury at the close of the fiscal year.\nII. When circumstances require, unexpended balances will be reappropriated, either\nin whole or in part, for the purpose for which they were originally made.\nIII. All appropriations for special purposes shall be made subject to the requirements\nof the conduct of the ordinary business of the Association, including the salary of the\nSecretary and the expenses of his office, the expenses of the Executive Committee, the publication and distribution of the volume of Proceedings, and the usual miscellaneous and\nincidental expenses.\nIV. When the current income of any fiscal year is more than sufficient to meet the\ncost of the conduct of the ordinary business of the Association, then appropriations for\nspecial purposes shall become available in the order in which they are voted by the Board\nof Directors.\n3. Resolved, That the Board of Directors of the National Educational Association\nbe requested to make the following appropriations for the fiscal year beginning July i, 1904:\nThe unexpended balance of the appropriation of $1,500 made July 9, 1903 — namely,\n$1,109.29 — and additional appropriation of $1,500, for the committee to inquire and report\nto the Council upon the salaries, tenure of office, and pension provisions of public-school\nteachers of the United States.\nThe unexpended balance of the appropriation of $1,000 made July 10, 1902 — namely,\n$709.25— for the committee to inquire and report to the Council upon taxation for school\npurposes in the United States.\nThe unexpended balance of the appropriation of $500 made July 9, 1903 — namely,\n$312.05 — and an additional appropriation of $500, for the committee to inquire and report\nto the Council upon industrial education in schools in rural communities.\nThe sum of $200 as a contribution toward the expenses of the Committee of Five authorized by the Department of Superintendence, February 25, 1903, to confer with committees\nof other associations in regard to a universal system of key notation for indicating pronounciation and to recommend a phonetic alphabet.\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": null, "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. Resolved, That the president of the Council be authorized and instructed to invite\nCalvin Thomas, of New York; George Hempl, of Michigan; Homer H. Seerley, of Iowa;\nand Charles M. Jordan, of Minnesota, together with the President of the National Educational Association for 1904-5, when elected, as chairman, to advise the Council and its\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, not later than June i, 1905, upon the\nquestions stated in paragraph 7 of the foregoing report.\nElmer E. Brown asked whether the action of the Council on the request of the Committee of Eleven would have the effect of preventing future consideration of that request.\nThe chairman of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations was of the opinion\nthat it might come up at any time under the head of \" new business.\"\nThe president announced that John H. Finley, president of the College of the City of\nNew York, who was to have given the report on the \"Educational Progress of the Year,\"\nhad found it impossible to prepare the report, and that this part of the program would\nhave to be omitted.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, Jxjne 30, 2:30 p. m.\nMEMORIAL\n\nSESSION\n\nThe Council was called to order at the appointed hour by the president. Memorial\naddresses were presented and ordered printed as follows:\nWilliam Bramwell Powell, by John W. Cook, De Kalb, 111.\nFrank A. Hill, by William E. Hatch, New Bedford, Mass.\nReuben S. Bingham, by Frank B. Cooper, Seattle, Wash.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i, 2:30 p. m.\n\nThe Council was called to order by the president at the appointed hour.\nThe preliminary report of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of\nTeachers was received and ordered printed.\nNicholas Murray Butler made an oral report of progress on behalf of the Committee\non the Bureau of Education.\nOn motion of James H. Baker, the committee was requested to continue its work,\nand to communicate with the members of the Council as to the ways in which the members\nmay aid the work of the committee.\nMr. Baker further moved that the Board of Directors be requested to renew the appropriation of$1,000 made last year for the work of the Committee on the Bureau of Education.\nOn motion of F. Louis Soldan, Mr. Baker's resolution was referred to the Committee\non Investigations and Appropriations.\nOn motion of Mr. Butler, Mr. Baker was requested by the Council to present to the\nAssociation of State University Presidents and to the Association of Agricultural Colleges\nand Experimental Stations the views of the Council regarding the Bureau of Education\nand the action taken by the Council in reference thereto, and to invite the co-operation of\nthose associations in such a manner as they may deem wise to give it.\nL. D. Harvey, chairman of the committee to inquire and report concerning Industrial\nEducation in Rural Schools, made an oral report of progress. The committee was continued and asked to report to the Council at its next meeting.\nIn the absence of Charles W. Eliot, chairman of the committee to define and report\nupon questions proposed by President Baker, of Colorado, Mr. Baker presented a report\nsigned by the two members of that committee present at the meeting.\nThe chair ruled that the document could not be received, since only a minority of the\nmembers of the committee had made the report.\nOn motion of William M. Davidson, the communication was referred back to the\ncommittee for further consideration and report.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n343\n\nThe report of the Committee on Proposed Changes in the Working Plans of the Council was then read by Mr. Gove, the secretary of the committee.\nMembers of the National Council:\nYour committee, after consultation, conclude that definite formal recommendations are impracticable\nowing to the short time for such preparation. They beg, however, to make one positive recommendation\ntoday, reserving further report for the meeting next year.\nThe committee recommend that Art. VI of the Constitution of the Council be amended so that the opening\nparagraph shall read as follows:\n\"At the annual election of officers in 1904 the president of the Council shall be elected for a term of\nthree years, the vice-president for a term of two years, and the secretary for a term of one year; and thereafter\nannually the vacancy caused by the outgoing officers shall be filled by the election of one person for a term of\nthree years.\"\nYour committee have informally discussed the following named subjects, and ask that the members of\nthe Council, between now and the superintendent's meeting at Milwaukee, by correspondence, intimate changes,\nsuggestions, or improvements in the constitution and organization of the Coimcil, such as may occur to them,\nin order that the members of the committee may be able at that time to formulate a report to be presented to\nthe Council at the next meeting.\n1. The membership of the Council is now hmited to sixty active members; with the list of honorary\nmembers the roll includes 175 people. Each one of these is subject to the rules, regulations, and privileges of\nthe Council, with the exception that honorary members are barred from voting. Whether or not this membership islarge enough is a fair subject for consideration.\n2. The original plan of the Council, whereby standing committees were elected for the purpose of covering\nthat part of the field included within the compass of the title of the respective committees, has received some\nattention, and the committee ask for opinions with regard to that feature.\n3. And more important, as your committee believe, than others, is a written code or by-law distinctly\ndefining the relations which exist between the Council of Education and the National Educational Association.\nPractical and important financial measures connected with the Association are now referred to the Council of\nEducation. This, however, is a temporary expedient, which can be revoked at any hour by the Board of\nDirectors.\nR. Harper, Chairman.\ni William\nWilli\n■<\nAaroi\nCommittee.\n•{ Aaron Gove.\n/ R. H. Halsey.\n\nOn motion of J. M. Green, the report was received, and the particular clause making\nrecommendations was adopted as an amendment to the constitution.\nThe following report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by the chairman and adopted by the Council:\nTo the National Council of Education:\nThe Committee on Nominations for officers and committees of the Council begs leave to present the\nfollowing names:\nFor President — Elmer E. Brown, of Cahfornia, for three years.\nFor Vice-President — Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania, for two years.\nFor Secretary — J. W. Carr, of Indiana, for one year.\nFor Members of the Executive Committee — Howard J. Rogers, of New York, for three years, to succeed\nRichard G. Boone, whose term of office expires; J. M. Greenwood, of Missouri, for one year, to succeed Nicholas\nMurray Butler, resigned.\nFor Members of the Committee on Membership— Charles D. Mclver, of North Carolina, for three years,\nto succeed Augustus S. Downing, whose term expires; Livingston C. Lord, of Illinois, for three years, to succeed\nL. D. Harvey, whose term expires.\nFor Members of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations— Edwin A. Alderman, of Virginia,\nfor three years, to succeed himself; Augustus S. Downing, of New York, for three years, to succeed himself;\nLorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin, for three years, to succeed himself. ,\nRespectfully submitted,\nF. Louis Soldan, Chairman.\n\nWiUiam T. Harris, chairman\ning report, which was adopted:\n\nof the Committee\n\non Membership,\n\npresented the follow-\n\nTo the National Council of Education:\n\nYour Committee on Nominations of new members begs leave to report as follows: The following named\nmembers, whose terms of office expire with the present meeting, are recommended for reappointment for six\nyears:\nAnna Tolman Smith, of the District of Columbia.\nJosephine Heermans, of Missouri.\nJ. H. Van Sickle, of Maryland.\nN. C. Dougherty, of Illinois.\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": null, "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe following persons are recommended for appointment to fill vacancies for the balance of the terms of\noffice of the following named members who have been, by the provisions of the constitution, transferred to the\nlist of honorary members by reason of their absence for two consecutive annual meetings of the Council:\n1. W. K. Fowler, of Nebraska, to fill the place of W. F. King, of Iowa, whose term expires in 1907.\n2. William E. Hatch, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, to fill the place of J. L. Spalding, of Illinois,\nwhose term of ofl&ce expires in 1907.\n3. George H. Martin, of Massachusetts, to fill the place of Frank A. Hill, late of the same state, deceased,\nhis term to expire in 1906.\n4. To fill the place of Irwin Shepard, who resigns his active membership in the Council, his term expiring in 1906, they recommend J. N. Wilkinson, of Kansas.\n5. They recommend A. Ross Hill, of Missouri, for six years, to fill the place of John Dewey, absent for\ntwo years, and whose term expires the present year.\n6. They recommend to fill the place of Alexander Graham Bell, absent for two years, his term expiring\nin 1909, H. B. Frissell, of Virginia.\n7. L. E. Wolfe, of Texas, in place of O. T. Corson, of Ohio, whose term expires in 1908.\nAll of which is respectfully submitted.\nWm. T.Harris.\nA. G. Lane.\nAugustus S. Downing.\nJ. M. Greenwood.\n\nOn motion of Nicholas Murray Butler, the resolutions governing the order of business\nof the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations adopted by the Council at its\nmeeting July 9, 1903, was amended to read as follows:\nResolved, That all applications for appropriations requiring the attention and consideration of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations shall be placed in the hands of the Secretary of the National Educational Association at least sixty days prior to the regular meeting of the Council, with a full and detailed state,\nment of the reasons for requesting the appropriation; and the Secretary of the National Educational Association\nshall forward a copy of such application to the president and secretary of the Council, and to each member of\nthe Committee on Investigations and Appropriations; and be it further\nResolved, That the names of the Committee on Investigations and Appropriations, and notice of an\nhour set for the meeting thereof for hearing arguments, be printed as a part of the official program, and that\nthe rule be printed in connection with such notice.\n\nMr. Butler made a statement of the work of the Committee on the Bureau of Education, and then tendered his resignation of the chairmanship of the committee.\nOn motion of Joseph Swain, Chairman Butler's resignation was accepted. The\npresident then appointed William R. Harper as chairman of the committee.\nWm. T. Harris requested the Council to relieve him from service on the Committee\non the Bureau of Education. The request was granted, and the president appointed\nL. D. Harvey to serve in his place.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted\nand ordered spread upon the minutes.\nRESOLUTION\n\nCOMMEMORATIVE\n\nBe it resolved by the Council of the National Educational Association that in the death of William Bramwell Powell, Frank Alpine Hill, and Reuben S. Bingham this Council has lost three of its most highly esteemed\nand efficient members; the cause of education in the United States, three of its most active and loyal supporters;\nand the individual members of the Council mourn the earthly departure of friends and associates long tried and\ntrue.\nJ. H. Phillips.\nW. H. Bartholomew.\nI. C. McNeu.l.\n\nMr. Brown, the president-elect, was introdilced by the retiring president.\nA roll-call of members showed an attendance at the various sessions of the Council\nof forty.\nThe Council then adjourned.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nLESSONS\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nAND\n\nLESSONS\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n345\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nHOWARD J. ROGERS, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT\nOF THE CONGRESSES OF THE LOUISIANA\n\nOF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR\nPURCHASE EXPOSITION\n\nIn an exposition the directorate proposes, but the exhibitor disposes. The\nclassification may be perfect in its logic and comprehension, the space for installation and time of preparation ample in extent, the plan of arrangement\nthoroly approved and appreciated; and yet the right-hand member of the\nequation, composed as it is of a great number of factors varying in time, money,\ncapacity, and interest, and all involved with that variable quantity, human\nnature, renders its solution extremely difficult. Probably the perfect educational exhibit will never be made till some benevolent person provides at least\na half million or more for the purpose, so that material may be collected and\ninstalled about a well-defined plan and under the guidance of a single mind.\nThis would bean educational museum. It is doubtful, after all, whether that\nwould have the popular attraction and human interest of an exposition where\nvariety rules and where the limitations of one exhibit bring into bolder reHef\nthe excellencies of another.\nIn this brief discussion of the St. Louis Educational Exhibit I am estopped\nofficially from drawing comparisons, inasmuch as the jury of awards has yet\nto pass upon the exhibits, and the states and nations here assembled are still\nin a sense our guests.\nSome general observations may, however, be of interest.\nFirst, at the risk of some repetition of former statements, I must sketch\nthe object of the exhibit. Not everything can be shown in an educational\nexhibit. It is a common expression that you cannot exhibit the finer parts of\neducation — that you lose the spirit and personality of the class-room. It is\ntrue that you cannot exhibit this. I sometimes wonder, in the present days\nof tick-tack routine, if our teachers would recognize it if we could. But\nneither in an agricultural exhibit can you exhibit the rural peace and environment of field and forest which mold the nature and the labor of the farmer.\nIn education, as in agriculture, we can exhibit the course of study as well as\nthe rotation of crops, the methods of instruction as well as the methods of\nplanting, the machinery and the equipment for the work, the products of the\nlaborer and the comparative results of his labor. We can exhibit enough to be\nof interest and value to the student, and establish a clearing-house for suggestive ideas whose influence will be carried to every quarter of the world.\nThe great results which have followed educational exhibits in England, in\nFrance, and in America are the best demonstration of their value. In the\npreparation of the educational exhibit at St. Louis there were two points made\nprominent: the participation of foreign nations, in order that a comparison\nmight be instituted between the educational systems of the various countries\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": null, "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the world noted for educational progress ; and the thoro presentation of every\nphase of education in the United States, as exemplified in our public schools,\nour colleges and universities, our technical and professional schools, art, agriculture, defectives, and special forms of education.\nIn the preparation of the classification, made with the advice of a special\ncommittee consisting of Dr. Harris, Dr. Butler, and Superintendent Jones, of\nthe National Educational Association, the field of education was divided into\neight groups, as follows:\nGroup I — Elementary Education.\nGroup 2 — Secondary Education.\nGroup 3 — Higher Education.\nGroup 4 — Special Education in Fine Arts.\nGroup 5 — Special Education in Agriculture.\nGroup 6— Special Education in Commerce and Industry,\nGroup 7— Education of Defectives.\nGroup 8 — Special Forms of Education: Text-Books, School Furniture, Srhoo^\nAppliances.\n\nIn its comprehensiveness the participation in the exhibit fully reaches our\nexpectations. Thirty-three states and territories, four cities, and fifteen\nforeign nations have contributed to the elementary and secondary groups.\nTwenty-eight colleges and universities, and eight professional and technical\nschools, are exhibitors in Group 3. Seven of the best art schools of the country have, for the first time, made a classified exhibit. The agricultural and\nmechanical colleges, under a special grant of $ioo',ooo from Congress, have\nmade a collective exhibit which you are invited to examine carefully, as\nupholding in every detail the high grade of special instruction given in our\nfarm laboratories. In Group 6, Commercial and Industrial Education, the\nbusiness colleges and commercial high schools, and industrial and trade\nschools, have contributed many exhibits. In Group 7, Education of Defectives, the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf and the American\nAssociation of Instructors of the Blind have combined to maintain a working\nexhibit, in order to demonstrate to the general public the thoro work which\nis being done for children deprived of all their normal faculties, and further\nto demonstrate the fact that the results of this instruction are so beneficial as\nto warrant the same care and maintenance on the part of the state as for\nnormal children. In Group 8 — Special Forms of Education: PubUshers and\nSchool Equipment — the exhibits are many and instructive. We feel, therefore, that we have gathered here a basis for comparisons and generalization\nfrom which inferences and truths of value may be derived.\nWe regret to say that the strenuous life of the preparatory days of an\nExposition has not permitted us to make a careful study of the exhibits, but\nin the examination we have made, two things seem to us to stand forth so\nprominently at every turn that they can be termed the pivotal points of the\nexhibit. The first is the similarity of the exhibit from every state and city in\nthe United States, demonstrating the fact that we have a national system of\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nLESSONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEXPOSITION\n\n347\n\neducation; and the second is the subordination of the humanities to industrial\ninstruction in the exhibits of foreign nations. I hinted at something Uke this\nthree years ago at Chicago, as inferences from the Paris Exposition, but they\nwere not then so clearly borne in on my mind, nor did they then occupy so\ncompletely the objective points of vantage.\nConcerning the first point: It is impossible for any person to go from state\nto state in this exhibit and detect any radical distinction in the work presented\nor the methods illustrated. Such as does exist is entirely local in its reason,\nand is the evidence of the personality of the superintendent or the progressiveness of the community. There is no greater difference between S}Tacuse and\nLos Angeles than between Syracuse and Binghamton. It is a satisfactory\nand gratifying condition. The simultaneous advance along any line of progress of a nation vast in extent and power is an impressive fact. It indicates\na flexibihty of the mind and a solidarity of purpose which would be irresistible\napplied to any problem. There are the same elements of strength in the union\nof ideas and mental training of every section of a great country as in its physical\nand constitutional union. At the same time, I would not have it understood\nthat there is a stereotyped form of processes in exhibits. There is enough\noriginality and expression of experiment to insure against any possible danger\nof machine routine.\nIf it were asked why the educational systems of forty-five states, each\nunder a separate, independent government, separated by tradition, cHme,\nand culture, show such unity, I would assert that it is due to two causes: first,\nto the United States Bureau of Education, under the able guidance of its great\nchief, Dr. Harris; and, second, to the influence of the National Educational\nAssociation. The Bureau of Education cannot arbitrarily shape the policy\nof any state or section, but so wisely has the power of suggestion been used, so\nforcibly has the inference from statistics been drawn, and so clearly has the\ncomparison of systems, foreign and domestic, been set forth, that our educational pohcies from east to west have by force of logic formed in parallel\ncolumns. Nor should we omit to mention, as a most directive force in this\nregard, the personal influence of the United States Commissioner of Education.\nThe second reason advanced for this unity — the influence of the National\nEducational Association — is very apparent. Drawing its constituency from\nevery part of the union, meeting once a year in numbers, and twice a year\nthru its superintending officers, there is a constant interchange of criticism\nand information which holds in close relation every component factor. The\nspecial investigations of its Committee of Fifteen and Committee of Ten\nshow in the curriculums of hundreds of elementary and secondary schools.\nThere is no need to dwell on this point. The arguments are apparent as soon\nas it is mentioned, but its practical demonstration seems set forth so clearly in\nthe exhibits about you as to form a great and accepted fact. I ask your careful\nexamination of the exhibits with this point in view, and your acceptance or\ncriticism of the statement.\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": null, "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe other main point emphasized by the exhibit — the subordination in\nforeign countries of the humanities to special industrial instruction — can be\nproved by pr-eponderance of evidence, if by no other means. Three nations\nparticipating in the Exposition have thought it advisable to portray their\neducational system in a foreign land, and in comparison with other systems, in\nno other group than in technical and industrial education. In two others the\npredominance of the exhibits of this class serves to accentuate the main point.\nIn the remainder the relative proportion is greater, with the exception of one;\nand in this one only is there something of a balance maintained between the\ntwo great lines of the mental developmen-t of the child. It is not my province\nat this time to discuss the tendencies of European and American elementary\ninstruction. They are based on different theories of national maintenance,\nfounded on different aspirations and traditions, and require comprehensive\ntreatment. The statement that the illustration of this difference is found in\nthe exhibits all about you is sufficient for this purpose.\nThese are to me the two main points of the educational exhibit.\nA minor point is the scientific character of the exhibits and the exploitation\nof lines of research. This is, of course, a scientific age, and exhibits of the\nuniversities would naturally assume that form ; but the tendency of each institution to lay stress upon some few lines of investigation is striking. Perhaps\nin this connection it may be said, without being open to the charge of discriminating between exhibits, that the exhibit of the German university laboratories\nin chemistry, physics, and biology is one of the most thoro and instructive displays ever made. Everything has its reason, and this exhibit seems to me a\nmagnificent attempt on the part of Germany to demonstrate that in the field\nof special training, particularly in biology and medicine, her universities are\nstill the foremost in the world. In view of the marvelous advance of American\nuniversities in this respect in the last fifteen years, and the acceptance of the\nidea that it is no longer necessary for American students to be trained abroad,\nthe exhibit assumes a new and interesting aspect, even if it may not be assumed\nto become historic.\nIn the scientific group our own most noteworthy exhibit is that of the\nagricultural and mechanical colleges of the country, which have made a collective exhibit under the special appropriation of $100,000 made by the Congress of 1903. If there can be demonstrated to the pubHc the great ulterior\neconomy in the liberal maintenance of these institutions, a most important\nbenefit to the country will have been insured.\nIn the same spirit has been undertaken the collective exhibit of the Association of the Schools for the Blind and the Schools for the Deaf, in which\nworking classes will be maintained thruout the Exposition. No greater\nlesson could be taught the great pubhc than to demonstrate beyond a doubt\nthat the education of those defective in some physical respect is as much a\nduty of the^ state as the education of those normally endowed, and remove\nforever from their thoughts the idea of its being in any wise a charity.\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSWEDISH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n349\n\nSuch are some of the more general lessons of the exhibit. There are scores\nof minor ones apparent to your close observation, which you are cordially\ninvited to make. The exhibit has many strong points; it has some weak ones.\nThere are some exhibits of institutions concerning which, to use the remark\nof our humorist philosopher, \"it would have been money in their pocket if they\nhad never been born.\" But, as an average, we beHeve the exhibit is high, and\nwe ask for it your careful study and frank criticism.\nIn conclusion I beg to express pubhcly my thanks for the sympathetic\nco-operation of foreign countries in promoting the exhibit ; for the magnificent\nsupport of the states and cities; and for the loyal assistance of the colleges,\nuniversities, and technical schools, many of which acted either thru personal\nfriendship or from a sense of duty in supporting an educational enterprise.\n\nTHE SWEDISH\nDR.\n\nN.\n\nG. W.\n\nEDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT AND ITS RELATION\nTO THE SCHOOLS OF SWEDEN\n\nLAGERSTEDT,\n\nSWEDISH COMMISSIONER\nCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS,\n\nTO THE\nMO.\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPUR-\n\nIf I were to treat my subject in a thoro and exhaustive manner, I would\nfirst give you a full account of the different kinds of Swedish schools and their\ncharacteristics, and then a description of the Swedish educational exhibit at the\nWorld's Fair, and try to show you in how far characteristic features and traits\nof our educational system are represented in the Swedish exhibit. This,\nhowever, would require much more time than I am entitled to, and, besides,\nI am afraid that to treat in an oral address such a subject in this way would not\nbe considered very pedagogic. It will be necessary, therefore, for me to follow\nanother plan. As for the schools and the educational system of Sweden, anybody who wishes may have full information in a pamphlet distributed gratuitously in our educational exhibit, called Education in Sweden. I shall confine\nmyself to mentioning the names of the several kinds of schools represented in\nthe educational exhibits with a few remarks relative to some of them. Afterward Iintend to pick out a few points of educational activity in Sweden, which\nmay be of more general interest at present, and of which our exhibits give me\nreason to speak.\nThe schools represented in the educational exhibit of Sweden are the common schools, the state secondary schools for boys, the secondary schools for\ngirls, the secondary coeducational schools, the technical schools, and the\n\"people's high schools.\" The Swedish universities are not represented, with\nthe exception that some photographs of the university buildings at our two\noldest universities, those of Upsala and Lund, are exhibited.\nThe common schools occupy comparatively the greatest part of our educational exhibit. They receive children at the beginning of their school age and\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n350\nhave a regular course of six years, continuation schools not included. It may\nbe mentioned that going to school has been compulsory in our country since\n\n1842. The result is that in Sweden practically all grown-up people nowadays are able to read and write. The statistics show that the percentage of\niUiteracy in Sweden is only o.i, Sweden as well as the other Scandinavian\ncountries and Germany ranking foremost in this respect of all countries in the\nworld. Statistical charts in our exhibit tell that the yearly expenditure for\nthose schools, as well as the number of schools and teachers, are rapidly\nincreasing, not only in proportion to the growth of the population, but faster.\nAs a consequence of this, the number of pupils to each teacher is diminishing.\nAt present it is less than forty-four pupils to each teacher for the whole country.\nThe state secondary schools for boys receive pupils who have passed satisfactorily three years in the fully developed common schools, or have obtained\ncorresponding teaching. The entire course of these schools comprises nine\nyears, after which the pupils pass the University entrance examination. At\npresent Latin is begun six years before this final examination, the pupils who\ntake up this study constituting the '^classical line,\" the others the ''modern\nUne.\" Some pupils in the classical line also take up the study of Greek.\nFrom graphical charts in our exhibit you may find that the number of classical\nstudents in our secondary schools since 1875 has steadily decreased. In 1875\nthe greater number of pupils belonged to the classical Une, only 15 per cent, in\nthe four highest classes belonging to the modern. In 1903 the modern line\nwas the more numerous, reaching 53 per cent, of the pupils in the same\nclasses. In this year, 1904, a very important reform of our secondary schools\nfor boys has been decided upon. The study of classical languages is to be\nconsiderably reduced. Latin will be studied only during the last four years\nof the course, instead of six as hitherto. Another important feature of this\nreform is that coeducation of boys and girls is to be introduced, for the first\ntime by the state, in some public secondary schools.\nIf you inspect the Swedish educational exhibit, you will find from different\nkinds of schools a rich display of pupils' manual work, or, to use the Swedish\nword now introduced into the English language, \"sloyd\" — wood sloyd, cardboard sloyd, metal sloyd. There is a special exhibit, too, from the Sloyd\nTraining College at Naas, near the city of Gothenburg. You may know\nwhat a prominent part Sweden has played in the development of the educational wood sloyd, and that the man to whom the merit of this is due, the\nfounder of the Swedish educational sloyd system, is the director of the Training\nCollege at Naas, Otto Salomon. The Swedish educational sloyd system is\nalso called the Naas system after the place it was originally devised and\nworked out. Thousands of pupils have attended the sloyd courses at Naas\nduring past years, and among them hundreds of American and English\npeople.\nThe Sloyd Training College at Naas as well as other institutions at the same\nplace have been founded thru the generosity of Mr. Abrahamson, an uncle of\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSWEDISH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n351\n\nMr. Otto Salomon. Mr. Abrahamson was originally a merchant in Gothenburg, who, after having accumulated a large fortune by hard work, gave up\nhis business and bought Naas, the large estate of a nobleman. He died in\n1898. The lively interest he took in education and teaching, which was manifested invarious ways, especially in the teaching of sloyd, was further emphasized by the foundation which he established in his last will and testament. I\nam sure it will interest you to hear a little more about this foundation, \"The\nAugust Abrahamson Foundation\" as it is now called, and the arrangements\nthereof according to Mr. Abrahamson 's will. In his will Mr. Abrahamson\ndirected that his large .estate Naas should be used for the enlargement and\nsupport of the educational establishment founded by him there, and that this\nestablishment should for all future time be kept up at Naas under the name\nof \"The August Abrahamson Foundation.\" Its aim shall be, by the continued\ntraining of male and female teachers who have already devoted themselves to\nthe task of instruction, to work for education in general, and especially for the\nemployment therewith of pedagogic sloyd. To the foundation Mr. Abrahamson bequeathed his whole estate of Naas and a capital of about $102,000.\nThe total value of the foundation is estimated at nearrly $200,000, which, tho\nsmall in comparison with many American gifts to education, is considered a\nvery large sum in our country. The main building, a beautiful castle, Mr.\nAbrahamson 's residence (you may see photographs of it in our exhibit), is\nfurnished elegantly and contains a large and valuable collection of works of\nart. All this is to be preserved, as far as possible, in its present condition.\nThe great hall of the upper story and the whole ground floor are to be used\nfor lectures, meetings, and receptions. The other rooms are at the disposal\nof prominent educators and other prominent personages who are interested\nin the institution and therefore desire to spend some short time at Naas. It is\nwith great pleasure that I am able to tell my hearers that there is a castle in\nSweden where you will be received as honored guests only because you are\neducators, and just because you are educators; supposing, of course, you do\nnot all come at once. The large park of the estate, one of the most beautiful\nparks of the country, is open to teachers and students of the institution. On\na hill in this park Mr. Abrahamson Kes buried. Mr. Salomon, the testator's\nnephew, is to have the sole and entire direction of the establishment as long\nas he lives.\nIn accordance with Mr. Abrahamson's expressed desire, the Swedish\ngovernment has, on behalf of the state, accepted the foundation and guarantees the execution of the provisions of the will. Thus the last measures have\nbeen taken to estabUsh a foundation hitherto unique of its kind in the sphere\nof education.\n\nI\n\nI had the pleasure of taking part in the first conference of Scandinavian\nteachers that was held at Naas after the death of the founder. You may\nwell understand that those who were present could not but remember with\npleasure and gratitude that the stately building where the meetings were held,\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": null, "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwith its elegant and artistic interior, was in a sense their own, and that somebody had thought so highly of them and their work that he had considered\nsuch a house a proper home for teachers.\nBefore leaving the subject of the \"August Abrahamson Foundation\" I ought\nto mention briefly that, tho th^ educational sloyd is the chief object of the\nsame, it is by no means the only one. Other educational courses have been\narranged at Naas — courses for male and female teachers in the theory and\npractice of outdoor games, courses in school gardening, in school cookery, in\nneedlework, etc.\nThere is another subject in connection with the Swedish educational\nexhibit to which I now wish to call your attention. In the exhibit of the\nsecondary schools for girls and the secondary coeducational schools you will\nfind a chart bearing this title, \"Lectures on Social Topics in the Highest\nClasses of Secondary Schools for Girls in Stockholm 1903-4.\" This refers\nto a first step that has been taken during the school year just passed to introduce social science as a subject of teaching into the above-mentioned schools of\nStockholm. Our higher girls' schools of today, in comparison with other\nSwedish schools, may be* considered, from the psychological and pedagogic\npoint of view, as representing a more ideal condition in education. The few\nsecondary coeducational schools we have at present are also very progressive. This accounts for the fact that the girls' schools and coeducational\nschools have been the first to introduce a study the need of which is very\nmuch felt at present, owing to the peculiar conditions of our times. I wish\nto tell you now the circumstances which caused the taking up of the subject\nin question, and how the teaching of it has been arranged.\nIn Sweden, as in other countries of high culture, the interest in sociology\nand the feeling of social responsibihty have of late years deepened and spread.\nThe feeUng of human solidarity and its obhgations is more and more keenly\nfelt. People begin to feel that redressing social abuses is a plain act of justice,\nand that charity in the form of alms is an infinitesimal fraction of our social\nduty. Work for the education of the people, improved care of the children\nof the poor, co-operative enterprises, protective legislation for workmen,\ninspection of factories, procuring of work, etc., are the results of this new\nsense of duty among all members of the community. Both young and old,\nhowever, who have become aware of their social duties, soon discover that\ntheir knowledge of the community in which they live is very superficial and\nunsatisfactory. According as the social questions are brought to the foreground among all civilized nations thruout the world, a knowledge of the\norganization of the community becomes more and more necessary. Because\nof this conviction, instruction in social science has been introduced in the\nsecondary schools for girls in Stockholm.\nThe principals of the secondary schools for girls and the coeducational\nschools in the capital thus resolved that in the school year 1903-4 instruction'\nin social science should be introduced into the highest class, where the average\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nSWEDISH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n353\n\nage of the pupils is seventeen or eighteen years. Even the private schools\nthat prepare for matriculation at the university, as well as most of the training\ncolleges in Stockholm, joined in the movement. As it would certainly have\nbeen difficult, not to say impossible, to have found suitable teachers for each\nof the sixteen different schools and colleges separately, desirous of introducing\nthe new subject, it was determined that the instruction should be given in the\nform of lectures to the pupils of all the schools at the same time. It was\nfurther resolved that the instruction should be noted on the time-table within\nthe regulated school hours, and that the participation in it should be optional.\nThe schools pay a sum of about five cents per pupil for each lecture, and are\nresponsible for the attendance of the pupils who have entered their names,\none term at a time. A committee of five persons, principally from among the\nprincipals of the schools, is at the head of the enterprise.\nIn the months of September and May, the first and the last of the school\nyear, no lectures are held. Between the different groups of subjects the\nlectures are discontinued for a week now and then. Then the appointed hour\nmay be spent in the respective schools in discussing or explaining the subject\nthat has just been concluded. At the end of the school-year printed prospectuses and lists of books, which may be of use in the future, are to be\ndistributed.\nDuring the year twenty-one lectures have been held. I will give you some\nof the subjects of those lectures, as I think you will have a fuller idea of the\ninstruction in question by hearing what these subjects are:\nAUTUMN\n\nTERM\n\n1 . \"On the Advantage of Social Studies.\"\nAn introductory lecture.\n2. \"The Fundamental Features of the Swedish Local Legislation.\"\nTwo lectures.\n3. \"The Fundamental Features of the Swedish Poor-Law Administration.^' One\nLecture.\n4. \" Relief of the Poor in the City of Stockholm.\"\nOne lecture.\n5. \" Private Charity in Stockholm.\"\nOne lecture.\n6. \"The Children of the Poor.\" Four lectures: (i) what is done for the children\nbefore school age; (2) the organization of the common schools in the capital, and what\nis done for the children during school age; (3) what is done for the sick, the physically and\nthe mentally deficient, and the neglected children; juvenile offenders; (4) young people's\nclubs in the United States — one extra lecture.\nSPRING\n\nTERM\n\n1. \"Educational Work for the People.\" Two lectures: (i) by means of books,\nlibraries, etc.; (2) by lectures and series of magic-lantern views.\n2. \"Industriahsm.\"\nThree lectures.\n\n3. \"Housing Question, with Special Reference to Co-operative House-Building.\"\nTwo lectures: (i) in Stockholm; (2) in the country.\n4. \"The Legal Position of the Swedish Woman.\"\nOne lecture.\n5. \" The History of the Swedish Woman Movement.\"\nTwo lectures.\n6. \"Social Settlement Projects and Their Practical Reahzation.\"\nOne lecture.\n\nAmong the schools represented in the Swedish educational exhibit I have\nmentioned the ''people's high schools.\"\nAs these schools are characteristic\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof the Scandinavian countries — Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Finland —\nand are of very great importance there, I wish to say a few words regarding\nthem. For lack of time I can give you only a general idea of what these\nschools are. They originated in Denmark, and the man in whom the conception\nof such schools first arose was the great Danish educator Bishop Grundtvig.\nThe ''people's high schools\" are a kind of continuation schools or residential colleges in the country, intended chiefly for the students of the peasant\nor yeoman class, most of them being between the ages of eighteen and twentyfive. The young men attend five or six months in the winter ; the young women,\nthree months in the summer. The subjects taught contain the elements of a\nliberal education. The sagas and songs of the Scandinavian countries, the\nlater literature and history of these countries, mathematics, and science are\nthe chief subjects of instruction. The teaching is with the living voice rather\nthan from text-books. The young men and women study, not for the sake\nof certificates or diplomas, but from a love of learning for its own sake. In\nthis way as in no other the students are aroused from mental torpor, curiosity\nis excited, and the mental horizon extended. The work of the schools is\nfounded on religious ideals, and is in many cases carried on by deeply religious\nmen; but religion does not enter into them as an ordinary subject of instruction.\nThe first Danish school of this kind was erected in 1844. At present there are\nthirty people's high schools in Sweden, and more than eighty in Denmark. The\ninfluence of these schools on the development of the people has been very great.\nThe present economical well-being of Denmark and the progress of agriculture\nthere are due chiefly to them ; not because the pupils have learned agriculture\nand technical subjects in the schools — these subjects do not enter at all into\nthe curriculum of most of them — but because their minds have been developed\nin such a way that their practical work afterwards is \"mixed with brains.\"\nThere are several other features of education in Sweden connected with the\nSwedish educational exhibit to which I should Hke to call your attention, if\ntime permitted. I might speak of instruction in domestic economy, art in the\nschool, school gardens, school journeys, the Pedagogic Library in Stockhlom,\netc. As I cannot, however, claim for myself more time than has already been\noccupied, I must rest content with the brief remarks presented for your consideration.\n\nTHE\n\nJAPANESE EXHIBIT\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\nITS RELATION\nIN JAPAN\n\nMOSUKE MATSUMURA, SECRETARY, EDUCATION DEPARTMENT\nCOMMISSION TO THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION,\n\nTO\n\nOF THE JAPANESE\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nI account it the greatest honor ever given to me that 1 am allowed to speak\nbefore you.\nI had heard of this World's Fair, which is one of the greatest undertakings\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHE\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n355\n\never achieved by a nation, but when I actually saw, it surpassed my expectations. I have been particularly struck with admiration at the manner in\nwhich the educational exhibits are displayed, and the faciUties given to me in\ninstalling the exhibits from Japan.\nOur government has endeavored to conform as far as possible to the arrangement of exhibits as suggested by the Exposition officials, but some modifications\nhave been made that our exhibits might not appear lacking the order as originally designed. The plan originally suggested was to have the exhibits arranged\nso as to give a perspective view of the Japanese educational system, besides\ndisplaying its different classes and kinds of schools. The organization, the\nmethods of instruction, and the management of each school are shown by its\npublications and manuscripts. The results obtained by pupils and students\nare shown by their examination papers; and the work done by them, the schoolhouses and their equipments, the schoolrooms and the manner of teaching,\nare shown by photographs. The results obtained by the original researches\nand investigations in the Imperial University of Tokyo and other higher educational institutions are shown in the various objects and pubHcations. The\nnumber of students, graduates, and instructors, and of universities, colleges,\nand schools, is given in the statistics.\nI shall endeavor to give in detail some of the noteworthy features of the\nJapanese educational system, which may be seen in connection with the\nexhibits.\nThe primary education is given in kindergartens and primary and grammar\nschools. In the kindergartens children from three to six years of age are educated. The subjects of teaching include songs, gifts, and games. The\nkindergartens are conducted in accordance with the system of Froebel.\nThe study period of the primary, or ordinary elementary, school extends\nover four years, and the subjects taught comprise morals, the Japanese language, arithmetic, and gymnastics. In this school may also be taught drawing, songs, sewing, and manual work. The ordinary elementary-school\neducation is compulsory, parents and guardians being under obligation to\nsend to school all children between the ages of six and fourteen.\nThe study period in the grammar, or higher elementary, school extends\nover from two to four years. The curriculum includes morals, the Japanese\nlanguage, arithmetic, Japanese history, poUtical geography, natural sciences,\ndrawing, songs, and gymnastics. English, manual work, agriculture, commerce, and sewing may be added to these studies. Of the exhibits of the\nelementary schools, the model showing the typical process of manual work\nwas designed by a teacher of the Tokyo Higher Normal School.\nThe training of the elementary-school teachers and kindergarten nurses is\nhad in the ordinary normal schools. The study period in these schools extends\nover four years for men and three years for women. The entrance requirements are graduation from the higher elementary school and at least two years'\npreparatory studies beyond those of the elementary school. The entrant must\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": null, "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nbe at least sixteen years of age if a man, and fifteen years if a woman. The\ncourses of study of the normal school comprise morals, education, Japanese,\nChinese literature, history, geography, mathematics, natural sciences, physics,\nchemistry, European music, drawing, and gymnastics, besides one selection\nout of English, agriculture, commerce, or manual work. For women there\nare specially prescribed courses in domestic science and sewing.\nIn all but a few elementary schools tuition is free, and in the normal schools\nas a rule financial aid is given to the students who need such.\nA more liberal education is given in the secondary schools. To this class\nbelong the middle schools for boys, and the higher schools for girls. The\nstudy period in the middle school extends over five years, and that in the girls'\nhigher school over four or five years. The age of the entrants must be over\ntwelve years, and the requirement for admission is a completed two-year\ncourse in a higher elementary school.\nThe course of study in the middle school comprises morals, Japanese,\nChinese literature, foreign languages, mathematics, history, geography, physics, chemistry, natural sciences, drawing, songs, and gymnastics; the gymnastics including miUtary drill. The course given in the girls' higher school\nincludes morals, Japanese, foreign languages, mathematics, history, geography,\nnatural sciences, domestic science, sewing, drawing, music, and gymnastics.\nEducation, Chinese literature, and handiwork may sometimes be added to\nthis.\n\nA special art course is also included in the girls' higher school.\nThe training of the teachers for the secondary and ordinary normal schools\nis received at the higher normal schools for men and for women. The course\nof study in these schools extends over four years, the entrance requirements\nbeing graduation from a middle or an ordinary normal school for men, and\nfrom a girls' higher school or a girls' ordinary normal school for women. The\ncourse of study in the higher normal school for men includes Japanese, Chinese literature, English, history and geography, mathematics, physics and\nchemistry, and natural sciences. The course of study given in the higher\nnormal school for women comprise^ literature, sciences, and arts.\nHigher education is given in the Imperial University, the higher schools,'\nor Koto Gakko, and other special institutes of law and medicine. The higher\nschool offers the courses of study required for admission to the Imperial\nUniversity, the courses being divided into three classes, namely (i) law and\nliterature; (2) engineering, science, agriculture, and pharmacy; (3) all those\nstudies required for entrance to the Medical College of the University. The\nstudies in the higher school extend over three years, the entrance requirements\nbeing gi;aduation from a middle or high school.\nThe Imperial University consists of a University Hall and colleges. The\nUniversity Hall has been provided for the purpose of studying profounder\nprinciples of science and learning, and for original researches and investigations such as may be taken up only by quaHfied graduate students. In the\ncolleges are given professional and scientific training, and training in the field\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": null, "text": "r\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHE\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n357\n\nof general culture having an important bearing upon the welfare of the state.\nThe college studies last from three to four years, the requirement for admission\nbeing a diploma from a higher school.\nThe Imperial University includes at present six colleges; namely, the\nColleges of Law, of Medicine, of Engineering, of Science, of Literature, and\nof Agriculture. The College of Law is further divided into two departments,\nlaw proper and poUtics; the College of Medicine is subdivided into two departments, medicine proper and pharmacy. The College of Engineering is\ndivided into nine departments: (i) civil engineering; (2) mechanical engineering; (3) naval architecture; (4) the technology of arms; (5) electrical engineering; (6) architecture; (7) applied chemistry; (8) the technology of explosives;\nand (9) mining and metallurgy. The College of literature is subdivided\ninto nine departments: (i) philosophy; (2) Japanese Hterature; (3) Chinese\nliterature; (4) Japanese history; (5) history; (6) comparative philology; (7)\nEnglish Hterature; (8) German Hterature; and (9) French literature. The\nCollege of Science is subdivided into eight departments: (i) mathematics;\n(2) astronomy; (3) theoretical physics; (4) experimental physics; (5) chemistry;\n(6) zoology; (7) botany; and (8) geology. The College of Agriculture is subdivided into four departments: (i) agriculture proper; (2) agricultural chemistry(3)\n; forestry ; and (4) veterinary medicine.\nThe special institutes of medicine generally have two departments, medicine\nand pharmacy, but sometimes have only one department — medicine. The\nspecial institutes of law usually have two departments, law proper and politics.\nThe studies prescribed in these institutes as a rule extend over two or three\nyears, the entrance requirements being graduation from a middle or a high\nschool.\nThe Imperial University of Tokyo, which has installed the exhibits at thePalace of Education and Social Economy, was founded thirty-four years ago.\nIt is the oldest high educational institution in Japan and has the most complete\nequipment for instruction in every branch of learning. Its College of Medicine is provided with a well-organized hospital, which is open both to the\nstudents and to the publig. The laboratories and workshops of the College\nof Engineering are provided with the latest type of apparatus and machinery,\nand other appliances especially designed for original investigations. The\nTokyo Astronomical Observatory, the Botanical Garden, the Seismological\nObservatory, and the Marine Biological Station form part of the College of\nScience. In the College of Agriculture the veterinary hospital and the experimental forestry reserves, of which there are five located in different provinces,\nform the chief feature. A library and a museum are attached to each of the\ncoUeges, besides a large library belonging to the university.\nThe exhibits of the Imperial University of Tokyo are chiefly from the\nCollege of Science, the CoUege of Medicine, the College of Literature, and the\nCoHege of Agriculture. Among the exhibits from the College of Science are\nThe results of the original research\ncopies of the journal issued by the college.\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": null, "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nby the instructors and students in the University Hall are published in the\njournal, and some of the noteworthy achievements by the Japanese in the fields\nof science and art are presented here. The most interesting feature in the\nexhibits from the college is the reHcs of the Stone Age discovered in various\nprovinces in Japan. These prehistoric remains show the numerous races or\ntribes that inhabited the Japanese islands, and throw much light on the study\nof anthropology.\nAnother noteworthy feature in the exhibit of this college is the apparatus\nfor measuring the variation in length of a magnetized body by means of\nmagnetization, invented by Professor Nagao, of the Imperial University of\nTokyo. By the use of this apparatus, measurements of the variation may\nbe had, under conditions obtained by optical arrangement, having an accuracy\nof five-millionths of a centimeter. The results of the investigations in magnetism pursued by the aid of this apparatus were published in the Philosophical\nMagazine, issued 1 894-1 902, and in other scientific periodicals, such as Wiedemann ^sAnnalen.\nA tromometer, which is the invention of Professor Omori, of the Tokyo\nUniversity, and others, is also exhibited by the Science College. This instrument was originally designed for the use of the Earthquake Investigation Committee appointed by the Japanese government. This apparatus differs from\nan ordinary seismometer in the fact that it may be used to register much\nfiner vibrations of the earth than it has hitherto been possible to observe by\nother instruments. Since the invention of the tromometer, seismology in\nJapan has reached such a high state that it is now possible to predict earthquakes twenty-four hours in advance.\nOf the exhibits of the College of Literature the chief features are the apparatus used in the psychological laboratory. These apparatus include many\ninventions by the Japanese scientists.\nAnatomical models made of paper and paper parchments are exhibited\nby the College of Agriculture.. These show in every detail the anatomical\nfeatures of the domestic animals.\nArt education in Japan has not yet attained a popular standing. There\nare, however, two important art schools, the Imperial Art School and the\nAcademy of Music, both in Tokyo; besides numerous private and public\ninstitutes of art and music, found thruout the country.\nIn the Imperial Art School are offered nine courses of study extending\nover five years. The requirements for admission to this school are graduation from a middle school and training in free-hand dravv^ing. The courses\ninclude Japanese painting, European 'painting, designing, casting, forging,\nchiseling, sculpture, and lacquer work. The courses prescribed in the\nAcademy of Music comprise vocal culture and instrumental music, the period\ncovering three years. The qualifications required for entrance are those\npossessed by the students of the third-year class of the higher school for girls.\nA teachers' training course is also given at the Academy of Music, the entrance\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHE\n\nJAPANESE\n\nEXHIBIT\n\n. 359\nrequirements for this course being graduation from a higher school for girls\nor a normal school. The teachers' course extends over three years. The\nmusic course include^ both Japanese and European, altho the latter is chieflytaught. The teachers of music and of art for middle and normal schools in\nJapan are chiefly supplied from these two art institutes at Tokyo.\nIndustrial education in Japan may be divided into three grades. Entrance\nto an institute of the highest grade is granted to graduates of the middle school.\nThe period of study covers three years. The middle-grade industrial education is given to those who possess the qualifications of a grammar-school\ngraduate. The period of study in this grade usually covers three years.\nThe lowest grade of industrial education may be offered in such schools as\nthe apprentice schools and the industrial continuation schools.\nOf the industrial schools in Japan those which have exhibits here are the\nTokyo Higher Technical School, the Sapporo Agricultural School, and the\nTokyo Higher Commercial School. These three represent the highest industrial education in Japan. Conditions for admission to these three schools\nare the same as those prescribed for the industrial schools in general. The\ncourse of study in the Tokyo Higher Technical School covers three years;\nthat of the Sapporo Agricultural School, four years; and that of the Tokyo\nHigher Commercial School, four years. The curriculum in the first-mentioned school includes mechanical engineering, electro-chemistry, appHed\nchemistry, dyeing, weaving, ceramics, designing, and making of cuts for\nprinting. The prescribed courses in the Sapporo •Agricultural School comprise\nagriculture proper, civil engineering, and forestry. The courses given in the\nHigher Commercial School are a commercial course proper, a consul's training course, and a special course for training in every branch of trade, such as\nbanking, insurance, etc.\nThe middle-grade industrial school is provided for both sexes. The\nschools of this grade having exhibits here number six for boys and one for\ngirls. There are, besides, one agricultural and one commercial school which\nalso have exhibits. The lowest-grade industrial schools exhibiting here are\ntwo.\nAmong the exhibits from the highest grade of industrial schools the most\ninteresting feature is the method of coloring metals. The method of coloring metals was originally a Japanese art, which the French artists have tried\nto imitate. This Japanese art has been kept secret for a long time. As the\nresult of teaching this art to the students of the schools improvements have\nbeen introduced till the art attained almost to perfection, and the Japanese\ntoday are able to obtain the color without using any coloring matter, and in\nsuch manner that the color will never fade from the metals. This new\nmethod was invented by Mr. Kobayashi, assistant professor at the Higher\nTechnical School.\n\nEducation of the bhnd and deaf is steadily improving. There is one\ninstitute of this kind in Tokyo under the direct control of the central gov-\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": null, "text": "360\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Nationa\n\nernment, besides several similar institutions in different provinces which are\nunder the subsidy of the prefectural or municipal governments. The courses\nof study are divided into general and special. In the general courses are\nincluded those given in the primary and grammar schools. The special\ncourse is designed to train the pupils for such professions and trades as will\nfit them to make a living; and includes music, massage, and acupuncture,\nfor the blind, and painting, sculpture, sewing, netting, and embroidery for\nthe deaf. The training in these special courses enables the pupils to obtain\na living better than that in any other branch.\nA peculiar course in the studies is that of acupuncture. This is the method\nof treating affected parts of the human body by pricking with a silver needle,\nthe medical art used with such beneficial results by the Japanese. As to the\nbeneficial effect of this art there was much doubt till it was decided to subject\nthe method to the test of medical experts, who declared it perfectly harmless.\nThe teaching of this art to the blind, which was for some time prohibited\nbecause of the doubtful effect, has been restored.\nThe text-books used by the blind are of point letters, which were specially\ninvented by Mr. Ishikawa, an instructor of the Tokyo Blind and Deaf School,\nand in which is used the Japanese alphabet consisting of fifty letters, modified\nafter the method of M. Braille, of France.\n\n"}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": null, "text": "flDemortal Hb&reeece\nmilliam JBramwell Powell\nBY JOHN\n\nW.\n\nCOOK, PRESIDENT,\n\nNORTHERN\nILLINOIS\nDEKALB,\nILL.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt was in the late sixties that I first began to hear of a man who bore the\nalliterative title of ''Powell, of Peru.\" He was the superintendent of schools\nin a town at the head of steamboat navigation on the Illinois river. The\npopulation was quite exclusively German and had become accustomed to\nleave the schoolmaster to his own devices. It was evident that he had\nimproved his opportunity to do some thinking and experimentation on his\nown account. It was currently reported that some of the time-honored traditions had been ruthlessly desecrated by the introduction of various novelties\nin the way of school occupations, and that the children were doing many things\nnot set down in the books. At a time when the study of the ordinary lessons\nwas the exclusive employment of the schools such reports awakened an interest quite similar to that which some ten or a dozen years later made Quincy\nan educational Mecca.\nI had recently become a schoolmaster, and was already hungering for\nsome new ideas. I heard no little of what was going on at Peru, and had\na warm desire to know the man and his methods. Nor was my interest\ndiminished when I learned that the normal school in which I was teaching\ndid not meet his approval. We were having trouble enough with the ultraconservatives without encountering the opposition of a man who was winning\nthe admiration of the school people by the novelty and excellence of his work.\nI sought an early opportunity to find him out.\nI was invited to assist in the exercises of a teachers' institute in the little\ntown of Rutland, where one Aaron Gove was master of the village school.\nThis was in 1868. Mr. Powell was there. He was then thirty- two years\nold. ' He was of medium height, of rather slight figure, keen-eyed, squarebrowed, heavily mustached. His voice was rather sharp, with a slight nasal\nquality; his speech was somewhat hesitating; and his manner in general\nindicated a man of action rather than of words. It was shortly after this\nthat an acquaintance began which ripened into an affectionate intimacy that\nwas in no way interrupted until his removal to Washington city some seventeen\nyears later.\nMr. Powell was born in Castile, N. Y., in 1836. He grew up on a farm,\nand until his manhood was engaged in the arduous Hfe that such an experience involved. His father was a Methodist circuit rider, and in consequence\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": null, "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwas absent from his home most of the time. When he returned he was, in\nthe language of a friend, \"more concerned with the fertihzation of his spiritual\nacres than with the soil and crops of his quarter section.\" A heavy responsibiUty thus devolved upon the self-reliant and ambitious lad. It was to the\nrigorous discipline of this experience that Mr. Powell attributed the larger\npart of whatever success his subsequent life brought to him.\nHe went to the district school, prepared .for college at Wheaton, and\ngraduated at OberHn. He always regarded his education as partial, and\ngreatly regretted the lack of more liberal training. He forthwith deserted\nthe farm, taught a district school for a couple of years, in i860 secured the\nprincipalship of the Hennepin, 111., schools, changed to Peru in 1862, to\nAurora in 1870, and to Washington city in 1885.\nMr. Powell was first and last a schoolmaster. I have never known a\nman more thoroly devoted to his profession. He gave himself to its duties\nwith a passionate absorption that left little thought or care for anything else.\nHis industry was tireless. Dr. Gregory would have said of him that he was\nat once God-like and ox-like. He believed in a thorogoing organization of\nthe subject-matter of the curriculum. No detail was too minute to escape his\ncritical attention. It was my fortune to work with him for weeks at a time\nin summer institutes, and he wore out the nights with his patient preparation.\nHe was not a very easy speaker, and possessed a native timidity that few of\nhis friends suspected. Against this infirmity he ceaselessly fortified himself.\nIt is quite possible that this was outgrown in his later life, with which I was\nmuch less familiar, but he often complained of the annoyance that it gave\nhim in his notable career in Illinois.\nTo the work thus carefully digested he introduced his teachers. Of all\nof the superintendents that I ever knew he did most for their special preparation. He was a perpetual normal school. They were equipped by his\ndiscipline with an incomparable technic in \"the detailed processes of presenting the subjects of the curriculum. He dealt with the art of teaching rather\nthan with its science, and thus they acquired great proficiency. Did he leave\nno room for their individuality to manifest itself? We often discussed this\nfeature of his system. He insisted that his plans were the joint product of\nhimself and the teachers, and that they had their full opportunity to protect\nthemselves against the \"tyranny of the superintendent.\" They were always\nmanifesting their gratitude for his assistance, at any rate.\nHe was a pioneer in many of the most significant reforms of the last thirty\nyears. He was the uncompromising foe of the old technical grammar grind\nwith its endless parsing. He beheved it possible to introduce children to an\nacquaintance with the structure of our good English tongue in such a way\nthat when the time arrived at which the elaborate grammar of our almost\ngrammarless language is ordinarily taught there would be no need of it. It\nwas in the early seventies that he worked out his language lessons for the\nelementary grades, with nature study for their concrete filUng.\nYou will\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nWILLIAM\n\nB RAM\n\nWELL\n\nPOWELL\n\n36'\n\nfind them in the pages of the old Illinois Schoolmaster, Aaron Gove, editor.\nThey were the forerunners of the countless swarm of Introductions to English\nGrammar that sprang up within the five or six following years. What he did\nin this direction is only an illustration of his work in science, drawing, and\nmanual training. He was years ahead of nearly all of us in these modern\nadditions to the course of study.\nHis promotion to the superintendency of the Aurora schools gave him an\nampler opportunity to work out his ideas. To this end he estabHshed one of\nthe first city training schools for the preparation of teachers. He took his\nmost promising high-school graduates and put them thru the rigorous discipline which I have already mentioned, permitting them to act as assistants\nin the rooms that they might elect for their future work. By this arrangement, and by his constant instruction of the members of his corps, he succeeded in putting himself into every room of his city. I am not discussing\nthe wisdom of his plans; I am only his biographer. I have only to add that,\nif you wish to discover his defenders, you have but to find any of his old\nteachers.\nAltho so engrossed by the duties of his position, he was an active worker\nin the educational associations of the state and nation. Nothing was more\nnatural and fitting than that the teachers of Illinois should look toward him\nas a suitable leader, and he was nominated for the office of superintendent of\npublic instruction in 1874. Unfortunately it was at a time when the party\nto which he belonged met an unexpected defeat. It would have been interesting to see him with his liberal ideas and tireless persistence at the head of\nthe educational forces in Illinois. In the same year he received from Lombard University the degree of M.A.\nIt was not long before the idea of a series of text-books began to take shape\nin his mind.- They were all worked out within the next twenty years, -and\nwith his characteristic patience and industry. They consisted, besides the\nlanguage books, of a series of readers, which were prepared with Miss Emma\nJ. Todd's assistance. Miss Todd having been for years one of his most faithful training teachers. Later he produced a United States history and an\nEnglish grammar, being assisted in the latter enterprise by Miss Connelly.\nIn 1885 he was elected to the superintendency of the public schools of\nWashington city. The old regime had at last lost its control. It was in good\nfighting trim, however, and made things very interesting for him. The change\nfrom the modest Illinois city, where things were at his command, to the\n\nB\n\nnational capital, with its inevitable political intrigues and with the conservatism of a southern city in all educational matters, must have 'been little short\nof a revolution in his life. His famous brother, the heroic major, won great .\nrenown by his canon explorations. I have long regarded his achievements\nas the easier task. I am indebted to a sympathetic student of his work for\ninf\ninformation respecting this portion of his professional career.\nHe found the schools quite good in some respects, but given over to mechani-\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": null, "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ncal routine to a distressing degree. I could easily have predicted his point of\nattack. I knew that he would begin with the reformation of the teaching\nbody. It is the well-spring of life for the school. He threw himself into the\ntask with his characteristic energy. He met them individually and in groups.\nHe called to his aid those whom he could trust. He employed skillful supervisors, especially for the elementary grades. He enlarged the scope of the city\nnormal school and required greater maturity in his teachers. But everywhere\nhe gave them himself in largest measure. His pecuhar strength lay in his\npersonal force, in the clearness and definiteness of his plans, in his indefatigable industry, in the quiet enthusiasm that pervaded his life, and in the absolute\nfaith which he always manifested in the possibilities of the teacher.\nHis great opportunity had now come. His field was large enough to satisfy\nhis ambition. What he had been preparing himself to do in his years at Peru\nand Aurora was now to be written large at the capital of the nation. Nature\nstudy, manual training, drawing, cooking, sewing, domestic economy, evening\nschools, sanitary supervision of the children, the decoration of school grounds\nand school buildings, the erection of suitable structures for the housing of the\nschool population — all of this, and at the same time the best possible instruction in the indispensable features of the old curriculum where formalism and\nroutine had been, to say the least, too seriously in evidence — this was, indeed, a\ntask to sober the bravest and most hopeful.\nWho will write the history of that splendid service ? The Business High\nSchool, the first in the country, will remain a monument to his breadth of purpose and fearless initiative. The modern school buildings, the embodiments\nof his ideas of utility and comfort, will perpetuate the memory of his fifteen\nyears of wise administration. The place of the great city in the educational\nrating of experts will measure his ability to touch the spiritual side of his problem in a vitalizing way. It was said of \"Boss\" Shepherd that he found\nWashington a sprawling village and left it the finest city in the world. It may\nbe said of W^illiam Bramwell Powell that he found the same city twenty-five\nyears behind the times in its educational ideas and practices, and left it the\nequal of any other metropolitan center on the continent.\nMr. Powell was a man of great ambitions. Realizing that a rare gift\nhad come to his only daughter in her marvelous musical endowment, he\ncounted nothing as lost that enhanced her culture and widened her powers.\nMrs. Powell was at one with him in this enterprise that resulted in a fame\nthat is shut in by no continent and hmited by no seas. It demanded sacrifices\nthat were severe, but they were cheerfully met.\nNext to this dream of his early life, perhaps as dear to his heart, was this\nother dream of a great city system of popular education with which his name\nshould be forever linked, and in which every child, without regard to station,\nshould have the best possible chance to fit himself for the free life of this dear\nland of our common birth. It must have been a peculiar gratification to him\nto know that both of these ambitions were richly achieved.\nAt the same time\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nIN MEM\n\nOKI AM\n\nFRANK\n\nALPINE\n\nHILL\n\n365\n\nhe left in his annual reports a body of pedagogical literature which reveals\nhis ideas, his motives, and his methods.\nAt the last he fell out of Hne hke a soldier on the march who had spent\nall of his energies with prodigal hand in loyal service to his fatherland. By\nforeign travel he had done something to repair the waste of life, but he had\nhastened back to his post before there was a full recovery. When he retired\nfrom the Washington schools he was in the full maturity of his ripened intellectual powers. Shordy after he was sent by the Appletons to the Philippine\nIslands to ascertain the educational needs there as seen from the standpoint of\nthe publishers. He returned with somewhat enfeebled health, but there was\nno thought of a fatal termination. He was sitting alone in his room engaged\nwith the morning paper, a member of his family having left him a moment\nbefore. When she returned after a brief absence, she stood in the presence\nof the dead.\nHe was married to Minnie Paul in Peru, 111., in 1865. She and their two\nchildren, Maud and WiUiam Paul, survive him.\nIllinois always claimed him as her own. Residence in Washington city\ndoes not make one lose his citizenship in the home from which he went. And\nfrom the state of his adoption I bear to his family the loving sympathy of his\nfriends of twenty years ago, whose affection is undimmed by separation and\nundiminished by the lapse of years.\n\njfranh Hlptne 1bill\nWILLIAM\n\nEDV^IN\n\nHATCH,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMASS.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nBEDFORD,\n\nOne who from youth chooses for himself the highest ideals of manly virtue,\nand shapes his life to their realization, sets himself apart at the beginning of\nhis career from the average man. Whether he secures the fame that is accorded\nto genius and its accomplishments; whether he achieves the renown that is\ngiven by the world to him of brilliant attainments; whether his sphere of influence isas broad as the man whose talents are greater, he at least touches with\nthe wand of the good magician all who come within the sphere of his Hfe and\nhis works.\n\nThe statue of Dr. Hill may not be raised upon the grounds of the Massachusetts State House beside that of his great predecessor in office, Horace\nMann; but the consistency and symmetry of his energetic, faithful, and Christian life will ever be silent but potential influences for good in the annals of\nMassachusetts educators.\n\nDr. Hill was a fine type of the New England boy who sought an education\nin the small college forty years ago. Yearning for knowledge, he entered college with full recognition that he must depend largely upon his own^efforts\nThis he did chiefly by teaching, which meant long absences\nto pay his way.\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": null, "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfrom his class, and its consequent loss of lessons and instruction. But the\ndisadvantages under which he labored to secure an education bring out in\nclear perspective the character which so marked his later life. Notwithstanding his enforced absences, necessitating periods of double work, he not only\nmaintained his position in his class, but graduated among the first and attained\nPhi Beta Kappa.\nBut it was not alone in scholarship that Dr. Hill distinguished himself\nwhile in college. He was a believer in, and a practical exponent of, athletics\nwhen they were not the fetich of the college student that they are today, and\nwe find him serving as captain of the baseball nine. He was also editor of\nthe Bowdoin Bugle, curator of the Natural History Museum, and class\nprophet.\nThus in his early days he reveals himself a man who recognized the worth\nof a many-sided education. It is, therefore, not strange that he should turn\nfrom the law, which he first chose as his profession, to take up teaching as his\nlife-work, a work crowned with success and one in which he was happy.\nMr. Hill was born in Biddeford, Me., October 12, 184 1. He was fitted\nfor college in the high school, and entered Bowdoin College at the age of sixteen. He was graduated from college in 1862, and was chosen principal of\nLimington Academy, Maine, where he remained one term, when he was\nelected principal of the high school of his native city. He read law in 1864-65,\nbut decided at that time to give up the profession which he had originally\nintended to pursue and devote his life to teaching. In 1865 he was elected\nprincipal of the high school of Milford, Mass. He remained here five years,\nwhen his marked success as a teacher led to his election to the principalship of\nthe high school of Chelsea, Mass. In 1886 he accepted the principalship of\nthe Cambridge English High School. While principal of this school he became\nclosely identified with and took great interest in the development of the Rindge\nManual Training School. In 1903 he was called to the Boston Mechanical\nArts High School, as its first master, and he organized the school on the lines\nwhich have since made it so successful. In 1894 he was elected secretary of the\nState Board of Education, and held this position until the time of his death,\nwhich occurred September 12, 1903.\nAltho Dr. Hill's administration of the office of secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education was an enviable one, it was in the twenty-seven\nyears of service as principal of secondary schools that his influence was most\nfelt and his great work done. Dr. Hill was a rare teacher. Courteous, forbearing, enthusiastic, inspiring, and imbued with high ideals of civic virtue\nand scholarship, he won the respect and love of all who came under his instruction and supervisorship. Many tributes paid to him as man and teacher by\nthose with whom he was associated for many years show the estimation in\nwhich he was held.\nOne says:\nHe was first of all a gentleman in all his instincts and in all his words and acts. He\nhad a conception of the obUgation of the teacher to the pupil, as well as of the obligation\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": null, "text": "CouncU]\n\nIN\n\nMEMORIAM\n\nFRANK\n\nALPINE\n\nHILL\n\n367\n\nof the pupil to the teacher, and he endeavored to meet his obligation. His personal influence was most salutary. He gave himself to his pupils without reserve, and they appreciated itand responded, giving him their heartiest affection and the best they had and\nwere. His kindhness of spirit and manner opened for him many an avenue to a pupil's\nmind which would have been closed to a man of different ways.\n\nAnd this also from the pupils who sat under his teaching:\nHon. Frank A. Hill was a man to be looked up to and admired. We, his former\npupils, who have benefited by his unceasing labor, realize the vast amount of work that\nhe has done. As we study his life and character we cannot but feel a new inspiration, a\ngreat desire to be more like him, to work unselfishly for others, just as he did, and to aid\nas much as we can in carrying on the work so nobly begun.\n\nDr. Hill's administration of the highest educational office of the state was\ncharacterized by indefatigable appHcation, j)urity of motive, and a keen\nappreciation of the educational needs of the commonwealth. The governor\nin his message, referring to the death of Dr. Hill, said:\nThe educational interests of Massachusetts have suffered a great loss in the death of\nFrank A. Hill, who had for nine years been the devoted and efficient secretary of the State\nBoard of Education. He served the state unselfishly, recognizing that in education is to\nbe found the guaranty of the material and moral interests of our people.\n\nHis annual reports were all valuable contributions to contemporary educational hterature. He was instrumental in securing the passage by the legislature of many acts in the interest of the schools. Among these was the act\nrequiring school committees to furnish schools with national flags; the act to\nrequire towns to pay the tuition of children attending schoQl outside the town\nin which they reside; the act to enlarge the power of taking land for schoolhouses; the act to strengthen the truancy law; the act to make compulsory\nupon every city and town in the state the law for superintendents of schools;\nthe act to strengthen the law against work by minors in factories; the act\ncreating a commission to consider the broad question of the support of public\nschools. In many other ways he showed his grasp of the educational needs\nof the day and his appreciation of the rights due the children of a free and\nenlightened commonwealth.\nBut with all the demands made upon him in his varied offices as teacher\nand executive, Dr. Hill found time and pleasure in distinctive literary work.\nFor several years he was a contributor of articles to the Congregationalist\nunder the head of ''For Young People of All Ages.\" He edited the revised\nseries of Holmes' readers, and adapted John Fiske's Civil Government and\nUnited States History to school use.\nHe was in constant demand as a pubHc lecturer, and in this field alone his\nsuccess was marked. His lectures were uniformly received with favor by the\npubUc, and were characterized by grace of diction as well as thoughtful and\nconvincing argument. The best-known of these were ''The Mound-Builders,\"\n\"New England Primer Days,\" \"Seven Lamps for the Teacher's Way,\" and\n\"How Far the PubHc High School is a Just Charge upon the Public Treasury.\"\nThe last lecture has been termed one of the best expositions that the country\nhas produced of the principles on which our pubHc-school system is based.\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": null, "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nIn 1894 his alma mater conferred upon him the honorary degree of Litt.D.\nin recognition of his distinguished services as an educator.\nDr Hill held many important ofhces in educational and other associations.\nHis election to these positions shows the estimation in which he was held by\nhis professional brethren and his social acquaintances. He served as president of the Worcester County Teachers' Association, the Massachusetts\nState Teachers' Association, and the Massachusetts High and Classical\nTeachers' Association. He was for two years president of the Massachusetts\nSchoolmasters' Club, a very large and influential organization of New England\neducators, und for one year president of the Cambridge Club, an association of\nmany of the leading citizens of Cambridge, Mass. He was ex officio one of\nthe two commissioners of the Massachusetts School Fund, a trustee of the\nBoston Museum of Fine Arts, and a trustee of the State Agricultural College.\nHe was a member of the corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and was appointed a member of the Schools Examination Board of\nHarvard University in 1903. In 1901 he was appointed chairman of the\nCommittee of Eleven on the Organization of Contemporary Educational\nExperience by the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association, and held that position when he was taken with his last\nillness.\nIn his home Dr. Hill was what one would expect from seeing him in his\nrelations to the world at large. He was ever the considerate, loving husband,\nthe sympathetic, helpful father; a man esteemed and loved by all who knew\nhim, with a life fruitful in ennobling work his memory will be cherished as the\nbest type of teacher.\n\nIReuben 5. Bingbam\nFRANK\n\nB. COOPER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nSEATTLE.,\n\nWASH.\n\nReuben S. Bingham was born November 5, 1836, on a farm near Floyd,\nOneida county, N. Y., and died at San Francisco, Cal., March 10, 1903,\nfrom paralysis of the heart.\nMr. Bingham graduated from Hamilton College, New York, in the class\nof i860, and later from the law school of that institution. Instead of entering\nupon the practice of law, he chose teaching as his profession, and was appointed\nto the chair of Greek and Latin in the State Normal School, Cortland, N. Y.,\na position he held with credit for several years.\nFrom Cortland, Mr. Bingham removed to Iowa, taking up the work of\nsuperintending and teaching. His first work in Iowa was at Marengo, where\nhe began work in 1875. After serving successfully at Marengo for several\nyears, he accepted the superin tendency of schools at Cedar Falls, la. He\nresigned his work there in 1887 to take charge of the pubHc schools at Clinton,\nla. He resigned this position the following year to go to the Pacific coast,\nwhere he had accepted the chair of Greek and Latin in Puget Sound\nUniversity.\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\n,\n\nIN\n\nMEM\n\nOKI AM\n\nREUBEN\n\nS. BINGHAM\n\n369\n\nIn 1896 Mr. Bingham again took up the work of supervision, being elected\nto the superintendency of schools at Tacoma, Wash. He continued in this\nposition until a short time before his death,\nMr. Bingham had been an active member of the National Educational\nAssociation for seven years. He had represented Washington as state director,\nand was a member of the Council at the time of his death.\nMr. Bingham was quiet and unobtrusive in manner, a keen observer, careful in method, and helpful in influence. He was regarded thruout his career\nas an excellent teacher and estimable man.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": null, "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLNational\n\nPRELIMINARY REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SALARIES,\nTENURE,\nAND\nPENSIONS\nOF TEACHERS\nBY CARROLL\n\nD. WRIGHT,\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nThe committee appointed *'to inquire and report upon the salaries, tenure,\nof office, and pension provisions of teachers in the pubHc schools of the United\nStates\" was not able to get together and organize the work of investigation\nuntil late in the fall. With an entire accord as to the lines to be followed in\nthe investigation, plans were quickly agreed upon, and the active work of\ncollection of data was begun at once.\nThe members of the committee were of the opinion that the investigation\nto be undertaken should be comprehensive and thoro, so far as salaries are\nconcerned, as to all classes of teachers and as to all localities. It was believed\nthat the salary question could not be thoroly understood or intelligently discussed except upon the basis of comprehensive salary data from the cities,\nboth large and small, from the small towns, and from the ungraded rural\nschools as well.\nIt was further apparent that the actual salaries paid could not be fully\nunderstood until studied in the Hght of the schedules determining the salary\nrates and the rules governing the increase of salaries according to service, or\ngrade, or merit, as the case might be. The promise of the salary schedule\nmust be judged by comparison with the results in the salary pay-roll.\nThe nature of the fund or appropriation from which teachers' salaries\nare paid also seemed important, for in certain cases the salaries have been\nsubject to diminution from the fluctuations of other expenditures or from other\ncauses, and special legislation has been deemed necessary to safeguard the\ninterests of the teachers and to maintain the standard of instruction in the\nschools.\nWith these points in view to be studied, the investigations of the committee\nhave been carried on to cover the following lines of inquiry :\n1. Actual salaries paid in cities and towns of 8,000 or more inhabitants. These are\n546 in number.\n2. Fixed salary schedules in cities and towns of 8,000 or more inhabitants, wherever\nsuch schedules have been adopted. These schedules should, of course, be studied in comparison with actual salaries — the salary roll.\n3. Salaries in typical towns of under 8,000 inhabitants.\n4. Salaries in typical ungraded rural schools.\n5. The nature of the fund or appropriation from which teachers' salaries are paid\n(i. e., whether a special salary fund, not subject to diminution from the fluctuation of\nother expenditures, or drawn from a general educational fund).\n6. Important incidental facts relating to teachers' salaries.\n7. The purchasing power of teachers' salaries in different localities.\n8. Tenure of office of teachers.\n9. Pensions of teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSALARIES,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n371\n\nThe investigation of salaries being the basis of the whole inquiry and the\nmost complicated portion of it, the efforts of the committee were first directed\ntoward securing as complete salary data as possible. Along with the salary\ndata, however, material has been gathered bearing upon all the subjects under\nstudy.\nThe inquiries relating to cities and towns of 8,000 or more inhabitants\ncalled upon the city superintendents or other officials for the complete salary\nlist for teachers and supervising officers covering the last year, the fixed salary\nschedule governing salary rates (if such schedule had been adopted), and the\nother facts in regard to teachers' salary funds, tenure of office, and pensions.\nThe superintendents have for the most part co-operated heartily in the work,\nand the thanks of the committee are due them for valuable aid.\nIn answer to the inquiries, up to June 10, out of 546 cities and towns of 8,000\nor more inhabitants, 85 per cent., representing 89,000 teachers, had responded\nwith a portion of the desired data in some form. Two-thirds of the whole\nnumber had reported the complete details in regard to salaries paid. Only\n15 per cent, (eighty cities) had failed to reply to the request for information,\nand it is beHeved that reports will ultimately be obtained from at least one-half\nof this number. These cities, it may be remarked, had in 1900 a population\nof over 25,000,000 — one-third of the population of the whole country.\nThe data sought from typical towns of less than 8,000 inhabitants are similar to those sought from the cities and towns of 8,000 or over. Each state superintendent was asked to secure the data from three typical towns or cities of\nless than 8,000 inhabitants, one of which requires the maximum expenditure\nfor cost of living, one a medium expenditure, and one a minimum expenditure.\nEach state superintendent was also asked to secure for the committee data\nfrom twenty-four ungraded rural schools in his jurisdiction, eight to represent\nthe lowest, eight the medium, and eight the highest yearly salaries paid to\nteachers of rural schools.\nAs this information relating to the typical towns and rural schools had to\nbe gathered by the state superintendents by correspondence, the reports have\nnaturally been slower in coming in. Up to the present time, however, reports\nare in hand from twenty-four states.\nThus far nearly all the work done has been in the direction of collecting\ndata as complete as possible and in making them ready for tabulation. Naturally little has been done upon a final tabulation, and nothing in the way of\nsummarization and analysis of results, as this cannot properly be taken up\nuntil a large number of the reports have been studied and carefully compared.\nSome brief tables will here be given as indicating the character of some of\nthe tables in regard to yearly salaries which the report of the committee will\npresent, covering all cities and towns of 8,000 or more inhabitants from which\ncomplete salary reports are secured. This number will certainly be over 400,\nand it is hoped that absolutely complete reports can be secured from as many\nas 500.\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": null, "text": "■.^\n\n•a\n\n^1\n\n%\nfc4\n\n.^\n\n::g\n\n;?\n\n^^^^\n>^o>.\nm\n\nI 1^\nX\n\n5■J)\n\n:l\n\n6\nZ\n\n1-1\n\n1\n\nSits\n<>^\n\n?:\n\n^\n\n:8;\n\n^\n\nu\nM\nW\n\n1\n\ng\n\nM\n\nt\"\n\n\"\n\n? :\n\n?\n\n1 l§\" §\n\nm\n\no^\n\n8\n\n1. 11\n\nrtl ^-^^ ^ &%m^ ■: %\nffif?>\n\n<>ij^\n■*> >.\nw\nX\n\n(1^\n\n<\n\ni\n\n^>^J?\n\nN\n\n1 si\n\n6\n\n■ Z>^>.\n\n^1^\n\ns\n0\n5\n\n<\n\n>, ;^\n\nI ill\n^!SS\n\nSS,\n\n^\n\n.n\n\n<»« O^j\" N\n\nuajuuadng\nBIBS AHB3A\n\nJO A.\n\n^ . „\n\n1\n\nM\nM\n\n.\n\nH 1\n\n00\n\n\"\n\n§ :\n\n\"^ ^\n\n:: 1« •\n\nISu,\"\n\n(^\n\n1\" §1'- 8M\n\n5\n\nu 1\n\nIS 1 88 tf>8\n\nr ^ &I ^\nM\n\nCOCO\n\n»\n\n^\n\n«\n\n2\n\n1\n\nVl\n\nir.M\n\nCO\n\n•\n\n^\n\n8 :\n\n8 :\n\nI: • : t\n•\nff\n\n|i\n\n:\n\n•\n\n|: SU.': : h=8 S^i.\" H\n\nH\n\n£^\nm\n\n8|;\n\n: 8:\n\n■\"\n\nro\n\nf II\n\n1\n\n8\n\nN\n\nM\n\n1\n\nVO\n\n\"\n\nII 1\n\n1\n\no\n\n8'S\n\n1\n\n8\n\nt^\n\ni:-\n\n1\n\n1\n\nai\n! i:\ni: 1\n^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^\n\n1\n\nsi\n\na\n\nsi\n\no\n\n°\n\n??\n\nS\n\nh\n\n^\n\n<\n\nw\n\nRo\n\nN§ ■: :\n\ni\n\n?i !• w\n|:\n\nt\n\n^ 'A v ■\n\n|\n\n1\n\nc\nO\n\nCI\n\nH\n\nci\n\ni; : ^\n\n§\n\n:: §\n\nR: •:: 2:\n\nSu-'\n\nH\n\n«\n\n1\n\n8 :\n\nN\n\n:\n\n1.\n^\"\n\nCO M\n\n^z :\n\n0\n\n1\n\n8\n\ninir>\n\nM\n\nH\n\n•\n\n|:\n\n1\n\nli\n:sfc H\n\nz\n\n1\nli\n\n1 §; ^ p 1\n«\ni:\n°\n\n5\n\n!\n\n„\n\n^ !! ^^\n\nz\n\n1\n\n!\n\n\"\n\n^\n\ni;\n\n2\n\n^\n\n1\n\n^ 8:\n\n\"\n\nu\nQ\n\na\n\n^l\n^ a^:\n\n«o^\n\n1 \"\n\n1 i; i\n«\n^ ^\ni; I:\n\n|:\n\n1\n\n•«•\nfl:R^ 8 ^^ ^\n\nCO\n\nCO\n\nrr,\n\n>^\n\n1\n\nm .\n\n1\n\n:i\n;i\n\n00 t^\n\n0\\ ^\n\n-*\n\n:i\n\nM\n\n00\n\nt?\n\n11\n\n■*\nli\n\n0.00\n\nl§ ik\ni 'ft^\nIs i\ni\n\n1|:§,; ; 1 1! !\n\nh\n\n^°^\n\nH\nCTXN\n\n1\ni\n\n1\n\n^s.\n\n1^ ° .-^\n\nII 1 u\n^^ 1 H S\n\ny\n\ni^n\n\n•\n\nin CO\n\n%\nH\nO\n\nt^\n\n«\n\n\" :\n\n■o\n\n1^ s\n\n%i\n\n^.^ 1\n\nyri\n8\n\nH\n\n0\\\n\no\n\n• CT.\n\n^\n-'\n\n^1\n\n?:\n\nII 1\" s^ ^ ik^\n\n„\n\n^\n\nn 1n s\n\ns\n\ns ^i a\n\n§1 i\n\n.n\n\n?\n5\n^°\nK\n:\n1«\n§ II 1\"\n^°\n\nM\n\n<\n\n8\ng>\n\"\n\n• t^\n\nM-\n\n{^\n\n1\n\nH\n\n5\n6\n\n83^\nrs\n\nS\n\n^u-'\nISui\n\nM\n\n«il\n\ntt^\n\na ■*88M\nt^ ^\n\nII\n\n^^\n\n• • \"?\n\nO\n\nU\n\n8|\n\n!^ ^1 ^\nsa a\nf\n\nH\n\nf\n\n|: : ^§ .: .: ^§ :: :■ § : :\n^ • • >o\n:: I\n^u: H\n\ns\n\n«\nM\n\n5-2\n\nvO\n\ndng puB SJ3\nL JO j3(iuinN\n\n<:\n\n8\n\nt^\n\ny i^\n\n^■\n\n^\n\n•\"\n\n•3\n\n-SIAJ3\n\n11\n\n<»«\n?\nA .-°\n.§:\n1\n*§\nsi; cr,\ny\n\n11\n\nX\n\n}U3f\n\n88\n\nH\n\na.\n\nz\n\nII !*^\n\nM\n\ns\n\n:\"\n\nM\n\n:S\n\n;i\n\n1^8\n\"\n\nu\n\n:%^s\n\n\"\n\n.M\n\n«&\n\n^ ^.^ ^\n\n^11\n\n^\n\ni^s\n\nf\" II S\n\n:\n\n1\n:^\n\n1\n\n2\n\na a?>\n\nII■\n\nt^\n\nn ^1:^\n\n6\n\n^\n:a a\n\n?o\n\n%\n\no\n\no\n\n• \"^\nt^\n\nII 8\n\nV?,?\n\n\"\n\n;?\n\n• t^\n\ns\n^\n\n■^\n\nM\n\nis.\nis «\" II\n:\"-'\nW\n\n^^1\n\no\n\np,f ^\n§ ss 1\n1 cg<5?\n« i\ni^\n\nill\nII\n2 III\nZ\n\no\n\n.«\n\nill :|il- 1 P\nz\n\n;s 8\n\n• t^\n\nX\n\n5\n<H\n\nK\n\n■*%\n\n• ti\n\n8\n\no\n\n1\" : :\nH\n\n;i\nX\nH\nS\nU\n\n1\n\nt\n\nSis\n\n■!\n\nK\n\n<u\n\n:^\n\ns\n\n;^\n\n■&\n\nH\n\nX\nId\n\nr.^\n\nI\n\n;s[National\n\n- -t\n\ni|\n\nz\n\n>, >,\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n• o\n• o\n:8\n:^ 1^\n;^\nis\n:s.\n•o\n§\n1\ns\n:&\n;i\n\n1^\n\n372\n■ft\n\nNATIONAL\n\nS-\n\n•n\n\n■o\n\n■*\n\n1\n1\n\n^\n\n1\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSALARIES,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAND\nO\n\nO\n\nSHHHOVaj^\nHsawajsi\n\navxox\nvO\n\nJ3AO\n\nOF\n\nOn^O\n\nTEACHERS\n\n000\n\nMOM\n\nJ^i-i'^\n\nOOrOfO\n\nTj- fOOO^\n\nMOO\n\nMOO\n\n000000\n\nCKN^\n\nCSOcs\nOcscs\n\nt^TfM\nrOMO\n\nTl-Miy-)\nrOt^O\n\nOMM\nI^mQn\n\n!>. r>.\\0\nmw-^\n\nt>.\n\n• t>.\n\npo M Tt\n\nOn 0\\\n\nVO\n\nLOOO\n\nAHViv? \\i-dv%x aovaaAV\n\n10\n\nPENSIONS\n\n• 0\n\nM\n\nJO 100'Z$\n\n000' z$ o) io6'i$\n006' 1$ o} io8'i$\noo8'i$ 01 ioi'i$\nooi'i$ o} 109' 1$\n•^00\n\nM\n\nCS\n\n009'!$ oi loS'if\nrr>\n\noo£'i$ o} lot^'ij\noot''i$ 0} io£:'i$\n\nt^\n\n• t^\n\noof'ij oj ioz'i$\nooe'i$\n\no} ioi'i$\n\nW\n\n•\n\nCS\n\n<N\n\nr)-\n\nN\n\n(N\n\n-^\n\nCS \\0\n\n(N\n\n001' 1$ 01 100' 1$\n\nt^ f^\n\nrooo\n\n000' 1$ o} iS6$\n\noS6$ o} 106$\ntJ-csmD\n\n006$ oj lb\" 8$\n\nnm-\"^\n\nUO M\n\nmwi^\n\noS8$ oj i08$\noo8$oj iSi$\nM\n\no£i$ oj ioi$\nooi$oj iSg%\n\nMM\n\nM\n\nH\n\nO\n\nfO On\n\nN\n\nCO O. M\n\nNNTf\n\nvorJ-Ov\n\n;^feH\n:\n\n:^f^H\nu\n\noS9$ 01 109$\n009$ o} iSSf\no5S$ o) loSf\njjpun io oo£$\n\n^ :^^^\n\n<^^^\n:\n\n«5\n\n^;^^\nc^\n\nS\n\n^\n\nq\n\n^^H\n\n373\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n374\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\ntx cs\n\n0\n\nM\n\nM\n\nAHVivs AiavaA aovaaAy\nSlVdlD\n\n,-COO\n\n0\n\nm\"\nM\nLO\nM\n\nOv\n\nro\n\n•\n\nM\n\n: ro\n\n»^ c^ uo\n\n0010\n\n•• 00\nm\n\nMOM\n\"t M\nUO\n\n\" '^\n4^\nt^OO\n00\nCO\n\n• 00\n\n10 f^OO\n\nM\n\n000\n\nJ3AO\n\nJO IOO'z$\n\n■<t -^00\n\nooo'e$ o} io<yi$\nU-)\n\n.\n\nIT)\n\n006' I J 01 lOg'lJ\n•\n\nM\n\nC)\n\nH\n\nirvO\n\n00\n\n• 00\n\nM\n\nfO\n\n.\n\nM\n\n•\n\nM\n\nooi'i$ 04 109' 1$\n\n009*1$ 0% io£'i$\n\n•\n\nM\n\nro\n\n: : :\n\nM\n\nooS'i$ o; lofr'ij\n\noot''i$ 0; loC'ij\n\n<:\n\nW\nH\n\nM\n\nH\n\n0\n\ncj\nrf\n\nM\n\nOn\n\n0^ m\"\ncT• m\"\n\n; ; ;\n\nt^\n\n. t^\n\n: ; ;\n\n0\n\n•\n\nCl\n\n• 00\n\nN\n\n.\n\nN\n\nN\n\n•\n\nN\n\nTt\n\n.\n\nrl-\n\nM\n\nCI\n\nW\n\nCD\n\nM\n\nM\n\nC<\n\nCO Tt r>.\n\n: : :\n\nro\n\nro Tt-\n\nTl-O\n\nMC>\n\n: : :\n\n00\n\noo8'i$o) ici'i$\n\nr^ On\n\nvO\nCO vO\n0\n\n-Nia J io aaawnN ivxojl\nM\nro\n\n[National\n\nCO\n\nhT\nM\n0\nro\nM\n0)\nU-3\nVO\n\nr^ 10 N\nro 0\n\noo£'iJ o; ioc'i$\n\nCO\n\nW\n\nCO 10\n\n• 0 0\n\n• '^ -^\nM\n\nM\n\nN\n\nooz'i$ 0} lOl'lg\n\ni\nu\n\n001' i$o;\n\n(S\n\nM\n\nfO\n\nM\n\n(N\n\nro\n\nC<\n\nM\n\n.\n\nM\n\noS6$ oj 106$\n\nM\n\n.\n\nM\n\n006$ o; iSg$\n\nM\n\nM\n\nCS\n\nfO\n\n: : :\n\n100' 1$\n\n000' I $ 0% I £6$\n\nH\n\n: : :\n\n: \" \"^\n\n•\n\nM\n\nM\n\nM\n\n.\n\n0M\n\nTj- 10\nLO\nVO\n\nM 00\nM\nN\n\nM\n\nQs\nM\n\n• 00Tj-O\n00\n•\n\noo8$ oj iSi$\n\noSi$ oj ioZ$\n\n•\n\nM\n\nM\n\n•\n\nM\n\nM\n\n0\n\nt-. ON\n\nC<\n\nM\n\nCO\n\nCO\n\n•^\n\nM\n•\n\nM\n\nM\n\nT.\"\n\noSgf 04 io8$\n\nCO CO\n\nSt.\n\nM.\n\nF.\nBostonM,a\nss\nT.\n\nF.\nLouiMso\n,\n\n-\n\nT.\n\nM.\n\niapun JO ooi$\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSALARIES,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAHVIVS\n\nsaaHDvax\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\n•Tt-^t\n•vpvo\n• VO VO\n\nNCOM\nOOOOTt\nM 00\n\n•<S(N\n\nJSTj-PO\n\n• cj^cs^\n\nOn\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nOOiON\nM<NPO\nI-vO vO\n\nOvOvO\nOrOPO\n00 vO vO\n\n^H\n^H\nu^vO\n\nWrOXi-)\n\nHHC«\n\nMTflD\n\ntJ-vo\n\nvor>.\n\nt^*^\n\n375\n\nOv\n\nto 0\n\nM\n\nVOQ\n\n00\n*>. t^r*\nM M\n\nTtO^f\n\n0000\n\nt^t^\n\n: S :S\n\nJSAO JO 1 09' I J\n\n:\n\n009*1$ 0} lOVl}\n\nM\n\n.\n\nM\n\n. VO VO\n\noofr'ij o\\ IOZ'l$\n\n. t^ r^\n\nM\n\nooe'ij oj ioi'i$\n\nTt »o\nM M\n\n• M\nM\n• ON Ov\n\nOOI»I$ o^ ioo'i$\n\n• -* rj.\n\nooo'i$oj\n\nI\no\n<\n<:\nH\n\niS6$\n\n.\n\nM\n\n.VOVO\n\nf<5 <r>\n\n.MM\n\nTj- rj-\n\n; H\n\n...\n\n.\n\nNHCO\nMfO'^\n\n...\n...\n...\n\n...\n...\n.....\n\noS6$ OJ 106$\n\nM\n\n006$ OJ iS8$\n\n• ly^m\n\n-00\n•ON\n•MM\n\noS8$ OJ io8$\n\n•\n\n• Tj- 1^\n. 00 00\n\nu-)VM \\0\n\n...\n...\n\n« VO 00\n. VO VO\n\nM\n\noo8$oj\n\n•rOfO\n•0000\n• M\nM\n\n-OvQ*\n.lom\n•\n\nuot^N\nMN\n\nmQh\n\nhmn\n'OvOv\n\nmmn\nmm\n\n•CNN\n\n-PDPO\n\n...\n\n.«NN\n\n...\n\n-lOlO\n\n:\" -\n\n: ^^\n\n: : :\n\n: J^JJ^\n\n: : :\n\n: ^S,\n\n..,}■■*\n• vO VO\n\n.MM\n• 0 0\n\nOOfOwlovo\n\n-WW\n\n-OvOs\n\nNOOO« PO\n\n• VO vO\n\noS9$ OJ 109$\n\n.COfD\n•MM\n• MM.\n\n.MM\n'0000\n\nOVOVO\nMPOTf\n«M\n\n•■<*■*\n-lom\n•\n\nMCOTt\nNW\nMM\n\n\"-\"Ot?\nvo^o\n\n009 J OJ lSS$\n\n• vovo\n•0000\n\n•MM\n•l>.t>.\n\nnMPo\n00\n\n-t^t^\n'-^rt\n\n'fCfO\n•\n\n•■^•*\n•vovo\n\n• tj--^\n\n...\n\nTj-ioov\n\n-0000\n\nt^oo VO\n\n• Ov gv\n\n• t^t^\n•OvO\\\n\n...\n•••\n\ncot>.0\nTl-iO\n\n'Ttrf\n•■*■*\n\nOOvO^\nMVOt^\n\n•>*■*\n•\n\n• MM\n\n•vovo\n\n...\n\nwO<N\n\n■^^\n\n-OvOv\n.fOfO\n\nOOOvt^\n\nMN\n\n.vovo\n\n: : :\n\n: : : --^\n\n:5^\n\n: : :\n\n: : :\n\n\"* •*\n\n...\n\n...\n\niSL%\n\no\noSi$ OJ ioi$\n\n1\n\nM\n\nooi$ OJ 1^9$\n\nfO CD\n\n• 10 10\n\noSS$ OJ ioS$\n\nooSJ OJ iSfrf\n\noSfrJ OJ lol^J\n\n00^$ OJ iS£j\n\n•\n\n00*\n\nM\n\n...\n\nM\n\nTj-^^J-\n\n•\n\nN\n\nM\n\nfO fO\n\nlapun JO oS£$\n\nM\n\n-OvOv\n-cOfO\n\nOv 0\nCO rr\n\n' ^^\n\n•\n\n.t>.t^\n\n%\\^^\n\nl^feH\n\nl^t^H\n\n:^f^H\n\nl^f^H\n\nl^f^H\n\n?\nJ\n\ns\n1\n\n1\ni\n\n^:\n1\n\n1\n^\n\n5\n1\n\n^\n\nw\n\n^\n\nC\n\n^\n\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": null, "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe first table gives for St. Louis, Boston, Milwaukee, Detroit, Washington, and Newark, and also for five cities of about 25,000 inhabitants, the\npopulation, the total number of teachers (including supervising officers), the\nsalary of superintendents, and the number, minimum, maximum, and average\nyearly salary paid to principals and to teachers in high schools, elementary\nschools, and kindergartens, in each case subdivided to show men and women\nseparately and combined. It should be added that the salaries of supervisors\nor special teachers of music, drawing, manual training, etc., altho here omitted,\nwill be included in the final report of the committee. The minimum and maximum salaries here shown are the lowest and highest actually upon the pay-roll\nat the time of the report of the committee, and have no reference to schedule\nrates of minimum or maximum, which may not at the time in question have\nbeen the salary of any individual teacher. In this table only those reported\nas principals have been tabulated under that name, and all others have been\nput down as teachers. ' For example, in Newark sixty-two (one male and sixtyone females) designated as vice-principals have been included with the ''teachers\" in the table. These sixty-two receive salaries varying from $850 to $1 ,200,\nand averaging $984. In Boston the Mechanic Arts High School, and in\nWashington the Manual Training High School, have been classed with the\nother high schools. Their salaries are slightly lower than those paid in the\nother high schools in the same cities.\nThis table renders easy a general comparison of salaries paid in the classes\nof positions employing the greatest number of teachers. Considering the\nsix large cities only, it will be seen at a glance that Boston stands at the top in\nall classes, and Newark second (except as to superintendent's salary), while\nWashington salaries are lowest. The fact will be noticed that the number of\nprincipals of elementary schools in Washington is much larger than in any of\nthe other cities. But if salaries of principals and teachers in elementary\nschools are averaged together, the relative position of Washington is improved\nlittle, if at all, as this average, so calcutated, of 986 Washington principals and\nteachers is $658, while for the next lowest, Detroit, the average of 802 principals and teachers is $690.\nIt may be desired to study these salaries somewhat more in detail. For\nthis purpose tables have been prepared for the six large cities, classifying the\nsalaries of high-school teachers and elementary-school principals and teachers.\nThe second table shows, in quite as striking a way as the averages, the\ndifferences between the salaries paid in the several cities. In Washington over 40\nper cent, of the high-school teachers receive salaries ranging from $500 to $800,\nwhile nearly 87 per cent, receive $1,000 or less; in Milwaukee 52.5 per cent,\nare below the $1,000 line, in Detroit 23.8 per cent., in St. Louis 17. i per cent.;\nbut in Newark only 6.5 per cent., and in Boston only 4.1 per cent. On the\nother hand, Boston has 32.4 per cent, receiving over $2,000, Newark has 19.6\nper cent., and St. Louis 5.7 per cent. Other interesting comparisons may be\nmade.\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": null, "text": "Council]\n\nSALARIES,\n\nTENURE,\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\n377\n\nA similar table (Table III) shows the salaries of principals of elementary\nschools classified .\nIt will be seen from this table that in Washington 83.8 per cent, of the\nprincipals of elementary schools receive $1,000 or less per year, in Detroit\n34.3 per cent., in St. Louis 7.1 per cent., while in Milwaukee and Newark only\none person out of the whole number receives so low a salary, and in Boston\nthe lowest salary paid any principal was $2,700.\nThe fact that the two cities employing a greater number of women than\nmen in the position of principals pay very much lower average salaries cannot\nfail to attract attention in this connection. There are without doubt differences in organization affecting salaries which the reports furnished to the\nCommittee have not always made clear.\nThe salaries of the elementary teachers (not including principals), which\nare the largest and therefore most important of all the classes of teachers, have\nalso been classified in a table, and the result is shown above (Table IV).\nFrom this table it appears that Washington has 306 teachers, or 35 per\ncent, of the elementary-school teachers, receiving $500 or less, Detroit 23.2\nper cent., Milwaukee 13. i per cent., St. Louis 12.5 per cent., and Newark\n10.6 per cent. Of the Boston teachers the lowest paid are seventy-one in the\ngroup receiving $551 to $600. The number of men teachers in the elementary\nschools is shown to be very small, Boston, Milwaukee, and Washington leading\nin the order named.\nEnough has been given to indicate the completeness which the committee\ndesires and confidently hopes to give to the part of its report which relates to\nsalaries. Effort will be made to study the reports which have been received,\nand, so far as an understanding of conditions is possible, only those facts will\n-be brought into comparison which can properly be compared because of similarity of conditions. The data will be summarized to bring out most clearly\nthe significance of the facts — and all the facts.\nThe large amount of material relating to the other subjects referred to the\ncommittee, which has been, collected at the same time with the salary data,\nwill be studied, and the results will be fully presented. But, being based so\nlargely upon the salary question, they naturally give precedence to it.\nIt is confidently hoped that the completed report will be submitted during\nthe coming fall.\nRespectfully submitted on behalf of the committee,\nCarroll D. Wright, Chairman.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON SALARIES, TENURE,\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nCarroll D. Wright, U. S. Commissioner of Labor, Washington, D. C, chairman.\nEdwin G. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nFranklin H. Giddings, professor of sociology, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Catharine Goggin, teacher in city schools, Chicago, 111.\n\nR. H. Halsey, principal of State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis..\nWilliam McAndrew, principal of Girls' Technical High School, New York, N. Y.\nMiss Anna Tolman Smith, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENTS OF KINDERGARTEN\nELEMENTARY EDUCATION\nSECRETARIES'\nJOINT\n\nAND\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 1904\n\nThe Departments of Kindergarten and Elementary Education met in joint session\nin the Hall of Congresses at 2:30 p. m. Miss Jenny B. Merrill, president of the Kindergarten Department, and Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, president of the Elementary Department, alternated in announcing the speakers.\nThe program for the session was as follows :\nAddresses of welcome: Miss Mary C. McCuUoch, supervisor of kindergartens, St. Ixiuis, Mo.; Miss\nFannie L. Lachmund, supervisor of primary instruction, St. Louis, Mo.\n1. Topic: \"The relation of the Kindergarten and Elementary School as Shown in Their Exhibits.\"\na) \"From the Kindergarten Standpoint,\" by Miss Patty S. Hill, principal of Kindergarten Training\nSchool, Louisville, Ky.\nb) \"From the Standpoint of the School,\" by Charles B. Gilbert, New York city.\nDiscussion by A. Caswell Ellis, professor of science and art of education. University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\n2. \"The Philippine Teacher and the Philippine Educational Exhibit,\" by Albert Ralph Hager, chief of\nthe Department of Education of the Philippine Exhibit, Manila, P. I.\n3. \"The Kindergarten in Japan,\" by Miss Anna L. Howe (recently of Kobe, Japan), associate principal\nChicago Froebel Association, Kelly Hall, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n4. \"Elementary Education in France and Germany,\" by F. E. Farrington, professor of pedagogy. University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, Cal.\n5. \"The Kindergarten in the Southern States, in Mexico, and in South America,\" by Miss Eveline A.\nWaldo, principal of St. Mary's Parish Kindergarten Training School, New Orleans, I^a.\n\nOn motion of Miss Mary C. McCuUoch, the president of the Kindergarten Department was authorized to appoint the usual committees for that department.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Mary C. McCuUoch, St. Louis, Mo.\nMiss May Murray, Springfield, Mass.\nMiss Eveline A. Waldo, New Orleans, La.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nMiss Anna Harvey, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nMiss Susan Pollock, Washington, D. C.\nMiss Alice Temple, Chicago, 111.\n\nOn motion of Mrs. Francis Lachmund, the president of the Elementary Department\nwas authorized to appoint the usual department committees.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nR. H. Halsey, Oshkosh, Wis.\nMrs. Fannie Lachmund, St. Louis, Mo.\nMiss Rosalie Pollock, Salt Lake City, Utah\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nMiss Nettie Sawyer, Seattle, Wash.\nJ. D. Burks, Paterson, N. J.\nGeorge W. Phillips, Scranton, Pa.\n\n379\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": null, "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nSECOND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe Department of Kindergarten Education met in the Hall of Congresses, and was\ncalled to order by the president. Dr. Jenny B. Merrill, at 2 : 30 p. m.\nGreetings from Austria were presented by Madame Ottelia Bondy, founder of the\nAssociation for Kindergarten and Infant Asylums in Austria.\nMiss McCulloch supervisor of St. Louis kindergartens, responded to Madam Bondy's\naddress, expressing the appreciation of the members of the department for the cordial\ngreeting from co-workers in a foreign country, and in the name of the Kindergarten Department of the National Educational Association intrusted to Madam Bondy a message of\ngood wishes for continued success of the kindergarten movement in her native land.\nWilliam H. Burnham, professor of pedagogy, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.,\nread a paper on \" The Physical Care of the Kindergarten Child.\nMiss Bertha Payne, head of the Kindergarten Department of the University of\nChicago, presented the topic \"The Individual Child.\"\nMiss Mary Jean Miller, Marshalltown, la., read a paper on \"What is Kindergarten\nDiscipline?\"\nThe discussion was led by Miss Elizabeth Harrison, principal of kindergarten?\nChicago Kindergarten College, followed by Miss Lawson, Miss Merrill, and Miss Waldo.\nMiss Anna E. Harvey, professor of kindergarten methods, Adelphi College, Brooklyn,\nN. Y., read a paper entitled \" The Value of Pet Animals in the Kindergarten.\"\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented a report which was adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following nominees for officers :\nFor President — Miss Anna M. Stovall, San Francisco, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Mary Jean Miller, Marshalltown, la.\nFor Secretary — Miss Anna E. Harbough, St. Louis, Mo.\n\nThe report of the committee was adopted, and the nominees were declared elected\nas officers of the department for the ensuing year.\nIn the absence of the newly elected president. Dr. Merrill presented the department\ngavel to the vice-president, Miss Mary Jean Miller, who accepted it with expression of\nappreciation for the honor conferred.\nUpon motion, the department adjourned.\nOrietta S. Chittenden, Secretary.\n\nELEMENTARY\nSECOND\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe president. Miss Ada Van Stone Harris, called the meeting to order at 2 : 45 p. m.\nin the Hall of Congresses.\nThe program was as follows:\n1. \"The Natural ActiAaties of Children as Determining the Industries in Early Education,\" by Miss\nKatharine E. Dopp, instructor in Extension Division, University of Chicago; G. Stanley Hall, president of\nClark University; L. D. Harvey, superintendent of city schools, Menomonic, Wis.\n2. \"A Filipiifo's View of Education in the Philippines,\" by Senorita Maria del Pilar Zamora, instructor in\nInsular Normal School, Manila, P. I.\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n381\n\n3. \"Avenues of Language-Expression in the Elementary School,\" by Percival Chubb, director of English\nEthical Culture School, New York city; Miss Delia Justine Long, student in education, University of Chicago;\nF. W. Cooley, superintendent of schools, Evansville, Ind.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations reported as follows :\nFor President — Miss \"Nebraska Cropsey, Indianapolis, Ind.\nFor Vice-President — J. H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.\nFor Secretary — Miss Lida B. Earhart, Whitewater, Wis.\n\nThe persons nominated were unanimously elected officers of the department for the\nensuing year.\nThe following resolutions were reported by the committee and adopted.\nThe members of the Department of Elementary Education, assembled at the forty-third convention of\nthe National Educational Association, unite in the following:\nRESOLUTIONS\n1. That the close sympathy and co-operation existing between this depactment and the Department of\nKindergarten Education is of distinct common advantage to the two departments, and should be continued and\nstrengthened.\n2. That means should be taken to enlist the active interest of a greater number of superintendents, supervisors, and students of elementary education than are now associated with this department.\n3. That this department recommend to the general officers of the National Educational Association that\nsteps be taken looking toward a closer co-ordination of the educational forces of the United States by means of\ndefinitely established relations between the National Educational Association, the United States Bureau of\nEducation, the teachers' associations of the several states, and other societies and associations having as their\npurpose the study and discussion of educational problems.\n4. That the thanks of the department be heartily extended to those who have presented the papers constituting aprogram of unusual interest and profit; to the officers of the departments for this effective sers'ice;\nto the officers of the National Educational Association for their support and for the excellent program of the\ngeneral sessions; to the teachers and citizens of St. Ixjuis for their charming hospitality; and to the management of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition for the generous courtesy and recognition accorded to members of\nthe Association.\nJesse D. Burks, Chairman.\nNettie A. Sawyer.\nGeorge W. Phillips.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS AND\nJOINT\n\nSESSION\n\nFANNIE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\nDEPARTMENTS\nADDRESS\n\nMRS.\n\nEmma G. Olmstead, Secretary.\n\nLACHMUND,\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nOF\n\nPRIMARY\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nAs one who is clearly conscious of the need of greater unification of the\nvarious branches of our educational system, I feel I have especial reason to\nwelcome the kindergarten and elementary teachers in joint session; and\nas an elementary teacher I am happy to welcome the kindergarten teachers\nas a group to whom we are especially inde'bted for light and help. Years ago\nI had to confess to a feeling of envy of the enthusiasm that sustained the\nkindergarten teacher.\n\nIt was evident that, to make her capable of that per-\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": null, "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npetual glow that was characteristic of every worker whom it had been my\nprivilege to meet, she must possess something that I had missed. It was not\nlong before I found that the difference between her and myself lay in the fact\nthat her work was based on more deeply fundamental principles than mine;\nthat, while I might enjoy the teaching of arithmetic or history or literature\nas an end in itself, the kindergarten teacher had been taught to look beyond\nher work and the perfection of her external result, for its effect on the child\nnot merely as an intellect, but on the child as a soul. Her work led her to a\nview of life in its totality, and mine did not.\nI am happy to see that, as the years have gone by, there is no longer that\nwide chasm between the two branches in the work, and that we primary teachers\nare beginning, at least, to understand and appreciate the spirit behind the terminology ofthe kindergarten; that the phrases ''self -activity,\" \"self-realization,\" \"the child as a social being,\" have come to be helpfully suggestive to\nus also And so I welcome the kindergarten teachers as a group whose basic\nprinciples and whose example have helped to enlarge our vision and liberalize\nour methods.\nWith the vital acceptance of Froebel's ideal of the supremacy of soul there\nhas come to all of us, kindergarten and elementary teachers alike, a new view\nof the significence both of knowledge and of work ; we can no longer put value\nupon knowledge isolated from him who knows, or upon work unrelated to the\nworker. Knowledge has real value only when the child sees the necessity for\nit ; work is educative only when it is a genuine expression of him who performs\nit ; work done wholly at dictation or with a forced perfection does not promote\nlife; therefore society and the individual are the losers by the performance.\nIn many places we are teaching the \"three R's\" better than ever before\nIf these were to remain an end in themselves, I should fear that we had\nreached the limit of possible progress. But the constructive work in the\neducational exhibits from all over the world is proof that educators have\nawakened to a sense of need of something beyond. Basketry and weaving\n^re so prevalent that teachers are now quite likely to take up the work simply\nbecause others have done so. The immediate problem of the present, one\nthat of all educational problems concerns us elementary teachers most vitally,\nis not methods of teaching this, that, or the other branch of our course of\nstudy, but to find the right relation between the mind of the child and the\nvarious studies we are now attempting to teach ; the right motive for the child\nin the picture he is to paint, the basket or rug he is to weave; and, further, in\norder to preserve the unity of the child's consciousness, to see the relation of\nall these things to each other and to the \"three R's\". If we fail to recognize\nthis problem, our nature study will degenerate into mere sense-training, and\nour constructive work into mere training for manual skill. In the measure\nin which the problem is high and difficult we have reason to congratulate ourselves that it is set for us to solve.\nThe new social ideal applies to us as well as to our pupils; we can no longer\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n383\n\nrest content to be tools or factory operatives. The ideal imposes upon us the\nduty of thought and study, and freedom from prejudice. When we cease to\nwork blindly from dictation, but work from a clear light within, we shall\nattain for ourselves and for our pupils what Ruskin and Morris, latter-day\napostles of this ideal, demand for every worker in the world — true freedom,\njoy in our work, and a consequent fullness of life.\n\nTHE\n\nMISS\n\nKINDERGARTEN AND\nTHE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL\nAS ILLUSTRATED IN THEIR EXHIBITS\n\nPATTY\n\nI. FROM\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\n\nS.\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF EREE\nKINDERGARTEN\nSCHOOLS,\nLOUISVILLE,\nKY.\n\nHILL,\n\nSTANDPOINT\nTRAINING\n\nOne can but be impressed with the similarity in the results exhibited from\nkindergartens and lower grades. We are tempted to criticise this until we\nread the grade child's account of what he has done and find that, tho the manual products are similar, the intellectual content in each case is entirely different. For example, we find simple cardboard and wooden boxes and trays\nin exhibits, all the way from the kindergarten thru the grades, their educational value in each grade depending upon the degrees of work done by and\nfor the child, the amount of originality, preparations of raw material, conscious measurements, etc. For example, here is a written record accompanying a simple cardboard tray, with careful drawings of the same, made by a\nfourth-grade child.\nShe writes:\nI have made this cardboard tray in school. The material was seven inches square\nwhen I cut it, which made forty-nine square inches. I had to use very careful measurements to get it exact, because it is very expensive material and we have to try not to waste\nit. When we fold it the bottom is three inches square and one inch deep, and it contains\nnine cubic inches. We had to score some lines to turn it over to make it the shape of a\nbox. Its color is green, and it looks very pretty. I am going to use it to put my hair\nribbons in. They will just about fit in the box, if I fold them carefully, and it is going\nto come very handy to me.\n\nIf the kindergarten child had made this same object, the conscious measurement would have been thought out by the teacher. She would have prepared the material and thought out the completed object, the kindergarten\nchild probably originating the method of securing this result with the carefully\nprepared materials placed before him.\nThe prepared material often hints and suggests processes of construction\nto the kindergarten child. At first glance, this seems limiting to the creativity and originaUty of the kindergarten child, but a deeper study convinces\none that even the discovery of processes of making objects which were planned\nby the teacher demands some degree of ingenuity and originahty from a little\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": null, "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild. For the sake of convenience in discussion, let us analyze the processes\nin the production of an object, whether in the kindergarten or the grades, into\nthese live steps:\n1. \"The what;\" that is, the idea, image, or interest to be expressed, or the object to\nbe constructed.\n2. A general survey of \" the how; \" that is, a series of vague plans with different kinds\nof materials, to see how the idea as a whole could be expressed or the object be constructed3. What kinds of material will be best to carry out this general plan.\n4. \"The how\" in detail — as to each part, or step, or process, necessary to execute\nthe general plan with materials selected. In other words, what is to be done with or to\nthis material to make it carry out the general plan — how must this material be modified,\nfolded, cut, pasted, glued, sewed, nailed, sawed, etc., in order to make it conform to the\ngeneral conception or plan.\n5. The product, result, or completed expression or construction.\n\nFrom the theoretical view-point the ideal would be to have all five of these\nemanate creatively from the child, but practical experience tends to prove\nthat this depends upon the age and stage of development reached by the child.\nIn the rebound from the slavery and mechanical methods used in the old\neducation, the tendency seems to be to overestimate the value and degree of\ncreativity and originality in early education, and to undervalue spontaneous\nimitations. This is a difficult position to express, because many times we\nfail to grasp the originaUty that accompanies spontaneous imitation.\nThe study of evolution, the period of prolonged infancy and social-heredity,\nseems to point toward the tremendous part played by imitation in evolution,\nespecially in early life. True, originality and invention are important elements, even in early life and education; but they seem to grow more and more\nvaluable after the child has absorbed varied patterns set by adults, which are\nmost important to him and his kind. Nature cannot wait for the child to\noriginate or discover all of them, so she sets patterns in the concrete activities\nof adults, which are so inviting that the child is driven by spontaneous imitation to repeat them. And so he is busy in making the past his, both by imitation and rediscovery, tho imitation seems to predominate in early life. Truly,\nimitation and invention are the two legs upon which both the child and the race\nhave walked in reaching the best that the race has accomplished in the past,\nas well as in discovering greater and better things for the future. Early life\nis enriched by the absorption of these varied patterns thi:u imitation, and\nlater this furnishes a fine basis for that selection and recombination of elements\nwhich are necessary for invention and creation. If this be true, we should\ntry to strike a sane balance between imitation and invention in the industrial\nwork in early education.\nLet us examine each of these five processes in production, and endeavor\nto discover what degrees of imitation and originality can, or ought to, enter\nin at the kindergarten age.\nWhen we study the first — that is \"the what,\" the idea, or image to be\nexpressed, the object to be made or constructed — these are some of the prob-\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n385\n\nlems which confront us: Is the idea or image a fundamental interest of the\nchild at the kindergarten age? Is ''the what\" of sufficient worth, from the\nchild's point of view, to call out his self-activity ? Is the function of the object\nof sufficient importance in child-life to call forth his best effort in overcoming any difficulties which may arise in its construction ?\nExpression and production in the kindergarten should center in those\ninterests which are characteristic of this stage of growth. The life of the\nchild — his experiences and environments, his interests and ideals — should be\nsifted, and those which promote his growth and call out his best powers along\nlines of greatest worth, both to the child and society, should be selected.\nThis the teacher, in close sympathy with the child and thoroly trained in\ngenetic psychology and child study, should know better than the child himself.\nThe teacher who trains herself to watch the school activities from the viewpoint of the child often knows better than the child what his real interests and\ndesires are. For example, if you offer a detailed toy, with little left to the\nimagination, and poor opportunities for self-activity, most children will choose\nit in preference to a meager toy, rich in hidden possibilities. But any close\nstudent of children will choose differently for the child, and know she is\nappealing to deeper desires and interests than those of which the child himself\nis conscious.\nBut for fear that the teacher who plans what is to be made shall wander\ntoo far from what the child considers of worth, and thus dwarf the child's\npower of initiative, she should have some \"free occupations\" in which the\nchild is left absolutely free to act upon his own idea of what, make his own\nplan as to how, and originate his own processes and product. This can be\ndone to advantage in several ways. Sometimes we can lead the children to\nsuggest one day what they would like to make the next. Then get them to\nsuggest how it might be made, and what materials might be used, etc.\nThe following method has also been tried with some success as to originahty in selection of subject, plan, material, steps, and product. All sorts\nof odds and ends in occupation materials are placed on the table where the\nchildren can get them; for example, scraps of paper of different sizes and\nshapes, milk-bottle tops, nails, scraps of wood, leatherette, etc. The children\nare told that they may make anything they desire out of these materials.\nThe idea to be expressed, or object made, is often suggested by the materials;\nfor example, milk-bottle tops suggest wheel for wagons, triangular forms in\npaper suggest houses with pointed roof, etc.\nAnother point of equal importance regarding the idea or image to be\nexpressed is that the child have a clear, definite image of the subject to be\nexpressed. Unless he has a clear image of what he is to make, of the product\nhe is working toward, he can not be inteUigent in either imitating or originating the steps leading toward it.\nWith regard to processes i and 2 — the creation of the general plan for\nexpression or construction, and the selection of suitable materials for this —\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": null, "text": "386\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthere is little doubt that the older children in the kindergarten can do some\nof this creatively; but I beUeve that this is more important in the grades than\nwith the child under six years of age. A plan for construction originated by\nthe teacher, provided it is based upon a conscientious study of the interests,\nactivities, and manual skill of the child, should be more frequently used than\nplans originated by the children.\nWhen we come to process 4 — \"the how\" in detail — we have ample possibilities for the inventive and original powers of the kindergarten child. After\nthe kindergartner has planned a childlike occupation and the materials for\nconstruction, the average kindergarten child should be largely thrown upon\nhis own inventive and creative power in originating his own method of construction. Most of us learn how to make objects either from watching someone else while going thru the processes, or by clues gained from the study of\nthe completed object. Either of these methods seems more intelligent and\nmore natural than the method of dictating which has crept into the kindergarten and been used to the detriment both of the child's spontaneous instinct\nfor learning how by imitation, and his ability to create the how for himself,\nif he can get hints and clues from a product of Uke nature.\nThe educational value of a production lies largely in the processes.\nSome of the most important educational problems regarding the processes of\nproduction at the kindergarten age are these: {a) Either the processes\nshould be interesting, easy, and pleasant in themselves; or (h) if somewhat\ndifficult or monotonous in themselves, the product or result should be attractive, and the processes should be seen as necessary and organic steps toward\nthe completed object, (c) The processes should involve either or both intellectual value, or manual and industrial value. That is, if the step is simple\nin manual dexterity, it may become of great value intellectually, by leading\nthe child to think out and create the step for himself. Again if the process\nis difficult manually, we may relieve the child intellectually by showing him\nthe how of the step, {d) In any case, the processes should be intelligent\nsteps executed by the child from a definite image in his own mind both of the\nstep or process and its relation to the end toward which he is working.\nOne would think this last an unnecessary problem, and that it might\nbe impossible for a child to go thru processes unless he sees them as organic\nmeans to an end. But this is unfortunately not so. Many of the older kindergarten occupations are the result of processes in folding or cutting, which\nare almost impossible for either adult or child to foresee as organic steps\ntoward the end. For this reason, kindergartners resort to a method of dictation which is often a passive means of directing children thru a blind series\nof folds, and cuts, which finally result in some form which may bear a farfetched resemblance to some thing which child or teacher has seen. [Showing\nan animal form in a folding series.] Now% of course, this form was originated once by somebody, but hardly from a definite image of the product\nin mind, with the folds worked out as intelligent steps toward that^nd.\nIn\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n387\n\nother words, the result was accidental on the part of the originator, and tho\nthe processes were experimental, they were not taken as steps toward a definite\nend, because the end or product was unforeseen. As purely experimental\nwork — that is, in trying a certain process to see what will result — this method\nhas value, but it has something of the element of the prize-box, which is not\ngood as a steady educational diet in early industrial training.\nMost of Froebel's occupations are in th flat, and many newer occupations\ncalled constructive, because they have three dimensions, are creeping into the\nkindergarten.\nI beUeve that the new occupations have these points of superiority over\nthose in the flat:\n1. Because all three of the dimensions of objects are represented, they\nare more concrete than picture representations. As children at kindergarten\nperiod are quite concrete-minded, this is an advantage.\n2. The steps or processes in the constructive occupations are so selfevident as organic means to end that the child can either imitate or originate\nthem more intelligently than in the earlier flat occupations. In many of these\nflat occupations \"the how,\" or processes of making, is so hidden, so disguised,\nas an organic step leading toward a certain end, that kindergartners have\nhad to fall back on the method of dictation, which the child often blindly\nfolfows; and when the unforeseen result is accomplished, the child is allowed\nto name it according to some resemblance he discovers. Now, Dr. Dewey\ntells us that when the child is dependent upon the dictation of another, it is\nbecause he has no image of his own from which he is working.\n3. These constructive occupations are not only interesting in processes of\nmaking, but the results are so real and so tangible that they serve a double\npurpose as toys or objects of utiHty when completed. The flat occupations\nwhen completed can serve only as pictures, at best. One of the most frequent criticisms of these new occupations is that they are lacking in aesthetic\nvalue. This criticism is due to two causes. In the first place, it is due to\njudging of the aesthetic from the adult's point of view rather than the child's;\nthey are often beautiful to the child when unaesthetic to us. In the second place,\nkindergartners are prone to limit the aesthetic to those endless series of ''beauty\nforms\" planned in the early history of the kindergarten. Some of these are\nbeautiful, and have an important place in the kindergarten; but many of them,\nfrom the art standpoint, are as unaesthetic as the crudest constructive occupations. All the good work in free painting, modeling, and music, which are\nlegitimately used in the kindergarten, cannot be overestimated aesthetically,\nand the continual use of conventional beauty forms is often used at the cost,\nof these freer art expressions.\nFroebel's occupations have some points of superiority over the newer ones,\nwhich must be considered. For example, they have a sequence in the processes which is most valuable, in spite of the fact that they often involve blind\nsteps, whether given to the child by imitation or dictation.\nThis sequence\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": null, "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nin processes is good because each step is repeated with a new one added ; hence\nthe child secures manual skill gradually, and repeats the processes until they\nare absolutely at his command, even when most unintelligently used. The\nnewer constructive occupations are lacking in this gradual and progressive\ndevelopment, tho they are improving in this from year to year. This sequence\nin materials and processes has been slavishly followed by kindergartners, and\nthat which should have been only an attempt to increase gradually the child's\nmanual dexterity has become an object of symbolic worship, in and for itself.\nWhile the constructive occupations are lacking in this orderly sequence, they\nare so childlike and interesting, both in processes and product, that the child\nreadily adapts himself to the uneven difficulties which they present as a result\nof what they lack in sequence.\nNevertheless, we need a more definitely planned series of constructive\noccupations, adapted to a more gradual development in manual skill. While\nthis is undoubtedly true, it is also equally true that most attempts to meet the\nchild's need of gradual manual development in sequences and series of carefully planned manual steps almost invariably sacrifice the child's psychological\ninterests. Surely there ought to be some happy compromise, where neither\nthe psychological interests nor the gradual development of industrial skill is\nsacrificed. If we read over a list of objects constructed in some of Froebel's\nsequences, we can but be impressed with the unchildlike series of objects\nmade, in order to secure a sequence in moves, which to Froebel had a deep\nsymbolic meaning. For example, here is a list of unchildlike subjects illustrated ina sequence play with the third gift: (ii) stronghold, (12) wall, (13) high\nwall, (14) two columns, (15) column with two memorial stones, (16) signpost, (17) cross, (18) two crosses, (19) cross on a pedestal, (20) monument,\n(23) triumphal arch.\nThe materials for industrial work in the kindergarten and lower grades\nare quite aHke, but as the grades progress the materials should provide for\nthe construction of objects more artistic, more accurate, and more finished,\ninvolving the use of tools, which will make these more aesthetic and perfect\nresults possible. In kindergarten and lower grades few tools should be needed,\nthe hand being the chief instrument for production. Scissors, paint-brushes,\ncoarse needles, and hammers (with an occasional use of the miter-box and\nsaw and large looms with the oldest children) are surely enough for the little\nchildren to handle. We should not introduce tools until the child feels the\nlimitations of the hand and the advantage of the tool.\nFinally, as to completed occupation, it should fulfill these requirements,\n(a) It should be of worth from the child's point of view as well as from that of\nthe kindergartner. In other words, it should be of value to the child in his\nown life; for example, as a toy; or (h) it should be of value socially; that is,\nof use or service to the group to which the child himself belongs, or as a gift to\nanother, to whom it will be of value, (c) The product must be felt as aesthetically or industrially good; that is, it must be beautiful or useful to the child\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n389\nhimself; or, if made for others, it seems fair to help the child to consider what\nwould be useful or beautiful to the recipient.\nTo sum up in short comparison:\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nHIGHER\n\nFIRST GRADE\n\nThe processes of an occupation should\nnot be tedious, and the product should be\nquickly gained, usually in one (and never\nmore than two or three) periods.\n\nPRIMARY\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nThe result may be more remote, and the\nsteps may be longer and more monotonous;\nfor example, textile work and basketry.\n\nII\n\nThe result should be crude and large,\ninvolving use of large, fundamental muscles,\nwith little emphasis laid upon exactness\nand accuracy.\n\nThe result may be more finished and\naesthetic, with greater emphasis laid upon\nneatness, accuracy, and finish. Smaller\nmuscles may be called into use.\n\nIll\n\nIll\n\nThere should be more imitation than\ninvention; that is, most of the planning\n\nMore invention and originality in planning both \"the what\" and \"the how.\"\n\nof \"the what\" done by the teacher, the\nchild originating \"the how. \"\nIV\n\nIV\n\nMaterials large and coarse and easily\nmanaged, so the immature powers of child\ncan easily modify them. Most of the\nmaterials prepared by the teacher and\nmade more suggestive to child in the form\npresented.\n\nMaterials finer and more aesthetic.\nRaw material presented to the child, calling\nfor more highly developed constructive\nimagination, because the material is less\nsuggestive in form presented to child.\n\nV\n\nKindergarten children should do little\nmeasuring. Only the oldest children\nshould prepare their own materials, and\nthen from a completed object of like nature.\n\nGrade children should learn to prepare\nraw material, and not only make it conform to exact measurements given by the\nteacher, but to those worked out by the\nchild in a drawing, previous to the construction ofobject.\n\n//.\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nSTANDPOINT\n\nC. B. GILBERT,\n\nNEW\n\nOF\nYORK\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCITY\n\nThe great antagonisms of history are sources of astonishment afterward.\nNo one can understand now the exceedingly bitter rehgious contests of the\npast, and in the future it will be equally surprising that the kindergarten and\nprimary schools should have occupied mihtant camps and waged for years a\nmost dehcate and ladylike, but none the less intense, warfare. But we must\nall remember that there is no possession so precious as a wrong idea. Men\nwho have been for years following wrong theories of life regard these theories\nas sacred and will fight for them against the right with all conceivable energy.\nThe newer theories which are at the base of what is known as the new education are so simple, so easily comprehended, and so sensible that we wonder\nthat they should ever have been disputed.\n\nta\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": null, "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nFroebel did not consciously establish an institution. He advocated a\nprinciple and embodied a spirit. He had no thought of the kindergarten as\nseparate and distinct from the school; he was advocating a new kind of school,\nand the new kind of school has come. The best primary school of our cities\nis today as truly a child of Froebel's theories as is the kindergarten, and in some\ncases it must be admitted it more nearly represents his spirit ; for when the\nbeauty and worth of the fundamental educational notions of Froebel began to\ncome into force in the elementary school, they spread with wonderful rapidity.\nThey were taken up by a class of people who were accustomed to think closely\non educational lines, and who were, moreover, unhampered by the idea of\nbelonging to an institution. They were simply the exponents of a doctrine\nand the followers of a spirit, while the kindergartners, it must be admitted,\nhave been somewhat hampered by their notion that they are not simply the\ndefenders of the faith, but the militant supporters of an institution. There\nis always danger that the institution shall cramp the spirit. Hence persecutions ofall kinds have been maintained by institutions and have been in defense\nof institutions.\nThus a new element has got in which somewhat hinders the universal harmonizing ofthe kindergarten and the primary school. This is especially true\nin some places where the kindergarten still puts undue emphasis upon its tools,\nstill insists that the form of the kindergarten material is sacred, and fails to see\nhow the doctrines of Froebel can be carried out in any way other than that laid\ndown in the books. So, while the elementary school has broken away from the\nsphere, cube, and cyhnder notion of education, the kindergarten too frequently\nhas clung to it and insists that the forms of certain wooden blocks are as sacred\nas a Russian icon; that is, they have become in their turn the defenders of\northodoxy as against the heretical primary teacher.\nThis, however, is but a passing and local phase, and is sure to disappear\nin time. The pathetic clinging to the methods of the past is always interesting,\nbut is sure to be shortlived, and it is beyond question still true that in the\ngreat majority of cases the primary school still lags far behind the kindergarten\nin its manifestations of the spirit of Froebel.\nNow, what is the basis of \"proper harmony between the kindergarten and\nthe primary school; how does it manifest itself; and how may it be built upon\nby the teacher ?\nWe will take for granted that the spirit of love, the spirit of freedom, and\nthe spirit of activity directed from within control the primary school and the\nkindergarten. What are some of the ways in which the actual harmony may\nmake itself manifest ?\nI. The spirit of freedom of which I have spoken will so manifest itself\nthat the children who pass from the kindergarten to the primary school will\nnot feel a shock due to sudden unwonted restriction. In the kindergarten\nthey have been accustomed to much liberty of movement and to much freedom\nof expression thru the various means there provided,\nIn a good primary\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n391\n\nschool there will still be much hberty of movement; there will not be the prohibitions ofthe old-fashioned school against all communication or movement\nwithout permission, nor the command to speak only when spoken to. The\nchildren will still be manifestly the central objects of interest and study in\nthe school, as they have been in the kindergarten; their individual wants will\nbe protected, their individual peculiarities observed, and the work adapted\nto their individual needs. That is, the natural differences among children\nwill be recognized, and freedom will be allowed them to develop, without undue\nrestriction, in the way in which they are bound to develop in time. The good\nchild of the kindergarten, who is often the active, alert, inquisitive child, will\nnot become, as has been too often the case in the past, the bad child of the\nprimary school, rebelling constantly against shackles, whose effect is inevitably harm.\nIn the good kindergarten the children have learned a reasonable degree\nof self-control and have acquired to quite a considerable degree the power to\ndirect their own acts to definite ends. This is not lost when they go to the\ngood primary school; it is only in the poor primary school that for this power\nof self-direction is substituted implicit and unquestioning obedience to commands and unresisting compliance with external requirements. Rather, in\nthe good primary school is the reliance upon the individual moral sense\nincreased, and consequently the moral sense grows and the children become\nmore and more capable of doing right from motives within.\n2. Possibly the most evident tie between the good kindergarten and the\ngood school is the work done, especially the various forms of manual activity\nemployed in both for educative ends. A visit to the exhibit must convince\neven the doubting that a continuity of work thru the kindergarten and the\nprimary school is not only quite possible, but has already been effectively maintained in several cities. . This is especially noticeable in the exhibits of those\ncities in which the kindergarten has largely abandoned the purely geometric\nbasis for its manual work, and has substituted constructive and creative exercises for the more restricted and mechanical.\nTo little children all the objects used in the kindergarten— gifts, occupation material, and what not— are valuable as tools to do things with. A sphere\nis a ball; cube and cyhnder are blocks. The study of esoteric, oriental symbolism, while doubtless a valuable intellectual gymnastic to the mature and full\nmind which has all knowledge categoried, and hence is free for excursions into\nmysticism, to the ordinary kindergartner is about as valuable as the study\nof the orientation of the pyramid of Cheops, and attempts to introduce it\nconsciously and evidently into the instruction of Httle children are as sensible\nas trying to see with a microscope \"the light that never was on land or sea.\"\nMost kindergartners are very sane and very sensible, and so are most\nprimary teachers.\nThe manual work of both kindergarten and primary school now has\na motive; something is to be constructed, some thought is to be portrayed.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": null, "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nsome idea to be expressed. The mere exercise is giving place to the work\nfor an end, embodying, but conceaHng, the same drill. The paper mat,\ngood for nothing when made, and the sewing of conventional designs,\nmeaningless to children, the study of blocks as such in the vain hope of\nfinding a hidden symbol, are disappearing from the kindergarten; while\nfrom the primary school the pounding and scratching of slates in copying\nand manipulating columns of figures without content, the so-called \"busy\nwork,\" that base and profitless substitute for happy idleness, possessing the\nform of work, but innocent of educational value, the vain worship of sphere,\ncube, and cylinder, with many another unholy slayer of time — all have fallen\ninto innocuous desuetude, and in their places have come sane and purposeful\noccupations, educative in their effects because they have always a manifest\nworthy motive, the expression of thought — the child's thought — thru graphic\nportrayal or construction. The difference in salutary effect between doing\nexercises and making things is the difference between the dyspeptic's enforced\nwalk and the enthusiast's game of golf. These changes have already come\nin the best kindergartens and the best primary schools.\nThis continuous line of work helps to carry the children without shock or\nbreak thru the first years.\nAnother link is play used educationally. This has always been a strong\nfeature of the kindergarten ; indeed, it is a part of its fundamental philosophy.\nThe primary school has been slow in adopting it, and even yet it occupies a\nvery small place in all but the best and most progressive primary schools.\nPlay is the child's natural mode of expression. Hence nature has indicated\nas plainly as possible that it should be in the earliest years the chief avenue of\ninstruction. Its power to develop the imagination, its stimulation of physical\nand mental activities, the relief it affords to dangerous tension, all make it a\nmost fit channel for instruction. The primary teacher is beginning to follow\nher kindergarten sister in even this. The introduction to the art of reading\nis often made delightful by the use of the play element. Even arithmetic\nhas found a way to employ it. The newest text-books in this subject make\nmuch and very successful use of games for instruction. All this helps to make\nthe transition from the kindergarten to the primary school an easy one for\nthe children. ^\nThus far I have spoken of means of union that have gained considerable\nheadway, and can be seen and studied. I wish to speak of others that are\nstill in embryo.\nOne is the material equipment of the primary school.\nAnother is the training of teachers.\nA third is common supervision.\nIt would be difficult to conceive a device more hostile to freedom of either\nphysical or intellectual activity among children than the modern schoolroom\nwith its rigid equipment. The ordinary school desks, built on the theory of\naverages and fitting nobody, in which children are obliged to remain quiet\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n393\n\nhours at a time, doubtless have served well the depleted treasuries of school\nboards and the full treasuries of furniture-makers, but they have not served\nwell the cause of education. There is only one kind of primary school that\nthe ordinary school furniture fits; that is, the purely mechanical school in\nwhich all the children do all the same things at the same time. The nearer\nthe school is reduced to the condition of an automatic machine, the better\nfitted is it for the ordinary equipment.\nWho does not recall the hours spent in these hard, unyielding, and\nimmovable seats which seemed to press in the wrong way every muscle, every\nbone, and every nerve in the body ? They also seem to have a hardening\neffect upon the sympathies of the teachers, so that the child who makes manifest his discomfort becomes a sinner above others. One of the common\ncomplaints made in the earlier days against the kindergarten children by\nprimary teachers was that they did not sit still well — blessed fruition of kindergarten training, but hard for the mechanical teacher.\nYou all remember Dr. Dewey's experience in trying to find school desks\nfor his school. After visiting in vain various makers, finally one to whom he\nin despair described his wants said: \"Why, you want a desk to work at;\nthese are all meant for listening.\"\nI am not sure but the child fresh from the kindergarten suffers more thru\nchange from the easily moved chair with its varied positions and the freedom\nof physical activity allowed to the school desk than from anything else, and\nthis very physical rigidity has transferred itself to the whole spirit of the institution and has resulted in a metaphysical rigidity, bad for teachers and children ;\nso that actually in some of our larger cities the teachers still insist that the\ninstruction of fifty primary children at the same time on the same subject is\nthe best method of instruction. Such has been the demoralizing effect of the\nunhappy material environment. It is not necessary to have such desks in\nprimary schools. I know whereof I speak, because I have furnished schoolrooms otherwise with very happy effects — large schools, too. The moment\nthe school is broken up into groups, doing different things at the same time,\nit becomes better to have some kind of furniture more flexible than the ordinary\ndesk. The kindergarten tables with their accompanying chairs are just as\nsuitable for the first grade as they are for the kindergarten. I have seen some\nvery good schoolrooms furnished with a few desks, enough for part of the class\nto sit in for a short time, the rest of the seating being in chairs and about tables;\nbut it would be very much better to eschew the desks altogether, in the first\ngrade at least, and to have tables and chairs.\nThis seems a simple recommendation, but practical teachers will find it\none of the most difficult to carry out, as they will coUide with the prejudices\nof other teachers, the prejudices of school boards, and the supposed vested\ninterests of furniture manufacturers; but if the change is once made, the problem of school discipline is vastly simplified, and the introduction of the spirit\nof freedom is made much easier.\nThis, as I have said, is largely in the future;\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": null, "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nbut when it comes, the primary school and the kindergarten will be even closer\ntogether than they are now.\nAnother important step needed for bringing about a more effective union\nis such a change in the method of training teachers that both kindergartners\nand primary teachers shall be made passably well acquainted with the theory\nand the practice of both departments. Of course, the underlying educational\nphilosophy is the same for both. This is admitted by all thinkers and does\nnot need argument; but in the methods of procedure there is a wide difference,\nand many primary teachers are actually ignorant of the procedure of the\nkindergarten and many kindergartners know practically nothing of the methods\nnow in vogue in the primary school.\nThis has been partly obviated in some places by bringing together the\nkindergartners and the primary- school teachers in various meetings; and some\ntraining schools provide for a dual instruction, but only a few. Every kindergarten training school should be connected with a normal school or general\ntraining school, so that the young teachers may observe what is done in these\ninstitutions; and their instruction should include enough of the theory of the\nprimary school to show them what is expected of the children who leave them,\nand to put them in sympathy with this work. The primary teachers, on the\nother hand, should have a course in kindergarten theory and in kindergarten\npractice. If there is this mutual understanding at the outset, much of the difficulty and lack of harmony will be removed.\nI advocate still another means of bringing about harmony. I can see no\nreason for separate supervision of the primary schools and kindergartens any\nmore than for separate supervision of second-grade classes and third-grade\nclasses. Indeed, there is every reason for the same supervision. If a city\nis too large for one supervisor to take the lower primary grades and the\nkindergartens, instead of having one for the kindergartens and one for\nthe lower primary grades, I would district the city and have the same technical\nsupervision for both grades. A supervisior working with both kindergartners\nand primary teachers can do more than all other persons put together to bring\nthem into harmony. She can bring about general meetings in which the common principles are discussed. She can bring them into personal and friendly\ntouch thru various organizations and gatherings which are known and common\nto both primary teachers and kindergartners. I have seen in several cities\nthe effect of this unified supervision, and it has been most happy. While\nother cities have been struggling along with dissensions between these two\nimportant classes of teachers, in the cities where the supervision has been one\nsuch dissension has very rapidly disappeared.\nMore matters of detail might be spoken of, but I have occupied time enough.\nIn conclusion, let me say that it is absolutely essential to the well-being of the\nchildren who have kindergarten training that the kindergartens in which\nthey are trained be in close harmony with the primary schools to which they\ngo next.\nThere should be no violent shocks or breaks in the progress of the\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n395\n\neducation of the child. He should go from one grade to another as naturally\nas he goes from one day to another. The transition from the conditions of\ninfancy to those of maturity is gradual and imperceptible; and so should be\nthe progress of his education. Every step forward should be a joyous step\nfrom one position of successful activity to another of higher and more difficult,\nbut equally enjoyable, activity.\n\nDISCUSSION\nA, Caswell Ellis, professor of science and art of education, University of Texas.—'\nThere are two points of view from which to discuss the relation of the kindergarten to\nthe elementary school. First, from the standpoint of the practical schoolman, who would\ntake up~ detailed work now offered and the material now used in the kindergarten, and\nshow how this should prepare the way for and lead up to the work offered in the elementary school. Then he would show how the elementary school would take hold just\nwhere the kindergarten left off and build its story squarely on the foundation laid by the\nkindergarten, and would serve in its turn to lead up to the work of the grammar school,\nwhich in turn would prepare for the high school, in which the boy would finally be prepared\nfor citizenship in a great republic\nThis very practical treatment of the relation of the kindergarten to the elementary\nschool has been so well done by the two papers presented that I could say nothing on this\nline without running the risk of making this meeting as stupidly harmonious as the lateRepublican convention.\nThe discussion thus far has seemed to involve the assumption that inducting the child\ninto the culture heritage of the race, or training him to meet the present social needs, is\nthe proper aim of education. To those holding this view what I shall now say from another\nstandpoint will, I fear, seem mere idle vaporing; for when one has once blown his Hegehan\nsoap-bubble around him, it is hard for him to see anything outside because of the dazzling\niridescence of this bubble. Let us try, however, to look at this question for a few minutes\nfrom the standpoint of the developmental psychologist and evolutionist.\nFrom this standpoint the relation which should exist between the work and regimen\nof the kindergarten and that of the elementary school cannot at all be found by an analysis\nof the subject-matter of culture and its arrangement into logically graded steps, nor by\nthe graduated scaling down of the mental processes involved in the activities of adult life\nto fit the supposed weaker minds of children. On the contrary, we would say that the\ncharacter of the kindergarten activities should be determined by the physical and mental\npowers ripe for training in children between three and six years of age; that the elementary\nschool should have for its function the development of the interests and powers nascent\nfrom six to ten; and that the relation which should exist between the work of these two\nphases of the child's education would be determined by the developmental relation existing\nbetween the instincts and natural activities of the two periods of growth.\nThe hmit set for discussion allows me to indicate by only one concrete example how\nwidely different the course of study suggested from this standpoint would be from the\ncourse now offered in the schools. For example, during both the kindergarten and elementary periods the predominant natural tendency of children is restless physical and\nmental activity thru play. Against this the elementary school is an unmitigated sinner.\nThe kindergarten, too, is not free from sin against its own spirit of free spontaneous play\nas a self-active expression of the inner. The plays here are still too much directed, and\nthe gifts, with their mathematical symbolism, are in response to no demand of childnature. Likewise most of the kindergarten information is still selected on the basis of\nadult needs and not of childhood's demands. This is an age in children when the more\nIn the natural exercise\ninstinctive and emotional powers are ripening and need exercise.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": null, "text": "396\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[KmdergarteA\n\nof these tendencies children would get a development better related to their later development, and incidentally would probably get a mass of information equally as useful as that\nnow taught in the kindergarten.\nThat the elementary school should sin against the spirit which it has not yet accepted\nmight be expected, but that the kindergarten should do so is indeed strange; for the broad,\nhopeful, tho indefinite, standpoint of the developmental psychologist is Froebel's own.\nHe said that the aim of education is the development from within outward in accordance\nwith the divine law within us, and that the child, the boy, and the man should know no\nhigher law than to live up fully to the requirements of his age, resting assured that the full\nand perfect development of each preceding phase would give the best possible basis for\nthe succeeding phase of development.\nWith all our recent talk about development, and all our enthusiasm for Froebel, we\nstill continue to think of life in the terms of the old logic of addition and subtraction; and\nthis forces a mechanical conception of development. On this basis a childish activity\ncan serve to stimulate and promote a later phase of growth only when this childish activity\ncontains within it some element of knowledge, or trains some specific power, which is\nneeded in the later higher activity. Now, developmental psychology shows us that this\nis an utterly false and superficial way to conceive of the developmental relation between\ndifferent phases of growth. Biology shows us plainly the subtle and non-mathematical\nrelation between different phases of growth. The growth of the caterpillar and his activities seem utterly unrelated to the final butterfly life, yet they absolutely determine its\nperfection in minutest details. The growth of the tadpole's tail appears to bear no relation\nto the future frog's legs, except to give the would-be frog a means of getting about and\nobtaining food; yet we know that the growth and absorption of that tail furnish an essential\nstimulus for the later development of the legs. The instinct of the one-day-old chick to\nfollow all moving objects appears to us vastly stronger than necessary and very irrational,\nbut when Spaulding hooded his chicks a couple of days and gave this instinct no means\nof expression, he found that the fear instinct of the third day took such a hold of them that\nthey could never properly adjust themselves to their environment. An earher instinct\nor activity may serve to stimulate or check off a later phase of growth which seems to the\nordinary observer in no way related, so subtle, and as yet so little understood, are the processes of organic life. We can therefore not determine the relation of the kindergarten\nto the elementary school until we know the subtle developmental relations existing between\nthe natural activities of children at these two periods of life.\nMany of these instincts and their developmental relation to later activities of life we\nas yet do not know at all. A few we do know. Time limit again precludes mention of\nthese. The sole purpose of my remarks is to urge the study of this question more from\nthis standpoint of developmental psychology, so that we may apply in practice the few\nfacts which biology and child study have given us, and may begin such earnest study of\nchildren as will enable us finally to know what are the necessary phases of growth and the\nrelation of these phases one to another. Then, and not until then, shall we be in a position\nto solve wisely the problem of the relation of the kindergarten to the elementary schqol.\n\nTHE PHILIPPINE\n\nTEACHER\n\nALBERT\n\nCHIEF\nBOARD,\n\nRALPH\nHAGER,\nEXPOSITION\n\nAND THE PHILIPPINE\nTIONAL EXHIBIT\n\nEDUCA-\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\nOF EDUCATION,\nLOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nTen thousand miles west of St. Louis is an American educational system\nthat is less than four years old. It comprises schools extending from the\nsouthern Hmits of the domain of the sultan of Sulu to the northern extremity\n\n"}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINE\n\nTEACHER\n\n3gy\n\nof Luzon. It is unique in one respect, at least, in that it is all under the active\ndirection of one man, the general superintendent of education. A former\ngeneral superintendent. Dr. E. B. Bryan, will tell you tomorrow in general\nsession of the work of the department as a whole. I will try to tell you in a\nfew words what the work of the American primary teacher is.\nA very small proportion of the eight hundred American teachers are in\nthe city of Manila, most of them being assigned to the provinces. In either\ncase the work of the American teacher is largely supervisory. He is sent to a\ntown (or pueblo), and there organizes his school. The building is furnished\nby the town, books and supphes by the insular government. All teaching is\nin the English language, and teachers' classes must be conducted for the instruction of his native teachers and the aspirantes, who are young men and women\nthat desire to become teachers. And let me say that you will nowhere find\nmore eager and diligent students than these.\nThe Philippine town always includes numerous suburbs (or barrios), and\nas soon as the town school is organized new Filipino teachers are developed\nand schools started in these barrios.\nThe successful American teacher in a provincial town in the Philippines\nwill spend little of his time in teaching the advanced classes. Most of it will\nbe spent in work with his class of teachers and in supervision.\nThe foregoing appKes only to the primary schools. It does not apply, of\ncourse, to the secondary schools, of which each province has at least one; nor\nto such special institutions as the industrial and nautical schools.\nIn these primary schools there are today over two hundred thousand\nFihpino children, and every part of the work of the schools is in the English\nlanguage. The work of organizing the schools into a graded system is now\nbeing carried on by the general superintendent. Dr. David P. Barrows. The\nsystem must be an elastic one for years to come; the schools of each district\nmust conform to local conditions.\nIn the three years of active work of the department a good beginning has\nbeen made. It is, in fact, less than three years since the transport ''Thomas\"\narrived in Manila with its first delegation of teachers.\nThe Philippine educational exhibit occupies the largest building on the\nPhilippine Reservation. It represents the foundation work of a system of\neducation among a people to whom modern education was four years ago\nunknown, and to many of whom opportunity for education had been wholly\ndenied.\nPHILIPPINE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT ST. LOUIS\n\nIn collecting the exhibit the problems of transportation and communication, and the\nsending of supplies, made active co-operation difficult with most of the eight hundred\nAmerican teachers. Uniformity in size of ' photographs sent was, for example, quite\nimpossible. The composition work will be of interest to teachers, treating of such subjects\nas folk-lore, native games, local history, native customs, etc. Hundreds of letters from\nFihpino pupils are a part of the collection.\nThese will be distributed to teachers visiting\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": null, "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nthe exhibit, and it is hoped that replies written to the Filipino boys and girls will lead to\ncorrespondence that will be of equal interest and value to the American and Filipino pupils.\nThe exhibits comprise collections from private as well as government schools. The\nlargest private school exhibit is from \"El Liceo\" (The Lyceum), a large primary and\nsecondary school of Manila under Filipino management, in which some teaching is done\nin English, tho most classes are taught in Spanish. \"La Universidad de Santo Tomas,\"\na church institution and the only university in the Philippines, sends a collection. The\n\"Colegio Filipino\" (Philippine College) and \"El Instituto de Mujeres\" (The Women's\nInstitute) of Manila send collections, that of the latter including some attractive pieces\nof needlework. All of the schools named, as well as most of the private schools not represented by exhibits, have classes in English in which their pupils study the language in\nmuch the same manner that high-school pupils in America study German or French.\nThe result is naturally about the same, as regards practical grasp of the language.\nAmong the exhibits of government schools may be mentioned those of the four\nkindergartens (organized in Manila in July, 1903), of the Nautical School, the Moro\nIndustrial School of Zamboanga, the Insular Normal School, and the Manila Trade School.\nBut the collections of work from the elementary and secondary schools thruout the provinces are representative of the largest part of the effort of the Bureau during the past\nthree years. An attempt has been made to show as truly as possible the actual conditions\nof work, the possibilities of the future, and the amount of progress that has been made.\nThe results shown will surprise some, and will doubtless disappoint others who forget\nthat Rome was not built in a day. They will, of course, be clearly understood by none\nwho has not faced and helped to solve a similar problem in education.\n\nTHE\nMISS ANNIE\n\nL. HOWE,\nKELLY\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nASSOCIATE\n\nHALL,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIN JAPAN\nCHICAGO\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nFROEBEL\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nILL.^\n\nIt has been stated that the development of art instruction in English and\nAmerican public schools was the result of the first world's fair in 185 1; that\nthe Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 stimulated the movement\nwhich put industrial art drawing and manual training into the schools of\nAmerica. If these two movements, so important in the history of education,\nhave been the direct outcome of these world's fairs, may we not hope that the\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition may result in giving the Orient a place in the\nstudy of comparative education ?\nThe Occident is carefully written for the student; but in the reports of the\nUnited States Commissioner of Education, in the several works on comparative education, and in the histories of education, scant, if any, notice is\ntaken of that brave, alert, aspiring young nation, our next-door neighbor in\nthe Orient — Japan; that country which has her elementary, secondary, and\nhigher education based on the study of France, Germany, England, and\nAmerica; presenting a perfected system, which will astonish those who are\nfortunate enough to study what is being done in the Land of the Rising Sun.\nAnd it is all so young.\nMassachusetts dates her educational career from\n» Miss Howe was for sixteen years principal of a kindergarten training school in Kobe, Japan.\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nJAPAN\n\n399\n\n1642 (262 years ago). Japan began her present system in 187 1 (thirty-three\nyears ago).\nIn 1868 the emperor of Japan issued an edict which contained the following\nremarkable words:\nThe old uncivilized way shall be replaced by the eternal principles of the universe.\nThe best knowledge shall be sought thruout the world so as to promote the imperial welfare.\n\nIn pursuance of this determination, a department of education was established in 187 1, and a commissioner was sent to Europe and America to investigate educational matters. In 1872 a code of education was issued by the\ngovernment, and at the same time the emperor made known the purpose of\nthis code in the following words:\nIt is intended that henceforth education shall be so diffused that there may not be a\nvillage with an ignorant family, nor a family with an ignorant member.\n\nJapan has never wavered one instant from this purpose. She has sent\npicked men, from that day to this, to look into every nook and corner of the\ncivilized globe to find the latest and best methods in every department of\nhuman achievement. She has engaged experts at extravagant salaries to come\nto Japan to show her people how to master for themselves the progress of other\nlands. The rank and file of the people have joined the government in its\ndetermination to find out the secrets of civilization, and it has been, in the\ndays before foreign books could be purchased, not an impossible task for one\nman to copy for himself, by hand, a large dictionary of some foreign language.\nSuch enthusiasm has not been a ''flash in the pan,\" but has been a steady fire;\nand today we find:\n27,154 common schools\n191 blind and dumb schools\n57 normal schools\n33 higher normal schools\n•\n5 training schools for teachers\n258 middle schools\n80 higher schools for girls\n8 higher schools or colleges\n2 imperial universities\n58 professional colleges\n853 industrial colleges\n3 training schools for industrial teachers\n1,657 miscellaneous institutions\n\nTotal, 30,359 schools with 5,469, 410 pupils in attendance\n\nElementary education is compulsory and practically free. The school\nage is from six to fourteen years, with the age for the kindergarten from three\nto six. Of course, it is not surprising that the kindergarten should have been\nmade part of this widespread and complete national system.\nThe first kindergarten in Japan was estabHshed in Tokyo in 1876, in connection with the Higher Female Normal School. In 1878 a Training School\nfor Kindergartners was established. This was aboHshed in 1880, and the\nkindergarten method made part of the regular course in the noi'mal school.\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": null, "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nNow there are kindergartens scattered all over Japan in connection with public\nschools and normal schools, or as private institutions. They are found in\nthe largest numbers in the cities of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka; Tokyo having\nthirty-eight, Osaka thirty-eight, and Kyoto eighteen. The aim of the authorities isto increase the number of these schools, as those in existence have realized\nall expectations.\nIt is not at all unusual for the public kindergarten to be housed in separate\nbuildings with large playgrounds and. flower gardens. The one connected\nwith the Higher Female Normal School in Tokyo has such a building, with\nlibrary and study for the director and his assistants, several class-rooms for\nthe children, and a large playroom situated quite by itself. Light and air are\nabundant, and the beautiful grounds are utilized for the playtime.\nOne may say: '^ Oh, yes; but this is the model established by the Japanese\ngovernment.\" True, but look at the beautiful kindergartens in Osaka. One\nof them, for which plans were drawn last year, has a large playground. Each\nof the four class-rooms is a detached building, with its own separate entrance,\ntoilet arrangements, and flower beds, all connecting by covered corridors\nwith one central playroom; and, best of all, each room having a southern\nexposure. Or look at one of the private kindergartens; for example, the\nGlory Kindergarten of Kobe, with its playground, wistaria arbors, library,\noffice, two class-rooms, and playroom thirty feet square; its flower garden\nwith violets, azaleas, roses, chrysantheumums, lilies, and flower beds for annuals ;\nits big plant window, filled in winter with huge callas and geraniums.\nIn hygienic regulations also the Japanese kindergartens are remarkably\nadvanced. In certain points they are still open to improvement, but in their\nbuildings, their rules regulating space, air, and other hygienic matters, the\nkindergartens of the West might go to school to Japan.\nIt is now known that the Japanese are not so much imitative as adaptive,\nand in the kindergartens of Japan, as in her other phases of education, the\nnational characteristics are prominent. The patriotic spirit of the people\nappears in the gunboats, and in the national flags which figure universally in\nthe free-hand work of these young patriots of three; the poetic appreciation\nof nature, in the frequent and loving portrayal of their \"peerless Fujiyama,\"\nthe ''rising sun,\" the new moon, the ocean waves, the flowing river, clouds,\nthe steadfast pine, and the symbolic plum blossom; or the national flower,\nthe chrysanthemum.\nWho but a Japanese child could see the poetry of falUng autumn leaves,\nmaking a brocade upon the flowing river of the valley? To an occidental\nthe leaves would fall, the river might flow, and that would be enough ; unless\nhe should feel a little of the sadness of the passing year; but to the Japanese\nchild there comes a bit of poetry. His elder brother, seeing the falling leaves\nupon the flowing stream, would straightway put into words what the kindergarten chfld would represent with his drawing and pasting:\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN JAPAN\n\n401\n\nFuku kaze ni\nMine no momijiba\nChiri ni ken.\nNishiki no nagasu\nAki no tani no kawa.\n\nA rough translation being something Uke this:\nIn the autumn wind\nThe maple leaves pi the mountain,\nFalling, make a rich brocade\nIn the flowing river of the valley.\n\nThe out-of-door free play is a feature characteristic of these kindergartens.\nThe children are in session from four to four and a half hours daily. From\nOctober to June the kindergarten is open from nine to half -past twelve or one\no'clock. From June to October the hours are from eight to twelve or halfpast. There is, however, a long recess of an hour at noon, besides the playtime in the morning, so that the children do not really work more hours than\nin the American kindergartens, and the change to outdoor plays make the\nhours spent in the Japanese kindergartens less fatiguing to the children than\nthe shorter session in America.\nNature work holds a large place in some of the kindergartens. Watching\nthe life of the silkworms, or the hatching of chickens; planting seeds; caring\nfor the gardens; gathering the flowers, using them for colors, or gathering the\nseeds again; making blue-prints; sorting leaves, seeds, metals, and minerals;\ngoing to the hill for wild flowers; pressing autumn leaves; hearing the- stories\nof the seasons; or singing their appropriate songs — all this and more is found\nin some — ^not all — of the Japanese kindergartens.\nMuch is made of etiquette, many of the directors taking special pains that\nthe politeness so natural to the well-bred Japanese shall not be lost.\nIn the purely national kindergarten much is made of the patriotic spirit.\nThe reading on all festival occasions of the emperor's rescript on education,\nthe reverent singing of the national hymn, the patriotic songs and stories —\nall are used most faithfully to foster the spirit of patriotism.\nKindergartens which have won the confidence of the Japanese are very\npopular, and it is not uncommon to have applications filed two years in advance\nto insure a child's entrance when he becomes three years of age. A list of\nnearly two hundred applicants has been known to be in waiting in October\nfor twenty vacancies which would occur in April, the time when kindergarten\nchildren of six, according to Japanese law, pass up to the elementary school.\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nThe training schools are not many and not yet perfected. Mention may\nbe made of two — one in Tokyo, connected with the Female Higher Normal\nSchool; and one under private auspices. In the Tokyo school the course of\nstudy and the hours per week are as follows in the literary course:\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n402\n\nFirst Year\n\nThird Year\n\nSecond Year\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nFourth Year\n\nEthics\nPedagogy . .\nJapanese. . .\nChinese\nEnglish\nHistory\nGeography.\nMusic\nGymnastics\nTotal..\n\n28\n\nAll expenses are paid by the government, including food, clothing, and\nsundries; but in return the graduates must teach for five years after graduation, and for two years must serve under order of the department of education.\nIn the private training school spoken of the course is purely kindergarten.\nTwo years' study is required, and the pupils pay their own expenses, being\nfree to choose their own careers upon graduation. Froebel's Mother Play and\nThe Education of Man, both in Japanese, are text-books in this latter school.\nMany of the training schools are fortunate in being in the same building with\nmodel kindergartens, and also in having dormitories connected with the schools.\nThese training schools are able to arrange their schedules so that the\nstudents have their freshest morning hours for study, and are not obliged to\ncome to their recitations worn out by a morning in the kindergarten, to which\nfatigue must often be added the long journey to reach the class.\nThe students in some cases are required to study in the kindergarten library\nand to attend the opening exercises; and, being in the same building with the\nchildren, they see every day much of the daily routine, even tho they are not\nactually engaged in the class-rooms.\nDAILY\n\nSCHEDULE\n\n5A. M.\n6\n---___-_-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n- Rising\nBreakfast\n\n7\n___\nFirst recitation\n8 : 30 - Opening exercises for training class\n9\nOpening exercises for kindergarten\n9 : 45 to 1 2 M.\nStudy or practice\nI p. M. to 4\nRecitations, study, or organ practice\n4 to 5: 30\nExercise and recreation\n5:30\n- Supper\n6\n_______\nEvening assembly\n7 to 9: 30\n- Study\n\nOf text-books for the training classes there has been a dearth. At present\ntwo books of foreign songs and Froebel's Mother Play have been translated\nand published. The Education of Man and several other books are translated\nand copied as text-books for the students, but have not yet been published.\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN\n\nJAPAN\n\n403\n\nASSOCIATIONS\n\nThere are two flourishing associations — one the Froebel Kwai (Froebel\nAssociation) of Tokyo; the other, Hoihu Kwai (or Kindergarten Association)\nof Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, and adjacent towns. Several of the kindergartners\nare members of the International Kindergarten Union. Summer schools\nare also used as a means of extending the horizon of the kindergartners. Last\nsummer, in Okayama, the educational authorities, opened a school for the\nwomen teachers of the province, giving them ten days of kindergarten and\nmusic instruction.\nThere are two kindergarten magazines, one pubHshed in Tokyo, the other\nin Osaka; and some of the English-speaking kindergartners take the foreign\nkindergarten magazines. It may be proper to state that all the instruction,\nboth in training schools and kindergartens, is wholly in Japanese.\nINITIATIVE\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTNERS\n\nThere are several kindergartners in Japan who are doing fine work in\nadapting Froebel's theory to Japanese environment. They are born storytellers, and it would be a difficult matter to find the equal of one of the Kobe\nkindergartners. Her wonderful dramatic ability, fine adaptation to the childmind, artistic arrangements of her stories, and wise selection of subjects make\none of her own stories, or the narration of some other, an event to be remembered by adults as well as by children, by people who cannot understand\nJapanese as well as by her own countrymen. New games are constantly\nappearing — the dramatization of songs, stories, or events of special interest.\nThe kindergartners of Osaka are especially interested in dramatizing the\nnursery tales of Japan. In the matter of songs, too, the women and the men\nare busy making new ones to carry special points to be developed in the childmind. A ^strong party favors distinctly Japanese songs, while a smaller circle\nprefers a more cosmopolitan range of music.\nThe gifts and occupations, too, come in for modification, and while in the\nbetter kindergartens Froebelian principles are unchanged, the details would\nscarcely be recognized by a kindergartner from the Occident.\nTHE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nWhere the kindergartners are true to Froebel's principles, the children\nblossom hke flowers in the sunshine. They use the gifts and occupations\nwith keenest interest, enjoying the direction given and displaying marked\noriginality. They revel in the stories, songs, games, and garden work, reproducing in their own free games what they have had in the play-room, and in\ntheir free drawing what they have heard in the morning talks.\nThe government is watching very carefully the progress of these children,\nas they go up into the public schools. In some cases they take high standing,\nbut this is only where they have had careful, intelligent training, and have\nescaped the nervous pressure brought to bear upon them in kindergartens\nwhich are mechanical, school-Kke, and lacking in disciphne.\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": null, "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nTHE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nFUTURE\n\nAs in America, so in Japan, the great needs are higher standards and a\nbroader outlook.\nPupils for the training classes should bring the best of mental, moral, and\nphysical equipment, and should be exempt from an overstrain of work in the\nkindergarten while pursuing their studies in the training class. They should\nhave a longer time in the training schools, and should have the advantage of a\nmodel kindergarten in connection with the building where they study.\nOne other need should be mentioned — the broader outlook which an interest\nin other phases of education will give. The kindergartner is prone to confine\nher vision to her own field and forget to view it in relation to elementary,\nsecondary, and higher education. It may not be wise to make one's self a\n''Jack of all trades and master of none\" in educational matters, but certainly\nthe kindergartner gets an equipment for her work none too high ^hen she is\nable to see it from the standpoint of other trades, other educators, and other\nlands.\n\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\nFREDERICK\n\nAND\n\nGERMAN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nERNEST\nFARRINGTON,\nASSISTANT\nUNIVERSITY\nOF CALIFORNIA,\n\nPROFESSOR\nBERKELEY,\n\nOF\nCAL.\n\nSCHOOLS\nEDUCATION,\n\nIt is perfectly obvious that within the limits assigned for the presentation\nof this paper it would be entirely impossible to give a comprehensive idea of\nthe French and German systems of elementary schools, Consequently it\nseems advisable to confine ourselves to the discussion of a few features of these\nsystems and see in what relation they stand to the conditions in our own\ncountry.\nThe peoples and the governments of France and Germany are not those\nof the United States; the social life is not the same; the educational ideas are\nfar apart. Germany is a monarchy, pure and simple; France is a republic\nin name, but it is still dominated by centuries of monarchical tradition, from\nwhose influence it is impossible to escape.\nOur own country has gone to the extreme of decentralization, but it at\nleast has this compensating quality, that the greater part of the reforms are\nmodifications arising from within and are not changes forced upon an unsympathetic people from without.\nWith us the child starts on the road to knowledge in the primary school\nwhen he is five or seven years of age. After six or eight years here he leaves this\nschool and enters another which we call a secondary school. The first of these\ntwo periods is completed before the second is begun; in other words, the distinction between the two is a latitudinal one, so to speak, the primary school\nbeing the natural predecessor of the secondary school, and normally providing\nthe sole means of preparation for it.\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\nAND\n\nGERMAN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n405\n\nOn the continent of Europe, however, we find quite a different state of\naffairs. There the Gymnasium, or the lycee (and for our purposes these may\nbe taken as types of the secondary schools of their respective countries), strictly\ndoes not receive pupils before they are nine years of age. In France entirely,\nand in Germany to a great extent, these pupils receive their prehminary training in the preparatory classes attached to these schools. These parallel to a\ncertain extent the work of the primary school, but with this difference, that\nthere the pupils are on the direct road to future professional life, whereas the\nless fortunate children of the primary schools are practically excluded from\nall higher preferment. The distinction, then, between the primary and the\nsecondary schools abroad may be said to be a longitudinal one, with social\ndifferences forming the line of demarkation.\nThere is no particular desire in either foreign country, especially in Germany, to have a son rise above the position of his father. We in these United\nStates, where every native-born American lad can aspire to become the head\nof the nation, find this very difficult to understand. In fact, the caste-feeling\nis far more firmly established there than we can readily imagine. The great\nmass of the people send their children to the Volksschule, or the ecole primaire\nelementaire, in the first place because they themselves attended these same\nschools, and in the second place because they have not the means to pay the\ntuition charges at the secondary schools and the other expenses that such a\ncourse entails. These people seem rarely to have any higher ideals in life for\ntheir children than to have them join the rank and file of the great social\narmy.\nThe schools of both Germany and France apparently start with the assumption that their children are born to a certain well-defined station in life ; ours, on\nthe contrary, with the principle that each individual is to a great extent the\narbiter of his own destiny. We are certainly far removed from the doctrine\nof predestination in educational and social matters.\nAltho the Volksschule is one of the recognized avenues of approach to the\nGymnasium, which requires that the boy shall be nine years of age and shall\nhave had a three-year preparatory course, yet for evident social reasons this\nis by no means the common method of procedure. The three years' preparation is ordinarily found in the private schools or in the prehminary classes\nattached to the Gymnasium itself. In France the transit from the elementary\nto the secondary school is well-nigh impossible. The fact, then, that the primary schools of these two countries practically never influence the training of\nthose destined for the higher professional life accounts in a great measure for\nthe differences between these continental schools and our own. An English\nobserver has said: \"In America the pubHc elementary sdhool is considered\nthe basis of all its system of education, and the aim is to make it as good as\npossible.\" This could not be said of the continental systems, for there the\ncenter of interest is in the secondary school, and primarily in the classical\n«irhool, altho in both Germany and France recent legislation has made the\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": null, "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npathway to the higher professions easier for the graduates of the non-classical\nschools.\nPerhaps with us the transition is too easy between the elementary and the\nsecondary schools, and the rapid rise of the great free state universities has\nmade the higher education too cheap, thus spoiling many a good farmer or\nartisan to make a poor professional man. Germany has long been afraid\nof Bismarck's \"educated proletariat.\" The struggle for existence in our own\ncountry has not yet become acute enough to cause any serious worry, but the\nrapid proportional increase in the number of secondary students is at least\nsufficient to furnish enough material for reflection.\nLet us look at the French, German, and American children, and see a\nlittle more clearly what school really means to them. In Prussia the child\nis compelled to attend school between the ages of six and fourteen. Altho\nthis gives him eight years of school life, inasmuch as there are only six classes,\nat some time during his course he must repeat two years. Thus he has practically six different years of school work. In the cities where there is a separate\nteacher for each grade this time can be spent in deepening and enriching the\ncourse.\nIn France the compulsory school law is in force between the ages of six\nand thirteen. Here, too, there are only six years of work provided for, but\nsince the pupil can gain the leaving certificate in these elementary schools at\nany time after eleven years of age (and the examination for this certificate\ncovers only the woj-k of the two lower thirds of the six-year course), the French\nchild practically never has to repeat a year's work simply because he has not\nreached the legal leaving age.\nThe conditions in the United States are hardly those to be proud of, for,\naccording to the last Commissioner's Report, no less than ten states have no\ncompulsory laws at all, altho almost without exception these are states that\nare still struggling with the problems of negro education. In the other states\nthe compulsory period ranges from four years in Maryland to fifteen years in\nWyoming, but it is common report that the execution of these laws is almost\nuniversally lax. The varying length of the school year in the several states\nmakes accurate comparison difficult. In the American cities of over eight\nthousand inhabitants, during the last decade, the average attendance figured\non the basis of the enrolment has increased from 71.1 to 75.7 per cent., and\naltho the length of the school year has decreased more than four days, the\naverage number of days of attendance per child has increased nearly a like\namount. These conditions do not invite comparison with those in Germany\nand France, where effective compulsory legislation has been in force since\n1825 and 1882 respectively.\nThe school year in both France and Germany is considerably longer than it\nis in the United States, being about forty-three weeks in the former, and fortyone to forty-five weeks in the latter country. The compulsory-attendance\nlaws are more carefully looked after than they are in this country, especially\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\nAND\n\nGERMAN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n407\n\nin Germany and in the cities of France. At all events, in these two countries\nthey have a longer school year, a longer period of school life, and more effective execution of the compulsory school law than is the case with us. Not\nthat there are not communities in this country where, in the last two points as\nwell as in our teaching force, we are the equal, if not the superior, of what one\nsees abroad, but by reason of the centraHzation on the other side of the\nAtlantic they are able to reach a much higher average.\nWith reference to the courses of study in the various countries some differences deserve to be noted. For upward of thirty years kindergartens have\nformed an ever increasingly important part of our school work, but in the\nUnited States even today they number only 4,266, with an enrolment — partly\nbased on official returns and partly estimated — of only 257,484.\nIn Germany these schools are essentially private ventures; but in France\nthere exists a well-developed system of public infant schools, known as ecoles\nmaternelles or mother schools. The estabHshment of these schools is nowhere\ncompulsory, but whenever the community that fulfills certain specific conditions ofsize and density of population is willing to provide housing and ordinary running expenses, the state will furnish the required number of teachers\nand pay their salaries. According to the statistics for 1896-97, the last year\nfor which the figures are available, there were some 5,683 of this grade of\nschools in France and Algeria, with 729,648 children, a Httle less than twothirds of these being in public institutions. Reckoning the pupils here and\nthose in the regular primary schools, we find that of the 3,000,000 children\nbetween two and six years of age — or, in other words, below the legal school\nage — nearly 1,350,000 are receiving some educational training, a proportion\nconsiderably greater than is found in Germany, and far ahead of the conditions in our own country.\nThe ecoles maternelles are more like our lower primary grades than our\nkindergartens. The Froebelian influence has only partially prevailed, for\nalmost all the children on finishing the course can read and write and perforni\nsimple examples in the four fundamental operations of arithmetic. Altho the\nregular work of the schools lasts from nine in the morning until four in the\nafternoon, they are open from eight until six in winter, and from seven to seven\nin summer, the time before nine and after four being devoted to supervised free play. The value to the mothers among the laboring classes can\nhardly be estimated, for they can leave their children here in the morning and\ncall for them at night, assured in the meantime of good care thruout the day,\nand in necessitous cases of wholesome food supplied by the city.\nThe subject-matter of the elementary schools in the three countries is\nlargely the same, but we do find some striking differences, as well as wide\ndissimilarity in the time allotment. The ''three R's\" are naturally common\nto all, but abroad the mother-tongue receives more consistent and effective\ntreatment than it does with us, possibly because the German and French\nteachers are more thoroly masters of their own vernacular than is the case\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": null, "text": "408\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nwith the majority of our American teachers. There one finds practically\nevery class an exercise in the native language, and the familiar formal spelling\nis refreshingly missing. There the teachers are not impelled by a feverish\nhaste to cover a large amount of ground at the expense of thoroness, and\nwhatever is done is done well.\nIn Germany history and geography are not begun until the middle of the\ncourse is reached, altho in France these are found in an elementary way from\nthe very first. In neither country does one find the emphasis laid upon\nforeign geography that one does with us, but this means that the home country\nis just so much more hberally treated. The arithmetic, too, is confined to\nfewer topics, but much use is made of type-forms, and it is by no means unusual\nto find a forty-five or fifty-minute lesson fully taken up with three or four\nproblems. The result is that one finds the fundamental principles thoroly\nmastered, and proficiency is attained by means of a few problems exhaustively\nexplained rather than by excessive routine drill work. Quality, not quantity,\nis everywhere the basic idea.\nAs yet in Germany manual work has not been, made compulsory, altho\nthe American consul-general at Frankfort, writing in 1901, said that at that\ntime there were one thousand manual-training schools in operation in that\ncountry. Not many years ago France rushed boldly forward with a general\nprescription for compulsory manual work in the elementary schools, but in\nthe great mass of the schools this cannot yet be said to be effectively taught,\nnor will it ever become such until the training schools themselves provide\nricher and more practical courses. Slow-moving, conservative Germany is\nyet far behind, and has thus far successfully opposed the introduction of\nmanual work among the required subjects of the curriculum.\nThe rehgious teaching in Germany and the moral instruction in France\nare without a parallel in the United States. In both these countries these\nsubjects are believed to be the most important in the curriculum and take their\nposition at the head of the list, the study of religion in the former country\noccupying nearly 15 per cent, of all the time spent in the elementary schools.\nThe moral instruction in France was introduced into the curriculum in order\nto replace the previous religious teaching which was discarded in 1882. There\nis no question but that this was an improvement over the old regime, for that\nhad been merely a formal catechizing entirely devoid of content. The question now being agitated is: \"Is this present substitute attaining the desired\nend ? \" For it never seems to rise to a higher ethical basis than that of reward\nand punishment. The ultra-radical and the conservative churchman are\nboth agreed that it does not, but for very different reasons, the one wanting\nit abolished entirely, and the other desiring a return to the former church\ndomination. One of these seems as far from attaining his wish as the other,\nfor both are outnumbered by the present coalition in power in France. The\nvery fact that the Combes ministry is now entering upon the third year of its\nexistence — a decidedly\n\nunusual\n\nexperience\n\nfor the cabinets\n\nof the Third\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": null, "text": "»\n\nElementary]\n\nTHE\n\nFRENCH\n\nAND\n\nGERMAN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n409\n\nRepublic— would seem fairly reasonable evidence that the government action\nagainst the congregations— in spite of the hue and cry raised by the public\npress at home and abroad — is quite in accord with the sympathies of the\nmajority of the French people.\n,\nOur own future on this question is somewhat problematical. We are\npresumably all agreed that the moral and reHgious side of the individual's\nnature must be developed along with the literary, the scientific, the aesthetic,\nand the institutional, but we are far from being in accord as to how this shall\nbe brought about. Time does not permit further discussion of this point, but it\nis safe to say that the experience of neither France nor Germany has been of\nsuch a nature as to warrant our attempting to imitate either.\nPerhaps the weakest point about our whole system of schools is the lack\nof trained teachers, but one dares no longer boldly assert that the master of a\nsubject is in so far forth capable of teaching that subject. M. Langlois, in a\nrecent monograph on the training of secondary teachers, put the question very\nclearly when he said: ''The teacher must know his subject; he must know\nmore than his subject ; and he must know how to teach his subject. It is only\nin America, where individuality is pushed to the point of charlatanism, that\nanybody at all can teach anything at all.\" Now this is just as appHcable, but\nin a less degree, to elementary teachers.\nPrussia has recognized this fact for many years, and many departmental\nnormal schools have been obligatory in France since 1879. ^^ ^^9^ more\nthan 97 per cent, of the elementary teachers in the former country had been\ntrained and had passed all the regular examinations. This practically means\nsix years — three in a preparatory and three in a normal school — after the\nclose of the eight-year elementary-school course. The German training\nschool combines considerable practice with theory, and at the end the pupil\nmust pass a written and an oral examination on the subjects he is to teach — as\nwell as on the one foreign language which forms a part of the required work —\nand he must also demonstrate his ability to teach. Success here gives only\na provisional appointment, and in order to have this made permanent the\nteacher must pass a second examination, not less than three years from this\ntime. This is partly pedagogical, but chiefly practical, and demands efficient\nwork in the schoolroom. Once safely thru this, the teacher's tenure of office\nis practically limited only by his own strength and fitness, and in case of disability aliving pension awaits him.\nIn France the time requirements are somewhat similar— practically six\nyears of training after leaving the elementary schools. Here one finds none of\nthe formal method work, but still much emphasis on the ability to teach.\nHere, too, full teaching standing is normally not reached until two years after\nleaving the training school, and the examination is also practical as well\nas theoretical. At the present time in France the normal schools are supplying\nabout two-thirds of the teachers for the elementary schools, altho all the others\nhave passed the minimum examinations required by law before any appointment can be secured.\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": null, "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIn spite of the fact that one can say that all the Massachusetts normal\nschools, and some few others in the country at large, require high-school\ngraduation for admission to their courses, what a small proportion do the\ngraduates of these institutions bear to the whole number of people entering\nthe teaching profession!\nWhen every criticism has been made and every objection offered, it still\nremains that American schools are doing more for our country today than\nany European school that might be transported bodily to this side of the Atlantic could possibly do. Schools, like so many plants, are often rendered\nineffective by transplanting from their native soil. It is undeniable that the\nrelations between teacher and pupil here in America are far more cordial than\nin either of these two European countries. In Germany the discipline is\nconsiderably more severe than in either France or the United States. The\nteacher in. our sister-repubhc becomes somewhat impatient when the subject\nof sympathy with pupils is brought up. He indignantly refutes any suggestion of lack of sympathy; but the real issue at stake depends upon the meaning\nof the word \"sympathy,\" for even in France it is safe to say the teacher can\nnever forget the fact that he is the teacher, and in his relations with his pupils\nalways keeps this in mind. On the continent there is nothing approaching\nfreedom or famiharity between teacher and pupil, and they practically never\nsit down to work things out together.\nFinally, our American schools develop in their pupils a certain indefinable\nquality made up of some of that polite material called individuality plus\nYankee shrewdness plus an almost inexhaustible amount of vital energy, whose\nsum makes up that very thing that has been pushing our country to the forefront of the world's nations. Somehow the foreign schools do not seem to\ncultivate this union of qualities. It may be because their school systems do\nnot intend that the pupils of their elementary schools shall become leaders,\nbut only contented followers. I am not sure but what this is the result of\ntoo much ''teaching\" and too little use of text-books. Not that I mean to\ndecry the value of good teaching, but there is such a thing as making the work\ntoo easy for the pupil by overmuch selection and predigestion of rnental food.\nThis results in a kind of intellectual dyspepsia where the child's critical power\nis weakened, and he is unable to use books intelligently or to discriminate\njudiciously for himself.\nThe result is that the American boy is far better fitted to make his way\nin whatever walk in life his lot may be cast than is his fellow who has come\nthru the elementary schools of France or Germany. For somehow or other\nhe seems to have been able to accumulate for himself a larger amount of vital\nself-active force.\nAfter all, each country must work out its own salvation in its educational\nas well as in its material and its social development. The educational system\nof every country is the crystalhzed result of the thoughts that have been\nworking in that people or in their intellectual leaders, and it reflects these\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n411\n\nthoughts more or less immediately according as the people are more or less\nflexible. This flexibility or power of adjustment is the safeguard of nations,\nfor changes must and will come, and that one will best conserve its peace and\nits individuality which possesses this power in the highest degree. Thus advantages are quickly recognized, and as quickly amalgamated with the traditions\nand practices of the people. This seems to be one of the fundamental attributes of our American people; its effects are strikingly apparent in our own\neducational policy; and we shall never rest content until the United States\nshall lead the world in her schools, as she does already in her commercial\nactivities.\n\nTHE KINDERGARTENS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES, AND IN\nSOME OF THE COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED\nSTATES\nMISS EVELINE\n\nA. WALDO,\nNEW\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nORLEANS,\nLA.\n\nTRAINING\n\nTEACHER,\n\nIn gathering material for this paper I thought it best to ask for statistics from\nall states, with the exception of Missouri, belonging to the Southern Educational Association. The opportunity of seeing the Missouri work was so\ngood that I thought it unnecessary to say anything about it. The answers\nreturned to my queries were, therefore, from North and South CaroHna,\nGeorgia, Florida, Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and Maryland.\nWhile the data from which this paper is compiled are far from being as\ncomplete as it had been my intention to have them, and while I had hoped\nthat every association and superintendent and minister of public education\naddressed would have sent in some reply, the answers which I did receive\nto my three hundred and fifty, or more, circular letters and questionnaires\nwere from every section of our southern states, and from those foreign countries to which we hold the closest relations, socially and in business. The\nfew general facts here presented may thus be taken as typical of the situation\nas it is now.\nKindergartens in connection with some of the public schools in the cities\nof the following states are reported: Texas, Kentucky, Georgia, Louisiana,\nMaryland, Alabama, Mississippi, Virginia, and North Carolina. None are\nreported in South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, and Arkansas. There may\nbe kindergartens in connection with public schools of some of these states,\nbut none are reported.\nI find that the kindergartens existing in connection with the public-school\nsystems of our various southern states may be classed under these heads:\nI. Those where the state law permits the use of the general school funds for the support of kindergartens for children under six years of age.\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": null, "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n2. Those where only local school funds can be used for this purpose.\n3. Those where the kindergarten is simply counted as part of the school system, and\nthe time is not ripe for asking for a law to permit the children of kindergarten age the\nbenefit of any part of the school fund, and where the children in the kindergartens are,\nin consequence, of the same age as those in the first primary class. This was the condition\nof the work in Louisiana before the constitutional convention of 1898, and such is even\nnow the condition of affairs in one of our most progressive states.\n\nIn reply to the question, ''Do you count the children of kindergarten age\namong the educable children of your state ? \" the answer was almost unanimously \"No\" — a fact which proves to anyone who thinks that a state propagation committee, as it exists in Texas and Louisiana, is a necessity — however\ndefective its work must be on account of lack of funds, etc. In both states\nthese committees are supported by private subscriptions, but until we convert\nour public at large, private work will be obliged to take the place of public\nendeavors in such matters.\nNext in importance to pubhc-school kindergartens existing at present in\nour southern states I place the kindergarten training departments of our\nnormal schools, as I believe we must look upon the creating of kindergarten\ntraining departments in the normal schools of any country as the most powerful\nally we can gain to our cause. The report from these schools thruout the\nsouthern states has seemed to me to bring the promise of great and good\nthings to us who have worked for the dissemination of Froebel's doctrines.\nAbout 48 per cent, of the states from which data have been gathered have\nkindergarten training departments in connection with some of their normal\nschools, while a fraction less than 50 per cent, have kindergartens in connection with their Model and practice schools.\nFrom the state and city superintendents and the normal schools came\nmany hopeful answers to the question: \"When do you expect to estabhsh\nkindergartens or kindergarten training departments?\" They often were:\n\"1904-1905,\" or \"Next year,\" or \"Very soon now. We are fully alive to\nthe importance of this work.\"\nTo me the whole situation in regard to the city or state normal schools\ntaking up the training of kindergarten teachers is most encouraging, and as\nthe establishment of these departments means that every student, kindergarten or other, trained in these schools will go out to his work an apostle of\nthe cause, if the work of the kindergarten be properly correlated to the primary\nwork, its importance is not to be overlooked.\nI find that in some states the kindergarten work was begun in the public\nnormal schools. This was, for instance, the case in De Funiak Springs, Fla.\nIn others it was begun by some city incorporating it into its school system, as\nin Louisiana, where the first public-school kindergarten was founded in New\nOrleans in 1882.\nI am convinced, however, that could we but count one public normal\nschool in every state that was doing kindergarten training, the South in its\nentirety would soon be ours.\nIn Louisiana we have had kindergarten training\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nSTATES\n\n413\n\nin our New Orleans Normal School since its first session, 1895-96, and the\npromise in our State Normal School at Natchitoches is excellent. The new\nbuilding has a kindergarten room. The president of the institution is in\nsympathy with the cause. The state superintendent of education is a warm\nadvocate of the extension of this work; the voting faction has just elected a\nnew governor, who in his inaugural address came out boldly in his advocacy\nof greater expenditures thruout the state on all schools, from the \"kindergarten to the university;\" and the general assembly has been asked for an\nappropriation for this purpose. So before the next school session is over I\nhope our State Normal School will have fallen into line, and that Louisiana\nwill be among the states which have put within the reach of all their young\nwomen the best training for life which our present education affords.\nFrom the city superintendents, even wh^e Kindergartens are still an\nimpossibihty, came many hopeful answers. In many towns having no kindergartens, kindergarten methods and songs and games are used in connection\nwith the primary work.\nNot a few wrote that they had the kindergarten this session for the first\ntime; and some wrote that they were looking forward to its addition to their\nschool system next session.\nOf the work done by the associations a volume might be written; while\nthe large number of kindergartens supported by corporations in mill and\nfactory districts points to the fact that even the business world is becoming\nalive to the necessity of the kindergarten as a help in neighborhood life.\nAs far as the data gathered allow me to judge, Texas is the banner state,\nboth as to the number of kindergarten associations and as to the date of the\norganization of the first kindergarten association. The Fort Worth Kindergarten Association was organized in 1885 — ^just three years later than the\nestablishment of the first public-school kindergarten in New Orleans. All of\nwhich goes to prove that in the dim ages of kindergarten growth two of our\nsouthern states recognized its worth. If its spread has not been commensurate\nwith its worth, it is accounted for by the fact that we of this section have but\nrecently come again into our rightful inheritance, and the prosperity of the\nNew South is of but a few years' standing; and every one knows by direct\nexperience the intimate relations existing between a state's prosperity and its\nschool funds. We begin to have money again in the South, and we begin to\nhave kindergartens.\nOne of the best features of the kindergarten work of which I have been\nenabled to have a ghmpse, thru the collection of data for this paper, comes\nfrom the Baltimore Kindergarten Association.\nPresident Grifiin writes:\nThe Kindergarten Association was founded in 1893 \" to promote tHe training of teachers,\nto exert influence in favor of the introduction of kindergartens into the pubUc schools,\nand to aid in the estabhshment of kindergartens for poor children.\" Kindergartens are\nnow introduced into the pubHc schools, the original object being now achieved.\n\nFrom the Kate Baldwin Free Kindergarten Association, of Savannah, Ga.,\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": null, "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ncomes the best-planned campaign of work. The six kindergartens under the\nauspices of this association were organized with the definite purpose of showing\nthe value of the kindergarten for all classes of children. Two are purely\nphilanthropical and work among the most needy. One is intended to show\nthe value of the kindergarten as a social and educational center. One forms\npart of the public-school system. One is connected with church work, to\nshow the value of the kindergarten as an adjunct to the church and for religious\ntraining, and one is in the best private school of the city. The association's\npresident, Mr. George J. Baldwin, writes: \"We intend to make this city the\nkindergarten center of the southeastern section.\"\nThere is one criticism I would make on the object and plans of most of the\nkindergarten associations reporting. I am glad to hear of the slum kindergarten. The mill and factory kindergartens, even tho widespread, are but too\nfew. The mission and parochial kindergartens are doing God's own work,\nbut, with the exception of a few private kindergartens, founded by private\nindividuals, the neglected rich and well-to-do 's are, as a rule, being overlooked.\nWhere are our kindergartens for the children whose lives are too self-centered\nand pampered to permit of their best growth into citizenship ? We need the\nkindergarten for all the children, and we need it on a firm basis — not as the\noutgrowth of the generosity of a few thinking and loving citizens, but as the\ndemonstration of the state's belief in it as a necessary part of education. We\nneed a state law in every state permitting children of kindergarten age the\nbenefit of the school fund. We need the kindergarten as a permanent feature\nof our public-school system.\nVery few foreign countries have Sent in returns so far.\nDutch Guiana reports fifteen private kindergartens, with 1,151 children\nin them.\nNone of these kindergartens sends exhibits to the Fair.\nMexico reports ten pubHc kindergartens and a kindergarten training\ndepartment in the public normal school of the City of Mexico. Five of these\nkindergartens are in the capital city and five in the provinces, with 1,300\nchildren, all told, in them. The first public kindergarten was estabhshed in\n1886. A regular plan of mothers' work will be inaugurated next session, and\nkindergartens will be put into all the pubHc schools of the city of Mexico next\nyear.\nA good and characteristic exhibit of work is sent.\nCuba reports kindergartens in seven of its cities, all under the control of\nthe public-school authorities, and a kindergarten Training School in Havana.\nThe establishment of these kindergartens dates back to September, 1901,\nwhen the present government took charge of the public schools. These\nkindergartens send a most interesting exhibit.\nThere are kindergarten associations in Buenos Ayres, Argentine RepubHc,\nand in Montevideo, Uraguay ; but, tho asked for data when I sent questionnaires\nto some twenty foreign commissioners of education, I have had no response\nfrom them. I found some kindergarten work in the Argentine Republic\nexhibit. Brazil sends a good exhibit of kindergarten occupations used as the\nbeginnings of manual training in the primary grades,\n.\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": null, "text": "Elementary]\n\nADDRESS\n\n415\n\nAmong the exhibits sent by our own kindergartens, Shreveport, La., sends\nsome work to- represent its first year's labors in this field. New Orleans sends\nsome normal and child's work, illustrating in thought her crops and festivals,\nand showing several phases of the differences arising between the kindergarten\nstandards of her Froebelian and her \"new school\" kindergartens. The\nrelation between gift and occupation work is the point made by both schools.\nAmong the association's work we find an exhibit made by the Temple Free\nKindergarten Association, of Temple, Tex., which is notably good in its simplicity and adaptabihty to the powers of the little ones for whom it is designed.\nBoth color and form are specially emphasized. The Fort Worth (Tex.)\nAssociation sends some fine photographs to help decorate the state building.\nThe Louisville public-school work is well worth studying, both from its\nadaptability to the little folks and from the innovations shown. We feel\nwe have struck the keynote of the Louisville Free Kindergarten Association's\nefforts when we read, ''New occupations from old occupations used in a new\nway.\" The Louisville public-school kindergartens are under the supervision\nof the Louisville Free Kindergarten Association.\nOne wonders why such associations as the South CaroHna Kindergarten\nAssociation, of Charleston, S. C; the Kate Baldwin Association, of Savannah,\nGa.; the Macon (Ga.) Free Kindergarten Association, and a host of others\ndoing good, helpful work, have sent no work to represent them.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nADDRESS\nMADAME\n\nOTTELIA BONDY, FOUNDER OF THE ASSOCIATION\nAND\nINFANT\nASYLUMS\nIN AUSTRIA,\nVIENNA,\n\nFOR KINDERGARTEN\nAUSTRIA\n\nMadam President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nMay I be permitted, first of all, to express my deepfelt satisfaction at being\nprivileged to address this distinguished assembly as a delegate from the\nAssociation for Kindergartens and Infant Asylums in Austria, my native\ncountry ?\nAustria has the proud distinction of having been the first country in Europe\nwhose government, as early as 1872, regulated the didactic position of the\nkindergarten as an item of its general plan of education, without, however,\nmaking it compulsory as an integral part of the public schools.\nOur general association was founded in 1879 by a handful of enthusiasts.\nNow we have a membership of 603, among whom we are glad to number\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": null, "text": "41 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\neleven independent associations in different parts of Austria. Thus we form\na nucleus among the German provinces of our polyglot empire. From ten\nto twelve conferences are held annually at Vienna, where such subjects as\nchild study, hygiene, pedagogics, and kindergarten occupations and games\nare discussed.\nOur members, tho not too favorably situated financially, have formed a\nsystem of pensions and provisions for invalidism and old age. They have\ninstalled an employment bureau, and are just now planning the founding of\na home for kindergartners. They are issuing a monthly paper as their organ\nfor publicity.\nMy associates were much encouraged by what I had to report to them\nabout the admirable Froebel work done in this country when I came home\nfrom the World's Fair in Chicago 1893. Now again, studying your marvelous\nexhibit in the Palace of Education, and having had the privilege of visiting\nkindergartens in this town and elsewhere, I shall be able to tell them that you\nare not flagging in your work, but rather progressing in your labor for the good\nof the earliest age, about which our great teacher, Froebel, says: \"It is the\nmost important one for education, because the beginning determines the manner of progress and the end.\"\nYour beginnings with the little ones are the best example I can take home\nwith me to my country. You teach them to love God and all his creations;\nyou teach them to go back to their homes with loving hearts and to honor the\nglorious star-spangled banner of their native land, which is just now giving\nan unparalleled example of patriotism and of boundless development to the\nwhole world.\nThese experiences I shall take back with me as the best gift which one nation\ncan offer to another over the vast expanse of land and sea.\nMay a kind destiny prosper your work and ours, for the benefit of generations to come.\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF THE\n\nH.\n\nPROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY,\nWORCESTER,\nMASS.\n\nBURNHAM,\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nCLARK\n\nCHILD\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThe new science of school hygiene has a message of the utmost importance\nfor the kindergarten. While, of course, the, home is primarily responsible for\na child's health, it is impossible to separate the hygienic functions of the\nmother and of the kindergartner. Hence it is not worth while, in the brief\ndiscussion of this hour, to attempt any rigid division of responsibility between\nparents and teachers. I will ask you to consider the hygiene of the first\nsix or eight years of life. I have not time to entertain you with the current\njokes at the expense of hygiene, and I lack the eloquence to portray the glorious\nideals of the kindergarten; but I have a few dry facts of vital significance.\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\n417\n\nThe aim of kindergarten hygiene is twofold: (i) to defend a child from his\nenemies; (2) to develop those habits which may be called the alphabet of\nhealth.\n1. The aim of hygiene is to defend a child from his enemies. As Perez\nhas said, the child at birth is cast like a shipwrecked mariner upon a strange\nshore; he is practically blind and deaf; except for a few reflexes, he lacks power\nof co-ordinated movement; his only weapon is a cry; in a single word, he is a\nhelpless animal. Again — to take a figure more in harmony with modern\nscience — as Huxley has said, we may look upon the human body as an army\nof cells prepared to fight the battle of Ufe, but destined to defeat at last. In\ncase of the child this army of cells is liable to defeat and annihilation at the\noutset; for the child is poorly protected against injurious agents. At birth he\nis at once liable to attack by disease-producing micro-organisms. Weill, the\nFrench specialist whom I follow here, has shown the difference between the\nchild and the adult in this respect.^\nIn the first place, while the skin of the adult presents a solid, homy surface, a real fortification all around the body, the infant lacks such protection.\nIn case of the newborn the horny stratum of the epidermis does not exist;\nand later it is fragile and without the sebaceous covering. This difference,\nwhich seems of slight importance at first, explains the susceptibility of the\nchild to certain diseases. If one goes into a modern creche, in which the most\nrigorous hygienic rules are observed, one is struck with the frequency of skin\ndiseases — eczema, pustules, ulcerations, multiple abscesses, and the like.\nThese are due to the vulnerability of the skin. The adult also has better protection than the child by hairs at the entrance of the body cavities, by a moat of\nmucus with certain germ-killing or bacteriacidal properties, and by the greater\nresistence of the epithelial layers.\n2. After infection has penetrated the surface of the body by some breach\nin the skin or the like, it encounters a second line of defense in the deeper\nskin or dermis and the subcutaneous and submucous cellular tissue. Here\nagain the child's protection is inferior to that of the adult. In case of erysipelas\nwith the adult the prognosis is favorable; in case of the newborn it is extremely\ngrave.\n3. When infectious germs have surmounted the resistence of the skin, of\nthe dermis, and of the deeper tissues, they can penetrate still more deeply by\nmeans of two routes — the blood or the lymph. Each of these routes presents\nobstacles which vary at different ages, {a) The blood is less alkaline in the\nchild than in the adult, and hence offers less resistance to the action of microorganisms. Jacob found that to neutralize the blood of an adult fifty or sixty\nparts of a solution of tartaric acid was required; in case of an infant, only\nforty, {b) The germ-destroying or bacteriacidal power of the serum, according to Weill, is not as great in case of the child as in the adult, {c) The white\ncorpuscles of the blood oppose a defense also against infection.\n' Revtie scientifique, November\n\n23, iqoi, pp. 647-53.\n\nThese com-\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": null, "text": "4i8 .\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nprise the lymphocytes without germ-destroying property, and the mobile\nleucocytes or phagocytes supposed to have such power. In case of the adult\nthe lymphocytes lacking bacteriacidal power comprise 23 per cent, of all the\nwhite corpuscles; with the child in the first year, from 50 to 60 per cent.; in\nthe third year, 39 per cent.; from the eighth to the tenth, 29 per cent. On the\nother hand, the leucocytes, or phagocytes having bacteriacidal power, in case\nof the adult are 70 in 100; but only 28 at birth, 40 at the end of the first year,\n54 in the third, and 64 from the eighth to the tenth. These figures have been\nverified by numerous observers; among them Cadet, Weiss, and Rieder.\nThus the effective army of defense, the leucocytes with bacteriacidal power,\nis twice as numerous with the adult as with the nursing child; and the child,\non the other hand, has three times as many of the neutral leucocytes as the\nadult.\nAgain, infection may proceed by the route of the lymph. In this case\nalone the child shows more resistance than the adult. The activity of the\nlymph in a general way seems to be greater in case of the child than later in\nlife. As Weill puts it^ the young child, so poorly protected in other ways,\nseems to have concentrated all his means of defense in the lymphatic system.\n4. If infection has surmounted all these forms of resistance and attacks\nthe tissues, the child's organism is still inferior to that of the adult, because\nthe child's body is in constant stress on account of growth, and if most of the\nnutritive resources are demanded in building up the skeleton, little is left for\nfortifying the other tissues.\nThus the young child is specially liable to infection. Nothing offers great\nresistance, neither the epithelial barriers, nor the blood, nor the tissues; hence\nwe should expect that germ diseases would be specially prevalent and specially\nfatal in the early yeafs. This is precisely what happens. To quote a few of\nthe old statistics in regard to contagious diseases collected in Bavaria:^ For\n100,000 inhabitants from 58 to 75 died of whooping-cough; of these 99.6 per\ncent, died in the first ten years of life. Again, 97 per cent, of all mortaHty\nfrom measles came in the first ten years of life; 91 per cent, of croup and diphtheria; 90 per cent, of scarlet fever.\nMeasles furnish an excellent illustration of the susceptibility of the\nchild to contagion. It is the popular opinion that this is not a dangerous\ndisease; and in case of older children and well-to-do families this is true, yet\nIn case of children under five years it is serious.^ Unless the mortality has\nrecently been reduced, every year in Paris more than a thousand persons die\nfrom this disease. For the year 1895 the mortaUty from measles in Paris was\n26 per 100,000; in London, 59; in Berlin, 15; in Vienna, 45. In Holland in\nthe year 1896 it was 24, and in that year the mortality was greater than that\nfrom scarlet fever or diphtheria.\nIn Munich between the years 1888 and 1895,\n» L. Pfeiffer, \"Die Kindersterblichkeit ,\" Gerhardt's Handbuch\n(1882), pp. 207-354.\n» Zeitschrift fiir Schulgesundheitspflege, No. 7 (1900), pp. 374-79-\n\nder Kinder krankheiten, Vol. I, Part II\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\n419\n\n28,988 cases of measles occurred, and of these 1,077 proved fatal. Of cases\nthat occurred in the first year of life in round numbers 21 per cent, proved\nfatal ; of those that occurred between the years two and five, 5 per cent. ; and of\nthose between the years six and ten, only 0.4 per cent. That is, if an epidemic\nof measles occurs in the kindergarten, the chances are that four or five children\nin a hundred cases will die. If you can postpone the epidemic until the age of\nthe primary school, the chances are that only four out of a thousand cases will\ndie. Van Bruggen is right in demanding that when a case of measles occurs\nin a class, the parents of all the members of the class or school should be\ninformed immediately.\nAgain, some ignorance prevails in regard to whooping-cough. The story\nhas been told me of a teacher in a rural school in New England who, when a\ncase of whooping-cough occurred in her school, said to the children: ''Now\nMary has the whooping-cough, and all the rest of you will have it; but I want\nyou to come to school just the same.\" When we recall that over 99 per cent,\nof the fatal cases of this disease, according to our statistics, occur in the first\nten years of life, we see that precautions against this should be taken. In\nGermany whooping-cough has been recognized as a highly contagious and a\ndangerous disease, and last year the ministry of the interior decided that\nwhooping-cough should be added to the list of diseases which exclude a child\nfrom the kindergarten ; and one who has this disease can be received again only\non a physician's certificate, or, in case this is not procured, only after the spasmodic cough has ceased^.\nSince the child's body is surrounded by enemies from birth and, lacking\nmeans of defense, is specially liable to succumb, the first general rule is that\nthe kindergarten child should be protected from contagious diseases at all\ncost.\nAgain, the child's nervous system is poorly protected. Investigations by\nFlechsig have shown that at birth a large part of the child's central nervous\nsystem is unripe, undeveloped; large areas in the brain lack medulation, the\ncorrelative in some degree of the power of normal functioning. During the\nearly years the child's brain is growing and in rapid process of development;\nhence excitement, any form of premature development, or the like, should be\nlooked upon with great suspicion. Every kindergarten method and occupation should be considered with regard to the hygiene of the nervous system.\nPhysicians look with suspicion upon the custom prevailing in some kindergartens of surrounding children with all sorts of stimuli and keeping them\ncontinually on the qui vive by stories and plays that are exciting. The child's\nmind at this period is acquiring new powers, unstable, prophetic. There is\nalways danger of precocity. Even premature moral development is dangerous; and there is much in Rousseau's dictum that every virtue prematurely\nacquired sows the seeds of vice.\nOur second practical rule, then, is one that I ventured to formulate some\n3 Ibtd., No. I, p. 40.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": null, "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nten years ago, and that has been approved, I think, by many kindergartners ;\nnamely, the following: of two stories, kindergarten occupations, or the like,\neach of which will hold a child's attention and interest, the less exciting is the\nbetter.\nNot only should the child's nervous system be guarded, against overstimulation and overstrain, but habits of healthful activity as regards eating, drinking, sleeping, and digestion, work and rest, attention, and self-control, should\nbe acquired. The eyes of the kindergarten child are likely to be hypermetropic or undeveloped, and care should be taken to avoid overstimulation. The\nvoice of the child of four years, as shown by the careful investigations of\nGarbini, has a compass of only about six tones. Some of the kindergarten\nmusic he found beyond the compass of the children's voices, and especially in\nchorus-singing he points out that they cannot follow the leader without\ndanger of strain if the exercises include more than, six tones, at least at the\nbeginning.\nAgain, toward the close of this period the child is getting his first permanent\nteeth, the sixth year molars, and in the seventh year he is very liable to lose them.\nThere is gross ignorance in the community in regard to this point. Many\nparents suppose that the sixth-year molars are temporary teeth, and hence\nthey are neglected, and as a result an adult seldom has all four of these teeth.\nDr. Mary E. Gallup found that of three thousand Americans over twenty-five\nyears of age only seven had all four sixth-year molars. The kindergarten\nteacher could often save these teeth for her pupils by a Httle judicious suggestion to the children and their parents.\nIt is noteworthy that the kindergarten stage is the time when the most\nfavorable results are likely to come from an operation for adenoid growths.\nIf an operation is performed then, serious results rarely follow, and the development of the child's throat, nose, mouth, teeth, and ears will not be interfered with, whereas delay is very liable to result in deafness, deformity of the\nbony structure of the mouth and nose, and arrest of physical and mental\ndevelopment.\nHygiene demands three things for the health of the kindergarten child:\n(i) that kindergarten teachers should be trained in the essentials of school\nhygiene and learn something of children's diseases; the kindergartner is not\na nurse, but some of the training of a nurse would be helpful to her; (2) that\nthere should be competent health inspection in the kindergarten; each child\nshould receive a physical examination before admission to the kindergarten,\nand there should be periodic medical inspection thereafter; (3) that the surroundings ofthe kindergarten child should be hygienic, and all methods and\noccupations should be chosen with regard to hygiene.\nThe ideal kindergarten is out of doors. This, I understand, was Froebel's\noriginal plan, and this modern hygiene demands. The best kindergarten\nindoors is only a makeshift to meet the exigencies of urban life and inclement\nweather.\nWhen we do have the kindergarten under a roof, then, on account\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\n421\n\nof the peculiar work of the kindergarten, and on account of the stage of development of the children, special care should be taken for cleanliness. The\ndust carries the bacteria, and, as the diseases to which children are specially\nsubject are germ diseases, it becomes specially important for this reason also\nthat the dust should be removed. By the use of an oil brush in sweeping,\nand a moist cloth for wiping the tables, chairs, and the like, it is not difficult\nto have the children come into a clean schoolroom every morning. Investigations by Carnelly and Foggie have shown that the younger the children,\nthe greater the number of micro-organisms in the air. This is probably\nbecause the younger children are not as cleanly. Their results also indicate\nthe importance of the best means of ventilation in decreasing the number of\nbacteria.\nIn the best kindergartens much attention has been given to hygiene during\n\n^ the last few years, and if it were possible to bring together all the good features\nfound in many, we should have a very nearly ideal condition. This practical ideal kindergarten, as we may call it, would be, very briefly, something as\nfollows: The room is large and well ventilated, plain and simply furnished,\nand really cleaned every day. As regards the walls, the base is a simple hospital\nbase, without wainscoting or ornamentation to catch the dust; and the walls\nabove are of plain burlap, made hard to avoid the dust, and of such a character\nthat they may be periodically disinfected. Low blackboards extend all around\nthe room. The tables are not arranged in the old hollow square form, but\nlike the desks in an ordinary schpolroom, so that the light comes from the side,\nor the side and the rear, and no children face the light. There are no hues\nmarked on the tables. In the toilet-rooms the stools and sinks are low;\nindividual drinking-cups are used; and individual towels, or paper napkins\nto take the place of these. The clay is disinfected after being used. The\nkindergarten material is all large; fine work is not done; and sewing, for\nexample, is not by the old method of putting the needle in and out, but sewing over and over, and the weaving is large.\nEven with the best surroundings, every kindergartner must regard hygiene,\nand be more or less of a nurse whether she will or not. To put the whole\nmatter very concretely: Suppose you have fifty children in your kindergarten.\nAll of these are especially susceptible to infectious diseases, and probably it\nmay be said that forty of them have decaying teeth. If there are two or three\nsix years of age, they are cutting their first permanent teeth, the sixth-year\nmolars. Twenty-five or thirty probably have hypermetropic or undeveloped\neyes. Five or ten of them have defective hearing in one or both ears. Five\nperhaps have adenoid growths which interfere with the nutrition of the brain.\nOne boy and perhaps one girl are likely to become stutterers. Several suffer\nfrom night terrors, incipient hysteria, or other nervous disorders. Such children are in every school.\nYou cannot ignore them.\nThe primary aim of kindergarten hygiene then is, first of all, to save the\nchild from disease and death; and, second, to develop habits of healthy activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": null, "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThis is the essential aim. Everything else except obedience — and this may\nrightly be included among the habits of health — can wait. At this stage of\nthe child's development one cannot sharply separate the duties of the family\nand those of the school. The aim in both must be primarily a hygienic one.\nFrom a genetic point of view, this is merely common-sense. An eye saved\nfrom premature development and strain is worth more to a child than the\nacquisition of the art of reading. Healthful development of the larger and\nmore fundamental muscles is worth more than skill in any complex and\ndelicate accomplishment.\nIf a child does not learn to read, or anything about numbers or geometrical\nfigures, or learn weaving or other occupations, he is likely to have another\nchance later on; but if he contracts a contagious disease at the kindergarten\nage, he is liable to die. If he does not acquire certain fundamental habits of\nhealth in regard to eating and drinking and sleeping, it may be impossible to\natone for this in later years. If an adenoid growth is not treated, the resulting\ndeafness and arrest of mental development may be irremediable. If he loses\nhis sixth-year molars, new ones will never grow in place of them.\nSuch is the message of hygiene. It is said that no man in his day cared\nmore for a child's health than the founder of the kindergarten. It does no\ninjustice to Froebel, I take it, to say that he would approve the aims of kindergarten training emphasized by hygiene and genetic psychology — to defend a\nchild's body from its enemies, to develop habits of healthful activity, to train\nto obedience, and to cultivate the germs of social morality.\n\nTHE\nMISS BERTHA\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nCHILD\n\nPAYNE, HEAD OF THE KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT,\nEDUCATION,\nUNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nThe watchwords of the kindergarten have been flung from every stronghold and outpost during its militant career until they have become current\nin all camps. But, as in all fields of thought, they need from time to time a\nnew animation, which is demanded as the world moves, and new vantage\ngrounds give material and scope for new interpretations.\nSelf -activity, unfolding, freedom, spontaneity — these ideas were at one time\npeculiar to advocates of kindergarten theories. Today the same terms, or\nother words for the same concepts, are the shibboleth of the advance wing of\neducational thought. We recognize the same meanings under the terms\n''impulsive attitudes,\" \"initiative,\" and \"original effort.\" The more recent\nterminology is significant of a broad and deep current of thought bearing in\nthe direction indicated by the founder of the kindergarten, more than half a\ncentury ago. The new terminology is also significant of a thought which has\nnot been simply a vamping up of the former statements of former leaders.\nThis terminology indicates a real building process in which these fundamental\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n423\n\ntruths of the nature of man and his destiny, the laws of his attainment and\nfulfillment, have been put to the test of new scientific knowledge. New light\nhas been thrown upon them by the acquisition of facts of physical and psychical growth. They have acquired a new meaning, as more than one clear\nmind has sought to give them expression in a daring application in the actual\nprocess of educating.\nHere and there over the country are public and private schools that are\nas truly Froebelian in the motive which lies underneath their activities as is\nhis own ideal school pictured in his chapter on the \"Boyhood of Man.\" They\nare not faddish schools, nor loose conglomerations of imitative patchwork,\nbut schools whose curricula and methods are most carefully worked on the\nbasis of self-activity (original effort), spontaneity, and community life. Each\nshows the stamp of individuality, but all unite in these common aims. What\nis the meaning of this new stress upon the development of the individual?\nWhat is its process ?\nAgain, the land is dotted with laboratories in which means are being found\nfor the preservation of individual life, and psychological laboratories in which\nboth individual differences and universal process are being studied; and these\nare yielding bit by bit their offering to the sum total of our knowledge of human\ngrowth. All defend the necessity and meaning of individual experience.\nBut is the development of the individual to be brought about by individualism ?\nIs there danger that .children may lose the feeling for coherence, and the power\nto organize? In these schools of invention and originality is anything lost\nof mutual concession, respect, forbearance, and willingness to submit for the\ngeneral good to the plans of another?\nIs freedom merely the removal of outer restrictions or the buying of further\nprivileges for every individual ? The kindergarten has been accused both of\nencouraging caprice and of teaching its students the pernicious doctrine that\nindividual caprice is a necessity for development, and that the freedom of the\nindividual for which Froebel pleaded meant that the individual child should\nbe allowed to frisk in the academic pasture like a young colt with bars\ndown, with no restraints between him and any private domain on which he\nmay choose in his colthood to trample. Froebel emphasizes the necessity for\npassivity, for following the impulsive and instinctive activities of childhood;\nbut this is only a half-truth. In justice to his teachings it must be understood\nthat he saw and taught the whole truth, namely, that not only is the educator\nto prescribe, deny, and even punish when need exists, but also that this passive\nattitude of permitting a child's instincts to have free play is to be supplemented bytraining. The young creature is not merely frisking and browsing;\nthat figure ends at this point ; for while not actually being taught to go quietly\nin harness, the young child is to be so managed by question, suggestion, or\ndirection that he does what the colt cannot do — reflects upon what he has\ndone — thus getting out of his initial act, not merely an outlet for surplus\nenergy, but a means of seeing some principle in what he has done.\nWhether\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": null, "text": "424\n\nNATIONAV' EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nby failure or by success, his acts are to reveal to him possibilities not definitely\nseen at first trial. This is the true freedom, hard won and never lost. Out\nof such liberty to play must come impetus to achieve something more, and a\nclearer perception of what is to be done, with a stronger grasp on the method\nof its achievement.\nTo put it in another way: a child is gaining freedom when he is allowed to\ninitiate activity, if, as a result of it, he is taking some steps on the way toward\nseeing a principle. He does something impulsively for the pure pleasure of\nthe doing; he gains a result mor^ or less expected. He focuses on the unexpected part of his result and tries to produce it again. To do this he studies\nhis manner of producing, and so growth goes on from impulsive, somewhat\nundefined, activity, thru result to an analysis of this result; often to repetition,\nwith new emphasis to a final perception both of his own technique and of the\nprinciple involved.\nAs he grows older, he dwells more upon the technique, process, or method,\ndiscriminating for the sake of results. Older still, he concentrates upon the\nuniversal meaning of the act, or its really fundamental relations. But this\nwhole educative process exists in childhood and means freedom. The more\nthis principle is seen and applied in all education, the better do we understand\nwhat that lightly bandied word, \"freedom,\" means.\nA new emphasis has been laid upon the process of individual growth.\nThe fear of individuahsm need not daunt the teacher who recognizes that\nfreedom impHes the recognition and mastery of laws — laws of physical force,\nlaws of social give and take, laws of personal relation to both. Another element has appeared in current psychology which throws a stronger light on\nthe process of personal growth. The individual child is seen to be forming\nhis personal habits and ideals upon those of the persons who surround him.\nBorn with a strong will to do, a personal bent and equipment all his own, the\nimitative instinct still impels him toward others who by virtue of their own\nindividual habits and achievements are enlisting his wonder and emulation.\nHe tries on, as far as he is able, the feeling and ideas of the people in his social\nworld, taking out of each character temporarily assumed a certain knowledge\nor bias which illumines character to him. He could not be a separate individual ifhe would, for one of the deepest instincts of his nature is prompting\nhim at every meeting-point to explore the personality of each member of\nhis community by taking over to himself their attitudes and modes of\nbehavior.\nThis does not mean that he is wholly at the mercy of the people surrounding him — a mere shuttlecock tossed about by each passer-by. He is not a\nreflector, but a transformer. In imitating he is getting behind the act to its\nreaction on feeling, and thus finding its motive and effects. He may reject\nas much as he selects with approval. This is his mode of studying psychology\n— formative, to be sure — of his own character, but an imitation of a phrase or\na trick of expression or tone does not necessarily mean the adoption of a\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nCHILD\n\n425\n\nhabit any more than any piece of adult acting. It does mean expansiveness\nand elasticity in the imitators, appreciation of the shades of character in life,\nand hence in Hterature. This appreciation lends richness and openness to\nthe individual in his social relations. By virtue of the kind of knowledge that\nsuch imagination gives one is able to live with many types of humanity in\nsympathetic relation. The person possessing this quality can be a leader of\nmen; if he unites with it ambition; he can be a great teacher, if he possesses\nmotive for teaching; he can be a great business man or a great lawyer with this\npower developed, which is at the root of a greater part of a child's representative plays.\nI once said tritely enough to the mother of four strong-willed, emotional,\nintellectual children that it must be a weighty responsibihty to be the one person finally chargeable with their development for good or evil. She replied\nthat any mother who supposed that she was the one person responsible for\nmolding her children's character was either hoping or fearing too much for\nher own power, for all growing boys and girls were being educated all day\nlong by the world in countless ways far outnumbering her own contact with\nintent to influence. The procession of characters moves by the child;, he\ncontemplates, selects, tries on the mood, accepts or rejects its meaning. He\nenters into the arena of school conflicts and uses his borrowed knowledge to\na social advantage; he steps upon the stage of school politics, or takes part in\nthe real drama of his social world, employing at every turn the adroitness in\nthis experimental school of psychology. The person of strong individuality\nis very Hkely to have used with vast personal enrichment the characters by\nwhich he has been surrounded. Strong characters do grow up in isolation\npresumably, but they certainly can never be so socially effective as those who\nare progressively using their social knowledge as they gain it among their\nequals, their superiors, and their inferiors.\nThe individual gets his own value among the others of his social world.\nThey furnish a reflection of himself, and are thus corrections; they furnish\nmodels, and so stimulus ; they furnish unexpected reactions and call forth new\neffort. They offer in general nourishment, corrections, and theater for the\ngrowing personality of the individual.\nThis brings us to some of the practical points in method necessitated by\nthe principles of growth.\nThe kindergartner or the teacher can know her children at their best\nwhen they are engaged in somewhat independent work. Yet this work or\nplay must enlist their co-operative interest. Then the born leader shows his\npower; the quick one who catches the idea and fits in with it reveals his talent.\nThe story-teller exhibits control of imagery in speech and the quiet isolated\nworker gets his own independent results. The younger the -child, the smaller\nthe group in which he is free to express himself. A child will be full of ideas\nand responsive in a group of ten, but dumb before an audience of thirty to\nfifty children.\n\nTo Hve'always in a crowd cramps individual expression.\n\nA\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": null, "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild who was reckoned shy and not anxious to lead at school said to his\nmother that he would be glad when next September should come, because then\nthe two classes of older children would have gone on into the second grade,\nand he would be ope of the oldest and biggest; then all the Httle ones who had\njust come in from kindergarten would look at him and do as he did. No\none would have suspected from his school behavior that he was absorbing an\nidea of leadership or in any way aiming toward it. This is the unconscious\nteaching that children give each other when individuality is exercised.\nThis all illustrates the demand for the small group where Uttle children\nare to get social stimulus from each other..\nWith the very large class another ''idol of the forum\" appears — the evil\nof demagogism. Little children with small power of co-operation have an\nequally small power of resisting outside impressions, and these quahties,\ncombined with very little reasoned self-control, make a large body of httle\nchildren extremely difficult to deal with. Orderly they must be, but the order\ncannot proceed from within; control must come from without. The teacher\nis the integrating element. Normally she should be a quietly informing force.\nAs an educator her function is to give a turn to observation, start a question,\nmodify an action; all of which she can only do when her policeman's work\ndoes not press, and she has time to see into each child's problem and present\nattitude far enough to give that touch which he needs. This is not individualism, but personal contact.\nShe must create conditions that are socially fruitful, and see that no impulsive counter-current prevents them from being carried out.\nThe teacher who deals only with the mass must tax all her resources in one\ndirection. She must compel, excite, tickle the fancy, appeal largely to imitation ofher own model ; as the only form of social unity this sort of discipline\nfails whether in kindergarten or high school.\nThe reflex effect upon the teacher is equally bad. To lead a crowd is to\nuse the resources of the demagog. One depends upon the impulses that sway\nthe crowd. Many a public speaker degenerates intellectually thru habitually\naddressing large audiences of lesser intelligence. The members of the crowd,\nwhether juvenile or adult, are under hypnotic influences; the higher consciousnes isat rest; and the individual is under the spell of suggestion, is\nswayed by the crowd impulse.\nToo often kindergartens are governed by this influence. Yet always as\nan occasional thing it is effective and a necessary element in life.\nThe plea, then, is for a small working community; not a crowd, and not\na mass of isolated units, but a mutually interested and helpful social group,\nleading, following, admiring, obeying, and ever producing, each taking from\nthe group something and giving of his own individuality to it. This does not\npreclude the large school gatherings in which the kindergarten children par- •\nticipate as a body for a hmited time.\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nWHAT\nMISS\n\nIS KINDERGARTEN\n\nIS KINDERGARTEN\nMARY\n\nJEAN\n\nMILLER,\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n?\n\n427\n\nDISCIPLINE?\n\nMARSHALLTOWN,\n\nlA.\n\nThe critics of the kindergarten who offer either favorable or adverse comment have stated some serious facts which thoughtful, progressive educators\ndo well to consider. These criticisms may mislead the untrained public; for\ndeeply rooted principles do not always appear on the surface of such statements.\nThe kindergarten has never claimed that it could take children for one\nyear, at the age of five or six, and so stamp them with noble character that\nthey would forever after be honest, law-abiding citizens. It never guaranteed\nthat children from the homes of the well-to-do and the rich, where prevails\ndissipation with the necessities of life, to say nothing of the abuses of luxuries,\ncould in even two years grow moral natures abhorring divorce, shunning\npolitical ''graft,\" and despising municipal \"four-flushing.\" The slow \"blade,\near, and full corn in the ear\" kind of development requires time, skill, pat ence,\nand proper environment. A florist will never agree to supply to you strong,\nvigorous, long-lived p'ants from his hasty hothouse horticulture.\nKindergarten discipline embodies two main elements, which I shall name\nplay and prescription. In free, untrammeled action the child prescribes for\nhimself. In prescriptive activity he acts as another wills that he should, or\nas another's will prescribes for him. In play the child-self directs his natural,\nphysical being. Without guidances and limitation, the tender, immature\nchild could soon destroy himself. We therefore prescribe certain food, clothing, shelter, and human protection. Shall we take more care for the body\nthan for that which the body contains ? The body is but the rare case which\nincloses a precious jewel.\nNay, rather the jewel and case are one.\nThe ideal of kindergarten discipline incloses the substance of prescription\nin the form of play. In other words, a difficult activity ceases to be drudgery\nwhen it is combined with that labor-saving element of \"make believe\" which\nplay makes possible to the child. By the encouragement of the kindergartner,\ntogether with the progressive use of the kindergarten gifts, occupations, plays,\ngames, songs, and stories, the processes involved in this otherwise laborious\nand uninteresting task are reapplied by the child in his spontaneous play, in\nwhich he forms correct habits.\nThat which is manifesl in expression shows definitely what has been\nreceived in impression; and the educator can but read. Only when the child\nis active with his entire being may we sure'y know the real individual. Would\nthat this might be constantly evident in infancy and childhood rather than\nthru neglect to employ it with the \"sowing of wild oats\" later in life!\nWhen once a child is conscious of growth ; when he feels, as well as knows,\nthat every \"today\" has enabled him \"to observe, to think, and to express\"\nsomething which on each \"yesterday\" was to him unknown; and that every\n\"tomorrow\" is an opportunity to see, to hear, to feel, and to make something\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": null, "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nyet to be known, he has an eternal interest in life which is true, vital, and\nwithin his comprehension.\nThe best activity of childhood is wise play ; and if our social and industrial\nideals were already attained, the pleasure of man would be his work. Man\nwould not labor for gain, but he would be pleasurably active for the development which he could gain thru the medium of labor. The overrich of today\nare bond-servants to dissipation — they have too much capricious play ; while\nthe poor are slaves to drudgery — they have too much narrowly hmited work.\nKindergarten discipline so constructs the conditions of the environment of\nthe child as to give the proper proportion of both play and prescription. Too\nmuch self-directive play provokes capriciousness, while too many Hmitations\nrestrain, suppress, and retard the best growth of the child. This does not\nsgnify that effort on the part of the child is to cease; but that the inertia and\nresistance, overcome by means of play, furnish the impetus for the beginning\nof valuable habits for future use in adult Hfe. We combine enough play\nwith our limitations to carry into effect an otherwise difficult task. Unconsciously the child performs it, as does the body the proper assimilation of\nwholesome, nourishing food. Nature provides a great variety of food products; and we select the best ones to satisfy the needs of the body, and thereby\navoid monotony which might overtake us and steal our appetites.\nWise play preserves the form of caprice, but embodies in it the substance\nof natural laws. Without habitual obedience to the prescribed regulations\nof our physical and spiritual beings, as well as to those of our individual and\nsocial natures, we may become dangerous members of society and injurious\nfactors in the universe.\nIf play and prescription are wisely compounded by a careful diagnostician,\nthe child will delight in an obstacle, a problem, a prescribed task, a puzzle,\nor a duty to perform; for there is a never ceasing consciousness of growing\npower within.\nI A wise limitation does not repress; it only keeps the essence of being from\nspreading out, and destroying its power to do something. Play is the motive\npower, while limitations keep the continuous output within the boundary of\nbest achievement. As a result the child deUghts in conforming to the natural\nlaws of his being, for he is habitually and spontaneously self -active; and what\nis it to be self-active?\nIn self-activity the entire being — the effervescing individuality of the child —\nis combined with a growing consciousness of, and a habitual obedience to,\nthe necessary limitations of any activity. This is learning to do thru right\ndoing. But this rare combination can result only from a social intercourse\nwith the child's equals in age and development, in connection with exemplary adult companions.\nThe harvest of such child-culture is habits of obedience, persistence,\nindustry, sympathy, attention, concentration, and the sharing of responsibility.\nWhat if a child will not respond to any prescription, and will act only his\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": null, "text": "429\nDepartment]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS KINDERGARTEN\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\nown sweet, willful way? It is a sad and serious case, and requires special\ntreatment. Under any circumstance, only such actions should be permitted\nas will tend to the welfare of the physical and to habits of obedience, industry,\nand co-operation Let us remember that it is useless to whip a balky horse;\nand that a certain wise man said, \"Spare the rod and spoil the child.\" Slavish\nobedience may be better than lawless defiance, but both are far from the ideal.\nWhen adults learn that it is better to preserve health than to restore it;\nthat it is easier to ''keep well\" than to ''get well,\" we shall have learned some\nlessons in morals and manners as well as in medicine.\nParents and educators will have to mhibit and prohibit, and many useless\nadult customs will fade into oblivion; but children will be blessed thereby.\nSays Froebel: \"In all true education cheerful obedience to the 'right,' to\n'the best,' is essential to parents and educators as well as to children, and\nshould be often firmly and sternly emphasized by them.\"\nIt is evident that the proportion of play and prescription will vary with\nthe needs of the individual child; and only a wise person can determine the\nproper amounts.\nPrescription, like the guide-post, not only shows the way, but it also Hmits\nthe direction to the one best way out of the many. This limitation supplies\nthe necessary resistance, and shuts out all that would hinder onward and\nupward progress.\nAt first the child cannot make these choices alone. He is too ignorant,\nweak, and immature. Therefore he requires the companionship, from earliest infancy on to maturity, of the most worthy models and fit examples for\nimitation and counsel. Individual and social regeneration cannot come thru\nthe medium of .capricious and self-willed parents and educators. It is social\nfriction that polishes and develops character, and only a diamond can cut\na diamond.\nSecular education has more and more dropped and shifted its burdens\nand responsibiUties, until head and hand, mind and body, intellectual and\nphysical natures, command almost entire attention. Kindergarten discipline\nholds firmly to the fact that head and hand may be ever so carefully trained,\nand yet the individual may be wholly unfit to live with his fellow-beings.\nOnly when the head, the hand, and the heart of the individual are educated\ntogether can we succeed in developing a complete being.\nAs too much, or unwi-se, prescription and drudgery are yet a part of some\nof our educational methods and practices, it may be seen that an ideally\ntrained child might not be a successful \"record-maker\" in our advanced\ngrades and higher institutions. \"An education which aims to make possible\nthe procurement of the necessities of life, and the establishment of justice,\nwithout an ideal of the origin and destiny of man and nature,\" is sadly deficient.\nKindergarten discipline has ideals for the rehgious as well as for the\nphysical, social, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, and emotional natures. These\nideals are given to the child in the example and practices of his adult com-\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": null, "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\npanions. Doctrine and dogma of parents and educators must have corresponding examples of duty and doing, or the child can but wrongly interpret\nlife. Adults are the Bible which every day and every hour is meditated upon\nby the infant and growing child. Creeds and tenets are the crutches which\nassist weak adult humanity to climb to heights delectable. They are not\nessential to the childs' development, and should be reserved for his more\nmature needs.\nThe machinery of our politics, and the politics of our educational systems,\ntend to work havoc in our Republic's garden spot; and our Eden of democracy shows signs of a growing Inferno of anarchy. What may we expect of\na nation where immoral conditions have a legal right? What can we hope\nfor in our cities and towns where such conditions are permitted in so-called\nslum districts and saloon and brothel quarters; where even the children and\nyouths are launched upon the turbulent seas of a corrupted environment, to\nsay nothing' of a contaminated heredity? Criminals are permitted to be\nlegally made faster than the present reformatory practices of family, social\nsettlements, and church can correct.\nThe state's treatment for its wrongdoers is jail, prison, and capital punishment. Isit at all strange that much of our discipline of children has been\nof a retributive nature when the government so deals with its citizens ? Let\nus be honest. Rote-teaching and corporal punishment in our public schools\nhave been natural and necessary counterparts of such a condition of affairs.\nTeachers have come from the homes of the people, and two or three years of\nnormal-school or other training of the adult cannot wholly eradicate the habits\nof years of wrong thought and action.\nThe high ideals for which education has stood have been impossible of\nrealization. Educational practices have been far in advance of those of the\nhome and state. The church and numberless charitable institutions have\nbeen keeping pace with educational methods. But all of these forces have\nnot been sufficient to reform and cleanse our social whole. Crime still prevails\nto an alarming extent.\nThe kindergarten with its \"superb basis,\" as one critic states, has been\ntaken into our educational system and enveloped by it; for the limitations\nplaced upon its entrance are such as to choke it upon the threshold of its\nusefulness. From six months to one year only is allowed the average kindergarten child in our public schools today, and then he is a member of so large\na group that favorable conditions for growth are impossible.\nSectarianism on the part of kindergartners has been a necessity in order\nto preserve even identification of ideals. We should otherwise have been\ntrodden under foot in the trail of tradition. When the time is ripe, along\nwith other evolutionary signs and expressions of progress, we too shall drop\nour husks of sentimentality and burst our shells of narrow exclusiveness.\nThe kindergarten is deeply rooted in the minds and hearts of many leading\nthinkers because it suppHes a long-felt need.\nWhen this is sufl&ciently recog-\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS KINDERGARTEN\n\nDISCIPLINE\n\n?\n\nnized by the individual voter, we may hope for legislation which will produce\nradical changes in our educational conditions and practices. Present criticisms like a storm may clarify the atmosphere and open up a vista of many\nhidden truths.\n431\nTwo things we need in education today: money to make possible more\nideal conditions for the careful working out of the details of theory; and\nworthy models who are fit examples for imitation and counsel in home, schools,\ngovernment, and church.\nIf the bilHon of dollars legally spent last year for a great evil could be\nturned into the channel of education, the social whole might be cleansed,\nmany educational faults could be corrected, and the children bom into so\ngreat a Republic could from earliest infancy on to maturity be educated as\nworthy citizens, to preserve its virtue, equahty, and frugality, and to dispel\nvice, inequality, and greed. For says Froebel: ''A child who plays capably,\nwith quiet self-activity, and perseveiingly until overcome by physical weariness, will become (if later education does not destroy the foundation thus\nlaid) a capable,quietly persevering man, who self-sacrificingly promotes his\nown and others' good.\" ''Within must freedom be won, within must activity\nbe developed, within must purity be felt as the atmosphere of life;\" for \"whoever has been cultivated to genuine humanity is also educated for every\nparticular requirement in civil and social life.\"\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison. — I do not know that I can give any criticism of Miss\nMiller's paper, if by \"criticism\" you mean a difference of opinion. There is one point\nwhich I desire to emphasize in the discipline of children. It is the training of the\nmoral will. Only last week I was talking with a mother who said that the most helpful\nsuggestion that she had ever got hold of was the story of an old schoolmaster who was\ntaking his boys for a walk into the country. They were very, very tired, and the boys\nbegan to jump and grumble and complain of the trip. He said: \"Boys, each one of you\ncut a branch of a tree, and we will ride home.\" That is the keynote she made for her\nhome when the difficulties seemed hard. I do not think that is moral training. I think\nthere comes a time when the child must learn absolute obedience — doing what he does\nnot want to do. Miss Miller meant that, but I want it emphasized.\nLater the creation of the ideal within the child is to make him wiUing to do the right\nthing.\nThe eternal law is outside, and that eternal law he must get inside of him.\nA Httle boy, seven years of age, whose elder brother, a grown man, was teasing him,\nwas raised to such a tempest that he went into the hall, took his brother's new hat, and\njumped up and down upon it until it was a wreck. He was punished. Some time after\nthis occurrence Ijis teacher handed him a new hat, asking him to carry it to his office.\nThe little fellow said: \"Mother, as I walked along with the hat, I thought I could do with\nit just wha't I wanted to, but I thought he trusted me with it and I didn't.\" That boy had\nmoral training.\nThe outside \"ought\" had become the inside \"mUst.\"\nWhen someone asked one of the boys at Rugby how it was that Dr. Arnold governed,\nhe said: \" I do not know that he does govern us. He is such a gentleman that he seems to\nthink we are all gentlemen.\" We must have that sense of courtesy in approaching a child\nas the we expected him to do the right thing. When that expectancy fails, we should use\nthe outside \"must.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": null, "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nMiss Florence Lawson. — The children themselves appreciate the establishment\nof law and the fact that they must obey. I remember one instance of a child who had\nbroken one of the rules of the gymnasium. I said: \"You know what you are doing.\nWhat are you to do now?\" \"Go into the house.\" The children themselves appreciate\nprompt obedience to law, and also the justice of punishment when they violate law. Miss\nMiller says we cannot drive a balky horse. No, we cannot; but let us not forget to consider what makes a child \" balky.\" Is it our faulty management, or is there bad discipline\nin the home, or is the child ill ? What is the cause ?\nMiss Jenny B. Merrill. — Some of you may remember that last year, in Boston,\nProfessor Greenough read a paper before this department which commented unfavorably\nupon the results of kindergarten discipline as seen in a number of high-school boys. There\nwas no discussion of his views, and, for this reason, the subject is again before us. I am\nparticularly anxious to have one of these criticisms answered.\nProfessor Greenough claims that he has noted \"a scattering versatility, a wide, but a\ntoo superficial, interest, and a lack of persistency\" in these boys. We must learn from our\nfriends, the critics. This criticism has led me to inquire whether it is not true that we are\ninclined to introduce too many occupations within a given time. And is not the kindergarten supply list too long ? If you are of the opinion that every occupation in sequence\nmust come before the child, as I am not, even so there need not be many brought forward\nat once. Many kindergartners present a diflferent occupation every day in the week.\nRecently I asked a kindergartner: \"How is it that your results are so much better than\nlast year?\" She answered: \" We have been concentrating upon a few occupations. For\nexample, the children draw or paint every day.\" Are not the children often more persistent than we are ? Do they not beg for the same story ? for the same games ? We may\ndestroy natural persistency by too frequent change and too great a variety.\nMiss Eveline A. Waldo. — I am glad to hear you advocate following an occupation\nin the kindergarten several days in succession. We change too often and jump the child\nfrom one thing to another.\nMiss Harrison. — We must not forget that disciphne is, or should, be a slow and\nsteady growth. We must not expect the same result the first week that we should in the\nthird and fourth.\nMiss Merrill. — We have been criticised for permitting children \"to choose\" too\nmuch in the kindergarten. Personally I believe that children generally are not sufficiently\nencouraged to exercise a deliberate choice, and yet I have known \"choosing\" to lead\nchildren to appear whimsical. The importance of exercising free choice, and how best\nto do it, is a subject that demands more attention in our training classes.\nYet another criticism is that kindergarten disciphne makes children too dependent.\nI am glad to say that I have noted a growing tendency among kindergartners to dispense\nwith \"the kindergarten maid;\" to teach the children to wait upon themselves and upon\neach other; in short, to be helpful in many little ways about the room.\n[Several instances were given illustrating the power of a well-modulated voice and the\nuse of the proper tone in di«^ciphning children.]\n\nVALUE\nANNA\n\nOF ANIMAL\n\nE. HARVEY,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nPETS IN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN METHODS,\nBROOKLYN,\nN. Y.\n\nADELPHI\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe story is told of Janet, the faithful servant of a Scotch minister, that\none Sunday she made bold enough to criticize her master's sermon. ''Janet,\"\nsaid the minister, \"I hear ye didna Uke the sermon the day; what was the\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": null, "text": "433\nDepartment]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF ANIMAL\n\nPETS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nmatter with it?\" \"Weel,\" responded Janet, *'thae was jist three things the\nmatter wi it. First, ye read your sermon; in the second place ye didna read\nit weel; and in the third place it wasna worth reading ava!\"\nWhen our esteemed chairman invited me to read a paper before you today,\nI felt the dangers of my own position, but have tactfully maintained the\ntruth printed in our program by preparing a paper, and wish I might as\ntactfully disarm your criticism by declining to read it. But my position is\nbeset with graver danger than Janet's criticism, for I recognize among the\nmembers of this Association lions to right of me, lions to left of me, lions before\nme; and it is with no Httle apprehension that I call forth my menagerie to speak\nfor itself, and, with me, to plead for a place in the kindergarten and in your\nesteem.\nBefore introducing my first little group of pets, I would make the general\nstatement that the greatest value of the pet in the kindergarten is the joy which\nit brings to the children. They have something that is alive, something that\nappeals to them for care, and which, being their very own, awakens a feeling of\nsympathy, a sense of responsibility, and the consequent exercise of fostering\ncare and protection; all of which are necessary elements in the character and\ndevelopment of the man and the woman, to whom care for dumb animals and\ncare of fellow-man are equal and controlling obligations.\nNow let me present to you my first group of pets — a very quiet Httle\nfamily of rodents. Their positions on the roll are not honorary, but this\nvaries in different sections of the country. Here they come. Bunny, squirrel,\nand guinea pig — three that are always present; while the white rat brings up\nthe rear — a pet not as certain of popularity, but often introduced.\nIf we may have but one of this little family, by all means let us choose\nBunny. He is such a sociable little chap and so ready to be friends with all.\nNo one hears him as he moves around and pays his visits from chair to chair,\nor stops for an occasional caress. Bunny's quiet, amiable, social nature alone\nmakes him desirable as a pet, and when we add to his attractiveness his dependence upon the children for food, and upon the kindergartner for proper conditions, his value is readily seen, since these babies must absorb an amount\nof valuable information from their actual contact and care of their pet. While\nBunny's home is where the children are, when he has become a member of\nthe children's circle, they will know what he loves to eat and how he eats it,\nhow he runs and Ustens, not because they have been told so many facts, but\nbecause they have observed and discovered these things for themselves. They\nhave fed him, they have called him; they have noted, too, his many cunning\nhabits, and oftentimes have imitated him.\nIn an Italian section of our city there is a kindergarten where it is necessary to have a handwashing period each day before using the perishable material. Here, among the dark-haired children of the South, a little white Bunny\nfound a dwelling-place, and at once, adopting his Httle human companions,\nproceeded to regulate his actions in accordance with theirs. As each day the\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": null, "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nbasins were brought in for the children, Mr. Rabbit stopped in his play, and,\nthinking it the most convenient opportunity to teach how he washed, performed\nhis own ablutions, continuing from day to day until it became a part of the\nregular program.\nBut I must leave many of the ''cuddle-down,\" ''raggy-lug\" stories\nunchronicled, for, tho Bunny is an important and valuable pet, he is not the\nonly one and may not have more than his allotted share of our attention. I\nhave spoken only of his value in the kindergarten, but another kindergartner\nstates that she could write a paper upon the value of \"Bunny in the Home\"\nas well.\nThe gray squirrel comes next on our roll of rodents. As a rule, this little\nfellow is a visitor only for a while. He seldom becomes as friendly as the\nrabbit, but, be his stay long or short, he teaches many a valuable lesson.\nHis thriftiness is predominant even in captivity.\nOne squirrel who had an ideal home in a large cage was very particular\nabout his bed. Each morning he brought the cotton out, teased it, and when\nsatisfied that it was thoroly aired he remade his bed. The children loved to\nfill his food-box with nuts, for it was one of their greatest pleasures to see him\nscamper off with them and hide them under the sawdust of his cage or in his\nbed, emptying the box with surprising rapidity. One cleaning day almost\ntwo quarts of nuts were found hidden under the bed, and, in spite of our\nefforts to remove them, under that bed he insisted upon keeping them. At\na certain period each day the children had physical exercises, and this was\nthe time when Jack found his way to the wheel in his little inner cage and\ntook his exercise with them.\nJack and his brother Tricky were such delightful pets. Occasionally\nallowed the freedom of the schoolroom, they ran mad races across the floor,\ntheir Httle feet pattering and scratching as they foraged for nuts and scampered\nmerrily away to bury them in every possible hiding-place.\nEach Httle child felt responsible for their care and food, and at Christmas\na large basket of nuts was presented to these pets. The children learned\nthat the squirrels had a very good time, but were neither boisterous nor noisy.\nThey watched their careful attention to their food, their dainty, tidy, eating\nand their perseverance and inquisitiveness were a source of great delight.\nTho these lively little chaps were pets of several years ago, the boys and\ngirls who shared their kindergarten with them and cared for them often return\nto talk over their cunning tricks and interesting habits, or relate many an\nanecdote of them. After such companionship and experience only good\ninfluences and a spirit of gentleness toward animals could develop.\nWhere children are older and begin to classify, or for purposes of comparison, Iwould suggest as substitutes for the rabbit or squirrel the guinea\npig and white rat. These little animals are very responsive, appreciate good\ncare, and soon become very tame. An amusing incident is told of how\noccasionally one may acquire a reputation for the care of animal pets and\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": null, "text": "435\nDepartment]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF ANIMAL\n\nPETS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nmay have them thrust upon her without regard to pedigree, complexion, or\nprevious manner of existence. Such a kindergartner was summoned from her\ncircle one morning to an audience with the ashman of the neighborhood.\nAfter a few introductory remarks as to the condition of business and the\nweather, he produced a white rat from his pocket and presented it with this\nremark: ''Please, mum, I found this fellow in an ash barrel up the street,\nand he seemed so nice he ought to have good care. I knew you took care of\nall kinds of things here, so I brought him to you.\" And so a little white rat\nwas added to that menagerie, tho he was permitted to remain but a short time,\nas it is possible to overdo in this matter of animal pets. It is much wiser to\nhave one pet at a time, and to give it the entire attention and constant care,\nthan to divide the interests among many.\nWith the right conditions we may introduce a family dog or cat. However, as these are household pets I believe it a wiser plan to bring them in\nas occasional visitors, rather than to give them a place in the kindergarten or\ncare for them for any length of time.\nOur list of kindergarten pets need not end with these four-footed friends.\nIndeed, it would not be complete without \"good Mother Hen\" and her\nchicks, and the doves or pigeons that fly away and return again to their home\nin the schoolroom window. One of the greatest opportunities for gaining\nknowledge thru observation is given by Mother Hen training her brood:\nteaching the babies to scratch for themselves; her different calls, and how the\nbabies understand and obey these calls; the peeping and clucking over every\nnew morsel; their play as they climb and tumble and roll over the mother's\nback, until, tired out, they cuddle under her warm wings. I know some little\nchildren who learned more from a three-days' visit of a hen and her chicks\nthan the young ladies of a certain training class had known in all their experience. This special Mother Hen became so popular that she monopolized the\nattention and affection of students and teachers from the kindergartner to\nthe principal.\nIn considering doves or pigeons as pets the question arises: How shall\nwe bring the dove-cote near enough the kindergarten for observation and care ?\nOne ingenious kindergartner has had a pigeon-house so constructed that it\nfastens outside the schoolroom window, and here the birds go forth and return,\ntelling their experiences in their own soft, crooning way, and seeming to enjoy\nthe companionship and attentions of the children as they feed them at the\nwindow and often coax them to pay a visit in the kindergarten room. In\nanother kindergarten a pair of ring doves found a home and built their nest\nin a corner of their house, where just at Easter time they presented the kindergarten with a pair of baby doves. Here the children had the privilege of\nwatching the parent doves as they nursed their little ones: the care they exercised in feeding their ever-hungry offspring; the shared responsibihties ; how\nthey were kept warm and finally urged to leave the nest, only to continue\ntheir painstaking and training until they were independent and able to help\nhemselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": null, "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nIn pleading for the pets in the kindergarten I have laid emphasis upon the\nvalue of association and observation, but I feel that I should say a word in\nregard to moralizing. We often see the naughty little chick or the disobedient\none, as we see the naughty little child occasionally, and there is danger of too\ngreat moralizing in these instances, as well as in regard to the very natural\nactions of either Mother Hen or pigeons. I know of one kindergartner who\nwas very thankful that she had not called special attention to the devotion of\nthe doves to each other. In this case one brood of young doves had been driven\nfrom the nest to make room for the second addition to the family. For a time\npeace reigned in the dove-house, until a certain day when the parent doves were\ncalled from the nest and invited to a special treat of hard-boiled eggs. While\nfather and mother were feasting, a young pigeon, who evidently resented the\nintrusion of the newcomers, flew to the nest, and catching the baby dove by\nthe neck, threatened to give him the coup de grace. He succeeded in giving\nhis victim a good shaking before the father dove flew wildly back to the scene\nof this unequal battle, and, using his wing as a slipper, he furiously slapped his\ninsubordinate son and brought him to an inglorious defeat. Peace and harmony do not always dwell together even in the dove-house.\nIt is only under the most favorable conditions that I would advocate maintaining any of these pets for any length of time, but it is always possible to\nentertain one or another of them as visitors during the course of the year. But,\nno matter what the conditions, there is always one pet that every kindergarten may have — the unobtrusive little box turtle, who stays where you put him\nwithout a murmur or remonstrance, eats so very little, is so very quiet, and\ngives so little trouble. Yet it is wonderful how tame and interesting he will\nbecome.\nIt is possible in planning for the entertainment of these pets to make a\nsingle house serve many. A large cage covered with wire netting and lined\nwith zinc or tin in the bottom is a home always ready. Bunny, who soon\nlearns the run of the schoolroom, will make it his house at the close of the\nsession, and it will prove equally satisfactory for the squirrel and doves. And\nwhile it may not be furnished with all modem conveniences, for our little\nvisitors who use it only as a place where they may sleep and eat and run about,\nit is always ready.\nOur object in bringing these pets into the kindergarten is not that we may\nteach their length or breadth or thickness. Nor is it of any value to know the\nform that they resemble. They may be ovoid, conic, or spheroid, but the\nchildren will pay no regard to this form of knowledge. The life-side of nature\nteaches our little people to love what is alive, to enjoy its companionship, to\ngrow in sympathy with it, to care for it unselfishly, and thru this ministry to\nlearn to observe carefully, exactly, truthfully. And, no matter what the conditions, there is always some way of bringing this living association to our\nchildren. The aquarium and terrarium are possible under most limited\nconditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": null, "text": "437\nDepartmentJ\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIs this knowledge that comes thru association with pets passing or permanent ? A Httle boy who had been out of the kindergarten for two years\nreturned one afternoon from a primary class and said: \"What do you think\nMiss\nwrote on the blackboard for us to answer?\nShe wrote, 'Is the\nBunny fierce ?' Wouldn't you think she would have known better ?\"\nThat factor in education which makes all things possible is a close and\naccurate observation ; yet how few possess it ! Not long ago, in one of our large\nstores, I watched a woman who was ordering a chinchilla cape, and agreeing\nto pay an enormous price for additional skins which were necessary to make\nthe garment sufficiently long; and I overheard the following conversation:\n''What is this chinchilla, anyway ?\" \"Oh, madam\" (He was a very obliging\nsalesman), \"it is an animal.\" \"Yes, I know it is an animal, but how large ?\"\n\"About the size of a lion, madam.\" And the clerk without a conscience continued to sell the woman without observation a dozen or more of the tiny\nskins that were hanging all about the place where she stood.\nWe may smile at the simple-hearted woman who paid a visit to Central\nPark particularly to see the hippopotamus, and who, when the creature drew\nhimself from the water, gave expression to her surprise in the words: \"My,\nbut he is plain!\" We may smile, but we must give her credit for a quick,\ncorrect, and exact observation, and a truthful statement of it.\nAs I have presented no theory, I cannot conclude with any argument, nor\nwill my subject permit of any eloquence. I have given you the plain statement\nof plain facts. I know the value of our kindergarten pets; and should you ask\nme whether we can have a kindergarten and leave our pets out, I would shake\nmy head and answer with the good old Scotch woman: \"I hae ma doots.\"\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nELEMENTARY\nTHE NATURAL ACTIVITIES\nTHE INDUSTRIES\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILDREN AS DETERMINING\nIN EARLY EDUCATION\nI\n\nKATHARINE\n\nE.\n\nDOPP,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\nCHICAGO,\n\nIN EXTENSION\nDIVISION,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nWhen the child is viewed as a part of the social process, he is seen to be at\nthe same time an epitome of the past and a promise of the future. His activities reflect the early history of mankind, and they foreshadow the man that is\nto be. The form of his body, the structure and arrangement of nerves and\nmuscles, the instincts and attitudes which impel him to act, are inherited\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": null, "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nfrom the past. But he Hves in the present, and his problem from the first is\nthat of reconciling his physical inheritance from the past with the society\ninto which he is born. The home is the institution which helps the child to\ntake the first steps in the solution of this problem. The function of the elementary school is that of providing opportunities for effecting a more complete\nsolution of the problem.\nBy virtue of the mechanism he has inherited from the past, the child is a\nself-active being. The stored-up energy of nerve-centers is constantly seeking\nan outlet. Previous to the age of seven years the undeveloped body and mind\nof the child plainly forbid activities which require skill, and which make a\ndemand for the co-ordination of fine muscles and nerve- centers not yet developed. The growth which is taking place in the large muscles, however, and\nthe energy stored in the nerve-centers which control their movements, make an\nurgent demand for such large activities as creeping, walking, running, jumping, sHding, swinging, whirUng, and rolling. These activities, because they\nrepresent a technique for which the muscular and nervous system of the child\nis ripe, afford satisfactory emotional reactions together with such other psychical accompaniments as function naturally within the process.\nThe free and varied movements involving the use of the large muscles are\nparalleled by a great variety of apparently unrelated impulses. Change,\nvariety, capriciousness, characterize the child's activities at this time. One\nimpulse follows another in quick succession as new stimuli affect the senses.\nAttention can be sustained only as means are available for reinforcing the\npower of the stimuli. The child can inhibit action in the presence of dreaded\nobjects, but is not prepared to inhibit thru ideas. The physical mechanism\nupon which inhibition thru ideas depends is not yet developed.\nThe child is in bondage to his senses. His alertness to sights and sounds\nis undoubtedly due to racial habits which were ingrained in nerve and muscle\nduring the dangerous life of the remote past. At first the child is interested\nin sights and sounds apart from any intellectual content they may have; but\neven in the ''rattle\" stage the child uses sense-stimuli to get his relations to\nobjects; and, as he advances, he imitates movements and sounds, and in so\ndoing acquires an experience of greater content.\nThe fact that the child during the play period is less interested in a round\nof activities than in the moment of greatest dramatic interest favors expression\nthru pantomime and dramatic play. Instinctively the child imitates animal\nmovements in his play. A child of three living on a farm imitates activities\nin which the animals of the farm play a part. He plays riding or driving\nthe horses, using an imaginary whip in a vigorous way. Again he plays\nleading, or tying, or catching a horse, as the image of the moment dictates.\nSometimes he shows two or three related steps, as in leading and tying the\nhorse, but the sequence is a matter of little consequence.\nThe rhythmic trotting or galloping of horses, the cries of animals, the songs\nof birds, the humming of bees, and the human activities which come within\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n439\n\nthe range of his senses, likewise lend themselves to the child's dramatic play.\nSuch imitations permit a natural outlet for the child's surplus energy, and they\nprovide opportunities for securing self-control.\nSince pantomime affords a free use of the entire body, it is a favorite mode\nof communication at the time when the image tends to seek an outlet in the\nsimplest and most direct way. Pantomime can be used in every school. It\nrequires no material equipment. Like all other modes of communication it\nshould be used, first of all, in acquiring and communicating first-hand experience. When this basis is laid, however, it is valuable as a tool for the acquisition and communication of experience gained thru the use of symbols. Used\nin this way, pantomime stimulates the child to a thoughtful use of his senses,\nand leads him to make use of the experiences gained in finding his relations to\npeople far removed in space and time.\nSince it is thru the image that the child controls his bodily movements and\nextends his experiences, the chief function of the teacher at this time is that of\ndeveloping a rich imagery. In doing this it should be remembered that,\naltho the child is most interested in some striking particular, this striking\nparticular would lose much of its significance if it were dissociated from its\nnatural setting. For this reason the teacher in presenting a subject should\nrecognize the complete situation — the simple round of activities involved in\nthe experience — and allow the child to select from this that which is most\nsignificant to him.\nModeling in sand and in clay, drawing, and painting are as well suited to\nexpress the child's interest in the dramatic moment of an experience as pantomime. Sand is sufficiently plastic to be adapted to the child's direct attitude,\nand even clay responds readily to the touch. Drawing and painting make a\nlarger demand for a supple hand, and interpose an instrument between the\nchild and the material upon which his image is expressed; but, if carried out\nin free and large movements, they are well adapted to express the child's\nimagery.\nThe child's interest in materials at this time is not so much for the purpose of construction as to get first-hand contacts with them. They affect his\nsenses and stimulate him to activities which yield rich images. Materials\nare not yet examined in a critical way. The thing the child can lay his hands\nupon is made to serve his purpose. In his attitude toward nature he is\ndestructive. He takes what he can get without thinking of the consequence\nof his acts. The child's interest in results is so slight that playing do a thing\nis as satisfactory in most cases as really doing it. But whether he works\nupon materials and produces tangible results, or whether he is engaged in\npantomine and dramatic play, he is not disturbed by ajiy sense of his own\ninabihty. His pleasure in the activity and his confidence in taking the initiative are so great as to lead him to experiment in many ways.\nWe do an injustice to the child when we interpret his varied and fleeting\nimpulses, his interest in striking particulars, and his inabihty to handle abstract\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": null, "text": "440\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nproblems as ground for presenting a course of study made up of disconnected\nfacts. Just as occupations relate a variety of impulses and activities, so such\nsubjects as the home, the neighborhood, and simple farm life relate a variety\nof occupations. The study of such subjects calls for the use of field trips,\ninformal out-of-door lessons, real work, pantomime, play, modeling, construction, painting, drawing, story, and 'song. By allowing the child to participate in planning the most appropriate occupation for the time, and by\nallowing him to co-operate in securing materials, and in arranging the tangible\nresults of occupations in an order which is suggestive of a natural sequence,\nby maintaining conditions which are favorable to the growth of the inventive\nspirit, the way is paved from the impulsive activities, natural to infancy, to\nhabits which involve a higher degree of intellectual control. Series of paintings, constructions, and models which represent the work of the year are\ninvaluable as a means of making the transition to an interest in a whole\nround of activities.\nThe changes that take place in the child's occupations during the transitional period are those due to changes which are ushering in the period of\nchildhood. The finer muscles and the nerve-centers controlling their movements are beginning to develop. Means and ends are becoming distinct\nand the response to stimuli is less direct.\nA recognition of the relation of the child's natural activities to the past\nand to the present makes it evident that the most fundamental experiences\nof the race at the time it was making the transition from natural to artificial\ntools are most valuable materials for the child. Those achievements of mankind which constitute the lower rounds of the ladder of human progress,\nwhich characterize social life at a time when it was sufficiently simple for the\nchild to understand, which embody processes which he is able to control,\nwhich appeal to motives which he is able to appreciate — these furnish the\ntype of occupations best suited to the child of seven years. These occupations are not for the sake of skill, they are not for the sake of utiHty in the\nnarrow sense of the word; they are, rather, devoted to securing an all-around\ngrowth and a rich and varied experience. Tho they take root and find\nnourishment in the Ufe of the past, they bear fruit for the present and the\nfuture.\nAs the child of eight years enters the stage where there is a cessation of\nphysical growth, the energy previously devoted to the growth of mass in the\nmuscle is free to expend itself in a differentiation of mass; that is, in the development of the smaller muscles which are involved in all skilled movements.\nThis change which takes place in the nerves and muscles is accompanied on\nthe intellectual side by an interest in details, by an interest in forming orderly\nsteps for the purpose of securing desired ends. On the emotional side it is\naccompanied by differentiation in interests, which in turn demands a differentiation ofactivities.\nNo longer satisfied with play, tired of a \"make-believe\" process, the\n\n"}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n441\n\nchild demands serious work as well as play, and he questions whether stories\nare true. As he becomes more conscious of the means used for securing\ndefinite ends, objects begin to stand out as results of activity. The child is\nless ready now than before to take the initiative, less confident in his own\nabiUty, less direct in his mode of response. He is more critical of materials\nand products, and more conscious of himself as an agent. As the child\nbecomes conscious of his inability to express his idea in a satisfactory way,\ntraining in technique becomes imperative.\nSince the demand for technique emerges from an unsuccessful experience,\ntraining in technique should follow the attempt to make use of it, and, in turn,\nshould be followed by its successful use. By making training in technique\nsubsidiary to vital experience, skill and insight go hand in hand. Such\nrelations inevitably involve failures, but this is not a matter to be regretted.\nThe child must learn what it means to fail and how to turn failure into success.\nWhen he learns to turn back upon his experience, to discover what it was that\ncaused the difficulty, and how to prevent a repetition of the mistake, he has\na lesson he can never get from following methods of dictation.\nThe problem of the teacher at this time is that of securing the rich imagery\nnecessary for the acquisition of the skill and the insight which the child needs.\nThe solution of the problem must come thru the selection and presentation of\nobjective ends which appeal to the child's interests and relate him to activities\nof world-wide significance.\nThe child's desire to control things, animals, and forces, to use tools,\nappliances, and machinery, offers a clue to processes which are significant at\nthis time. His interest in sequence and in reality demands a large use of construction and of language — modes of communication well adapted to express\nthe whole round of activities. Field trips and excursions to uncultivated places,\nor to farms and other places of interest, give the child an opportunity to secure\nraw materials and to observe processes by which they are prepared ; but unless\nthese activities are supplemented by occupations which call forth a personal\ninterest in protecting and cultivating sources of supply, it will be difficult to\nmake the transition from the destructive attitude toward nature to that of\nprotection and sympathetic care. The child who wishes to have his own\nproperty rights respected is in a position to be taught to respect the property\nrights of others. The child who becomes conscious of the limitations of the\ngources of raw materials he needs is in a position to appreciate the necessity\nof protecting sources of supply. The child who feels the inadequacy of\nindividual effort is prepared to appreciate the advantages of co-operation.\nIf the school is to act as a unifying force in society, the child must pass\nfrom occupations which minister merely to personal needs, to those which\nsecure results of social value. Individual effort, supplemented by labor in\ncommon, must give way gradually to a real division and co-operation of labor.\nPerhaps no better opportunity is available for developing first lessons in social\nco-operation than that provided by the necessity of caring for the schoolroom\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": null, "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand grounds. Needs as evident as these require no ''Tom Sawyer\" device\nin order to call forth a response from the child.\nMethods which lead the child to conceive his own simple duties as \"makebelieve\" city functions result in mental confusion. They likewise lessen the\nrespect of the child for the simple e very-day virtues. Occupations illustrative\nof city functions are perfectly legitimate and certainly desirable. But the\nchild has many real points of contact which relate him to the civic life. Upon\nthe experience which comes from these real points of contact civic lessons\nshould be based, and not upon distorted views of the simple occupations\ninvolved in the organization of the school.\nAs frequently treated, such occupations as cooking, sewing, and carpentry\nare for the sake of skill and so-called disciphne, and not for the sake of real\nInsight into Hfe. This is a serious mistake. Skill and discipline are essential,\nbut in their best form they are not to be attained by methods which isolate\nthem from their social setting. Besides, it is a mistake to expect of the growing child a skill which can come only with thoroly differentiated interests and\na well-developed body. Not skill in one art or craft is the aim at this time,\nbut a working knowledge and skill in a great variety of arts and crafts. And\nthruout the period of childhood insight should keep pace with skill. It is\nonly in this way that educative results can be attained. Just as the acquisition of many varieties of skill satisfies the needs of the physical nature by\naffording exercise for the fine muscles and the nerve-centers which control\ntheir movements, so the history of the social evolution of the various occupations satisfies intellectual needs. Such a history gives new meaning to personal and small-group experiences. It relates them to kindred experiences\nof social significance. It operates also in strengthening the social spirit in\nthe school; for it presents desirable objective ends which readily enlist the\nco-operation of all in a common cause.\nIf we introduce industries in an isolated way, we break the circuit which\nconnects them with the real interests of life; we obstruct the path which the\nchild naturally follows in his quest for the things which seem worth the while.\nIsolated industries may serve for a few years as entering wedges into the hard\nrock of formal instruction ; they may serve to relieve the child from premature\nintellectual strains. But unless their larger relations to nature and man are\nrecognized in a practical way, they are destined to the short-lived course of\na ''fad.\"\nTo become discouraged because teachers are not yet prepared to relate\nindustries in a vital way is to confess ourselves unworthy of our work. Of\nwhat use are our splended educational institutions if they cannot lend a hand ?\nOf what avail is a supervising force if it gets lost in the machinery of the educational process ? Normal schools and universities can offer, in addition to\nthe means of acquiring skill in the industrial arts, courses which present\nthese occupations in their social setting. Candidates for the teaching profession should be trained to recognize those phases of an industrial process\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": null, "text": "443\nDepartmentl\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nwhich bridge the way from the natural activities of the child to the formulated statements of science. They should be provided with an opportunity\nto learn the social significance of the practical arts they are expected to teach.\nElaborate equipments and ample means of financial support are desirable,\nbut not essential. Of far greater consequence is a community spirit which is\nconsecrated to educational work. The presence of such a spirit cannot fail\nto manifest itself in ways conducive to normal growth, while the most elaborate equipments, the most abundant material resources without such a spirit,\ncan be of no avail.\nThe use of obsolete processes in the education of the child is not a return\nto the past. It is rather the means of helping the child to lay claim to his\nsocial inheritance. His physical inheritance from the past is insured thru\nthe unconscious laws of natural heredity. His social inheritance must be\nacquired in a more conscious way. The highest achievements of modern\ntimes, because they are a tangible expression of the social life of the people,\nwill ever give color and direction to all educational work. But because of\nthe complexity of the processes involved they can function during the period\nof elementary education only in an indirect way. In the form of real occupations on the one hand, or of abstract statements on the other, the highest\nachievements of modern times are clearly out of the child's reach. Yet,\nbecause his simple occupations have been selected with reference to paving\nthe way to them, because he is constantly feehng their influence in many\ndifferent ways, they function as ideals which lead the child on and on, and\nwhich relate him to a larger hfe than he is yet able to make real.\n\nII\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe principle that the child and the early history of the human race are\neach keys to unlock the nature of the other applies to almost everything in\nfeehng, will, and intellect. To understand either the child or the race we\nmust constantly refer to the other. This same principle appHes also to all\nspontaneous activities. Thus in seeking the true principles of motor education we must not only study the plays, games, and interests of the child\ntoday, but also try to compare these with the characteristic activities of early\nman. While we cannot yet compile from the vast field of anthropology a\nvery well-ordered account of the most common activities in the successive\nstages of human evolution, we do know some of the most central.\nFirst, perhaps, come those connected with food — fishing, hunting, domestication of animals, agriculture, preparation, cooking, and eating. Then\ncomes clothing, involving the treatment of hides, furs, weaving blankets,\nmaking covering for the head and feet, also ornament and decoration. The\nevolution of shelter from caves, tents, and huts to elaborate dweUings of every\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": null, "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nkind, also the industry of making utensils, weapons, implements of worship,\nidols, dolls, masks, chipping stones, molding clay, pottery, carving, painting,\nsewing, etc., belong here. Hunting once played an enormous role during a\nlong period when it seemed doubtful whether man could make himself lord\nof the animal creation. He pitted his inteUigence against that of brutes:\ndevised ambush and pitfall; furtively watched, tracked, chased; fought at\nclose quarters with fists, spear, and club, then with bow and arrow; and when\nhe conquered game, feasting and orgy followed. Fiercer animals preyed upon\nhim and made days, and especially nights, dangerous. Then, too, was combat with his own species, often a state of tribal war of all against all. Often\nconflicts were hand-to-hand, striking, thrusting, throwing, with ruse and\ndeceit, night work, long flights, pursuits, and great fatigue in the cruel struggle\nfor survival. Social organizations probably sprung from the family and\ndeveloped into the tribe. Property, at first communal, grew individual.\nWorship was often highly elaborated, and oft:n focused in sacred dances and\ninitiations. Education began in public induction of young people into the\ntribe, and often lasted days and weeks, when the legends which constituted\nthe caladium of the tribe were rehearsed by camp-fires. This, or something\nlike it, was primitive life, and lasted probably for thousands of years, or far\nlonger than the historic period.\nThere is much in this rich and variegated life that still charms, not\nonly philosophers; but busy men and women, who live in summer camp by\nforest or mountain, love to slough off all the weight of responsibihty and the\nmesh of convention and the drudgery of modern industry, and literally\nre-create themselves by reversion to primitive conditions. But in children,\nespecially, most of their hves consist in rehearsing this rude history of their\nrace. The most persistent plays and games are not, as Gross says, practicing\nfor future occupations, but are nothing but repetitions in abridged and sportive form of the serious occupations of their ancient forebears. The best\ndefinition we have of child-life is that it is early human occupations epitomized ;\nfor the child relives the history of the race in his acts, just as the scores of\nrudimentary organs in his body tell the story of its evolution from the lower\nforms of animal life from which he has inherited his every organ and tissue.\nLet us, then, grasp the vast and significant fact that wherever we find any\ninterest, instinct, or impulse to act that is strong and spontaneous, it is always\nan expression of the momentum of the past. The all-dominant, but of course\nmainly unconscious, will of the child is to rehve this past, as if his early ancestors were struggling in his soul and body to make their influences felt and\ntheir voice heard. Why does a city fellow fish all day on a log and not get a\nbite, and go home happy and refreshed ? It is because his remote ancestors\nwere piscatorial Isaac Waltons. Why does a high-school boy love to rise at\na football match and lead the college yell till his face grows red and his jugular\nvein threatens to burst and your ears to crack, or paint the town red at night\nafter a school victory and appear limp and fagged next day in class ? Why\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n445\n\ndoes a crowd gather to see a fight or scrap? Why do boys form gangs or\ndawsies and love societies with inane secrets ? And why, at close of school,\ndo children relapse thousands of years down the philetic ladder in all their\nactivities and zest ? It is because every kind of sport and most of the momentum of youthful life, mental and physical, hark back to antiquity in our\n''young barbarians at play,\" and because, compared with all this, sedentary\nlife and school books are really so very new, hard, and strange.\nNow, every industrial curriculum must respect this vigorous and antique\ninterest, and seek here, not all, but a very large part, of its momentum. The\nyounger the child, the more important is this factor; and the older the child,\nthe more is he capable, without injury, of conforming to modern industrial\nneeds and adjusting his heredity impulses with the practical demands of his\nfuture life. These ancient motor impulses constitute the liberal and humanistic factor of industrial education, and give to everything that appeals to\nit a strange but strong reinforcement. Thus the prehistoric period must\nand will recapitulate itself in every young life. Of course, some of its influences\nare old, weak, dim, while others are strong and imperious. In some individuals certain tendencies of this Lemurian age are potent. They explain the\ngreat difficulty of making work regular in time and continuous, because this\nis not the way the savage works or plays. City life tends to minimize, if not\neliminate, many of these ancient influences, while country life favors their\nunfoldment. In some they are abnormally strong, and their influence is\nseen in many a form of insanity and arrest. The best school in modern\ntimes for all-sided motor education is the old-fashioned form with its scores of\nindustries and its outdoor active life; and next to this come, perhaps, some\nof our best industrial and agricultural schools.\nWhat, then, can the school do ?\nFirst, it can realize that natural activities and at least many branches of\nmodern industry are far and ever farther apart. Machinery and specialization\noften condemn a man or woman to stamp out one wheel or polish one pivot\nof a watch, or carry on one of the fifty processes of making shoes, for a Hfetime. All the knowledge and skill needed can be acquired in a few days or\nhours by an ignoramus, and the graduate of a technical school, master of a\ndozen trades, would have no appreciable advantage. My class goes thru\nfactories in quest of elements of industrial training, but our subsequent conferences show that almost every process is to be avoided as de-educational in\nthese mills that grind up body and soul. The chief service of the school here\nis to postpone this decay as late as possible. Still, educational factors are\noccasionally found here, and when the census is complete the elements from\nmany of them will enter into a full mosaic curriculum of motor education.\nSecond, we can resist the reduction of the motor side of education and\nmagnify it at every possible point. Sedentary book work is at best in a sense\nunwholesome for children and always liable to be excessive. We must, then,\nmultiply and magnify all efferent tendencies.\n\nOral is better than silent read-\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": null, "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ning, and inflection and dramatic action and florid, if natural, gestures are\nbetter yet. For young children drawing is better than writing and should\nprecede it, and large, strong movements are better than small, fine ones.\nFeeling and will belong rather to motor than to intellectual training. Manual\ntraining neglects the back, and especially the hips and legs which comprise\nmore than half of the muscular tissues. Dancing is probably capable of being\nmade the most Hberal and humanistic of all forms of motor training. The\nprimeval activities of their prehistoric forebears always impel the young to\nfundamental activities such as lifting, digging, striking, throwing, running and\nleaping, swimming, pushing, pulling, climbing, rubbing or grinding, shouting.\nHere, too, belong weaving, cooking, sewing, planting and harvesting, molding,\nmaking traps, barter, raising plants, and keeping pets. These activities are\nbasal for plain work. They constitute unskilled and underlie skilled labor.\n. A new piece of gymnastic apparatus for women, called the \"kinogenerator,\"\nconsists of two boards, superposed, slanting up to the hips, the lower fixed\nand the upper rubbed over it with considerable friction. It promises to be\nvery popular, and to have high therapeutic value for ladies. Its charm is\natavistic, for it is only a washboard with a Greek name, with no soap, water,\nor dirty clothes. These archaic activities belong more to childhood than to\nyouth, but they should be prolonged. The play element often exceeds the\nindustrial, but the former should be magnified. Otherwise the great and\never-present danger of precocity results.\nThird, we must make the product the goal and focus of all. This present\nmethods minimize. What the children make is to see, or for others, or, at\nthe best, for personal uses that are not felt to be most pressing. The history\nof industry shows that always and everywhere it was the need of the thing\nand the desire to use it that have impelled men to make it. To forge links or\nchisel joints, not to be used, but for marks and precision, is one of the most\nghastly of school artifacts. For every activity there must be a product that\nsatisfies a want. Teach, for instance, kite-making and you instantly tap\nancestral instincts that gush up like old wells with the secretions of ages, and\nbesides the play instinct you vivify all the problems of a great chapter in\nmeterology and can teach all that kites have done for science; for a boy's\ninterests always follow the product of his hand. The same is true of tops\nand a long list of scientific toys. It is a pedagogic crime to make anything\nthat has not a larger, ulterior purpose and use in itself. A mere course in\ntools is nothing but formahsm. In the upper grammar and high-school\ngrades a curriculum of scientific apparatus should be and is in some places\nbeing developed. The course of the manual-training high school, I know, is\na hollow thing. It should be correlated at every point with the study of\nmathematics, chemistry, and other sciences, but especially physics. Instead\nof being mere wood and iron work, there should be less methodic exercise in\nmany other activities, such as glass-blowing, rudimentary processes of rubber,\nleather, paper, and pasteboard, soldering, and elements from brass work,\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n447\n\ntypesetting, book- and shoemaking, etc. The motor-minded boy would\nlearn far more physics if there were less mathematics, but more manual construction, ifonly of scientific toys, so marvelously developed in Germany,\nmany of which are masterpieces of mechanical and scientific simplification.\nThese instincts, as old as the cave-man, that have been gathering momentum\never since, can be so turned on in boys as to bring them to the very heart of\nthe problems of our industrial age.\nLastly, we must avoid much exactness, accuracy, and finish, suspect every\ncourse that i&^ over-methodic or claims finality, because the problems of industrial education are mostly before and not behind us. We are at the beginning\nof a vaster movement than mental training, as the will is larger than the\nintellect. Years must pass, and many schemelets flourish and fade; many\na theory now lush with life, and others yet unborn, must molder like corpses\nto enrich the soil about the roots of the tree of knowledge before it can bear\nits precious fruitage. I expect no final solution of these great problems in\nmy life or in yours ; but perhaps in some boathouse on the Styx we shall sometime\nhear this world has learned how to educate itself by work, and made what\nmore and more men now agree with Scripture in thinking a curse into an\nunmitigated blessing.\nIll\nLORENZO\n\nD.\n\nHARVEY,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF CITY SCHOOLS,\n\nMENOMONIE,\n\nWIS.\n\nBy the term \"industries,\" as used in the subject upon this program, I\nunderstand is meant those activities which may properly be employed in\nthe training of the hand and in the mental training which necessarily accompanies any real manual training. Until recently the industries, as used in\nthis sense, have had no place in the early education of children except as they\nhave come into play outside the schoolroom. The fact that this topic finds a\nplace upon the program, and has been discussed by the distinguished people\nwho have preceded me, is evidence enough that there has been a change in\neducational sentiment which has resulted in a demand for the employment\nof hand- work as well as brain- work in the systematic education of children.\nI take it that this demand has come, not alone from a consideration of the\nnatural activities of children, but from a consideration of what the activities\nof children ought to be for their best development. The place of this subject\nin the education of children should be determined as the place of other subjects\nhas been determined.\n\nReading, writing, and arithmetic, the time-honored \"three R's,\" and the\nother subjects found in the elementary course of study, have found a place in\nthe training of children, not because of any elaborate studies of children's\nnatural activities, but because of a study of the activities of mankind in general, of the activities which the child of today will be called upon to exercise\nin his maturer life. I take it that up to the present time the subjects, and\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": null, "text": "448\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe phases of subjects, which have been employed in the education of children\nhave been settled by a consideration of what is needed to prepare them to meet\nthe demands which the exigencies of hfe will make upon them. The demands\nupon the individual in the industrial and in the social world have been larger\nfactors in determining what shall find a place in his education than his natural\nactivities have been.\nBroadly stated, the needs of the child, present and future, growing out of\nthe demands of society and of the nature of the human being, have determined, and in my opinion must continue to determine, what shall be the\nmaterial with which he is to be employed in the process of education. The\nactivities of the child at any given stage of the educative process, considered\nfrom physical, mental, and moral standpoints, become a factor in determining what oj this material shall be used at any given time, and how it shall be\nused. The child's activities today may be taken as an index of that which\ninterests him today, and not of that which may interest him.\nThe education of the child has for its purpose his development thru environment largely, but thru environment as shaped and molded by the demands\nof society. In a large measure education is a modification of environment,\nand this modification is brought about by influences external to the child\nbeing educated. Our entire school system is a modification of the natural\nenvironment of the child, coming not solely, or even largely, from a study of\nhis activities, but from the experience and judgment of society as to his future\nneeds as a member of that society. Keeping in mind that for which the child\nis to be prepared, not in any given industry, but as a useful member of society,\nas fixing the aim, and what he is prepared for now, as determining what is\nto be done today of the things which aje essential to be done for the working\nout of the aim of education, it follows that, if the industries are to find a place\nin the training of the child, then his present activities at any stage do not\nfurnish a proper basis for the determination of what industries are to be\nemployed, but only of those industries which are to be employed, what shall\nbe employed now, and how they shall be employed.\nThe different subjects which find a place in the elementary course of\nstudy are there because of their need in the proper development of the child\nfor the activities of life. Whether any subject shall find a place in the elementary course of education or not is determined by its utility value and its\ntraining value.\nI use the term \"utility value\" here, not in the broad sense in which it\nmight properly be used — that whatever results of value from training is, by\nreason of that fact, of utiHty to the individual because of the added power\nresulting from the training; but in the narrower sense of usableness in the\nproductive activities of life.\nThe value of any study to a child results from the usefulness to him in\nlater life of the facts of that subject, and of the development of power to use\nthese facts intelligently, and to assimilate and use other facts thru the training\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n449\n\nresulting from the study of that subject. In some subjects the utiHty value\nis much larger than in others, and it is not true, as has sometimes been assumed,\nthat the less the knowledge or utility value of a subject, the greater its value\nfor training.\nIn the early stages of the education of the child the utility value of the\nsubjects taught is determined largely by their usefulness in the interpretation\nof the symbols of further knowledge and in the mastery of that knowledge.\nThe training value is determined by the character and extent of the resulting\ndevelopment of the powers of the child which most need development for the\nproper unfolding of his capabilities. As a matter of course, the work required\nof the child in any subject at every stage of the educative process must, in\nextent and character, both as to matter and method, be adapted to the capabilities ofthe child at each successive stage.\nThe general question as to whether the activities and interests of the\nchild shall determine the subject-matter and method of education at any\nstage must be settled with the following considerations in mind:\n1. The activities and interests of a child at any given period are not\nnecessarily a measure nor an index of his capabilities, but may be the outcome\nof the accident or novelty of his immediate environment, and as transitory\nas the conditions which called out the activity.\n2. The normal activities of children living under widely diverse social and\nindustrial conditions manifest themselves in varying forms until they are\nbrought together in the schoolroom; but, when brought into the school, the\ninfluence of the teacher, the reaction of each upon the other, and the new\nenvironment produce activities of a new type not exhibited in the old\nenvironment.\n3. The difference in the activities of children, due to the different influences under which they have been reared to the time of entering school,\nrenders it impossible to make these activities the determining factor in selecting the industries which shall be subjects of instruction so long as our present\nsystem of school organization continues, because class instruction is at present\na necessity; and whenever the activities of each child determine what he\nshall be taught, then class instruction must give way to individual instruction, and this makes demands for increased equipment, for a much larger\nteaching force and a wider range of preparation on the part of the teacher,\nfor an enormous increase in the expenditures, and necessarily for a complete\nchange in our present system of school organization — a program too large\nfor immediate, or even remote, realization.\n4. The activities of children growing out of the conditions under which\nthey are brought in the schoolroom are in a sense artificial The child is in\nthe school because he is sent there; he forms a part of the social organism,\nthe school, and therefore must fit into his place in that organism, shaping his\nactivities, not as an isolated individual, but as a member of the school society,\nwith reciprocal rights and duties.\nHe is here in this social organism, the\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": null, "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nschool, fitting himself for his proper place in the larger organism, society.\nIf the activities manifested here are to be taken as the determining factor in\ndeciding what he shall be taught, then we have changed ground and now\nmake the activities growing out of an environment and conditions imposed\nupon him, the basis for our selection of the material of instruction. If we\ngrant for one moment that the teacher or the other school authorities may\nimpose conditions which modify the natural activities of the child, or produce\nnew activities growing out of these new conditions, then we have granted that\nthe school authorities, and not the child, have the right to determine the conditions most favorable for the development of the child.\nAges ago a wise man said: ''Train up a child in the way he should go,\nand when he is old he will not depart from it.\" It is perhaps equally true\nto say: \"Let a child come up in the way he would go, and when he is old he\nwill not depart from it,\" I am a believer in the idea that the way the child\nwould go is not always the way in which he should go, and that the combined experience and wisdom of those who have engaged in training the young\nare a safer guide for training than the impulses of the child or the accidents\nof his immediate environment.\nThe present status of civilization is very largely a result of invention and\nimitation — invention by the few, imitation by the many. Growth in invention is the result of a study of the new and present, and not of the old and\nremote. Development thru imitation comes thru imitation, not of the old\nand obsolete, but of the old which has persisted and shown its worth, and of\nthe new which has shown improvement upon the old.\nIf the industries are to find a place in the educational scheme, it would\nseem that the industries of today, the outgrowth of the development of the race,\nrather than the industries which have been outgrown and become obsolete,\nshould furnish the field from which the material to be used in instruction\nshould be drawn. It may be claimed that present-day industries are too\ncomplex and too highly organized to furnish proper material for the activities\nof childhood. But we must not forget that the child is in contact with the\nindustries of today; that they largely create his environment, and that he is\nconcerned with that which is present and active far more than with that which\nis past and obsolete; that our present stage of development is due to the fact\nthat every progress made has been the basis upon which further progress has\nbecome possible. In our efforts to adapt the industries in education to the\ncomprehension of the child, we must remember that primitive industries are\nmore remote from the child's thoughts and interests than are many of the\nindustries of today; that it requires mental activity of a higher order to comprehend the development of industries from primitive times to the present,\nstep by step, than it does to understand such of the present industries as may\nproperly be employed as subjects of instruction; and that in attempting' to\nutilize primitive industries in a scheme of education we must create a new\nenvironment and a new interest, both of which find no reinforcement in the\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nNATURAL\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n451\n\nenvironment and interests of today, and both of which are foreign to the nature\nof the child of today.\nIf it be true that in the development of the individual from childhood to\nthe maturity of his powers at the present time there is in epitome the development of the race, it will be well to remember that the strides he makes in his\nfifty years of unfolding are much longer than those made by the race in the\nthousands of years in which it has occupied the earth. And it may be pertinent to suggest that, if there be such a thing as racial instinct, the time may\ncome when the inheritance of each child shall start him some distance along\nthe road from the point where primitive man began his journey.\nI am a believer in the doctrine that material and method adapted to\neducational ends, in so far as these are controlled or controllable by school\nauthorities, should be determined with reference to definite ends, clearly perceived bythose charged with the administration of school affairs, but not within\nthe range of the child's comprehension during the early periods of training.\nNo one will contend for a moment that the material and methods for this use\nshould be determined without reference, to the child's normal activities and\npowers; but that is quite a different thing from insisting that the child's activities shall be the determining factor in their selection. The character of the\nchild's activity resulting from a stimulus supplied by the teacher, and selected\nwith reference to meeting the child's needs and determining his capabilities,\nmay show the wisdom or unwisdom of the selection either of material or of the\nmode of its treatment at that particular time, and may suggest needed modification inthe teacher's requirements. It will be observed, however, that the\ninitial point from which we lead up to the new determination by the teacher\nor school authorities is not the self-determined activity of the child, but the\ndetermination by the teacher of the stimulus which in his judgment will call\nforth the activity then needed and of which the child is capable. The resulting activity would not have appeared but for this stimulus, and the stimulus\nwould not have acted except thru the teacher's initiative. The stimulus presented in the way of required treatment of prescribed material for definite\nresults must be determined by the needs of the child, and the needs of the\nchild at any given stage are determined by his future needs and present\ncapabiHties, and not by his self-determined activities.\nThe introduction of any particular industry into the field of elementary\neducation — or, to be more exact, the introduction of any particular form of\nhand-work — can be justified if it can be shown that the mental and physical\nactivities essential for the proper performance of the work so introduced are\nsuch activities as are needed by the child, at the time when they appear, for\nthe proper unfolding of his powers, and that no other forpi of work can be\ngiven at that time which will better meet the needs of the child.\nNo kind of work, industrial or otherwise, can be justified because it has\nutiHty and training value, if there can be substituted for it within the same\nperiod another kind of work which has a higher utility and training value.\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": null, "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe great problem in industrial education today is to determine what\nactivities of the child need development, and what lines of hand-work are\nbest adapted to meet this need; and this will demand an examination of each\nparticular phase of hand-work with reference to the varieties of mental activity\ninvolved in its performance and the relative prominence of each variety, and\na similar consideration of the physical activities involved. It will demand,\nfurther, such a knowledge of the child's present capabilities and needs as will\nenable the proper authorities to adapt the work at any given stage to these\ncapabilities and needs.\nIn so far as the activities of the child throw light on his powers and capabilities, they are a factor in determining what work may be undertaken, but\nare of more value in determining what of the work required as necessary shall\nbe given at each particular stage in his progress.\n\nAVENUES\n\nPERCIVAL\n\n(^UBB,\n\nOF LANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\nELEMENTARY SCHOOL\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nOF\n\nENGLISH,\nETHICAL\nYORK\nCITY\n\nIN THE\n\nCULTURE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNEW\n\nRecent pedagogy is keenly alive to the educational opportunities lost to\nthe child by reason of the changes that have come over modern life, especially\nthe change from a predominatingly rural to an overwhelmingly urban type.\nIt recognizes that the urban life of today is too complex and bewildering to\nprovide a fitting educational environment for the child; and it therefore looks\nto the school to supply those simple and intelligible conditions which shall\nenable the child to rise gradually thru the typical phases of the race's development to a comprehension and mastery of the intricate civilization of today.\nSpecial emphasis has been placed by certain leaders of educational thought\nand experiment upon the loss which the city child sustains by not participating\nin the simple activities of farm life and those home industries of earlier times\nwhich brought him into contact with fundamental human needs and resources,\nwith nature and animals, with the tools, the crafts, and all the varied husbandry ofthe farm and the rural community. The loss is undoubtedly serious ;\nand the city school is tasked to make it good as far as possible.\nBut there is another kind of loss which the transformations of modern\nurban life — in cosmopolitan and polyglot America more than anywhere else —\nhave involved; a loss which is less recognized and lamented, but one which\nis even more serious from the educator's point of view, than that which I have\njust touched on. It is a loss of the old, popular humanities which fed the\nemotional, the aesthetic, the ethical forces of human nature, and of the child's\nnature in particular — the song, the story, the lore and legend, the lyric, epic,\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n453\n\nand dramatic arts of the folk, which gave richness and meaning and joy to\nHving. I refer to the arts of the baHadist and minstrel, the story-teller and\nmummer; and the popular co-operative arts of school folk-song and dance,\npantomime and play. It is the play of the world, the recreation and the\nart of the world, the refined enjoyment of Hfe, that have suffered thru this\nloss, rather than the work of the world — altho that has necessarily suffered\nwith the play. And because the child is eminently a creature of play, it is\nits play, and the full and artistic and vigorous self-expression which it has\nfound thru play, that have suffered so much more disastrously than its work,\nwhether on the farm or in the shop, in the country or in the town. The kindergarten has tried to make some amends for these losses by reviving some\nof the old songs and games; but it has only partially comprehended and only\npartially met them. Besides, the work can be carried only a little way in the\nkindergarten ; it must be done for the most part in the elementary school.\nMy purpose is to point the significance of this crippling loss of these old\npopular traditional arts of self-expression, the folk-song and dance, the folklore and legend, in which language plays the leading part, and to plead for\ntheir revival and preservation in the school for the sake of their culture value,\ntheir linguistic and literary value, and their profoundly ethical value to the\nchild. I shall keep to the topic assigned me and concern myself chiefly with\ntheir importance as an invaluable and indispensable avenue of languageexpression in the elementary school. Incidentally my plea is for, a better\ncomprehension of the child's nature on the aesthetic and Hterary side, and for\na reasonable treatment of the child as more than a mere read-and-write\nsubject, or a mere desk-bound victim, which he is so frequently supposed\nto be. We must allow the child to be once again that angel of song and\nmotion, that lyric, rhythmic, rhyming, dancing, mimicking, make-believe, playacting creature which the child of the ages has been, and the man-child of\nthe world's childhood has been. I am thinking of the child who has expressed\nits creative power in play and puppet school, in charade and in dumb-show.\nBut because every new educational development gains its chief significance\nthru its relation to some new hope for society and human development, I\ncannot pass on without a word or two concerning the connection between this\nproposal to revive the traditional hterary art of the past in the schools and\ncertain features of those changed social conditions to which I alluded at\nstarting. The child is with us a fellow-victim of these conditions. He is\nnot nurtured in the lore of the past; he does not sing the songs of the ages;\nhe does not play the singing and dramatic games which amused the children\nof the past — for a variety of reasons too numerous to traverse here. Lack of\nleisure and opportunity on the part of the parents, lack of favoring home\nconditions, lack of city playgrounds and open spaces, are among the explanations. But it is in the spirit and the habits of modern Hfe that we find the\ngeneral cause. We adults are increasingly a book-ridden and print-ruled\npeople.\nThe old, hearty sociable culture of the past — the song and chorus,\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": null, "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthe choral dance and game, the ballad and story, the play and the pageant,\nthe festival and triumph, in which the folk of the past joyously co-operated —\nwe no longer delight in; it is all disappearing in our individual culture of the\nbook, the magazine, and the newspaper, in the silence of the library and the\nsolitude of the sitting-room corner. This is an aberration, a thing to be\nregretted and striven against.\nNo one who was fortunate enough to catch in early life any lingering echoes\nof that past of song and story, and dance and play, in all their varied forms\nand combinations, can accept the bookish culture of today as a substitute.\nHe who can recall memories of that old-time lyric overflow of life — when no\nMay moon but was greeted with May song and dance and rite; no Christmas\nbut brought its carols and ceremonies, its mumming and its pagent; no woodland picnic but had its balladry; no boating party but had its accompaniment\nof mariners' songs — he who has tasted of these deHghts will sadly reaHze that\nsomething has gone out of life which leaves it the poorer in joy, in charm, in\npoetic suggestiveness.\nThe attitude of many, who are vaguely conscious of this change and regret\nit, is one of submission or of sorrowful acceptance. Such, they say, is progress,\nand part of the price of progress. We may not see how, but we must regard\nthe change as an incident in the beneficient evolutionary process that is leading\nus to better things. Fortunately, however, there are others who refuse to take\nthe submissive and fatalistic attitude; who beHeve that, just as in another field\nour choicer spirits are trying to call back the lost virtues of an earlier time in\nthe arts and crafts, or to return to the simplicities of the early drama, so we\nshould try to call back those lost popular arts of song and story, procession\nand pantomine, commemoration and festival, procession and pageant, which\nhave declined among us — call them back for all, but especially for the children\nfor whom such things have a delight, and an educational value, which can be\ngained in no other way.\nIt is in the home, the family circle, the neighborhood group, that one\nwould fain see this revival take place; but it is not to be expected to begin\nthere. The school must take the initative; and it must for some time to come\nmake good the absence of these activities outside the school. It is a fact that\nfew children bring with them to the school any store of the old traditional\nsongs, games, and rhymes. Even the ''Mother Goose\" rhymes are almost\nunknown; and the old singing games, weather rhymes, proverbs, are fast\nfading out of memory. The literary savor which they communicated, the\nliterary vocabulary they helped the child to amass, the sense of rhythm and\nthe feeling for rhyme, for alliteration, for onomatopoeia which they developed,\nthe average child of today knows not.\nThe introduction into the school of primitive industries and the study of\nthe life of primitive peoples fortunately widens the opportunity for the natural\nintroduction of many of the old rhymes and songs and games that bear the\nimpress and express the activities and the spirit of earher times — old generaH-\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n455\n\nzations about the weather in the weather rhymes ; old songs and charms with\nwhich the choosing and weaving were carried on ; the old, deep wisdom of the\nprime and its weighty counsels embodied in proverbs, adage, and epigram.\nThe leading principle to be borne in mind in using this material in which\nthe creative activity of childhood has expressed itself is that the little child's\nforms of expression, like those of early man, are composite. Words are associated with song, dance, gesture, and drainatic mimicry. The \"Mother\nGoose\" rhymes, and all those of kindred nature, suggest and support this\nfact. Many of the nonsense rhymes are merely excuses for keeping going\nthe tunes to which children danced when there was no fiddler to scrape or\npiper to pipe a jig or a round. Such are the excellent polka-like tunes associated with such jingles as:\nOne, two, three, four, five,\nI have caught a fish alive ....\nMy mother said that I never should\nPlay with the gypsies in the wood ....\nPolly put the kettle on ... .\nKatie Beardie had a coo ....\n\nWith these dance measures we may include marching songs of various\nkinds, slow and quick, solemn and gay, to which rhythmic emphasis was added\nby the clapping of hands and stamping of feet. Some of the rhymes and\ntunes already cited may be adapted to this purpose; and others, Kke the\ncharming old \"Oh, dear, what can the matter be?\" lend themselves to the\nsame purpose.\nOf a more developed species are the singing games, of which the still surviving \"Here we go round the mulberry bush\" is the classic example. It is\nin reality a choral dance; but it is more — it is an imitation game; and, best\nof all, it calls for improvisation from the players. It used to be a point of\npride with each child to initiate a new and original type of activity. \"This\nis the way we dance a jig,\" \". . . . play at cards,\" \". . . . play at dog\"\n(crawHng on all fours), etc.; \"London Bridge.\" \"Orange and Lemon\" (the\nfirst favorite in my childhood) and \" Green Gravel\" are somewhat similar; but\npass over into the more dramatic species to which \"The Rovers\" and \"Old\nRoger is Dead\" belong. Many others of this class may be found in the two\nmost available and useful collections of Mr. Newell {Singing Games of American Children, Harpers) and Mrs. Laurence Gomme {Children's Singing\nGames, Macmillan); and it may be remarked that a fascinating interest for\nthe teacher is given to those games by the historical explanations furnished in\nthe notes. These examples will also suggest dramatic treatment of other wellknown numbers; for example, a dramatic choral treatment of \"A frog he would\na-wooing go,\" in which the Hnes assigned to the frog, the mousie, etc., may\nbe sung and acted by the proper dramatis personae, while the chorus chants\nthe refrain \"Heigh-ho, said Roley,\" and dances its choral dance at the con-\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": null, "text": "4S6\n\nNA\n\nTIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONAL\n\nASSOC! A TION\n\n[Elementary\n\nelusion of each stanza — \"With a roley, poley, gammon, and spinach\" — in a\nring around the actors.\nThese old games, and indeed most of the material to which I refer, should\nbe known to the child as it was known and transmitted by the children of\nthe past, traditionally, unassociated with book or print, with lessons or recitations. It is what we call nowadays oral Hterature. In the same manner\nshould the great popular ballads and lyrics and stories Hve vitally in the auditory memory of the child, nestle in the lyric heart of childhood without any\nrecall of text-book or class exercise. In that way have they retained, as Mr.\nNewell notes, a certain freedom and quaintness and fluidity. They exhibit,\nas he puts it, \"a tendency to vary in detail, while preserving the general\nidea, which distinguishes living oral tradition from the monotonous printed\npage.\" And this fact warrants and encourages further simple modifications\nof these old singing-games to suit modern conditions and the addition of\nnew ones.\nFurthermore, it suggests original imitative work on the part of the children.\nRhythm and rhyme challenge imitation and improvisation; and only those\nwho have dealt freely with children after the manner here suggested can know\nhow easily and surprisingly imitative effort is kindled, and of what Httle\nflights into the magic world of verse children are capable. This is no plea\nfor the neglect of that ''other harmony\" of prose to which the ear is being\naccustomed by the story-telling and the proverbs and maxims that are classic\nin form. It only gives that priority to rhythm which it has had in the history\nof the race's artistic and literary development.\nIt is manifestly impossible in the time allowed me to explore much of the\nterritory into which my main contention would lead; and I must glance only\nat a few of the points of leading importance.\nIn addition to the songs and singing-games, there is a wealth of material\nthat may be garnered for daily use in the schoolroom which touches with a\ngracious or quaint, a fanciful and sometimes an imaginative, significance the\neternally recurring incidents of daily hfe — such stores as are laid open for\nplunder in Northall's Popular Rhymes, Furnivall's Nursery Rhymes, Brand's\nPopular Antiquities, Chamber's Book oj Days, etc. They take us back to\nthe time when any slight occurrence — the alighting of a moth or a lady-bug,\nthe sunshine showers, the braying of an ass, the early appearance of a flower\nor a bee, the detection of a mole on the neck or a speck on the finger nail, the\nadvent of a new month or a wedding-day or birthday, a red-letter feast-day or\nsaint's day, on the calendar — started a couplet or a verse which garlanded the\noccasion, as it were, with a fragrant posy of rhyme. We would lay stress on\nthis kind of traditional hterature as valuable for educational purposes chiefly\nin the quickening of the fancy and imagination, in redeeming what^ is ordinarily vulgar commonplace from its flat ordinariness. What little touch of\ngracious protest is there in the old familiar greeting of the threatening rain :\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF LANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n457\n\nRain, rain, go away!\nCome again on washing-day.\n\nor in such variants as:\nRain, rain, pour ye down.\nBut not a drop in our town,\n\nor\nRain on the grass, and rain on the tree.\nAnd rain on the housetop, but not upon me,\n\nor the greeting of April's first showers in the ancient \"March winds and\nApril showers,\" or this variant:\nThe bee doth love the sweetest flower,\nSo doth the blossom the April shower.\n\nThe writer vaguely recalls the large number of verse formulae associated\nwith the play and the games of his children, scarcely one of which, with the\nexception of the Hngering counting-out rhymes, does he hear in this country\nnowadays.\nPlay was often started by the old song summons:\nBoys and girls, come out to play !\nThe moon doth shine as bright as day.\nCome with a whoop and come with a call;\nCome with a good-will, or come not at all.\n\nRaces were started either with the,\nOne to make ready,\nTwo to be steady.\nAnd three to be oflf!\n\nor better still with the fanciful jingle:\nBell-horses, bell-horses, what time of day ?\nOne o'clock; two o'clock, three starts \"away\"!\n\nIn the game of hide-and-seek the children who hid called out when ready,\n\"Cuckoo,\" and the seeker made answer before starting on his quest:\nCuckoo, cherry-tree,\nCatch a bird, and bring it me !\n\nBut the culmination of rich possibihties in the beautiful and creative use\nof this traditional material comes with the great festivals of the year — above\nall May Day and Christmas, days that may be made fragrant with many\nflowers and sprays of evergreen from the fields of old folk-lore and folk-song.\nWhat sheaves of May songs and Christmas carols may be garnered from these\nantique fields! And how suggestively may they be used in connection with\nthe revival of old rites and ceremonies — the May-pole dance and Mayqueening; the Christmas mumming and pageant. But here is a theme too\nlarge for my present pen, and I will only indulge myself with the quotation\nof two stanzas of a traditional May song that gives the sort of aroma one\nwould fain have the httle ones enjoy on their first morn of May:\nThe flowers are blooming everywhere,\nO'er every hill and dale;\nAnd oh ! how beautiful they are.\nHow sweetly they do smell.\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": null, "text": "4S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nGo forth, my child, and laugh and play,\nAnd let your cheerful voice,\nWith buds and brooks and Merry May,\nCry out, \"Rejoice, rejoice!\"\n\nAnd now I shall try to meet some points of criticism and skepticism very\nbriefly in the form of a few succinct statements.\n. By following this Hne of exercise we are basing the Hterary and expressional work of the school upon the education of the ear and the tongue, and\nupon the use of models — often rude with a primitive rudeness of form, but as\noften touched with the charming quaintness of primitive art; models which are\ntherefore especially suited to the young child. I assume that the teacher\nworks for neatness, clearness, and refinement of utterance; works suggestively\nand artistically.\nExpressiveness in the creative sense is called for from the child thru the\nconstant demand for dramatic interpretation, or symbolic and emotional\ninterpretation, thru movement, dancing, gesture, and mimicry; also thru the\ndemand and challenge for improvisation and imitative work.\nWhen there is associated with this work the other great line of major\nwork, story-telling, with the reproduction by the children of the stories and\nincidents and personal experiences, with occasional invention of original\nfancies, we cover much of the whole field of hterary forms, and the child has\nin germ every literary principle and type which the various classic forms of\nliterary expression embody.\nThis is the only kind of literary culture possible to the child in his preread-and-write stage — roughly up to the fourth year of the elementary school,\nbefore he has attained to facile use of printed page or of pen. But this kind\nof work should be continued in the upper grades, the traditional game,\nstory, song, ballad, and dramatic presentation being employed continuously\nand with increasing development.\nIt is a phase of development thru which the great primitive peoples of the\nworld passed — notably the Greeks, the development of whose wider forms of\nthe choral dance into the well-articulated species of drama, epic, and lyric\nwill throw a flow of helpful light upon this subject, and upon the way in\nwhich it should be carried on in its higher forms.\nAnd now, in conclusion (with so many things left unsaid), let it be frankly\nadmitted that to give effect to these suggestions means some changes in school\npractice — in the schoolroom and the school program. It means something\nof a liberation of the much-abused child from the tyranny of the desk. It\nmeans marching, playing games, the song-dance, the little drama, the freedom\nof improvisation and spontaneity. It means a generous open floor space for\nthe games and the story circle. It means much more ''play;\" but that is a\nmuch-misunderstood and much-abused word. A little child's play is a very\nserious matter, akin to the playwork of the artist. Let Mr. Newell speak\na true and wise word for us in this connection:\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": null, "text": "459\nDepartment]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\nThe performance of a round or the conduct of a sport was to youthful minds a matter\nof serious concern — a little drama which could be represented over and over for hours;\nin which self -consciousness was absorbed in the ambition of the actors to set forth properly\ntheir parts. The recital had that feature which distinguishes popular tradition in general,\nand wherein it is so poorly replaced by literature. Here was no repetition by rote; but the\nmind and the heart were active, the spirit of the language appropriated; and the vein of\ndeep though childish poetry nourished sentiment and imagination.\n\nMr. Newell goes on to say: \"It seems a thousand pities that the ancient\ntree should not continue to blossom.\" That is the sentiment which animates\nmy present plea and argument — the hope that, ere it is too late, a little tender\nnursing may help that ancient tree, so deeply rooted in EngHsh soil, the\nexplanation of England's poetic riches, to blossom again and feed the children\nof the future with its fragrance and beauty; the ancient tree of a popular\npoesy that for grace, courthness, and sweetness is unmatched; ''a cry of delight\nin existence,\" it has been called; the child-heart's celebration of the joy and\ncharm of life. But, to quote Mr. Newell again:\nThe vine of oral tradition of popular poetry, which for a thousand years has twined\nand bloomed on English soil, in other days enriching with color and fragrance equally the\ncastle and the cottage, is perishing at the roots.\n\nThe school and the school-teacher have a chance to stay the ruin ; a chance\nto infect the world again with the old poetic passion; a chance to use the\nsplendid heritage at once to redeem our speech from barbarism and vulgarity;\nto educate ear and tongue to higher standards of comely and dignified language;\nto feed the lyric impulse, the heart, the fancy, the humor, the imagination\nof the child, so that he may attain more nearly to the image of wholesome\nand refined manhood.\n\nII\nMISS DELLA JUSTINE LONG, STUDENT IN EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY\n. CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nIn considering the place of language in the school the fact presents itself\nat the outset that there is no significance in language apart from the function\nwhich it serves; that there is, in fact, no such thing as language by itself.\nFor language has grown out of the instinctive desire for expression which is\nso great a part of the social nature, and out of the evolving needs of man\nwhich could be met alone thru communication. Wherever conditions of\nsocial intercourse exist language must inevitably develop. It is a pervasive\nelement of human life, running out from every part of our thought, feeHng,\nand activity.\nIt is with the aim of perfecting this natural growth that -provision is made\nin the school for language study; but the limitation of this provision to a few\nI'nes of subject-matter and to certain periods in the day is made in view of\nthe restrictions imposed on the pubHc school by its size, not of the true\nfunction of language or of the natural process of its growth.\nSuch restriction\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": null, "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nis, perhaps, necessary; but these special ''avenues\" which we are forced\nto select serve their purpose only in so far as they grant the same reason\nfor language in school as in the world at large ; that is, a desire in the individual\nto communicate some part of his own interests or to share those of others.\nThe term \"expression\" sometimes seems to imply the mere putting forth\nof thought, but it is impossible to conceive of any natural expression whose\nvery reason of being does not involve relations with others.\nThe primary period is the time of all times for language development.\nDuring these years the social and other objective interests which express\nthemselves largely thru language are at their height; the time of reflective\nthinking, when independent effort increases and outward expression becomes\nless necessary has not yet dawned; nor have the reserve and shyness of the\nlater years of childhood developed. This is the time when children love to\ntalk. They come into the distinctive inheritance of the race in the most\ndirect way possible, by plunging into the use of language just as soon and as\nfast as the need for it is felt.\nThe two factors in this acquisition are the hearing of speech and the child's\nown speech utterance. The two work together, the utterance objectifying\nthe auditory images, testing them over and over, and so developing and\nco-ordinating the speech organism. All thru this period the ear is the organ\nof sense-appeal. It is the organ thru which the feelings are most stimulated —\nand this is the time when feeling is the dominant force — and the only means\nby which direct contact with language is reached.\nOn this basis an earnest appeal is made for oral expression in the primary\nschool. The interpretation of symbols thru the eye is a later development,\nand the writing of these symbols adds to the complication. Reading and\nwriting have their beginnings in the primary school, but they depend upon a\nfree and continuing use of oral language and are only the outgrowth of it,\nand a small outgrowth, all thru this time when the foundation itself is forming. It is not unusual, however, for much of tfie \"language work\" even in\nthe second and third grades to be written. Aside from the reversal of the\nnatural order in this, the nervous strain is very great in the effort for mechanical accuracy before either muscular growth or general co-ordination is equal\nto the task.\nAs to the content of what is expressed, if we believe that language has\neducative significance only in so far as it helps to carry on activities of the Hfe\nof those who use it, the question is answered. Then any interest or activity\nnative to the child of the primary school is a natural avenue for language\nexpression. So far as we allow the children to increase our knowledge of what\nthese inherent interests are we have an increasing basis of choice.\nFirst of all is the absorption in the objective working out of life, play, and\nthe constant doing of things. From this clue the hand- work and co-operative\nconstruction in the school have grown. And in all this, language is the natural\naccompaniment.\nMaking the playhouse or the garden, modeling a village\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n461\n\nor weaving a basket, demand interchange of ideas, the explanation of plans\nand means, and the social intercourse in itself so essential at this age. Nor\nis the language in connection with all this merely haphazard. The direction\ngiven, however, arises from the demands of the activity itself. For example,\nsuccess in results is found to depend upon saying exactly what is meant;\nan increased vocabulary is needed; and interpretation of plans and directions\nand records becomes necessary.\nThis same kind of activity, altho without so much organization, fills the\nchild's life out of school, and it is only fair that he be given in school an opportunity to talk and hear about what is of the greatest possible importance to\nhim. The story must always be a source of inspiration for the child's growth\nin language, if only for the reasons that it is an inherent demand of the little\nchild and that it allows him to hear the language spoken; for the need of\nhearing a very great deal of speech can hardly be over emphasized. That the\nlanguage he hears be of the best and beautifully spoken is most essential,\nsince his ear will never again be so susceptible to nice differences of pronunciation and enunciation. Because a child loves to hear a story over and over,\nit does not always follow that he is ready to retell it himself. Part of his\nenjoyment lies in the story-teller's mastery of the language and in the sound\nof the words, and largely thru the simple and beautiful language of literature\nthat first vague sense of beauty and delight in artistic expression is to begin.\nWhen the thought has been so absorbed that the child has a desire to express\nit again to others, and when he has sufficient language control to do this\nwith satisfaction to himself — that is, without self-consciousness — the leto'd\ns ory is not mere reproduction, but b comes something given by the child\nhimself.\nThe aims of the literature in the primary school are often largely defeated\nby demand for constant reproduction, especially by the great amount of\nwritten reproduction in the upper primary grades. We have all seen classes,\nafter reading or listening to a fine story and proving by their discussion an\nappreciation of its essential meaning, turn Hstlessly to the writing of it.\nThere would seem to be more reason, and so more inspiration, in the simple\ncompositions which have their origin in what the children themselves are\ndoing, as has been suggested, and in certain phases of the nature study.\nSince the elementary science deals with relations whose acquaintance the\nchild makes for himself, it is inseparable irova language, for language is a\nmost convenient and available tool for probing into the facts of the real world\nabout which children are so curious. There is one tendency in the treatment\nof the nature study, however, which detracts from its value as a means of language development ; that is, dealing with the various nature' elements in terms\nof human experience and human relations until those terms become merely\nconventional symbols.\nThe primitive poetry in giving human feeHng and purpose to the, wind,\nstreams, storms, etc., is fundamental in the race and often appears in the\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": null, "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nchild's own interpretation of nature; and certainly the httle child understands\nthe nature processes by analogy to his own life. But to continue too long\nthe phraseology of the early nature study seems highly artificial. The\nimagination of the child is not appealed to by the mere giving of unreal names\nto familiar objects. His fancy rather enables him to conceive of unseen forces\nas realities, and to compass great stretches of time. In a way he is better\nable than are we to grasp the story of the great building process that began\nthe earth, and made the rocks or the soil. Such subject-matter, dealing with\nthe very processes of life itself, has peculiar fascination for children, and the\nlanguage thru which it is thought out must, from the nature of the thoughtcontent, be charged with vitality and fulness of meaning.\nAltho there is a universal theory that language-training below the high\nschool should come principally thru the work and the life of the school as a\nwhole, a large part of the time assigned to English is still devoted to the study\nof grammar. That the reward of much of our grammar study is so shght is\nlargely due to the fact that our English grammar still rests on a Latin conception. The inflections have largely disappeared from EngHsh, and still many\ngrammars continue to regard them as an important element. When the time\ncomes for the study of the relations between words, sentences, etc., we should\nbe able to presuppose a considerable power of abstraction in the pupils.\nMuch of the grammar prepared for the grades nevertheless goes beyond the\npower of students below the high school. That the study of the science does\nnot assure ability to use language is shown by the meagerness of language,\nboth spoken and written, of students who have been brought up on grammar,\nbut who have not been accustomed to express themselves freely or to hear\ngood, efficient English. The premature study of structure, moreover, given\nbefore experience with realities has been sufficient to develop interest in\nstructure, prejudices pupils against a study which should have value later.\nThis does not imply a disparagement of grammar study. I only mean to say\nin this connection that my observation in the ntermediate and grammar\ngrades has not made clear the relation between a knowledge of the technique\nof language and a full, free development of power to use language.\nThere is, to be sure, more need of form study in the upper grades, since the\nincreasing field of thought brings need of understanding the possibilities of\nlanguage for expressing finer differences of meaning. But this knowledge of\nstructure can come only thru considering the word or sentence in the closest\npossible relation to the thought it conveys. If the child could once understand\nthat he studies the relations between words because he can thereby make\nthem a more efficient medium for his own use, not because there is a system\nof relations inherent in the words themselves, the feeling of remoteness, of\nunreality, about this technical study would surely be lessened.\nIn the upper grades Hterature and art have a still larger place in bringing\nin both the thought of the great world and models of perfect expression, and\noften the poem or picture, when it has served this purpose, is made the basis\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENi/ES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n463\n\nfor testing some bit of the technical knowledge just referred to. For several\nreasons this is an unfortunate use of a work of art. There is a great dash to the\nfeelings in dropping suddenly from the inspiration of something beautiful to\na survey of the outer form of that beauty. To make a list of nouns from a\nstirring poem not only diverts the purpose of the poem, but brings a disfavor\nupon the nouns which they do not deserve; for interest in them can come\nonly thru learning of their use, and this is to be discovered in the very act of\ntheir service, not in disembodied lists.\nWhen pupils come to a conscious scrutiny of language, the cultivation of a\nfeeling for the word that gives just the shade of meaning or the full force of an\naction; learning to appreciate the greater strength in directness; the habit of\nclear imaging; recalling parts read which have made special appeal — all this\ngoes with the discussion of acts and motives and the use of personal experience\nin interpretation. The habit of imaging is most important in the development\nof language thru literature. This means, of course, not merely visualizing,\nbut includes all the unconscious motor expression so characteristic of children.\nAt this time, when verbal memory is at its height (that is, in the intermediate\ngrades), the beginning of a permanent literary store may well be made, but\nthere is a dissipation of energy in ''learning by heart\" anything that does not\ncome within the true meaning of that phrase. If we could reduce the number\nof fragments committed to memory, choosing instead a smaller number of\nentire poems, we should, perhaps, be surer that they would last as a permanent\nsource of pleasure. A small girl of my acquaintance innocently alluded to\nthe ''memory jams\" she had been learning, little appreciating the fitness of\nher phrase.\nIf we were to sum up our perplexity over the written work, would it not\nbe that the results show perfunctory effort? There are, of course, always\nspecial cases where genuine interest is unmistakable, but, on the whole, it is\nclear that the aim of the written work is to make the use of correct form\nhabitual. When we attempt to explain the lack of spontaneity back of the\nwritten pages, we are again confronted by the futility of pursuing language\nculture thru the composition as a means in itself. This is made plain by the\nfact that when the child recognizes a genuine reason for his writing, it becomes\na genuine effort on his part. This does not exclude the observance of correct\nform, but makes it a subordinate part of the aim. So long as there is a real\ninterest in the writing from the child's point of view, the subject is a minor\nmatter. But writing for the sake of writing, on the theory that \"practice\nmakes perfect,\" precludes the motive which alone gives language value.\nThere must be some outcome beyond the page written ; for example, the letter\nthat is really mailed to someone with whom the writer has a personal relation\nof some kind, not merely an artificial, literary relation.\nIndividuality develops rapidly during the grammar-grade period. New\ninterests are springing up continually. The subject assigned to an entire class\nappeals less and less, which adds to the problem of selecting subject-matter\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": null, "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nthat shall meet with a genuine response. This suggests in part the solution\nof the difl&culty, namely, that we reduce the amount of written work. In\nsupport of this is the fact that pupils at this age are naturally conservative. Free, easy expression is no longer characteristic. And while the selfconsciousness and the shyness and awkwardness of expression are quite\napparent, the increase of mental activity and of assimilation are not alwavs\nso clearly recognized. It is a time of absorption and storing up, and all that\nis assimilated \\Yill appear sooner or later in increase of individual strength.\nSumming this up, the communication of the native interests, worked out\nthru all the activities of the elementary school, is the natural basis of the\nlanguage; and the educative value of language-training rests on a recognition\nof the fact that the thought-content and the interest in communicating or receiving that content alone give meaning to language. The primary aim in the\nlanguage of the elementary school is the development of power to say freely\nwhat is pressing forward for expression in the child's mind. The aim in the\nstudy of structure is that language may become a more efficient means for this\nexpression.\nThe basis of all language-growth is oral expression. This is but saying\nthat language is not merely a system of symbols which the child is to regard\nas already organized outside of his own life, but that it is a part of his own\nm'nd and heart which is to grow as he grows.\n\nIll\nFRANK\n\nV^. COOLEY, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, EVANSVILLE,\n\nIND.\n\nTwo prominent points of weakness in language-teaching are more or less\nresponsible for the failure to secure satisfactory results. The first is a neglect\non the part of teachers to make use of the proper material ; the second is the\nundue emphasis which is usually placed upon the mechanics of language,\nto the exclusion of those vitalizing and Hfe-giving qualities which naturally\nbelong to the subject.\nLanguage is an expression of thought, and should be based upon the natural\ninterests that cling to the concrete. Consequently it should be the aim of the\nteacher to summon to her aid the material things with which the child is surrounded, and in which there is a natural interest. The story, presented in an\nintelligent and interesting manner, is the usual basis for the work. But if the\nteacher is content with this simple and narrow phase of the subject, interest\nwill soon lag, or at best will be forced and unnatural.\nAgain, much of the training given in the elementary and secondary schools,\nand even in the higher institutions of learning, is weak because the principal\neffort seems to be directed toward a thoro understanding of the related parts\nof sentence structure, regardless of the fact that ability to use language correctly isof vastly more importance.\nIt is therefore not an unfamiliar experi-\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n465\n\nence to find teachers and pupils engaged in a sort of hide-and-seek process,\nendeavoring to trace some allusion to its ultimate source, or spending hours of\nvaluable time in an effort to unravel some compKcated grammatical construction which in itself possesses little value, while the appreciation of the beauty\nand power of the selection taken as a unit, and which should be adopted as a\nmodel, is entirely neglected. » We too often forget that appreciation comes\nfrom companionship, and that this is as true in the field of language or literature as in the social world. We also forget that much loss comes from a too\ncareful analysis. The beauty of the rose vanishes when the dissecting process\nbegins. The power of a poem eludes all effort at analysis. It can be found\nonly by taking the poem in its oneness and drinking in its beauty, depth, and\npower by a study which omits useless details and looks only for the great truth\nwhich it unfolds.\nIn all language effort great care should ever be present to develop the language-sense thru models of expression. By language-sense is meant that\ndeHcacy of training which will detect the incorrect and faulty language as\nquickly as the ear of the trained musician detects discords. The aim should\nbe to teach the use of correct and even elegant speech, even tho the science of\nlanguage be utterly ignored.\nLanguage work, when compared with almost any other subject taught in\nthe schools, shows the least results for the time and labor expended. We\nexpect efficiency in oral and silent reading; we aim for accuracy in arithmetical computations; we hold pupils responsible for historical dati and for\ncorrect geographical notions; but when it comis to the use of the English\nlanguage, we are prone to excuse faulty diction, including poor spelling, and\nungrammatical expressions, and we scarcely hope to teach pupils to use the\nEnghsh language with any degree of fluency or accuracy.\nThe first effort in the teaching of language-expression is corrective. This\nis due to the fact that children enter school with some well-defined habits\nformed which, unless changed, will forever stand as a barrier to progress.\nThis is a crucial point in the proper development of the language-sense, and\nlater in the formation of correct habits of speech, both of which are essential\nto satisfactory results.\n' In the subject under consideration, language-training is broader in its\nscope than is usually implied. Language as an expression of an idea may\nnot only be spoken or written, but it may be expressed thru bodily activities,\nas in some forms of dramatization, or by the products of the hands, as various\nresults of the manual work. Abundant material is thus at hand as a basis for\nlanguage-expression, and it is the wise teacher who knows best how to trace\nthe work thru these various avenues.\nIn the most elementary work the reproduction of stories thru dramatic\nart is effective, thus calling into play the activities of the children. By this\nmeans interest is whetted to a keenness often lacking in other methods, while\nthe result is clearly an effort in language-training.\n\nRunning thru all dramatic\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": null, "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\neffort should be freedom and spontaneity, which will lend zest to the work\nand insure the greatest mental activity on the part of the learner. In the lower\ngrades of the elementary school there should be oral reproduction in abundance.\nAn exces3 of written work at too early a period results in mental paralysis.\nThis oral work should be based upon stories well told by the teacher. The\npreparation of the teacher should be so thoro, and the presentation of the story\nso complete, that interest will be manifested from the first. Unless there is\ninterest, the reproduction will be formal and lifeless.\nThe various hand-crafts are but another training in language, and should\nbe recognized and utiHzed as such. ModeHng in clay, in which the deftness\nof fingers reproduces the story with the same exactness that is found in oral\nexpression, is practical. This method not only gives an opportunity for the\nplay of the inventive powers, but increases interest, because the child is dealing\nwith the concrete and with the work of his own hands. This work should be\nso definite that a glance reveals the story which the child is reproducing by\nmeans of the concrete. Drawing should also be linked with the work in\nlanguage, and the charcoal, the pencil, and the brush, in color work, should\neach add its message. Paper-cutting, when the aim is the actual reproduction of the story, becomes a powerful instrument in language-expression. As\na medium of thought or of the interpretation of an idea it is very closely related\nto mpdeHng and drawing. The knife in cutting, as well as the more advanced\nwork in manual training proper, should be made an adjunct to languagetraining, with a reversal of method.\nIn the lower grades the finished product of the hands tells its own story;\nin the higher grades written descriptions are based upon the work of the hands.\nI know of no more interesting phase of language-expression than that which\nfinds its source and inspiration in the work of the hands, with an opportunity\non the part of the learner to give an account of the growth and development\nof this work. Children love to do, and they also love to talk about the work\nof their own hands.\nWritten reproductions should also be accompanied by illustrative work\nin color, each 'supplementing the other. In all of this work freedom should\nbe given the individual to construct or reproduce that which he sees, and as\nhe sees it. The test of the method will be found in the variety of results.\nUniformity will be evidence of too close contact with the teacher, and the\nwork will represent, not the child, but the teacher and the child; it will be a\ncomposite, and this should be avoided. Criticism here applies very forcibly\nto much teaching in which finished hand-products are desired. Teachers\nare over anxious to have pupils present finished products. Indeed, in many\nschools the work in all the manual arts is so perfect as to give conclusive evidence of too close directive effort on the part of the teacher. A good motto is,\n'Let the child alone.\" Give him an opportunity to express himself, and\nthis can be done only by the teacher keeping hands off. The value of the plan\nsuggested lies in the fact that the children are dealing with the concrete, with\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nAVENUES\n\nOF\n\nLANGUAGE-EXPRESSION\n\n467\n\nthe products of their own hands, while, incidentally, they are receiving thoro\ntraining in expression.\nImportant as are these various avenues of expression, the time comes\nwhen the abihty to extend the work in language-expression, and the power\nto recognize and to use choice Enghsh, will come mainly in two sources : first,\nthe EngHsh of the teacher; second, companionship with the best there is in\nHterature.\nThe form of language is based upon imitation and is the result of habit.\nThis being true, it should be the constant aim of the teacher to seek thru\nimitation to train pupils in tlie formation of correct habits of speech. To this\nend, the teacher's language should be faultless — a model. Choice EngUsh\nshould be read in abundance. Language should be a universal topic. Freedom of expression should be fostered, opportunity for variety in expression\nshould be given, and the aim should be a cultivation of the language-sense.\nThe last two are constant and broaden the subject, language, until it compasses\nHterature proper. The work in English should be controlled by unity of\npurpose and dominated by unity of spirit. At this point there is often found\na marked weakness. Children should be brought early into contact with\ngood literature, and they should be taught to know it when they see it or hear\nit, and then to love it. Good, choice EngHsh — EngHsh of books, and the\nEngHsh of the teacher — should be a constant companion, and in time the\nEngHsh of the children will be worthy. Good Hterature, Hke a work of art,\nshould be studied, not once, but again and again. Enjoyment comes not\nfrom a glance, but from frequently recurring intercourse. This takes time,\nbut the time element is not to be considered. There is no time for poor work,\nor hasty work. Better to confine the attention of the class to one selection,\nstudied as a whole, as long as the interest is sustained, than to pass over\nhastily without making an impression; but in doing this the mechanical\nshould not be over emphasized ; it is the Hfe and spirit which should be sought.\nThe teacher should remember that life comes from within, and that the outward expression is but the reflex of the inner emotion. Too often the\nwork in English degenerates into mere fact-gathering and classification of\nphenomena. This is not the end or aim of language- training. A gHmpse of\nthe soul side of Hfe-giving quaHties, an effort to see what the author saw and\nto feel what he felt, and then, having caught something of his inspiration, to\nembody it in the Hfe of the individual — this is important, this is fruitful.\nIt is well to remember that facts and figures will probably be forgotten,\nbut mental images based upon word-pictures, those which stir the emotions,\nwill remain. Words leave us, but the melody of the song remains to thrill\nus again and again. It is the emotional side, the soul side, that is the important thing in all work in language. Why do we study Tennyson or Milton or\nShakespeare ? What is the end sought — is it fact-gathering, or is it inspiration ? Why study Scott, if not to create a love for the Wizard of the North ?\nThis all calls for culture — a culture that embodies aesthetic insight.\n\nIt must\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": null, "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nbe cultivated by the teacher, and be the goal toward which the pupil is led.\nOral work should be combined with the written. The ear as well as the eye\nshould be the medium. ''How does it sound?\" is more effective than \"how\ndoes it look?\" The teacher should be wise enough to omit the conventional\n\"why.\"\nThis is fundamental.\nIn art we cultivate the eye; in language both the eye and the ear\ncontribute to a proper appreciation of the worthy in literature, and thus to\nthe training in EngHsh. To appreciate fully a great poem, the eye must be\nreinforced by the voice, the strongest impressions entering by the ear route,\nand these impressions should never be disturbed by questions of fact. Someone has said: \"The ear is the pathway to the heart. \"\nThe real aim of English is the formation of right ideals of life and the\nappreciation of the best, and an effort to grow to be like the models. If, in\nour final presentation of a poem, we have killed the possibility for the child\nof a future appreciation of real literature, we have failed most miserably.\nIt is inspiration we must seek, inspiration to he and to do. What matters\nif we are not able to trace every allusion to its remotest corner, if we\nare able to catch some ghmpses of the world beautiful in which the poet\ndwelt ? He who would teach language must love the literature in which the\nbest language is to be found, and love it with an intensity that will cover\nthe mechanical secondary by the life-giving qualities. The appreciative\nand creative go hand in hand, and with them should always be the\nmodel — the teacher. Teach appreciation thru your own appreciation; teach\nexpression thru constant association with the best; then, when opportunity\nis present, expression will be spontaneous, natural, and effective, and the\nmechanics of language will be simple, but thoroly rational.\n\nA FILIPINO'S\nSENORA\n\nMARIA\n\nDEL\n\nVIEW\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\nPILAR\n\nZAMORA, INSTRUCTOR\nMANILA,\nP. I.\n\nIN INSULAR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nBefore beginning my talk I wish to request that, not being accustomed\nto speak in public, your benevolence will excuse any mistakes.\nIn April, 1898, war was declared between the United States and Spain.\nAs a result of this war Spain ceded the Philippine Islands to America. In\nJanuary, 1899, the president of the United States appointed a body of men,\nwise in government, to come to the PhiHppines from America. These men\nwere to learn all they could about the country and its people, that they might\nbe able to recommend a just form of government for the people of the islands.\nIt was necessary that they should find out what the ideas of the Filipino\npeople were in regard to government, and that they should study the needs of\nthe country before they could make any recommendations.\nThese commis-\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\n469\n\nsioners came to Manila early in April, 1899, ^^^ began work at once. They\ntraveled about the country to see what it was like. They held meetings for\na discussion of the questions that arose, and they invited prominent Filipinos\nto meet with them. They did this in order to learn the wishes of the people.\nThe members of the commission saw that good schools were a necessity in the\ncountry. An attempt was made to provide for this need at once, and a great\nmany schools were estabHshed under military control, with soldiers as teachers.\nIt was soon apparent, however, that to make the schools what the people\nneeded would require experienced teachers. These could not be procured\nimmediately, but a couple of years later a thousand trained American teachers\nwere brought to the islands.\nThe teaching of English was the first consideration. At first EngUsh was\ntaught merely as one subject of the the school curriculum, as a foreign language is taught in the American schools. Little was accomplished by this\nmethod, and it was soon abandoned. English was then made the only language of the school, all teaching and all recitations being in this language.\nThis plan is successful and is the one now followed in all our Philippine schools.\nBefore the arrival of the American teachers soldiers were employed in the\nschools of the provinces. Their work was very useful in promoting that\nenthusiasm without which the beginning work of the trained American teacher\nwould have been much more difficult.\nOn August 23, 1 90 1, three years after the landing of the first American\ntroops in Manila, the transport \"Thomas\" brought a shipload of American\nteachers. The native teachers gave them a hearty welcome. The organization of the school work was then possible, and the American teachers were\ndistributed over the islands.\nBefore this large number of American teachers came, the superintendent\nof Manila schools, Dr. David P. Barrows, organized a normal school for the\ninstruction of native teachers. Notices were sent to all the provinces asking\nthe native teachers to attend this school, and a good many of them gladly\nobeyed this summons. This school was in operation only a month, yet during\nthat short period both teachers and pupils improved greatly in their knowledge\nof English. This school was the forerunner of the Insular Normal School\nwhich was organized by Dr. E. B. Bryan in the ''Escuela Municipal\" in the\nwalled city in 1902. This building was used by the students of a grammar\nschool in the forenoon and by the students of the normal school in the afternoon. The object of this school is to train young men and women as teachers.\nAt present this normal school is in good quarters in Ermita, which is one of\nthe best districts in Manila. It occupies the building used in 1895 ^^r a\nPhilippine exposition. About four hundred pupils are. in attendance, and\nit is considered the highest school in the Phihppines conducted by the government. At the end of the last school year about thirty pupils received\ndiplomas to teach.\nThe Philippine government is making great efforts to educate the people\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": null, "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nof the islands. We can see this clearly if we recall the fact that within the\npast year one hundred boys from different provinces of the Philippines were\nbrought over to the United States at government expense to be educated.\nThe plan of the government is to bring one hundred each year, and as each\nboy will remain in school in America for four years, if the plan proves successful and continues to be carried out, after the year 1907 there will be four\nhundred students from the PhiHppine Islands in America all the time. All\nthe Filipinos appreciate this a great deal, and the boys are trying the best\nthey can to get all the benefit possible. Their superintendent who brought\nthem over, and the teachers in the schools and colleges they are attending,\nare very pleased with their ability and progress.\nLast October one of the Filipino commissioners called a meeting of all\nthe girl students in the Insular Normal School, asking if any of the girls would\nlike to come to the United States to be educated. He had hardly finished his\nquestion when a hundred hands were held up as a sign that many of those\nyoung girls were anxious to learn.\nThe method I employ in teaching my pupils the English language is very\nsimple. An object is shown to the class. I tell them the name of the object,\nhaving them repeat it several times until they can say it without any difficulty;\nwhen the name is known I write the word on the board, asking the pupils to\nrepeat it again. After they have learned the word in its spoken and written\nform, I spell the word, and in this way the pupil learns not only the name of\nthe object, but how to spell its name — the letters composing it. This is the\nmethod used in teaching the little children. I have found it very successful,\nthe children being quick to learn the name and its written form. The\nolder pupils did not seem to enjoy this method, but the results are as satisfactory as with the younger pupils.\nThe older pupils enjoy \"the story method\" better. In this we read them\na story in simple EngHsh. Then the story is discussed. The pupil is then\nasked to reproduce it in his own words. This they enjoy doing, and will\noften ask for the privilege of writing the story. It is harder to teach the\ngrown-up than to teach the child, for the grown-up desires to- go into details\nbefore he is quite ready for them. He wants to know the grammatical rules.\nAs soon as I learned this I never omitted the written work; it is a great help\nfor both younger and older children. I saw every day the progress they made\nin enlarging their vocabulary. The difficulties we meet every day in teaching\nthe English language are in the use of the prepositions and verbs, and\nalso in the pronunciation and sound of certain letters, such as the sound of\nth and c at the beginning of a word.\nAll the subjects in the Philippine schools are taught in the English language.\nPerhaps you will ask: \"Why not teach the Filipinos in their own language ?\"\nOne reason is because we see in our country the necessity of a common language for all the Filipino people. If a Tagalog writes to an Ilocano, the\nIlocano will not be able to read such a letter. This is because the Tagalog\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN THE\n\nPHILIPPINES\n\nand the Ilocano are different tribes and the language or dialect of one is quite\ndifferent from that of the other. There are a very large number of these\ndialects spoken in the islands, and most Filipinos understand but one of\nthese. The Phihppine Exposition Board, for example, sent notices of this\n471\ngreat exposition all over the provinces printed in six of the leading dialects\nspoken in the Phihppine islands, and when I saw the notices I (myself a native\nof the islands) was unable to understand the meaning of five of them.\nThe second reason for teaching EngUsh is that there is no Hterature in the\ndialects of the Philippines, even the Tagalog language having no Hterature.\nWithout a literature we should be unable to enlarge the knowledge of this\npeople.\nThe pubUc school is the most precious gem that a government can provide for its subjects. The success of a government, indeed, depends upon\nthe kind of schools it provides for its peopje. The strongest nations are those\nwhich have the best system of education, the best schools. The Phihppine\nIslands have never had as good an educational system as they now have.\nAll Filipinos believe this. They found this beHef on the following two facts:\nToday there are more people speaking English in the islands, after jive years\nof American control, than spoke Spanish after four hundred years of control by\nSpain; and the number of pupils in attendance at the different schools is ten\ntimes as large as it was before.\nThe old school buildings are too small to accommodate the pupils now\ndesirous of attending, and the force of American teachers is not sufficient to\nmeet the demand. Over the mountains and thru the valleys, from the largest\ncities to the smallest villages, EngKsh is spoken to a greater or less extent.\nThe Fihpinos are beginning to reahze their needs, and to become Americanized in their thought and in their ambition. The hatred which for some\ntime the Fihpinos felt toward the Americans is being replaced by respect\nand admiration.\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION— Tuesday, June 28, 1904\n\nThe first session of this department was called to order in the library of the Hall of\nCongresses, St. Louis Exposition, at 2:30 p.m., by the second vice-president, William\nH. Smiley, Denver, Colo., who introduced the subject for discussion by a brief address.\nE. H. Mark, superintendent of schools, Louisville, Ky., read a paper on the subject,\n\"What Secondary Schools May Learn from the St. Louis Exhibit.\"\nE. W. Lyttle, inspector. Education Department, state of New York, spoke on the\nsubject, \"What May the Secondary Schools of the United States Learn from a Study of\nFrench Secondary Education ? \"\nFrederick E. Bolton, professor of science and art of education, Iowa University, then\nread a paper, \"What May the Secondary Schools of the United States Learn from a\nStudy of German Secondary Education ?\"\nThe president appointed as Committee on Nominations:\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y.\nPhilo M. Buck, St. Louis, Mo.\nJohn S. French, Port Deposit, Md.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned to attend the different conferences, as follows:\nI. English Conference, Hall No. i ; chairman, William Schuyler, assistant principal of\nthe WilHam^McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nII. Mathematics Conference, Library Hall; chairman, WiUiam H. Smiley, principal\nof the East Side High School, Denver, Colo.\nIII. Modern Language Conference, Hall No. 2; chairman, George Arthur Smith,\nHigh School, Yonkers, N. Y.\nENGLISH\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nThe conference was called to order by the chairman, William Schuyler, at 3:30 p. m., June 28, in Room\nI, Hall of Congresses.\nMessrs. Percival Chubb, Arthur Marvin, and Richard Jones were absent. They were to have read\npapers discussing the report of the subcommittee of the academic principals of New York state on a proposed\ncourse in English.\nThe paper of Mr. E. O. Holland was the only one treating this subject.\nThe chairman read a paper on \"English as an Art Study,\" and Mr. Philo M. Buck one on \"Laboratory\nMethods in English.\"\nAfter a discussion of the papers, the conference adjourned.\nElizabeth H. Carr, Secretary.\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nThe Mathematics Conference of the Department of Secondary Education was called to order at 3:30\np. M., June 28, by Chairman William H. Smiley, who introduced the program, as follows:\n1. \"What Study of Mathematics is Needed by the Man of Average Educati6n, for Practical Life, Aside\nfrom Culture?\" by John S. French, professor of mathematics, Jacob Tome Institute, Port Deposit, Md.\n2. \"What is the Least Amount of Mathematics That Should be in Any Secondary-School Course?\" by\nS. B. Tinsley, Boy's High School, Louisville, Ky.\n3. \"How much Mathematics Shall Be Taught by the Physics Teacher ? \" by Willis E. Tower, Englewood\nHigh School, Chicago, 111.\n\n473\n\n4. \"The Mathematics Teachers' Real Problem,\" by Herbert E. Cobb, Lewis Institute, Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": null, "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n5. \"The Unification of Secondary Mathematics,\" by Clarence E. Comstock, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111.\nAfter discussion of the several papers, the conference adjourned.\nJohn B. Quinn, Secretary.\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nThe Modem Language Conference met in Room 2, Hall of Congresses, George Arthur Smith, of\nYonkers, N. Y., in the chair.\nAfter brief introductory remarks, the chairman read a paper on the \"Aim of Modern- Language\nStudy in our Secondary Schools.\" A discussion of the paper followed by Professor Robert Weber Moore, of\nColgate University.\nFrederic Davis Aldrich, master in modern languages, Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass., read the\nnext paper, entitled, \"The Function of Grammar in the Teaching of Modern Language.\"\nW. E. Johnson, of the German Department of the High School, St. Joseph, Mo., presented a paper on the\nsubject, \"Rapid Reading: Should There be a Combination of Intensive Study of One or Two Texts with More\nRapid and Less Intensive Reading of a Number of Texts Selected from a Common List ? \"\nIn the absence of Professor Philip Schuyler Allen, of the University of Chicago, who was to have read a\npaper on the subject \" Conversation as a Vehicle of Instruction,\" Professor Max Batt, of the Agricultiu*al\nCollege, Fargo, N. D., addressed the conference on that subject.\nJ. Perry Worden, of the Central High School, St. Louis, Mo., read a paper on \"Illustrated Aids to the\nTeaching of Modem Language, with Special Reference to German.\" Otto E. Wieland of the High School, La\nCrosse, Wis., led the discussion.\nThe meeting was then adjourned.\nEtroA KiRCHNER, Secretary.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thuksday, June 30\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the library of the Hall of Congresses at 2 130 p. m.,\nby President Smiley.\nGilbert B. Morrison, principal of the McKinley High School, St. Louis, read a paper\non \"High-School Secret Fraternities.\" This was discussed by William Schuyler, W. E«\nJohnson, E. W. Lyttle, W. H. Smiley, J. D. Curtis, John M. Downer, and J. Perry Worden.\nAt the close of the discussion, on the motion of E. W. Lyttle, a committee of three was\nappointed by the president to draw up a resolution upon the matter of secret fraternities\nand to report at the business meeting. The president subsequently appointed E. W. Lyttle,\nof New York; Gilbert B. Morrison, of Missouri; and John M. Downer, of Colorado, as\nsuch committee.\nThe next topic for discussion was, \"In What Respects Should the High School be\nModified to Meet Twentieth-Century Demands?\" Papers were read by J. Stanley\nBrown, principal of High School, Johet, 111. ; WilUam L. Bryan, president of Indiana University; and B. F. Buck, principal of Lake View High School, Chicago. The general discussion was participated in by J. T. Buchanan, J. S. Brown, W. E. Crosby, and J. Perry\nWorden.\nIn the business meeting the Committee on Nominations reported the following:\nFor President — William Schuyler, St. Louis, Mo.\nFor First Vice-President — James H. Van Sickle, Baltimore, Md.\nFor Second Vice-President — James Sullivan, New York, N. Y.\nFor Secretary — Wilson Farrand, Newark, N. J.\n\nThe report was adopted, and the above-named gentlemen were declared officers for\nthe ensuing year.\nThe Committee on Secret Fraternities reported the following resolution:\nWhereas, It is the sense of the teachers of the secondary schools represented in the National Educational\nAssociation that the influence of secret fraternities in high schools is detrimental to the best interests of the\nschools;\nResolved, That, in view of the great and increasing importance of this subject, a committee be appointed\nby the president to investigate the question in all its bearings and to report with recommendations at the next\nmeeting of this department.\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFRENCH\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n475\n\nThis report was unanimously adopted, and the president appointed the following\ngentlemen as the committee:\nGilbert B. Morrison, St. Louis, Mo.\nJ. M. Downer, Pueblo, Colo.\nB. F. Buck, Chicago, 111.\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y.\nEdwin Twitmyer, Seattle. Wash.\nOn motion of J. Stanley Brown, a resolution indorsing the \"American Curfew Ordinance\" was passed.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\nWilliam Schuyler, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS AND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nWHAT MAY THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED\nSTATES LEARN FROM A STUDY OF FRENCH SECONDARY\nEDUCATION?\nE. W.\n\nLYTTLE,\n\nINSPECTOR,\n\nEDUCATION\nDEPARTMENT,\nALBANY, N. Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nIn 1902 the French government revised the progranj of its secondary\nschools. The revised program represents the experience and study of several\nthousand of the leading educators in France. It represents even more than\na consensus of French educational opinion, for it Is based in a degree upon\nthe experience of the leading nations of the world. For instance, the French\nprogram adopts, more completely perhaps than any other, many suggestions\nof our own Committee of Ten made in the report in 1893.\nThe chart here given has been specially prepared to show how both continuity and balance have been provided in the French program. In these\ntwo particulars and in the large attention given to drawing, French secondary\nschools show decided superiority over American schools. A study of the\nchart reveals the following facts:\nSecondary education proper begins in France at about the age of eleven\nand covers seven years.\nCourses, not subjects, are elective. For the first four years there is a\nchoice of two courses, and during the last three years a choice of four courses.\nThe four courses offered are essentially what we should call the classical,\nthe Latin-modern language, the Latin-scientific, and the modern languagescientific.\nIn all the courses for six years from three to five hours per week are devoted\nto the study of the mother-tongue, and from two to seven. hours are given to\nmodern languages.\nIn all the courses for seven years from three to five hours per week are\ngiven to history and geography, or to history, and from one to six hours to\nmathematics.\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n476\nPROGRAM\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF SECONDARY\nARRANGED\n\nTO\n\nSTUDIES\n\nSHOW\n\nASSOCIATION\nIN FRANCE\n\nCONTINUITY\n\nAND\n\n[Secondary\n\nADOPTED\n\n1902\n\nGROUPING\n\n(Courses, not subjects, are elective)\n\n24\n24\n\nPupil's Age *\n\nW as\n\n\\UrBA\n\nt3q\n\n-lor\\\n\n25\n\n22 25\n+ 4 I\n27\n\ni + it\n\n^34loor^r^B\n\ngo\n\n23\n\n22 23\n+ 4 t\n25\n\n4\n2 + lt\n\n■>\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nFOR\n\nCERTIFICATE\n\n27\n\n3\n\nOF\n\nSECONDARY\n\n2\n\nI\nI\n\nSTUDIES\n2 $\n\n3\n3\n\n^5 j or C\nr^ () orA B\ns\n(orD\n\ngocS^\no,,-«\n\n( ^^\n\nQ « P\n\n(.orD\n\n3\n3 3 + 2t\n3\n3\n3\nFIRST\n\n5\n\n2\n2\n\n2\n\n7\n\n2\n\n7\n2\n\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\n7\n\n2\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\n2\n\n7\n\n8i\n84\n\nEXAMINATION\n\n'\nFOR\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\n^1^\nW\n\nMath\n\n17\n\nemat\n\nA\nor B\nA\norB\n\n2t\n\n2\n\n2\n\n4\n4\n\n2\n\n3+ 3\n3+ 3\n\n2t\n\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\n2\n\nI\n\n26\n\nM\n.\n\nDEGREE\n\n2+\n\n4t\n\n3\n3\n3\n3\n\n3\n2\n\n3\nFINAL\n\ns\n\n2\n2\n\n2\n\n3\n\n2\n2\n\n2\n\n2 2+\n\n8\n8\n\nics\n18\n\nI\n\n3\n\nS\n5\n\n2\n\n2 J\nw o\nPhilosophy\no I\nor\n\nI\n\n3\n3\n\n2\n2\n\n2\n\nI\n\n•^\n\n.A ) or B\n\n4 5 ^5\n4\n4\n\nEXAMINATION\n\nI2\n\nFOR\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\n3\n3\n5\n5\n\n22+2t2t\n2\n2\n\ni8^+8tx\n21J+4::\n28+2\n27+2 ;:\n\nDEGREE\n\n*Pupils begin secondary studies at about the age of eleven and may receive baccalaureate degree at the\nage of eighteen.\ntFigures indicate periods a week.\n^Indicates optional.\n\nIn all the courses drawing must be taken continuously for five years, and\nmay be taken for seven years, from two to four hours per week.\nEven in the classical and in the modern language-scientific course, sciences\nmust be studied from one to five hours per week through five years, and of the\nsciences physics and chemistry receive the largest attention.\nAt the end of the seven years of secondary study the baccalaureate degree\nis conferred on examination — a degree claimed by some to be equivalent to\nthe B.A. or the B.S. degree of the American college.\nNational self-respect will scarcely permit, nor do facts force us to consider\nthat the French boy at fifteen is as far advanced as the American boy at\neighteen, or that the candidate for the baccalaureate degree in France at\neighteen is the peer of the American candidate at twenty-two ; but it is possible\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nFRENCH\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n477\n\nto understand that the French boy might gain at least two years over his\nAmerican compeer. First, the French boy is not the bond slave of a paleozoic\northography and of an ante-diluvian system of weights and measures. These\ntwo advantages are worth not less than one school year. Again, it is highly\nprobable that well-balanced and continuous courses of study such as the\nrevised French program provides may give a further gain of one or two\nyears. Indeed, a careful examination of the French syllabus of secondary\ninstruction seems to indicate that the American sophomore in a reputable\ncollege ought to be able to pass most of the requirements for the French baccalaureate degree.\nSecondary education in France is not co-educational. Lycees for girls were\nfirst established in 1880 and now enroll about 12,000 students. No classics\nare taught in these schools, and less mathematics than in the schools for males ;\nbut classes in sewing, vocal music, and gymnastics are provided.\nFrom an ideal point of view the French program seems most defective in\nmaking no provision for systematic physical training for young men. It will\nbe noticed also that no manual training, except drawing, is given during the\nfirst four years. It should be remarked, however, that manual-training high\nschools and commercial high schools, such as are found in many of our cities,\nare not in France considered a part of the secondary system.\nM. Gabriel Compayre in the Educational Review for January, 1904, gives\nsome interesting figures that show how classical education is losing ground in\nthe French secondary school. In the thirteen state establishments at Paris\nthe Latin-scientific course enrolls 1,417 pupils, as against loi in the classical\nand 151 in the Latin-modern language course. The same author, furthermore,\npredicts that the modern language-scientific course will soon be the most\npopular and will attract to itself as many students as the other three courses\ncombined. A similar drift away from classical studies is seen in Sweden; but\nwe should not be too quick to infer that the classics ought to be discarded.\nIt may be that European educators will discover, as some in America think\nthey have discovered, that the study of modern languages cannot give as\nthoro training as the study of Latin, and that scientific studies in secondary\nschools do not fulfil all the hopes of their advocates.\nIt will be noted that the French program provides for instruction in ethics\nfor pupils in the third and fourth years of their secondary course. If this\ninstruction is devoted mainly to manners, which may be called concrete\nmorals, it is Hkely to be effective ; but there is serious doubt of the value of much\ninstruction in formal ethics if given to pupils thirteen and fourteen years of age.\nA study of the French program of necessity brings before us two questions\nthat are agitating our own educational world: (i) Should secondary education\nwith us begin at an earher period, at the age of eleven or twelve ? (2) Should\nthe baccalaureate degree be given at the eild of the sophomore year ? The\nschool system of France differs so widely from any in the United States that\ncomparisons are not easily made.\nOne fact in this connection seems important.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": null, "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nAccording to accurate statistics, it appears that about 37 per cent, of the students who enter the secondary schools of France obtain the baccaluareate\ndegree. It is doubtful if many American high schools graduate 37 per cent,\nof those who enter, and it is certain that the heaviest losses in American schools\noccur in grades just below the high school. Least of all the children in the\nworld is the American boy forced to leave school to become a wage-earner.\nIf secondary instruction were begun at an earlier age as in France, would\nschool mortaHty be lessened ? French secondary schools for boys employ only\nmale teachers, and it is quite possible that this fact explains why the French\nboy stays in school better than the American boy. On the other hand, it may\nbe justly claimed that the French boy who enters the secondary school more\ngenerally than in the United States expects to finish his course. The break\nin the course of study, the abruptness of the change from grammar to high\nschool, is no doubt responsible for much school mortality in this country.\nMore than that, the foolish notion that a grammar school must teach only\nthe common English branches, and the high favor with which reviews are\nregarded, too often make the course of study the dreary round of treadmill\nrather than an ascending spiral flight. For these reasons the French plan\nof beginning secondary studies at an early age has many advantages.\nIs it best to give the baccalaureate degree at the end of the sophomore\nyear? Are we overdoing pure culture study in this country? The experience of France seems to support such a conclusion. There is grave social\ndanger in deferring professional studies too long. In scholastic ceHbacy there\ncertainly is a danger of encouraging the survival of the less fit. However, few\neducators in the United States believe that the American college senior possesses one whit too much of general culture. According to the American\nEngineer for May, 1904, the American workman on an average produces\n$2,450 worth of manufactured goods a year, or from three and one-half to four\ntimes as much as his European competitor in England, France, or Germany.\nIn achieving this result he makes use of 2.15 horse-power a year, or over six\ntimes as much power as the European workman. Great power and dehcate\nmachinery cannot be intrusted to immature years, and it is by no means\nimpossible that we have unconsciously developed in America an educational\nstandard that is best suited to our own particular needs.\n\nWHAT MAY THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED\nSTATES LEARN FROM A STUDY OF GERMAN SECONDARY\nEDUCATION ?\nFREDERICK\n\nE.\n\nBOLTON,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nlOV^A, lOV^A CITY, lA.\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIt has been aptly said that Germany is the schoolmistress of the world\nand that all the world goes to school to her. This was eminently true down\nto a decade or two ago.\nEven now, the we in the United States boast with\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGERMAN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n479\n\npardonable pride of the best-conceived and best-executed school system in\nthe world, we can still learn much of untold value if we hut hearken to the\nGerman teachings. While commending many worthy features, we must not\nrush to overhasty conclusions that there is nothing good or even superior in\nour own system. Every school system is an evolutionary product representing\nattempts to adjust educational means to social ends. Oftentimes the ideal\nends are poorly conceived, and again the adjustment is frequently illy secured.\nNevertheless, each system has its special features which, if eHminated, would\nseriously impair, if not destroy, the usefulness of the entire system. Were I\nto attempt to demonstrate to Germans the excellencies of our own system, I\nshould only need to show that every stage of education is so available to the\nmasses that every boy and every girl of the humblest parents, of whatever race,\ncolor, or creed, may pass unhindered from the kindergarten thru the postgraduate courses in the university. The only prerequisites demanded are\nbrains, brawn, and ambition. A generous government has made education\npossible for the masses practically without money and without price. The\ngreatest regret is that our indulgent state governments do not absolutely\nr quire every boy and every girl in the commonwealth to partake of the educational feast provided during at least ten years of school life.\nNow, Germany presents no such admirable opportunity of higher education for the masses. The classes only share the splendid opportunities afforded\nby their magnificent secondary schools of which I am to speak.\nA real teaching profession in Germany, — The greatest superiority of the\nGerman secondary schools, as I view them, is their pedagogical peerlessnessAs centers of social growth and control our own schools stand unique in the\nhistory of education. But pedagogically we are in the midst of great dilettantism and quackery.\nThe fundamental factor giving the German schools their superiority is\ntheir real teaching profession. We have nothing that compares with it. We\nhave many teachers just as splendidly equipped, as zealous and as efficient\nas their best. I am egotistic enough to believe that we have many that are\nunequaled anywhere else in the world; but the average must ever be low as\nlong as our requirements for entrance upon this high calling remain so\nlow, and as long as its emoluments are so niggardly. Speed the day when\nthose commissioned with the most important work ever intrusted to human\nbeings shall be adequately equipped to meet their rich privilegae snd heavy\nresponsibihties. That day will not come, however, until they are financially compensated therefor at least as well as poHcemen, miners, and street\nscavengers.\nIn Germany the emoluments for teaching, tho small, cojnpare favorably\nwith those in other professions. The tenure of office is also practically permanent when once established. I met men who had taught three generations\nof the same family, in the same city, in the same building. Again, as the\nsecondary schools are largely maintained by the state and not by local taxation\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": null, "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe teachers in the small towns receive salaries equivalent to those in large\ncities. We might well extend special state aid for high schools in every state\nas is now done in a few, notably in Wisconsin and Minnesota.\nThe German high-school teachers are all thoroly trained. None can enter\nupon the professional work without completing at least three years of university study. This places them academically on a par, at least, with possessors\nof a master's degree. A very large percentage possess the doctorate degree.\nAs a class they have scholastic training equivalent to that possessed by our\ncollege professors. Each teacher is a master, an authority in the subjects he\nis to teach. In addition, they must all take two years of professional training\nbefore being ehgible to a position. Thus, while loo per cent, of their secondaryschool teachers have studied psychology and the science of education, and\nhave had some practice in teaching before entering upon their work, the\nmajority of our teachers, especially those in our smaller high schools, are raw\nrecruits, with inferior scholastic preparation and no professional study. In\none great state in every fourth high school there is one teacher who has had no\ntraining beyond that afforded by the school in which she teaches. That state\nis not unique in this respect.\nKnowledge of subjects to be taught, tho thoro and searching, must be\nsupplemented by a study of the science of education before the teacher begins\nhis work. A knowledge of the child to be taught is of even more moment\nthan the ideas to be conveyed to the child. This professional equipment\nmakes the difference between the instructor and the genuine teacher.\nAttending numerous superlatively large educatorial gatherings to pull\npoHtical wires, to meet notables who may help one to a more lucrative position,\nand to yawn over scientific educational discussions is not professional spirit,\neven tho called such. Professional spirit is the accompaniment only of deep\nreflection, critical discussion, and constructive expression concerning underlying principles of education. The National Educational Association meetings, Iam pleased to say, are always made up largely of those who appreciate\neducational philosophy, but many at county and state meetings are not\nready for the primer of educational science. Until we can require a study of\neducational science in the universities as a prerequisite to teaching, as the\nGermans do, we cannot expect much professional spirit. Since education\ndetermines the character of the civilization which shall be transmitted from\none generation to the next, it becomes highly important that the best thought\nof the age be expended upon educational means and ends.\nBy studying the exhibits of the German secondary schools one can find ample\nevidence of professional activity. The secondary teacher is a frequent contributor to the important professional magazines and also a producer of valuable\npedagogical books. One needs to mention only such names as Ufer, Richter,\nHartmann, Altenburg, Willmann, Wychgram, and others, to demonstrate\nthe leadership that secondary-school teachers have acquired and maintained.\nFrom the faculty of each secondary school there is produced at least one scien-\n\n«\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGERMAN\n\nSECONDARY'^ EDUCATION\n\n481\n\ntific monograph each year. Where are our high-school teachers who are\nachieving places in the world of scholarship ? Tho we have examples, they\nare all too rare. Our teachers are too apt to allow practical details to absorb\nall their time and energies. They should understand that there is nothing\nthat will conduce to growth and to develop a broad professional view so much\nas the continuous pursuit of some line of scholarly investigation. There is\nnothing that will stimulate pupils to become scholarly so much as to be in\ncontinuous companionship with teachers who are growing in scholarship.\nOn the other hand, there is nothing that will still scholarly ambitions in\nyoung minds so much as to be with teachers who are mere echoists. Give\npupils the idea that the world is full of problems, and that we and they may\nhave a part in their solution, and we have done more for the youth's intellectual upHft than all the drill upon stereotyped facts and processes that can be\nrequired. That so many German students turn toward scholarly investigations in adult life is due, in no small degree, to the fact that they are in daily\nassociation with serious searchers for truth — with masters, not echoists. The\none who teaches others how to sing successfully must himself be a master of\nthe art; a drawing teacher must draw, a teacher of reading must know how\nto read. Likewise the successful teacher of EngUsh composition must be\nable to stand in the ranks of those who really produce for publication. The\nGerman teacher of chemistry is a chemist and not a cookbook recipe monger,\nthe teacher of botany a botanist, etc.\nExamination and certification of teachers. — A valuable lesson should be\nlearned from their method of examination of teachers. No one is granted\nany sort of certificate until he can earn one good for hfe. No third-grade\ncertificates equivalent only to a poor grammar-school diploma there, either\nfor elementary or secondary teachers. We usually require teachers to write\non from a dozen to twenty branches, and submit them to such indignities\nintermittently for a period of years. The Germans require three or four\nbranches besides philosophy and pedagogy.\nUniversity-trained teachers. — A fact which has much significance is that all\nthe teachers in the secondary schools are university-trained. The one who is\nto guide the adolescent needs not only accurate scholarship and pedagogical\nmethods, but also a broad knowledge of men and affairs. This equipment is\nsecond to no other, and often counts for more than all others. The interests\nof youth are rapidly widening at this time, and in order to understand and\ndirect those under his care, the teacher must have a discernment of human\nnature which can be gained only by varied contact with it. This opportunity\nthe university offers as no other pedagogical institution can. In meeting the\npressing conditions now before us in the education of high^school teachers,\nthis should be recognized. The university, with its varied life and interests,\nmust ever foster the training of high-school teachers, for the fullness of development of adolescent Hfe and the efficiency of the university itself depend upon it.\nLonger secondary-school period. — The German secondary school, beginning\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": null, "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nas it does with the fourth year of school Hfe and continuing nominally nine\nyears, but really ten or eleven, gives a much longer period than our high\nschools do for the consideration of those subjects usually relegated to the high\nschool. The secondary school employs different methods of discipline from\nthe elementary school; the instruction is more departmental; there is a choice\nof subjects or courses, and the methods of instruction are different. In the\nelementary school work has been almost wholly qualitative; the elementary\ninstruction was concrete and specific. It now becomes more abstract and\ngeneral; rational exposition now takes the place of dogmatic dictation; the\nentire work becomes more and more scientific; principles and laws rather than\nfacts are sought; etc. The German plan makes possible an earlier introduction to secondary subjects and methods. Tho they probably place the point\nof bifurcation a couple of years too early, we undoubtedly place it two years\ntoo late. That the transition from elementary subjects, methods, and disciphne should be earlier is being recognized in the six- and seven-year elementary curricula recommended widely and frequently reaHzed. The phenomena\nof adolescence are, I believe, better recognized in a secondary-school course\napproximating in length the German course than they are in our own of four\nyears. We need to extend the work downward in all the schools, and in the\nlarger cities we should extend it upward for one or two years. This latter\nclaim is becoming recognized in many quarters in the United States. High\nschools are extending their courses, and colleges are accepting credits for\nadvanced standing from the high schools.\nThe distribution of subjects; the spiral plan. — ^We are manifestly more\nmodern than the Germans in allowing much larger range of electives and in\ndeparting from the traditional lines. They are beginning to recognize the\nnecessity of modification, and have now made Greek in the Gymnasien\noptional with EngHsh. The university doors in every faculty, except theology,\nare since 1902 also open to those without Greek. Further flexibihty is also\ninevitable. In the distribution of the subjects thru the years of the course\nthey are, however, decidedly ahead of us. They plan to have every subject\nbefore the mind of the pupil for a great many years. Instead of taking algebra,\nfor example, for a year and ''finishing\" it, the subject is begun at about eleven\nyears of age and carried until eighteen or twenty. The same is true of geometry. Trigonometry is begun at about fourteen and carried four or five years.\nHistory is carried two hours a week for six or eight years, instead of five\nhours a week for a couple of years. From personal inspection of the German\nschools I know that the final resultant is much better than in our schools.\nBy their plan pupils are enabled to begin the elementary consideration of\nsecondary subjects at an early age, reserving the more difficult portions until\ntheir minds are ready to grasp them. Easy algebraic processes are taken\nbefore difficult arithmetical problems. The introduction into geometry is\nmade early, and its results are used in later arithmetical problems. Logarithms are studied at thirteen, and the tables are used constantly in multi-\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGERMAN\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n483\n\nplication and division. Thus a habit is formed and the method remembered.\nBy our plan very few college students ever use or even remember the principles. They begin foreign languages early and by methods adaptable to\nthat period of development. By this plan they are able to follow the natural\nmethod of teaching foreign languages to a much greater extent than we are.\nThe result is that the language is much better acquired. When completed\nit is much less \"foreign\" than must be the case when hurried thru in a limited\ntime by the grammatical method. At the close of the secondary-school\nperiod their boys have an absolute mastery of one or two languages besides\nthe mother-tongue. Gymnasium graduates can read Latin with ease, and\nalso write it with accuracy and facility. They can also read, write, and\nspeak French with almost as great facihty as they can their native language.\nGraduates of the Realschule and Realgymnasien, in addition to a mastery of\nFrench, have a good reading and writing knowledge of English. I have\nwitnessed recitations in English in German schools in which the knowledge\nof Enghsh literature and grammar shown by German boys would have surpassed that manifested on the same subjects in many an American high-school\nclass-room. I beheve the Germans spend too much time upon languagetraining, especially in the ancient languages, but the fact remains that the\nends they aim at are accomplished in a superb manner. They give us an\nexample of exceedingly high pedagogical art.\nTeaching the mother-tongue. — One of the most striking things I noticed in\ninvestigating the German courses of study was the comparatively small\namount of time devoted to the various subjects grouped under the German\nlanguage. They give no special daily period to reading, spelling, grammar,\nrhetoric, literature, etc. Thruout the whole course of twelve years they devote\nabout four hours a week to Deutsch. All the varieties of work come under\nthis head. The total amount of time thus given to the mother- tongue is\ntherefore very much less than is given to English in its various forms in our\nschools. Their boys can use the mother-tongue accurately and effectively,\nand they have an extended acquaintance with their standard literature;\nwhich would not be fair to assert of many of our boys, I am sorry to say.\nThere are two secrets which account for their superior results; namely, (i)\nthey exact thoro work and omit a vast amount of profitless twaddle such as\nwe frequently have under so-called ''language lessons;\" (2) they do not have\n\"busy work,\" and do not have to build sentences containing only subject and\npredicate, but devoid of sense.\nTeachers versus text-books. — In the German school the teacher counts for\neverything, the text-book is a minor feature. With us the conditions are\ntoo frequently reversed. Their teachers actually teach the new lessons; ours\nbecome recitation hearers. Their teachers make much of oral expression;\nours too frequently exact so much written work that they might be said to\nconduct \"correspondence schools.\" These indictments are not true of\nteachers in very many of our high schools, but unfortunately they are applicable to many teachers in our village high schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": null, "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nI have indicated a few of the valuable lessons to which I believe we maywell give heed. The suggestions are not made in a carping, fault-finding\nspirit. And again I wish to assert that I am not unmindful of the many points\nof superiority in our own schools — those elements which go to develop such\nfine types of independent, sturdy, progressive young manhood and womanhood. It would be a delightful task to expand on that topic. I could also\npoint out deficiencies in the German schools, but I forbear. My mission is\nsimply that of a representative sinner who recognizes our own deficiencies and\nis willing to learn from whoever may give guidance. We as a nation have\ncaught inspiration from the Germans in many things. Our kindergarten,\nour accredited systems of schools, universal education, the correlation of the\neducation of the head and of heart, the recognition of the doctrine of interest,\nthe organization of our univeristies, etc., are all of German origin. And as\nis often the case with grafted fruit, we believe that the new product is an\nimprovement on the old stock. Thru careful nurture richer varieties have\nbeen produced. We now have a school system unexampled in the history of\nthe world. But we must not live upon past or present achievements; we\nmust examine every feature with the closest scrutiny and accept suggestions\nfrom whatever source they may come. Our greatest safeguard is our freedom from tradition, our open-mindedness, and our unique willingness to\nlearn from any and all teachers.\n\nSECRET\nGILBERT\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\nB. MORRISON,\n\nIN HIGH\n\nPRINCIPAL OF WILLIAM\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMcKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nA school secret society is one illustration of the universal tendency toward\norganization. This tendency to form clans, tribes, cliques, bands, guilds,\nhordes, unions, societies, and confederations of one form or another has manifested itself since the earliest recorded times. The feeling of strength in\nunion is an instinct both in man and in the lower animals. In the brute\nworld, individuals unite in flocks, herds, packs, and droves for mutual benefits\n— for purposes both offensive and defensive. In the financial world, men\nunite their funds and their forces into corporations, companies, and associations; inthe social world, they form into societies, guilds, churches, and unions\nof various forms, and under names too numeroifs to mention. The tendency\nto organize shows itself in the youngest children. Its spontaneity is seen\nwhen two or more little girls put their arms about one another and walk off\nby themselves, with a remark to other little girls: \"You can't play with us.\nWe don't Hke you.\" The instinctive character of the tendency to organize\nand its universality make it improper to complain of it as a general principle.\nIt is only when considered specifically that the quality or desirabiUty of any\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRET\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\nIN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n485\n\nform of organization can be judged. The spirit of good and the spirit of evil\nhave always existed side by side in human nature ; both have always employed\norganization to reach their ends. The instinct of organization shows itself\nequally in a band of robbers and in a band of mercy. Both use it to gain\npower — one for evil, the other for good. It is manifest that a principle\ncannot be defended or condemned on the ground of its naturalness. It is as\nnatural to be bad as it is to be good.\nIn the development of the human race the principle of altruism has been\ngaining ground against the principle of selfishness. So far has this principle\nadvanced that men are loved, honored, and appreciated in proportion to\ntheir usefulness to others — in proportion to their contribution to human wellbeing taken as a whole. It has come to be recognized that what is good for\nthe individual is good for the community, and that nothing which is bad for\nthe community can in the end be good for the individual. To him, then,\nwho would maintain that all human endeavor is actuated by selfish motives\nwe can say that the most enlightened selfishness ends in altruism; for men\nreceive only as they give. The discovery of this principle has led to community\ndiscouragement of organizations which are narrow, selfish, and hurtful to the\ngeneral welfare, and to the encouragement of those which are broad, generous,\nand helpful to the community at large. The former are rebuked by the penal\nand the moral laws; the latter are rewarded by our blessings and our praises.\nThese general reflections seem appropriate before entering specifically upon\nthe question of school secret fraternities.\nIf a fraternity is broad in its ainis, looking toward the individual wellbeing, not only of its members, but of the student body at large; if it is above\nsuspicion as to its methods and motives; if it is founded on generosity and\nphilanthropy, and has for its aim the mental and moral improvement of its\nmembers ; if it is broad in its aims and sympathies, and calculated to promote\norder and harmony in the government of the school and in the student body;\nif it is likely to prove beneficial to a boy's sense of honor, truthfulness, and\njustice; if it promises to make him more loyal to his parents, to his teachers,\nand to his country; if it broadens his sympathies and his judgment, and gives\nhim a higher respect for the proper authorities; if it contributes to his intellectual and moral independence and helps him to be a man, and to stand\nupright and alone on all vital and important questions; if it has a tendency to\nmake him catholic and democratic in his character; if it contributes to habits\nof economy of money, of time, and of physical energy; if it does all, or a considerable portion, of these things, then it should be encouraged, and a generous place in the educational system should be accorded it. But, on the other\nhand, if it is narrow in its aims, looking only to the sordid and selfish gratification of its members; if it is not above suspicion, and its motives and methods\nare forever under censure and discussion ; if it is founded on selfishness, and its\nends have to be gained by questionable practices and dark-lantern proceedings ;\nif it has a tendency to create an estrangement from the faculty and from the\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": null, "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstudent body; if it interferes with the order and proper discipline, as well as\nthe harmony, of the school; if it is likely to be detrimental to a boy's sense of\nhonor when dealing with those outside of the fraternity; if it is liable to make\nhim less obedient to his parents, and less loyal to his school and to his teachers ;\nif it tends to lesson his respect to the constituted authority; if it is liable to\nmake him self-important and snobbish; if it takes too much of his time and\ninterest from his studies, and too much of his money; if it makes him rely\nmore on his fraternity than on himself; if it makes \"standing in with the\nfellows\" of greater importance than standing in with true manly character;\nif it has a tendency to make him clannish and undemocratic; if all, or any,\nof these things may reasonably be suspected of secret school fraternities,\nthen they should not only be discouraged, but they should be forbidden.\nThese considerations would appear to apply equally to high-school and\nto college fraternities; for I have thus far spoken only in general terms. But\nit is not of college fraternities which I am to speak. Whatever may be their\nmerits or demerits, they are not the subject of this paper. It is the high-school\nfraternity which now claims our special attention.\nSecret societies have until recently flourished only in colleges and universities. Their first existence in the secondary school is of recent date. It is\nwithin the last decade that they have entered the affairs of the high school.\nThe growth of these organizations, therefore, comes within the observation\nof all experienced high-school principals of the present time. As the entire\nhistory of the high-school fraternity is in full view of every well-informed\nprincipal, it should not be a difficult matter to form a correct estimate of the\nmerits of its claim to a place in the school life of the pupils.\nAt the outset it is proper for me to say that my competency to speak on this\nquestion is based wholly on my observation on, and my experience with,\nfraternities, and not on my experience in them. They will claim that one who\nhas never had the experience of membership is not qualified to pass upon their\nmerits. To this it may be answered that it is hardly necessary to be an apple\ntree in order to be a good judge of fruit. Judges in our courts of justice are not\nselected from among the class of men they are called upon to judge. Experience here would disqualify, not only in ability to judge, but in capacity to\nserve. In the medical profession, license to treat disease is not confined to\nthose ailments which the practitioner has himself had. It is not considered\nnecessary for a doctor to have smallpox as a preparation either for diagnosing\nits symptoms or for prescribing its remedies. Nor is it necessary for the\nprincipal of a high school to have personal experience and participation in\neverything which pupils may take a notion to do.\nHigh-school fraternities are usually started by boys of the well-to-do\nclasses, who desire to enjoy some distinction which would not be likely to come\nto them by the usual process of merits and rewards. They are at the start\namong the better class of boys who have no special motive beyond having a\ngood time and gaining access to what they call the best society.\n\nQualifica-\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRET\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\nIN\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n487\n\ntions for membership are good looks, affable manners, good clothes, and ready\nfacility in attracting the favorable attention of the girls. I have not noticed\nthat their ability as students, their manliness, or their independence of character has much to do in their selection. The fraternity thus formed at once\nassumes characteristic traits and qualities. It becomes exclusive, self-important,\nmysterious, hidden, deceitful, and, under censure, impertinent. Whatever high\nand noble tenets they may have stated in their secret ritual to support\nthe best interests of the school, they assume that they are alone competent to\npass judgment upon these interests. They are bound by solemn oath to support one another and to perpetuate the fraternity ./l They modestly admit that\nthey are the \"best boys in town\" and that they are prepared to carry their\npoints. Their organized efforts to run the school affairs of the student body, and\ntheir ridiculous airs of superiority, soon arouse the hostility of the other pupils,\nand another fraternity is started to get even with the first one. Strife, discord,\nand ill-feeling follow, and the school is kept in a turmoil — a turmoil emanating\nfrom no principal of action, but from a ludicrous assumption of superiority\non the one hand, and a vigorous resistance of that assumption on the other.\nThey fail to do the work of the school as they should, and give little real attention or concern to their studies. They combine their personal individual\ninfluences to cajole or intimidate the teachers into passing them. They hold\ntheir fraternity above parents, teachers, principal, and school. If opposed,\nthey resort to trickery, deceit, and all forms of untruthfulness, and darklantern proceedings. They hold secret meetings at separate houses, hotels,\nand in some places have their own fraternity houses where they hold nightly\norgies and revels. I shall, of course, freely admit that there are exceptions to\nthe conditions here described. I have pictured the fraternity in cases where\nits development has been normal and complete. Of course, the qualities I\nhave mentioned do not fully apply to a young fraternity which is yet in the\nstage of gaining the graces of the good-natured principal — which is strictly on\nits good behavior till it can gain a foothold in the school. But I have every\nreason to believe that I have made a just representation of evety high-school\nsecret fraternity which has had a natural growth.\nAbout a year ago I took the trouble to ascertain the opinion of other highschool principals on this question. I sent out 200 copies of a circular letter\nto as many principals of our largest cities, asking for information and opinions\non this question. Some of you will doubtless remember receiving it. I\nreceived answers to 185 of these. All but four expressed disapproval in some\nform and in some degree, and the large majority expressed disapproval in\nstrong and unqualified terms. One curious and significant fact in connection\nwith this inquiry was that many principals reporting disapprovingly asked\nthat their names should not be used in quotation. This certainly furnishes\nproof of my claim as to the intimidating, hostile, and factional character of\nthese fraternities, and is in itself one of the most potent arguments against\nthem.\nA similar inquiry was made a few years ago by Principal Twitmyer\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": null, "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof the Seattle High School, and with similar results. There is very little\ndoubt that if a ballot of the high-school principals of the United States could\nbe taken by the Australian system, the vote would be practically unanimous\nagainst secret fraternities in high schools.\nThe consensus of opinion, so far as I can gather it, seems to be: (i) that\nthey are unnecessary in a school where they are at home and under the guardianship of their parents, as is the case with high-school children; (2) that\nwhatever good that might be claimed for college fraternities could not apply\nto boys of high-school age whose characters and judgments are unformed; (3)\nthat schools supported by all the people should be democratic and free from\ncaste and organized snobbery; (4) that these fraternities among children of\nhigh-school age dp have a tendency to set up social exclusiveness and caste\nin the schoql; (5) /that they are a source of discord among the pupils; (6) that\nthey become factional in their characters, and that loyalty to the fraternity\ngenerally means disloyalty to everything else; (7) that they dissipate the energies of the, pupils and interfere with their studies; (8) that they are selfish and\nnarrow in their aims and methods; (9) that the conduct of the pupils should\nbe open and above board, and that there is no legitimate want or need in\nchild-nature whkh calls for secret or dark-lantern proceedings; and (10) that\nwhatever of a social nature which it is necessary to encourage in school can be\ndone thru other and better forms of society which can be under supervision\nand control of the principal and teachers.\nIf this view of the matter represents in whole or in considerable part the\nsentiments of the school principals of this country, then it would seem to follow\nthat some concerted action should be taken toward checking the growing\ntendency of these organizations to increase and multiply. What is the remedy ?\nWhat can be done with those already in existence, and how can the formation\nof new ones be prevented? The most natural and legitimate method is to\nremove from their reach some of the prizes and honors which it is one of their\nchief objects by organization to secure; to deny them all the privileges of\nclass and school honors — athletic, social, and intellectual — except those of the\nclass-room. Finding themselves thus with occupation gone, their growth\nbecomes slow and difficult, A boy with worthy ambitions will not join a\nsociety on which the school authorities have placed a ban. This plan will\nnot always obHterate fraternities, but it will entirely change their character.\nThey will no longer be composed of the high-minded, ambitious, and able,\nbut of those whose only purpose is to haye fun. Their influence will no longer\nbe dominating, and the school as a whole will not be disturbed by their\npresence. They will be composed of boys whose abilities do not fit them to\ntake leading parts in competing for school honors, and whose characters are\nnot emulated by new boys coming into the school.\nAmong the schools in which this plan has been adopted may be mentioned\nthose of Seattle and Kansas City, Mo. Resolutions barring \"frats\" from all\nschool functions outside the class-room have been passed by the boards of\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSECRET\n\nFRATERNITIES\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n489\n\neducation of both of these cities. What the ultimate result of this policy will\nbe it is too early. to predict with certainty. Of course, much will depend on\nwho manages the schools. But whatever may be the outcome of local and\nindividual cases, this much is certain: there is a responsibility resting on school\nauthorities to govern the schools under their charge and to keep them from\n^\nhurtful influences.\nBefore closing this paper, which the time limitations make too short for an\nadequate treatment of the subject, I wish to call your attention to one or two\nadditional thoughts which are of first importance in deaUng with this question.\nIn passing from the old-time severity in dealing with children, we have lapsed\ninto a period of juvenile Hcense. I am no advocate of corporal punishment\nor of undue severity in dealing with the young, but there is one cardinal principle held by our Puritan fathers which we have temporarily neglected and\nwhich we must sooner or later restore. I refer to the principle of obedience.\nIf a secret fraternity is wrong in principle, and inimical to the best interest of\nthe school, it should be prohibited. Certain fundamentals in deaUng with\nchildren have at different periods of our history been lost sight of.\nThe first and chief of these is to be found in the philosophy of our fathers\nthat a child from birth to twenty-one years of age is dependent on and subordinate to his parents and teachers. He is so by right, reason, and laws of\nnature. Strict and unswerving obedience is the child's portion. On this\ndepend his present safety and his future success. In office, in business, in\nevery worldly and practical relation, a decent deference to official superiors\nis a condition, not only of peace and harmony, but of social existence. Appropriate penalty for parental and school disobedience should be as swift and\ncertain as is a penalty for the violation of a law of nature. Superiors sometimes\nmake mistakes, and the right of reasonable protest should ever be accorded\nto the inferior, but disobedience should never be tolerated. Respect to law\nand authority is the bulwark which guards the safety of all human institutions.\nThe second fundamental was sometimes lost sight of by our fathers, viz.,\nthat this obedience should be secured by gentle, kind, humane, and reasonable\nmeans ; by so shaping his environment that the child will generally choose the\nright and avoid the wrong. Unyielding kindness in the enforcement of law\nand order not only secures obedience, but it commands the respect of the young.\nThe ideal school will be founded on justice, on love, and on impHcit obedience.\nThe fundamental truth of authority of the olden time will be clothed in the\nfundamental truth of humanity of the present. In applying these principles\nto the fraternity question, I would provide for the pupils in the school all that\nof the legitimate and harmless elements which they would reaUze in the\nfraternity. I would provide hterary societies in which a share of social pleasure may enter. I would enter personally into their pleasures, their games,\ntheir parties, and their dances. I would make all of these elements in the\nconduct of the school. I would remove all legitimate excuse for a secret\nconclave to secure covert advantages.\nIf after this a secret fraternity should\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": null, "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nmake its appearance in my school, I would first laugh at it. If this proved\nineffectual, I would reason with it. If reason failed, I would withdraw from\nthe recalcitrant members all school privileges outside the class-room. Thus\nfar I have kept within my own observation and experience. If, however,\nthis means after a few years trial should prove to be ineffectual, I would not\nhesitate to prohibit by a formal rule and to enforce the prohibition by prompt\nsuspension. Whatever it is right and necessary to do in managing our schools,\nif done thoughtfully, humanely, and deliberately, will receive the sympathy\nand support of our patrons.\nDISCUSSION\nWilliam Schuyler, assistant principal, William McKinley High School, St. Louis. —\nIn order to start the discussion, I would say that not only principals and teachers of high\nschools are opposed to these fraternities, but also the college fraternities whose liberty of\nchoice is by them greatly limited. Boys from school fraternities wish to stick together,\nand so college societies have the greatest difficulty in breaking up \"these bunches of kids,\"\nwhich often contain members considered undesirable under their traditions. ^\nW. E. Johnson, St. Joseph, Mo. — The teachers, and even the people of Missouri,\nhave been greatly interested in Mr. Morrison's attack on fraternities. But Mr. Morrison\nhas had a strong board and the courts behind him. What would he have done if the board\nhad not backed him up ?\nE. W. Lyttle, Albany, N. Y. — The heart of the problem is this: How is the highschool principal to say to the descendents of the men of 1776: \"You shall not organize in\nsecret or otherwise ? If you do, you shall be discriminated against.\" What reason can\nhe give ? If their undoubted evil could be shown, well and good. I have had fraternities\nwhich have not been utterly bad. I have not allowed them to meet in the school building.\nStill I am undecided, and should like to have Mr. Morrison state what ground the principal\ncould take.\nGilbert B. Morrison. — While it is not claimed that secret societies outside the\nschool can be controlled by the school authorities, it can be claimed that the school authorities have a right to protect the reputation and well-being of the school by forbidding the\nuse of the name of the school by persons who bear none of its responsibilities; that the\nprincipal has a right, and it is his duty, to say to pupils: \"You may not form a secret\nsociety, in the name of the school, which in my judgment is detrimental to its best interests;\" that pupils have no right to dignify a midnight revel by using the name of the school\nfor protection; that the teacher's authority is commensurate with the needs of the school\n— ^its curriculum, its discipline, and its reputation.\nE. W. Lyttle. — How about fraternities that are partly composed of scholars and\npartly of outsiders, who do not use the school name and yet cause trouble ?\nG. B. Morrison. — I know of no school fraternity without the school name. Those\nI have had to do with have always belonged to the school. They tried to make this distinction: \"We are pupils in the school, but we, as fraternity men, do not belong to the\nschool.\" This, however, would not do. Principals are responsible for the good name\nof the school.\nThey have no responsibilities over fraternities outside of the school.\nW. H. Smiley, Denver, Colo. — I have had considerable trouble with ftaternities, and\nmay name an instance of two fine boys, pledged while in the eighth grade. When they\ngrew older and had their moral ideals fixed, they wished to withdraw, but were not allowed\nto do so, being threatened with publication all over the Union. The high-school boy and\ngirl ought to be free to all good influences.\nTheir feelings are in a fluid condition, and\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nthey should not be narrowed by any set or society. They should be free to make acquaintances and intimaces at any time, and the fraternities prevent this. They are undemocratic, and also lead to idling, late hours, smoking, and lavish extravagance in expense.\nJ. M. Downer^ Pueblo, Colo. — Fraternities may be advantageous to high schools,\nbut certainly the disadvantages are greater. The worst thing is that their true character 91\n4\nis not understood by parents and school boards. There is great ignorance as to the legal\nrights of principals and boards in this matter. Neither he nor the president of his board\nknew anything definite. Would it not be well for this department to make some report on\nthis matter, especially on the legal side ?\n\nIN WHAT\n\nJ. STANLEY\n\nRESPECTS SHOULD THE HIGH SCHOOL BE MODIFIED TO MEET\nTWENTIETH-CENTURY DEMANDS?\n\nBROWN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nJOLIET\n\nTOWNSHIP\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nJOLIET, ILL.\n\nThe public high school is the center of our system of public education in\nthe United States, and must continue to be the center around which all movements looking to educational advancement must gravitate.\nFor a long time the high school has been a sort of shuttlecock between the\nelementary school and the college, each jealously guarding what it considered its own sphere of usefulness and resenting vigorously any attempt at\ninterference.\nIn spite of the fact that we have no well-defined scheme of public education, the elementary school, the secondary school, the college, and the professional school are all gradually finding their most natural and best-adapted\nspheres of usefulness; and so, in order to meet the demands of this century,\nand therby do the greatest pubhc service, we suggest certain modifications in\nthe high school.\nWe have been lamenting for many years the chasm, the yawning gulf,\nbetween the eighth grade and the ninth grade or high school. We have written\nmuch, and talked more, and experimented still more; but little has been gained.\nThe secondary teacher blames the elementary teacher, and the elementary\nteacher as regularly blames the secondary teacher. This will continue to\nbe so until the elementary course is limited to six years and the secondary is\nbegun about two years before the period of adolescence begins.\nAt present the break in the school course comes with the break in the natural,\nphysical development. Both breaks, coming simultaneously, mean more than\nthe average child can stand against, and so the large dropping out of school\noccurs. Statistics show us that the number of students -discontinuing their\nhigh-school work after they have completed two years is not large, and so\nthese students, having completed two years of the secondary course when they\nhave reached the period of adolescence, will be many times more likely to\ncontinue their school than when the completion of the eighth grade (the\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": null, "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nbreak in their intellectual development) and the break in their physical development— the adolescent period — occur at the same time.\nInstead of this condition, which all admit to be bad, our scheme provides\nfor six years' work in the elementary school, embodying all the essentials of\nthe eighth grade and casting out all the chaff, the padding, the non-essentials.\nThe pupil by such a scheme finishes his course at the age of twelve or nearly\nthat, enters directly upon his secondary work, and is well estabhshed in the\nschool before he reaches the age of vagaries, hallucinations, and wild imaginations peculiar to this period of life.\nUnder these conditions the teacher has only one great problem to solve\ninstead of two, and all her time, energy, skill, etc., can be directed to this one\nwhich is at present divided in the attempt to solve at the same time two problems of equal difi&culty.\nThe growth of the course of study in the secondary school has been a\ngradual evolution touching both the amount of time to be spent in completing\nthe course and the subject-matter of the course. Less than half a century\nago high schools were very Httle known, and the course of study began with\none group of studies offered for one year. From this simple condition the\nevolution has gone on till most public high schools have two or three lines of\nstudy requiring four years to complete them. Some have a fifth year's work,\nand a few have a sixth year. The fifth and sixth years represent fairly the\nfirst two years of the college, and the work done in these years is accepted by\nthe college, and advanced credit toward graduation is given.\nThe curriculum ought to be broadened as well as extended so as to include\na good commercial course, a good course in manual training, elementary\nagriculture, domestic science, and mihtary tactics. All these we view as\nphases of education, no one excluding any other. In some places all these\nthings have been accompHshed already, and that at no great pubhc expense.\nThere is at present only an occasional school doing six years' work, but\nthis number is no smaller than was the number doing four years' work if we\nlook back a short time ; and with the development from the present condition,\ntwenty years hence will find a large amount of work at present done in the\ncollege satisfactorily done in the high school.\nThe second change ought to be made in the school day and the school\nyear. We ought to lengthen the school day at least two hours, and this with\na view to making it possible for some to do their required amount of work in\nthe forenoon and others in the afternoon. Some could then remain under\nthe personal direction of the teacher for all their work, while others might\nattend for recitation only and help to earn the Hving for the rest of the family\nfor employment at such times as the school did not demand.\nThere are many reasons for adding about six weeks to the school year.\nIn the first place, the average boy or girl has an abnormal development physically iffree from school work for three months, and grows more during the\nvacation period than during the other nine months of the year. So we main-\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n493\n\ntain that it will tend to produce a harmonious physical development, to reduce\nthe long vacation by adding six weeks to the work of the year. From our\npoint of view there is no more reason why schools should close for three\nmonths during the summer season than there would be to close other institutions for a like period, such as churches, business colleges. Young Men's\nChristian Associations, business houses, libraries, Chautauquas, etc. There\nis more reason now for keeping the secondary and elementary schools open\nfor at least half the summer than for having summer terms at the great universities and normal schools.\nThe recent growth of summer schools in all parts of the country is the\npublic demand for opportunity to do school work during the present vacation\nperiod. If we look back ten years even, we find very few summer schools\nwhen compared with the present number. An extension ought to be made\nwhich would include all schools from the elementary up, and this made a part\nof the regular school year's work.\nWe concede that at present the German finishes his education and is\nready to enter the work of his professipn from two to four years sooner than\nthe average American. By extending our school day and school year we can\neasily gain two years by the time we complete the work of the professional\nschool.\nWhat we may call the vacation or continuation school ought not to provide\nthe same program as that furnished for the September semester, but may be\nvaried to give the greatest benefit.\nThe evening school ought to be as permanent as the day school, because\nit would extend the privileges of the high school to a large and ever-increasing\nnumber who cannot for economic reasons attend the day school. It is certainly inthe interest of democracy so to arrange the curricula, the school year,\nthe school day, and the school program as to make its privileges reach a large\nnumber. The evening school ought not to be subjected to severe grading,\nnor should the age limit be mentioned. The work now done by evening\nclasses in the Young Men's Christian Associations, and paid for by the student, as well as the work now done by the several schools of correspondence,\ncould be better done, and with much smaller outlay of money at public expense,\nif done in an evening school; and provision ought to be made in all cities for\nthis kind of work.\nIn order to develop the whole life of our students, we must have a saner\nand more progressive management of athletic and social life. There are\nlegitimate expressions of activity which ought to be fostered, not stifled.\nAthletics cannot do for the young people in high school what ought to be done\nunless the school possesses from three to ten acres of land within easy reach\nof the school. Here all outdoor games for both boys and girls should be\nplayed, and instruction given by an athletic director whose preparation for\nthis particular work should be equal to that required of a teacher in any\ndepartment of school work.\nIt goes without saying that the school should\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": null, "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhave a gymnasium, and in connection with it shower-bath, swimming-pool,\nrunning- track, etc., so that, when the weather does not permit of outdoor\nwork, some proper exercise may be given indoors.\nSome athletic work should be required daily of all students, barring those\nphysically unable to take such exercise. Credit toward graduation should\nbe given for such work to the extent of one unit where fifteen or sixteen such\nunits are required for graduation. Many young men and some young women\nmay be kept in school by such kind of influence, when all other kinds have\nfailed. Military drill may properly form a part of the athletics for the boys\nor young men.\nWe do not think athletics ought to exist for the purpose of developing a\nfew star athletes in any school, and any system which falls short of a general\napplication to the student body fails in its greatest good.\nIn direct connection with the playground or athletic field an elementary\ncourse in agriculture ought to be given. This work should be placed on the\nsame basis as other work; should be directed by one as completely equipped\nfor this work as other teachers are for their work. The prospective farmer\nwho enters High School ought to have as good an opportunity as the prospective lawyer, doctor, or minister, because this school is free to all who are fitted\nto enjoy its privileges; but you and I know that, unless we have work in elementary agriculture, the chance of the prospective farmer is not half so good\nas that of the aspirant to any of the professions. Let us make this suggested\nchange general and even up the opportunities.\nThe social life of the high school needs a more careful and closer supervision. The school building ought to be made the center of all social activity,\nand this side of the student's Hfe as carefully directed as his intellectual development. Community life ought to center about the school, and all members\nof the school should soon come to learn that the school means more than simply\na place to study books and recite lessons. All class parties, receptions,\ndebates; all school contests, concerts, amateur theatricals, luncheons, banquets, etc., etc., should be held in the school building, and the young people\nought to think of this as the place where their life-interests center. These\nthings presuppose the use of gas for heating and lighting; the purchase of\nchairs, tables, dishes, etc., for convenience in serving; the use of an assembly\nhall with some stage equipment; but all these things keep the mind of the\nstudent on the school and keep him in school. At the same time, all spheres\nof activity are developed under wholesome direction.\nAnother modification which is perhaps needed as much as any before\nmentioned is that touching the salaries of the teachers. No profession demands\na higher order of talent, or a more extended preparation entailing greater\nexpense, than that of the teaching profession, and yet the average salary is\nfar below that of the unskilled laborer. Almost half of the teaching force of\nthe country changes annually because other vocations are more attractive.\nAll this is gravely detrimental to the cause of education and ought to be\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n495\n\nremedied. Foreign travel, constant study, rest from the exhausting work of\nthe schoolroom, are all necessary, but a very small percentage of the teachers\nof the country can profit by these things, because the salaries they receive are\nnot enough to justify the extra expense.\nThe demands on the profession have increased enormously during the past\nten years, and yet there has been no proportionate increase in the salaries.\nThe average salary of men teachers in the United States is less than $50 per\nmonth, and that for women is less than $40 per month; and yet the teacher\nmust be cultured and refined, must move in refined society, must dress well\nand live well; but the ordinary arithmetical calculations fail when the teacher\nattempts to do what has been suggested on a salary of $40 or $50 per month.\nLet the teacher's salary be commensurate with the work performed.\nTo summarize this discussion, we find that four modifications in the\nhigh school would bring it more nearly in touch with this century's demands:\n1. The evolution of the curriculum means that it must be extended to\nsix years, and include the first two years of the college and the work now\ndone in the eighth grade. It must also include work in commercial lines,\nmanual training, domestic science, athletics, and military science.\n2. The school day ought to be lengthened about two hours; the school\nyear, about six weeks. The vacation or continuation school should be made\na part of the regular school year, and this work should apply to both elementary and secondary schools.\n3. There must be a saner and more progressive management of the athletic and social life of the school. Encourage — not stifle — expressions of\nactivity. Make the school the center of all community Hfe.\n4. Teachers' salaries ought to be increased as added requirements are\nmade.\nLet the teacher's salary be commensurate with the work done.\nDISCUSSION\nJ. T. Buchanan, principal of DeWitt Clinton High School, New York city. — I do\nnot beUeve in a longer day; it is long enough now. Nor do I believe in a longer term.\nThere is also no room for ten-acre playgrounds in the Borough of Manhattan at the present\nprice of real estate there. I believe that we have plenty of physical training now, and\nthat athletics are running wild. I wonder if we know what has already been done, and\nif some of these dreams have not already been accompUshed. Does culture go in waves\nwashing over communities, or do communities develop their own culture ? Such committees as those of the \"Ten\" or \"Fifteen\" have merely systematized what was already\nbeing done in some schools. I wonder what good there would be in teaching agriculture to\nmy three or four thousand Jewish boys from the East Side of Manhattan. But if it is going\nto come, it will surely come. There have always been good schools. What about the\nschools we have come from ?\nJ. Stanley Brown. — I deprecate too great satisfaction with the present status;\nthat kills progress. A \"perfect man\" ought to be translated. The speaker then added\nsome further arguments in favor of the positions taken in his paper.\nW. E. Crosby, of New York (the oldest member probably of the National Educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": null, "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntional Association). — I believe that the best thing for Mr. Buchanan's Jewish boys would\nbe instruction in agriculture. This would solve many of the difficulties which trouble\nNew Yorkers. It would be well to get these boys interested in something outside of the\ncity. I desire to make a plea for more high schools, especially in New York state. There\nis now opposition to them in some quarters.\nMr. Buchanan. — I wish to correct the impression that high schools are opposed\nin Manhattan. They merely needed more grammar schools. Manhattan's high schools\nare numerous and not below par.\nJ. Perry Worden, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. — I am sure that the gain\nin time in Germany does not result from longer terms or hours, but from securing better\nattention and mental discipHne. The German terms are little, if any, longer than those\nof the high schools in some states, tho their vacations are differently distributed, there\nbeing two short vacations instead of one long one — a much more advantageous plan in\nmany respects. The school hours begin earlier, but the recess is longer, and the teacher\nis free from duty except during recitation hours. I also think that high-school curricula\nshould be varied to suit conditions in the different communities.\n\nII\nWILLIAM\n\nL. BRYAN,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF INDIANA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nBLOOMINGTON,\n\nIND.\n\nEvery school represents society upon some level. The school should represent society at its best. The chief progress in the past generation has been\nthat the school — especially the high school and college — has come to represent society at its best in the field of scholarship. By the co-operation of\npublic-school men with the best scholars, a course of study and a body of\nhigh-school teachers have been developed which together lead up to every\nsort of learning upon the highest level.\nThe chief progress to be expected in the next generation is in the field of\nthe arts. We have already shown good intentions and praiseworthy efforts\nin this direction. The unavoidable requirement is that we shall call upon\nthose who represent society at its best in all the arts to co-operate with the\nschoolmen in developing a course of study and in providing teachers who\nshall in the field of the arts also lead to society at its best. This is a thing\nwhich cannot be done quickly. The right courses of study must be found.\nThe rightly prepared teachers must be educated. As one step toward these\nends I suggest the appointment of a committee, analagous to the Committee\nof Ten, upon education in the arts.\nIll\nB. F. BUCK,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF LAKE\n\nVIEW\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe subject for discussion today should be of vital interest to every secondary-school teacher and supervisor.\nWhat shall be the essential characteristics of the high school of the future,\nand what shall be the specific scope and nature of its work, depend very largely\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n497\n\nupon the will and wisdom of educators. It can scarcely be expected that\nwithin the brief period of twenty minutes one could even outHne in detail what\nchanges may be made, 6r ought to be made, so that the high school will meet\nthe demands of the rising generation. A few points which have come to me\nduring my experience of about twenty years in secondary schools must sufl5ce.\nI trust I shall be pardoned if I repeat a few statements which I made at a\nrecent educational meeting.\nFrom a careful perusal of pedagogical Uterature of even the last ten years\none may discover a gradual change in mental attitude from things purely\nintellectual toward things more broadly humanistic and ethical. The subject\ntaught has been receiving less attention, and the attributes and needs of the child\nhave engaged the broader sympathy of educational thinkers. Much talk is\nloose declamation, but much is cogent logic. We hear more today about\nwhether this or that subject will furnish material to measure up with the\ndemands of the vocational aims of the student; whether this subject tends to\npromote a normal physical development, or whether it stimulates the instinct\nof curiosity and gratifies a longing thirst for knowledge and development of\npower in making worthy use of such knowledge ; whether such subject acquaints\nthe boy or girl with the duties and privileges of society, and inspires habits of\nthought and conduct which are becoming embryo-citizens of a free and democratic people. It is upon this foundation that the thinkers on modern educational questions, who are of practical help to the schools and communities in\nwhich they labor, base their arguments. The child as a coming citizen, and\nnot the child as a teacher, doctor, or lawyer to be, is the subject under consideration when educational questions are being discussed today.\nSpeaking from this vantage-point, one is in immediate danger of appearing\nat times radical, and again somewhat heterodox; and unless I prophesy\nfalsely, the next few years will witness a greater change in the curricula of\nsecondary schools than the far-famed committees, whose labors have been a\nvaluable inspiration to men of younger generations, had dreamed of.\nTo state the situation as it appears to me: The modern high school has\ncommitted to its care boys and girls from all classes and all communities who\ncome with different preparation and with various ideals. They are at an age\nof change of growth, of evolution, and, if you please, of revolution. These\nchanges are vitally connected with every part of their being. The physical\nchanges are not the most important. New moods, new powers, new ideals,\nnew ambitions, are forming. Willfulness and inclination are beginning to\ngive place to self-directed will. Young people are becoming conscious of new\nand individual strengths and weaknesses. Victories and defeats mean more.\nRelations to new conditions are being made, and old ideals are being modified\nor discarded. The future is bright; the past begins to have more meaning.\nLatent possibilities of success or failure are greatest; a most noble life or a\nHfe of blackest disgrace may be budding.\nThe problem, then, which confronts every high school is, how to discover\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": null, "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand develop the interests and capacities of such individual boys and girls; how\nto direct their development so that they will become useful members of society.\nTo take these fickle-minded bundles of human flesh and bone, with all their\nvarying moods and passions and strong inclinations and extreme sensitiveness,\nand to make of them human beings self-controlled, with self-directing wills,\nforceful and courageous; to find out what they can do and think, and to direct\nthe doing and thinking along the right lines; and to teach them to relate their\nthoughts and actions to society, are the proper functions of the high school of\nthe future.\n1. In the first place, the high school which meets the demands of the\ntwentieth century will see the boy or girl exalted to a proper position in a\nsocial community, not by initiating each into membership in a so-called\n\"secret\" society, but by evolving each as a member in a broader fraternity of\nwhich the whole school community are members who are banded together for\nmutual support and benefit, and for the moral uplifting of society in general.\nIt is difficult to say exactly what the high school must be to meet such\ndemands. It should not be a social club, altho it must partake of the nature of\nan organized society in which individuals who are beginning to assert themselves play an important part. It must be subject more or less to the demands\nof social life, in so far as they are not in conflict with home and state. It will\nnot take upon itself the nature of a paternal roof, altho it must assume many\nof the functions which are usually carried out in the best homes. As an organized society made necessary by the principle of division of labor, it must\nrepresent the home, and deal with the various virtues and eccentricities of\neach home, with a view to elevating those lives which have less light to the\nstandards of those which are best. It will not be a political club, altho the\nprinciples and practices of \"essential democracy\" should be among its most\nimportant precepts. As an institution estabHshed by the state, it should\nrepresent the state and prepare for active citizenship by instilling into its\nfuture citizens the prime elements and active characteristics of the best citizenship. Itwill not be a religious organization, altho its standard of morahty\nand ethical teachings are second in importance only to the institution of sacred\norigin. To both the church and the high school the function of religious and\nethical training should be delegated. The high school should be held responsible, and justly too, for more religious and ethical teaching. The high school\nwill not be designed primarily to disseminate liberal culture, yet its teachings\nwill be based upon broad and Hberal fines which reach back to the fountainhead of knowledge of the past, which spring from close observation of the\npresent and from clear visions of the future. The high school cannot aim at\nany one of these and be successful in its work. It must combine the essential\nelements of all into a working organization.\n2. The high school of the future must conform its course of study more\nnearly to the demands of modern life, if it is to meet with the undivided support\nof the community and to be in reafity the \"people's college.\"\n\nThe courses of\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": null, "text": "499\nDepartment]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nstudy must be such as minister to the actual needs of the present civilization.\nThey must be the immediate agencies used in giving the boy and girl the best\nequipment for the most intelligent and effective service, and such as will inculcate in them an abiding sense of their obligations to the state and to humanity.\nStudies which treat of social, economic, and poHtical subjects must receive\nmore attention and be given an equal standing with those of more ancient\norigin. The mechanic arts, manual training, domestic science, architecture,\nlandscape gardening, principles underlying successful farming and manufacturing, and all the other varied interests of the community, will be pressing\nfor recognition. Life in all its aspects — thrilling, throbbing hfe — should be\nthe guiding star of the future high school. Lay the foundations of the early\nyears of adolescence on the basis of opportunity for activity along lines which\nconnect with life in all its phases, and the high school will be productive of\nmore valuable results. As firm a believer as I am in the value of the ancient\nclassic languages in the scheme of modern education, I am still convinced that\nfar and above them all, and beyond any other fetich which may be set up as\na shibboleth by which to guide our educational footsteps, should be placed\nany subject which develops the force that takes hold upon the vital being of\nthe boy or girl, and opens to view the most direct avenue of approach to modern\nlife and modern thought.\nThe high-school boy reaches a period in his life when he begins to think\nabout the relations to one another of the various facts and phenomena of\nstudies which he pursues, and their relation to his own life and actions. He\nadjusts facts to one another by considering how they are related; facts as such\nhave comparatively little value for him during the adolescent period. He is\nnot interested in manual training, bookkeeping, Latin, geometry, if he cannot\nfind their relation to his life. Whatever is unsatisfactory in life is so mainly\nbecause of the lack of visible or inteUigible relationship. Thus manual\ntraining, chemistry, bookkeeping, bookbinding, or whatever subject may be\nintroduced, must enlist the co-operation of the relating activity of the mind,\nif it would have a proper place in the scheme of education.\n3. In the future high school the freedom of election must not run rampant,\nnor must strict adherence to a definitely prescribed course be required. Those\nsubjects and studies which adequately supply the needs of individuals who\nseek guidance from trusted and tried servants of the public should be the subjects pursued to some definite end and purpose. It must be clearly understood\nthat power results only from persistent and painstaking efforts put forth in a\nfew definite directions and during a sufficiently long period of time. It will\nnot be sufficient to try everything in the program of studies offered with the\nhope of finding something suited to tastes and inclinations. A smattering of a\nlittle of everything does not imply thinking on these subjects. A bluff at general culture is not culture at all. I am convinced that our boys and girls are\nmaking a great mistake when they think that because a study or a task is not\nto their particular Hking they should not attempt it.\n\nTo give up a study sim-\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": null, "text": "500\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nply because it is hard is productive of flabbiness of brain and moral fiber.\nNor would I go to the other extreme and compel all to grind thru the same\ntasks. There might be found a middle course. Some particular studies\nshould be pursued long enough so that students will acquire some power of\nconsecutive thought along certain definite lines. There is much truth in\nDr. Martineau's statement of the case. He says the student nowadays comes\nwith a bill of rights in his hands and says: ''Mind, you must not be dull or I\nshall go to sleep ; you must attract me, or I shall not get on an inch ; you must\nrivet my attention, or my thoughts will wander.\" The reply of the doctor has\nmuch sense; he says: ''This enervated mood is the canker of manly thought\nand action.\"\nStrength of mind and moral fiber do not result from energies wasted or dissipated in time of youth by dawdling with this or that study or task; yet I think\nthe students are not so much to be blamed for this condition of things as are\ntheir teachers and parents. I think Dean Briggs, of Harvard, is correct when\nhe says that \"nothing debilitates a boy more effectively than the notion that\nteachers exist for his amusement, and if education does not allure him, so much\nthe worse for education.\" I feel that the healthy boy or girl is interested in\ndoing things, is interested in close thinking, and in consciously accumulating\nsome power to put into action ideas which may have been acquired. It seems\nto me we ought to recognize this, and remember that in practical life the job,\nas it is called, must be done, and in practical life the man or woman who has\nnot gained power thru training, who has not developed mental character and\nmoral stamina, will have a hard time. The boys and girls have responsibihties in the struggle; they have their part to perform. The teacher can help,\nbut connot make the child master of himself. The dignity of hard work must\nbe emphasized, and fortunate is the boy or girl who recognizes the value of\npainstaking, persevering labor before he gets far in the high-school course.\n4. The high school of the future should deal more largely with the development of leaders in life's work. ,, It must tend to promote in its students an intelligent and earnest interest in life. It must not produce simply artisans, nor\nmust it belittle the dignity of labor. It need not bend its energies to teaching\nhow to gain a living, altho it should teach the fundamental principles underlying\nthe great industries by means of which this free people has arrived at its present\nstate of civilization. It will give more time to the strengthening and unfolding\nof character. As the high school becomes more settled in its principles and\nmanagement it will realize more fully that for responsible work men and women\nof character are needed. \"Democratic government,\" said a late writer, \"is\nthe standing together of men and women who could each stand alone; the\nvoluntary co-operation of free souls.\" The high school ought to aim to\nmake such social integers ; it should teach boys and girls to take the initiative\nin matters pertaining to the common weal; to lay aside personal whims for\nthe sake of the general good; to take the initiative in growth and culture, in\nthe duties and obligations of life as well as in pleasures; to cultivate right civic\nideals, and intellectual ethical and moral selfhood.\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODIFICATION\n\nOF THE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n5. The high school of the future must have a wiser and closer supervision.\nContact with men and women with breadth of experience, and with farreaching mental and moral acumen, tend more than any other agency to produce **the divine afflatus\" in the breast of the uninitiated. Advisers and\nteachers whose skill and experience warrant their speaking with authority 01\n5\nmust have the loyal support of the community and the state in assisting boys\nand girls to select from the program of studies whatever will be of most help\nto the young students in their Hfe-work. Ample time must be given for this\nfeature of the new high school. Whether the school is to number two thousand\nor three hundred, or whether the classes are to be limited to fifty or ten, the\nsupervisory and teaching force must be so organized that every individual will\nfeel the sympathetic contact with high-minded men and women, and will be\naroused to noble thought and action by teachers and supervisors who are\ninspired by the hand of the divine as manifested in all the various phases of\nnature and human Hfe. Of all periods of human development the highschool student needs the guidance of a careful interpreter who is endowed\nwith a liberal supply of the wisdom of common-sense and is not too bookish;\nwho drinks continually from the fountain-head of perpetual youth and is a\nstudent of human hfe — its impulses, motives, ambitions, success and failure;\nwhose sympathy is as comprehensive as the minds of men, and whose love is\nas deep as the depths of ocean.\n6. The high school should be the common meeting-ground for the whole\ncommunity. Library facihties, lecture associations, political and religious\ngatherings in their broader aspects, high-school extension work, should all\nbe fostered by the high-school organization. Every feature of the active life\nof the community which is a legitimate component of its civilization should be\nrecognized by the high school, and should be used in the work of enhghtening\nand giving character to the community Hfe.\nIn all this work, so hastily and inadequately outlined, the individual as a\nmember of a larger social community must never be lost from view. It is said\nthat Buddha warned his followers against a certain kind of altruism when he\ntold them not to worship him; therefore he told them ''to become,\" and Hke\na wise teacher he showed them \"the way.\" This way the high school should\npoint out by means of inspiration, suggestion, awakening, arousing, stimulating, and correcting to a sense of the necessity of being a positive individual.\nAn active, energetic will must take the place of a preponderance or incHnation\nand willfulness which are most prominent in the early years of the course.\nThe whole sum of character is divisible into its parts, as Shakespeare must\nhave recognized when he made Malcolm speak of the \"king-becoming graces\"\nas justice, verity, temperance, stableness, perseverance, mercy, lowliness,\ndevotion, patience, courage, and fortitude. Many men have possessed one\nor more of these graces, but for our students to stand off and admire such men\nwould make them nothing more than good hero-worshipers. We must have\nour students \"become.\"\nThe teacher above all, first, and, second, the sense\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": null, "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof responsibility which may be aroused in the student, are the two most important factors at work in bringing about the desired result. '' Graduation,\"\nsomeone has said, \"is the vanishing-point of the teacher.\" I might add that\nwhen the student can stand alone, when he becomes a social integer, with the\npower of initiation, with inclinations and will directed toward acquiring the\n\"king-becoming graces,\" then his high-school course will have been completed,\nwhether it be in three years, four years, or six years, and whether it be in\nseparate schools for boys and girls or in coeducational high schools.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nENGLISH\nENGLISH\nWILLIAM\n\nSCHUYLER,\n\nASSISTANT\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nCONFERENCE\nAS AN\n\nART\n\nPRINCIPAL OF THE\nST. LOUIS,\nMO.\n\nSTUDY\nWILLIAM\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLast December Mr. Philo M. Buck and I sent a circular note to over one hundred\nprincipals of high schools, reaching nearly every state in the Union. We asked for information on the following points:\n1. The preparation of the pupils coming from the grammar schools in (a) English language and grammar,\n(i) English literature, (c) Enghsh composition.\n2. What is attempted in the same three lines during the first year in the high school?\n\nTo this letter we received about seventy-five rephes, which I studied with great interest.\nI have not the time to give you a tabulation of these repHes nor any scientific inductions,\nbut only a few inferences dealing with the present state of the teaching of English, and\nan idea or two as to what the best course in English should be.\nMany of the principals addressed were extremely shy of making any definite statements about the preparation their pupils received in the grammar schools, and either\nsent me the course of study or referred me to the city superintendent. Others, however,\nwere quite outspoken, and from their remarks I have learned much. With rare excep,\ntions, the western principals found their pupils well prepared in technical grammarwhile in the East it was just the opposite, and in the middle states sometimes one and\nsometimes the other. Whether this is because the eastern men are more exacting in the\nmatter of grammar requirements, or because the western grammar-school teachers are\nmore conservative, and therefore more thoro, in teaching technical grammar, I cannot\ndecide. Much fault was found in some quarters with the teaching of so much literature\nin the grammar grades, and in others with the fact that pupils, while apparently knowing\ntechnical grammar very well, could not apply it. In all the high schools addressed the\ncourse in English was based upon the \"college requirements,\" with the training in composition and rhetoric very similar. However, from almost every quarter came a strong\nnote of dissatisfaction with the present status of the teaching of English; only Chicago\ngave an indication of perfect satisfaction with the preparation of the pupils and the working of the course of study.\nI give a few extracts from some of the letters which seem quite significant:\n\"The pupil's knowledge of formal analysis is fairly good, but they know very little of English grammar\nan aid to sentence-making.\"\n(Colorado.)\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n503\n\n\"The graded schools here as elsewhere send their pupils to us with more or less knowledge of EngUsh\ngrammar — accurate to a greater or less degree. For all practical purposes they know nothing of the subject.\nThank you for not inquiring after our results.\"\n(Vermont.)\n\"The pupils coming to us from the grammar grades are fairly well acquainted with the different parts\nof speech, and are able to give readily the relationship of the different parts of the sentence. There is a much\nless number of small errors in sentence structure than formerly; but, sad to say, these grammatically correct\nsentences are accompanied by a certain palsy of the imagination. The boys do not see, feel, and think enough.\nI see no reason why accuracy in writing should be accompanied by such a serious fault as the one noted.\"\n(Kentucky.)\n\"The pupils who come to us show little knowledge of English grammar. That is to say, they do not, many\nof them, have the 'sentence sense,' the ability to see where one sentence leaves ofif and another begins, or the\nrelationship of part to part within the sentence. In our high school we are returning to the oldtime reader and\nto a simple text-book in composition. We are trying to teach reading, spelling, and simple composition. That's\nall.\" (Connecticut.)\n\"The greatest drawback is the pupils' poor command of words. They seem to have in their heads only\nan echo of the soimd, and the faintest possible idea of the meaning, of words that are not in ahnost constant\nuse; for instance : 'Blood consists of two kinds of cork screws — red corkscrews and white corkscrews.' \" (Ohio.)\n\"The worst difficulty is to correlate the work between the grades and first-year high school. Here is a\nsort of gap which we find difficult to work over or bridge. It seems that the high-school teacher hardly knows\nwhat to expect of the grade teacher, and vice versa. It seems to me that English and English composition\nare both hard to teach. Is it that English teachers do not know what to aim at ? There is no sort of definiteness\nabout it that I can see.\" (Illinois.)\n\nPerhaps in this last reply lies the whole difficulty that is bothering us English teachers.\nWe do not as a body know what to aim at. With the Harvard idea on the one hand,\nand the Yale idea on the other, and our old faith in grammatical analysis and parsing, we\nare, to say the least, distracted. And the worst of it is that most of us do not know what\nEnglish really is.\nHow many of us can write a page of English, that has elegance and feeling, without\nthinking of the process ? How many can do it at all ? How many read the sloppy\nEnglish of Winston Churchill and his ilk with interest and approval ? How many can\nread aloud to their classes a pathetic scene from one of the \"classics\" — not as an elocutionist, but in such a way as to move the pupils to tears ? How many have even tried to\ndo this ?\nAnd yet the primary aim of all pure literature, as of all other arts, is to awaken in\nus feelings we have never experienced, to give us what Lessing calls a \"noble pleasure,\"\nto open unto us worlds that are not ours. This we have, most of us, forgotten; because\nwe are teachers — trained in pedagogical science. We have tried to teach our noble\nlanguage and literature as a science, whose principles can be memorized and then applied,\nand by which we may show our learning — making brilliant recitations before our admiring\npupils. But often the more learning exhibited, the worse the results. Female teachers\nof EngHsh have suffered from the deadly blight of the Browning Club, and the men from\nthe intellectual miasma arising from theses for the doctor's degree. Listen to some\n\"interpretation\" of a classic to a class whose age is \"sweet sixteen,\" or read, in the edition\nof some \"college requirement,\" the notes, written to show the editor's learning. And then\nwe wonder why so many of our pupils come to hate the classics, and choose their daily\nreading from the bargain counters of the department stores or from the cheap fiction of\nthe pubHc libraries.\nBut English, both composition and literature, is an art study, and must be taught as\nan art, not as a science. Of course, there is a scientific side to language — grammar,\nand a scientific side to literature — rhetoric; like acoustics in music and the theory of color\nin painting. But the art work came first; and the scientific side was developed later by\nthose who could not themselves produce the work of art. It has its value to those who\nwould become speciaHsts; but it is not necessary to the appreciation of art works, and in\na very small degree to the creation of them. In fact, too much emphasis upon this side\ntakes all the heart out of appreciation, and turns the play of creative energy into a dry\npedantic exercise. In the secondary schools technical grammar is best mastered in the\nstudy of some foreign language — especially Latin and Greek — and rhetoric belongs,\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": null, "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nexcept the most elementary notions, to the college curriculum, or to the last year of the\nsecondary school.\nOnly two objects should be aimed at in the secondary course in English: (i) the\npower to write in modern style clear and forcible, if not elegant, English; and (2) the\ncapacity of fully appreciating and truly loving our great literature.\nSo, half the time of the English course should be devoted to composition — composition written and corrected in class by the pupils — the whole being overseen and directed\nby the teacher, and the grammar and rhetoric being taught incidentally as required by\nthe young writer. As I said, English composition is an art, and it must be taught as\nthe art of painting is taught in the studios. Do we find pupils in the fine arts learning\nrules and exceptions ? On the contrary, the teacher sets them to work doing something —\nreproduction or original — and, when they go wrong, shows them how to make it right.\nHe tries to have them first see and feel; then express what they feel and see.\nLikewise, the teacher of composition should not only be able to write well, but should\nlove to write. One cannot teach drawing who cannot draw, and one cannot teach it\nwell unless one loves to draw — is, in fact, an artist. There are some pupils who have\nso much of the \"divine afilatus\" that they wiU write and write well in spite of all the\nteacher can do to prevent them by keeping them in the strait-jacket of grammatical and\nrhetorical perfection; but it is a truism to say that unless the teacher really loves the work\nin hand he cannot arouse the interest and enthusiasm of his pupils. And the interest\nand enthusiasm of the writer make most of the difference between good and bad writing.\nThe composition teacher should be an instructor in good writing, not a critic of\npoor writing. He should arouse in his pupils feelings they have never felt before, make\nthem see what they have never seen before, and then set them to writing. I have seen\nreal teachers do this in high schools, and the results are wonderful; not only full of imagination and feeling, but in genuine good English — not \"schoolmaster's English.\" The\nsentences were simple, but good in structure; for every pupil is born with the sentence\nstructure in him, and it will develop as his thought develops. Children write just as they\nfeel and think — no better, no worse. The disheartening results come when they try to\nwrite as others feel and think, or as they have been taught to beUeve that they ought to\nfeel and think. On the other hand, I have seen in pupils' themes produced under this\n\"art method\" actual elegance in EngUsh — to be sure, childish elegance. But would you\nhave it otherwise?\nI know many people who speak and write the best English, who have never looked\ninside an English grammar; but all their lives they had heard and read nothing but the\nvery best. I have had pupils who could analyze and diagram the most complex sentences\nperfectly, but who could not talk two minutes without glaring mistakes in grammar;\nfor at home and on the street they had heard nothing but the worst possible English.\nBut how may these poor children of ungrammatical parents and un-English surroundings be made to write and speak correctly ? By the frequent proper reading of our hterature. I mean artistic, not hasty, superficial or heartless reading. Not only should every\nteacher of English be required to show the ability to write clear and forcible, and even\nelegant, Enghsh; but he should also be required to read orally, not only intelligently and\ninteUigibly, but with feeling. Our pupils read with more feeling in the fourth grade\nthan in the high school. But every pupil who has feelings has in him the ability to read\nwell, if only he be encouraged by a teacher who knows how. It is of little consequence\nif the pupil can give in examination the date of the deportation of the Arcadians or the\ncorrect pronunciation of loup garou; but of vital moment if his eyes grow moist at the\ndeath of Gabriel.\nThe other half of the time of the Enghsh course should be given to oral reading in\nwhich the teacher should be the leader, the inspirer of a love for the art works of our\nnoble language. There should be no second-hand criticism of our great masters. The\nmind of adolescence revolts from criticism.\nIt wants to feel; and it should be helped to\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n505\n\nfeel deeply and truly. It is not the imparted knowledge of Carlyle's rank in literature\nthat we need, but the stirring effect of Carlyle's noble heroics upon the youthful soul.\nIt is worse than useless to learn \"lists of words,\" with their definitions, derivations,\nand diacritical marks attached; for words learned out of connection are unfertile. But\nfertile, pregnant language comes from hearing new words frequently spoken or read in\nconnection with the ideas they express. In this way the most dehcate shades of meaning\ngrow evident. There is also no need of asking the meaning of words if the pupil reads\nintelligently — for by this he has shown that he understands the subject. And for strange\nand new words, a definition, given by the teacher, and pointed by the connection, will\nbe far more fruitful than the dry results of any dictionary investigation.\nAbove all, the reading hour should be a time of unmixed pleasure — a \"play hour,\"\nso to speak. We teachers have been so anxious to get profit from Uterature that we have\nforgotten that without pleasure there is no profit in any form of art, and that with true\npleasure there is all profit. If a pupil feels that he is not obhged to learn anything when\nhe reads his classics, but is going to enjoy himself thoroly, then he will carry away much\nthat is valuable and lasting, and, what is of much more consequence, will love his author.\nIt may be said by the way that the list of the \"college classics\" should be greatly\nextended and a wide choice allowed, so that the teacher may have fresh pastures. There\nis nothing so deadening to artistic enthusiasm as going over and over the same work.\nEven the greatest masterpieces pall on too frequent repetition.\nIn conclusion I would say that we must never forget that the English course is an\nart course, and that the teachers should be trained from this point of view. The teacher's\nexamination in English should consist of an original essay, and of readings from the best\nauthors. And we shall have no difficulty whatever in obtaining the proper sort of teachers\nfrom among our bright American men and brighter American women, if we only let them\nfeel that what is expected from them is art work and not pedagogical grind.\n\nDISCUSSION\nOF THE\n\nREPORT OF THE SUBCOMMITTEE\nTO THE ASSOCIATED ACADEMIC\nNEW\n\nE. O. HOLLAND,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF THE\n\nON THE COURSE OF STUDY IN ENGLISH\nPRINCIPALS OF THE STATE OF\n\nYORK, DECEMBER,\n\nENGLISH\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\n1903 '\n\nBOYS' HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nKY.\n\nNo one, it seems to me, can offer any serious objections to this proposed course\nof study. Yet all of us must concede that any uniform course has its dangers and difficulties; and this one is no exception to the rule, for attempts at uniformity will frequently\ntend to destroy the individuality and effectiveness both of teacher and of student. Let\nus take up a number of the most important suggestions and consider them as fully as\nwe may.\nIn the introduction we find the statement that under no circumstances shall a foreign\nlanguage take the place of the English, and that a full four-year course in EngUsh should\nbe required. Few teachers would care to object to this recommendation. Further on\nwe find this splended definition: \"English is one indivisible subject. It may not be\nbroken up into parts, one part to be taught one year, another part the next year, and so\non.\" The committee rightly insists that there shall be no line of demarkation between\n\"grammar,\" \"composition,\" \"rhetoric,\" and \"literary interpretation;\" for the purpose\nof the English course is certainly not to give so much information; its aim is above that;\nit is intended to cultivate a discriminating taste for the best literature, and to give the\nstudents the abiUty to write and talk with ease and effectiveness.\nIn the discussion of written composition we find the statement that \"the student is\nto be set composing immediately, and is to be kept at it thruout the four years.\"\nAll of\n' Copies of this report can be obtained from Arthur Marvin, principal of high school, Schenectady, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": null, "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Seconoaiy\n\nus, I think, agree with this, as well as with the further assertion that \"subjects disconnected with the student's life and study are to be discouraged.\" But when we turn to\nthe consideration of the definite outline at the end of the report, I think there is cause for\na difference of opinion. It seems to me that entirely too much written composition is\nbased upon the books studied, and not enough upon the actual experiences of the students.\nThis feeling is strengthened when I find that apparently much of the reading has been\nselected mainly for the purpose of illustrating and enforcing the principles of composition.\nUndoubtedly over one-third of the time devoted to English should be given to the written\ncomposition, but I am convinced that composition work loses interest and vigor when it\nleans too much upon the study of literature. My own observation has led me to believe\nthat the most interesting essays written by the students are based upon their own experiences. And no one for a minute would want to detract from the composition work.\nAnother danger is that the literature study itself will lose if the students feel that lurking\nbehind every page is a subject for an essay. However, the judgment of the teacher would\nprobably detect this danger and obviate it. Personally I believe that more care should\nbe taken to keep up the interest in the composition work than in the literature study.\nWithout great effort on the part of the English teacher today, most high-school students\ncome to have an appreciation for good literature, but the greatest skill is required to get\nthe students to acquire facility and effectiveness in the use of the mother-tongue. There\nis danger in too close co-ordination of the literature study and the written composition.\nI believe that the general order suggested by the committee for composition work —\ni. e., narration, description, exposition, and argumentation — is correct, but it seems to\nme that more time at the beginning should be taken to develop ease and facility in writing,\nand less in the discussion of the principles involved in the various kinds of composition.\nIt seems to me, too, that paragraphing cannot be well taught when the class is dealing\nwith narration, for with narration, which should certainly be the basis for the composition work of the entire first year, the teacher should spend more time in calling attention\nto errors in sentence structure and in encouraging a more discriminating choice of words\nthan in discussing paragraphing, sequence, and emphasis. I think there is danger in cramping the expression of the young student by discussing the more difficult elements of composition before he has acquired sufficient ease in writing simple, straightforward English.\nHowever, I do want heartily to commend the proposed course as a whole. In it\nthere is no mention of the old and fatal distinction of the \"form\" and \"thought\" sides\nof literature. It is sane thruout, and is worthy of the most careful consideration of all\nEnglish teachers.\n\nLABORATORY\nPHILO\n\nMELVYN\n\nBUCK,\n\nMETHOD\n\nJR., HEAD\n\nIN ENGLISH\n\nCOMPOSITION\n\nOF DEPARTMENT\nOF ENGLISH,\nSCHOOL,\nST. LOUIS,\nMO.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nNo science is taught today as a mere abstract of laws, as carefully tabulated and\narranged facts to be digested long before any practical application of them be attempted.\nSo also we are doing in art, and so we are beginning to do in EngHsh composition. But\nhere mediaeval methods have yet too much influence, and we, at times, still try to teach\nEnglish as we for a thousand years have been teaching Greek and Latin. Now, the\nresults of 4;his inverted process is almost invariably a lack of pleasure, a lack of interest.\nThe problem of arousing interest in the class that is about to write a composition is\none of the most difficult we teachers in Enghsh have to face. It is a self-evident fact\nthat without interest there can be no living work in composition. The author must bring\nthe best of himself to his work; he must kindle what he has to write with the fire of his\nimagination, and let it glow in the heat of his own personality.\nWithout this his work\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n507\n\nwill be dead; formally correct perhaps, rhetorically unassailable maybe, but nevertheless\na very clever lay-figure, a wax-work figure utterly without life.\nHow then shall the teacher attempt to gain this personal interest of the pupil in his\nwork ? There are several things that must be kept in mind most carefully.\nFirst, the writing must be more or less spontaneous; that is, the pupil must be brought\nto the point where he wants to write; where his fingers itch for the pencil; where composition becomes a natural effort, almost as necessary as breathing, certainly as necessary as\ntalking to his classmate. This may be accompUshed. Yes, experience has shown that\nmany English teachers do really get their pupils — not the exceptional members of a class,\nthose would write in spite of the worst teacher — they do get their pupils to write with\nevident pleasure.\nFirst of all a suflScient latitude should be given in choice of a subject. Do not confine the class to one subject alone. How would this section of English teachers, professional composition makers we should be, like to be put down, one and all, to write a\n\"Description of a Field at Sunset,\" or to discourse on the merits of \"Honesty,\" or to dilate\non that charming theory \"The Early Bird Catches the Worm,\" or to wax eloquent over\n\"Washington Irving's Style,\" or to dissipate the darkness that covers the subject, \"The\nPoet and the Nation\" ? I have selected most of these from a too well-known text-book.\nWould we, all of us, unite with evident pleasure and write — write the best that is in us ?\nDo not, then, pin your faith to the exercises in the rhetorics, except when you are sure\nthey will suit; rather search yourselves, and from your own experience draw your themes.\nSome days ago an English teacher, a friend and colleague of mine, gave his pupils\nthe following list of subjects for descriptions, Each pupil was to write on one alone,\nand that the one Which most interested him: (i) \"A Street-Car Conductor,\" (2) \"A\nRag Man,\" (3) \"A Hot Tamali Man,\" (4) \"A Ragged Newsboy,\" (5) \"A Dude,\" (6) \"A\nLost Child; \" and others I have forgotten. He told me the class never had a more interesting day in writing.\nBut this is not all. A mere assignment of a subject in some such voice, \"The class\nwill write today on one of the five subjects on the board,\" will fail incontinently. The\nteacher must work his pupils up to the point where they must write or — explode. This\nmay be done in a variety of ways : by an interesting talk prefacing the day's exercises, by\nmeans of which you inspire the pupils with an idea that they and they alone can do\nthe task; or, if the subject be a narrative, by a skillfully told story that arouses interest\nand then request that one be told that is suggested by it. I remember a friend of mine —\nnot the one I mentioned before; our chairman knows to whom I refer — read to his class\nKiphng's story of \" Rikki-Tikki-Tavi, the Mongoose,\" and then asked the children to tell\nhim on paper an original animal story. (They did it, and \"did themselves proud.\") Only\none, and she a poor little German girl who had evidently misunderstood him, told the\nstory of a mongoose.\nThe rest all told stories of animals familiar to them.\nIt is easy from what I have said to gather that I do not believe that much of the composition work of the first year or two, at least in high school, should be done at home.\nYou can get better results if it be done in the class-room.\nWhile the class is busy writing, the teacher should be equally busy, but not at his\ndesk reading. Pass around the class, pointing out defects to this one, patting that boy\non the back, encouraging this dilatory one whose thought and pen labor. Half of the\nwork of correction can be done long before the themes are handed in. Come down to\nthe same plane with your pupils, and then you can help them. Speak as one with authority,\nbut also as one who knows the heart and feelings of those he has in charge.\nAfter the papers are all handed in, is the work of the pupils finished on them ? By no\nmeans. Many may need to be rewritten. All will need to be corrected; and here comes\nwhat most of us English teachers perhaps justly regard as an unmitigated bore. But\nthere is a way out of this even. Have them passed around the class by the pupils, and\nlet the class criticise and correct each other's work.\n\nMistakes in spelling, punctuation.\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": null, "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand grammar they are merciless in pointing out. But there are wider and deeper questions that they may well be intrusted with. They can detect what is good as well as what\nis bad. Only be very definite in the instructions you give for their criticisms. I find\nthat I succeed best when I put on the board a series of questions that cannot be\nanswered by a mere yes or no. The following are a few I have used. They instantly\nsuggest others. The class at the time was studying \"narration,\" and especially the value\nof words of action.\n1. Pick out the words that should suggest action. If you can, substitute better ones and note the effect.\n2. Is there any matter that does not help along the story?\nOmit it and note the effect.\n3. Is the arrangement the best?\nIf possible, better it.\n\nHave the themes first read very carefully and then the questions answered. When\nsomething can be bettered by a rewriting, and the critic sees a way by which it can be done,\nlet him do it. The writer need not agree with him. While the work of criticism is in\nprogress, let the pupils confer with one another. They will not step beyond the bounds\nof propriety, for they are far too interested in their work. Of course, they will want to\nuse you as a final arbiter. But you must play this role very gracefully. Be very careful\nhow you condemn.\nNever so word your condemnations as to give pain or to discourage.\nAfter the corrections by the class are all made, the papers may be turned in to the\nteacher. Much of the disagreeable work has already been done, and it is now his business\nto glean after the harvesters.\nI find that the class is always interested, when the essays are brought back, to note\nwhat remarks have been appended to each. There is always a discussion of these. The\ngood is commended.\n\nViolent wrenches of the king's English are noted but the author's\n\nname is not given. Some teachers have kept on the black-board\" a museum of what\nmay be called the \"freak English\" used in the class. This plan has its advantages.\nI do not recommend any definite plan; only I do say, whenever the serpent, bad English,\nshows his ugly head, smite it, and smite hard, but do not smite the user.\nBut I have already used up my time. I would only say, in conclusion, that the cure\nfor lack of interest in writing is writing.\n\nDISCUSSION\n[reported by ELIZABETH H. CARR, CENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO.]\n\nJ. Remsen Bishop, Walnut Hills School, Cincinnati, O. — About five years ago severe\ncomplaints arose in our city, especially among business men, that our schools were turning\nout pupils writing slovenly EngUsh, poor letters, etc. To meet this complaint it was\ndecided to correlate the work in English composition and education. A manuscript\nteacher was appointed who had no other duties than that of meeting her pupils once a\nweek. Here the work was both oral and written. It did not proceed according to any\nbook. The distinction between narration and description was often lost sight of, and\nargumentation was forgotten entirely. In oral work every pupil was required to tell\nbefore his classmates an original adventure. The experience in oral expression was\nfound very helpful toward written themes.\nA written composition was handed in every two weeks, which was corrected and\nhanded back for revision. Thus the idea of what a paragraph is was gained from corrections made by the teacher. It was found, moreover, that the pupils liked to rewrite\ntheir essays.\nThe plan here outlined was humbly conceived and humbly followed; the effort was\nonly to improve in the mechanics of writing.\nHow can teachers find time for extended composition work in connection with their\nwork on interpretation of the classics?\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nENGLISH\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n509\n\nJohn Richeson, superintendent of city schools, East St. Louis, 111. — In talks with\naged people of sixty or more it is found that they incUne to relate reminiscences in which\nthe tragical or unpleasant predominates. Teachers of English have a very great opportunity of carrying pupils away from the sensational and morbid, as it is found in the\ndaily papers, and to get them to think on the pleasant incidents of their lives. Thus the\ngreatest results may come from the efforts of such teachers, in consequence of which they\nshould be better paid.\nMiss Frances Wilde, Kirkwood, Mo. — Essays may be corrected before they are\nwritten. Enthusiasm alone will not secure good results in a classic composition. As a\nclass in physical culture gains grace thru constant practice, so in composition pupils can\nlearn to avoid errors in EngUsh by what may be called composition gymnastics. Thus\nmy pupils are asked to combine six or eight sentences into one complex, balanced, or\n'periodic sentence. The effect of a little of this formal work each day is quickly seen in\nthe essays. As much as possible must be done to forestall weariness on the part of the\nteacher. To gain the best results moral, mental, and physical poise are necessary to the\nteacher.\nMiss Harriet L. Keeler, assistant in Central High School, Cleveland, O. — At\nthis time, when written work is being made the test in schools and colleges, it is good to\nhear someone emphasize reading aloud. A class that has read a text, as for example\nMacbeth, aloud, in a thoroly intelligent and intelligible manner, is quite as well prepared\nto meet the requirements of the Harvard entrance examinations as a class that has studied\nand interpreted it. Read, I pray you.\nW. W. Earnest, superintendent of city schools, Macomb, 111. — As a teacher of 130\npupils for the past two years I have gained much experience in the work, and may well\noffer a suggestion, namely, that subjects for composition should possess natural interest\nand should be of such a character as to prevent the children from seeking aid from encyclopaedias and other literary sources. Essays should be written once in two weeks, and no\nHne should be drawn between the narrative and descriptive kind. If the subjects appeal\nto the students, the teacher will find no little ground for hilarity in reading them.\nMiss Nina Updike, St. Charles, Minn. — Ought the study of the history of Uterature\nto be taken up during the third and fourth years of the high school ?\nMiss F. R. Perrin, St. Louis, Mo. — ^It seems that the study of Hterature can best\nbe studied in combination with history.\nMiss Florence L. Rogers, Burlington, la. — As we learn to know people best by\nconversing with them, so we learn to know authors best by reading them.\nMiss Esther Mills, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. — ^No work of literature\ncan be understood or enjoyed without an acquaintance with the author — ^his life, environment, and the spirit of his time. Teachers ought not to attempt to present a classic before\ntheir pupils without touching, incidentally at least, upon the life and personality of the\nauthor.\nMiss L. B Everett, Selma, Cal. — According to the course of study in CaUfornia,\nthe history of Hterature is studied during the last year of high school. Experience has\nshown that it appeals only to a select few. Would it not be better if it were made an\nelective ? Much of the work of the senior year in high school, like the history of Uterature,\nseems beyond the range of the average senior.\nJ. M. Gambrill, department of English and history, Baltimore Polytechnic Institute, Alberton, Md. — The history of Enghsh Hterature ought not to form part of a highschool curriculum as a formal study. A manual is used in the Baltimore Polytechnic\nInstitute rather as a book of reference. It is used in connection with Ivanhoe for the specific purpose of getting pupils interested in Scott thru a knowledge of his characteristics\nand preferences, whereby the boy wiU soon desire to know what Scott wrote.\nThe study\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": null, "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof history of literature formally presented to the immature pupil would be as undesirable\nas studying the philosophy of history without previously having pursued the study of\nhistory.\nMiss Diana Sime, De Forest, Wis. — How many are in the habit of teaching literature\nchronologically ?\nMiss Lillian Graves, St. Louis, Mo. — In Mary Institute it is the custom to teach\nChaucer during the first year and Shakespeare during the second, and in this way to\nfollow the development of English literature.\nJames M. Miller, Chester, W. Va. — Some pupils are interested in the history of\nliterature and some in hterature alone. Is it not possible to teach them so that the class\nwill be interested in both?\n\nMATHEMATICS\nWHAT\nJOHN\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nSTUDY OF MATHEMATICS IS NEEDED BY THE MAN\nA VERA GE ED UCA TION FOR PRA CTICA L LIFE ?\n\nS. FRENCH,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF MATHEMATICS,\n\nJACOB\n\nTOME\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nPORT\n\nOF\n\nDEPOSIT,\n\nMD.\n\nIn what follows I propose to consider in general the part played by mathematics in\nthe training of the average man; this to be followed by a consideration of the different\ntopics as to their places in the curriculum, and as to methods most effective in bringing\nabout the results defined by their various functions in the achievement of the general object.\nEver since Xenocrates called it the handle by which to get hold of philosophy, mathematics has played an important (altho somewhat exaggerated) part in schools as a mental\ndiscipline. With the invention of analytic geometry by Descartes, in 1637, there came\na revolution in methods when the so-called geometric method was superseded by algebra.\nThis, together with the infinitesimal calculus laid the foundation of modern mathematics,\nwhich, in the hands of a remarkable array of talent, has shown itself indispensable in\nscientific research, not only in effecting a co-ordination of the facts gained by observation\ninto a systematic theory, but also in anticipating certain results to be obtained from\nexperiment. Thus mathematics has come to play another important role in education\nin preparing certain students for future special work.\nLastly, and what is universal in our age of push and among a people purely industrial and commercial, it must at once be recognized that the technique of mathematics\nis indispensable to the employee whose habits of accuracy, facihty of process, and capacity\nof apphcation are essential to the success of the industry, and fundamental to the administrator whose powers of classification and organization explain the existence of so many\ncolossal enterprises.\nIt appears, then, that mathematics has a threefold function to perform, and in the\nimmediate attainment of the objects noted above, which must appear of tantamount\nimportance to a liberal training, I venture to say there is no field so fertile, so rich in\nresources, offering so many inducements to the prospector — i. e., the genuine teacher —\nas is contained in mathematical study.\nIt develops the powers of observation and retention more readily than any other\nscience. From a utiUty standpoint, its \"practical examination\" in the battle of Manila,\nwhere, as Dr. Hodge so aptly expresses it, \"the battle was won by having woven into the\nwarp and woof of the brains of those gunners the mathematical truth that it is only waste\nof time and ammunition to pull the trigger of a cannon until it is aimed mathematically\nstraight,\" its requirement in all construction work — these are only a few of the many\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n511\n\nattestations of the intimacy of mathematical education to every human interest, individual\nand national.\nIt is a wonderful thing to realize that man has acquired a wider knowledge of the\nworld in the last 250 years than in all the preceding centuries. We may, I think, ascribe\nthe great strides of the last two and a half centuries to three sources; viz., the eUmination\nof the church as a dominating influence in education, the invention of mechanical aids\nand appliances, and the application of mathematical principles to the systematizing of\nnatural phenomena. And I dare say that, referring to the future, the one overshadowing\ncriterion of the successful advance in scientific circles will be the efiiciency in mathematical research which leads to experimental discovery, which in turn admits of a\ncommercial phase by putting into practice with profit the practical application of this\ndiscovery.\nIt seems almost evident, then, that the education of our youth, threefold in purpose —\nnamely, for the advancement of scientific knowledge in the study of nature's laws, for the\ndevelopment of our mechanical and industrial resources, and for the upbuilding of principle in the maintenance of a people rich in material wealth and all that goes to make\nhigh character — is conditioned by a mathematical training.\nTo the uncritical observer, in view of a certain discontent among pupils toward\nmathematical study which tends to make it ineffective, and because of certain well-defined\nefforts to subordinate it in the secondary course to the study of natural science, it might\nseem that the importance of the study of mathematics had been overemphasized. This\nineffectiveness is due, as I see it, to three causes: misjudgment as to the immediate object\nof mathematical teaching, its improper arrangement in the curriculum, and the lack of\na teaching force adequate to its demands.\nAltho the chief aim of secondary education is cultural, we must not ignore the fact\nthat the necessities of the strenuous life demand a cultural training leaning as much as\npossible on the material side. Mathematics is a classic in the history of cultural education,\nyet I beheve its fitness today in the curriculum is best demonstrated by making practical\nutihty its chief end. Again, the subject-matter of mathematics is pecuUarly adapted to\nthe logical order of development, but I am firmly convinced that up to the period of adolescence, inwhich is the dawn of the powers of logical reason, only those parts of number\nand form should come into the teaching which are most receptive to the child in the course\nof mental errowth.\nThe inefficiency of the teachers of mathematics is one of the serious problems for\nsolution in our educational work. It seems to come from a tendency to rely too much on\nthe text-book, which in turn is due primarily to a narrow knowledge of the subjects, on\nthe .one hand, and a lack of appreciation of the student's powers of comprehension, on the\nother. Again, no subject has suffered more than mathematics from the narrow and rigid\nprescriptions from institutions of higher learning whose dominance has to a great degree\nstripped the secondary institution of its independence. Just as long as the measure\nof a successful completion of requirements in a subject is the abiUty to pass collegeentrance examinations, just so long will our methods of instruction remain narrowed\ndown to and into the rut of machine processes, with a corps of instructors whose abiUties\nneed not extend beyond the field of the drillmaster.\nFor mathematics to be successfully taught in the secondary school, it must be freed\nfrom the yoke of the narrow college-entrance requirements. It must be in the hands of\ninstructors whose knowledge of the various branches is such as to bring into use the methods\nof instruction adapted to the ends sought. They must have such an appreciation of the\ninterrelations of the different branches as to bring before the students that most powerful\nconception that the symbols of each with its methods of operation are in many instances\nonly different modes of reaching substantially the same conclusion; and, what is more\nimportant, they should develop, by example, in the students the power of discernment as\nto the proper method to use in concrete application.\nWith practical utihty as a basis.\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": null, "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ninstruction should be conducted in such a manner as to make evident the practical usefulness of the different parts, at the same time bearing in mind that these parts together go\nto make up a systematic course.\nIn regard to the subordination of mathematics to physics in the secondary curriculum,\nI must say I am not in sympathy with such an extreme step. Physics, it seems to me, if\nmade subject to a development based on logical sequence and mathematical formulae, is\nstripped of its virility for the boys in the middle and early teens. Like Clerk Maxwell,\nwhen a boy, they are interested in the \"go\" of things, and the laboratory should be their\ntext-book.\nI am, however, heartily in sympathy with a correlation of the two; in fact, the converging to one common ground of the laboratory experiment and the applied mathematical\ndevelopment will conserve in the pupil an interest which is bound not to wane, and at the\nsame time will cause him to scent the possibility of the intimate connection between light,\nheat, and electricity. What better stimulus than this is there for the development of\nindependent thought — the true goal of education ? To make this correlation most effective, we should include in the group manual training and mechanical dravsdng.\nWe come now to the consideration of the various branches of mathematics with\nregard to their places in the curriculum.\nThe subjects of which the curriculum is made up may be classified into general and\nspecial. Under the classification general I shall include all subjects regarded as fundamental in a liberal education; those subjects classified as special have to do, primarily,\nwith preparation for some future vocations. For convenience in illustration, let us assume\nthat the electives, which constitute the special class, are offered by the group system, and,\nin accord with general opinion that this system is found properly in the last two years of\nthe, at present existing, high-school course.\nI am of the opinion that from the time when the pupil's capacity is maximal for fixing\nin mind the fundamental operations for small numbers up to the introduction of electives,\nsome form of mathematics should find place in each year's program. I make this statement on the ground that consecutive study adds greatly to efl&ciency in the study of mathematical technique, while its presence does not cause a displacement of other topics more\nsuited to the needs of the pupil's mental condition.\nIn the grades the pupil should obtain a working knowledge of the fundamental\noperations of arithmetic, tested by his skill in using the tables and in applying them to\ncontinued multiplication and division; with an appreciation of algebraic notation as\nused for abridging and facilitating arithmetical processes; and with a true concept of\ngeometric figures and a knowledge of certain mutual relations between them. All instruction in arithmetic should be centered about the fundamental operations, and the topics of\nfactoring, fractions, percentage, interest, taxes, and simple denominate numbers should\ntend to give practical applications of these operations. The introduction of algebraic\nprocesses should be gradual and brought about in such a way as to make the pupil appreciative of the generalities of algebra. This introductory work should include the fundamental operations, factoring, H. C. F. and L. C. M. of monomials, fractions (in my opinion,\nthis should be the beginning of the study of fractions, as a part of the number concept and\nnumerical fractions should be taught as an application), the solution of all arithmetical\nproblems by the equation so long as consistent with facility, and very elementary work\nwith type-forms. The study of geometry should bring into use the metrical properties as\nusually taken up uttder mensuration.\nThe pupil enters the high school, then, well skilled in the operations of addition,\nmultiplication, substraction, and division; with a knowledge of some of the simpler applications. This reduction to a minimum of intricate applications means simply a postponement of technical arithmetic to a later period when as a special subject it shall be taught\nto pupils for immediate use. He has become acquainted with the symbolic language of\nelementary algebra, and has thru its use come to appreciate algebra as generalized arith-\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n513\n\nmetic, and, wherever feasible, has used it for solving arithmetical problems. Thus is\nobviated the difficulties found in beginning algebra in the usual way, and which are due\nto strangeness of expressions and methods. His knowledge of geometric figures gained in\nthe study of form has freed him from embarrassment in later work, caused otherwise by\ngaining false notions, and he has learned to apply number to form.\nThe elementary algebra of the first high-school year should have for its immediate\naim the mastery of hnear and quadratic equations, paying particular regard to the applications where the possibiUties of solutions and interpretations of results are most important\nin their practical aspects. This immediate aim in no wise detracts from the force of\nmathematical study as a mental discipline, nor does it impugn the ultimate aim of higher\nmathematical development in establishing a systematic theory for the extension of the\nnumber concept, because of the necessity of interpretations in solutions not expressible\nby the ordinary numbers of arithmetic, and the mastery of type-forms in the classification of\nalgebraic expressions to faciUtate and abridge operations, these may be shown in later\nwork, and without any alteration of definitions to fit into a universal theory. Care should\nbe taken not to bring into the work long and complicated apphcations of principles. Teaching should always be commensurate with the power of assimilation; otherwise it might\ncause mental indigestion.\nPlane geometry, which is usually taught in the second year, owes its presence in the\ncurriculum to the demand of college authorities. This is the only apology which I can\noffer for the presence of the subject employing the methods prevalent in current textbooks. As a mental discipline simply, it has no place in the modern curriculum. As to\nthe general field of mathematics, its methods caused a stagnation of development for twenty\ncenturies, the tremendous advance of late years being due primarily to the supersedure of\nalgebraic for geometric methods. The chief purpose of geometry in the curriculum is a\nstudy of the properties of space, and it should be taught as a practical subject.\nIn contrast to the existing demonstrational and deductive methods, they should be\nobservational and inductive. The one consists of a collection of facts obtained from\nobservation and verified by experiment; the other is a series of properties whose right to\nfit into a definite system founded on definite assumptions is shown by demonstration. The\nfirst cultivates individual initiative in the discovery (to the pupil) of new truths — an acquirement attainable by all pupils; the second cultivates the power of exact reasoning — ^an\nacquirement attainable, from this source, by practically no pupil. The first sharpens by\nprogressive development; the second dulls by a lack of evident usefulness.\nThe material of observational geometry should be such as will easily find its place in\nmechanical drawing and physics. It should include accurate familiarity with geometric\nconcepts and properties of geometric figures, constructions with the ruler and dividers,\nexperimental verification, and perhaps later demonstrations based on earlier experiences.\nIn connection with the observational geometry the study of logarithms should be\ntaken up, with the end that it furnishes a tool by which all numerical computations involving involution, evolution, and continued multiplication and division, may be most readily\nsolved. The elements of trigonometry should come into the third-year course as a general\ntopic; the instructor should have constantly in mind the practical side of the subject, and\nthe course should be supplemented by field work.\nWith the introduction of electives in the third-year comes a bifurcation in mathematics, as a special subject, designed to meet the needs of preparatory and nonpreparatory students. For the former the study of algebra should be continued, with\nthe idea of developing technique. With this in view, particular attention should be paid\nto methods, and the full force of the formula for classifying should be taught. This course\nfurnishes one of the best examples of the necessity of an efficient teaching force.\nFor those students who are preparing for a business career the study of merchantile\narithmetic should be pursued at this time. It is here that there should come a thoro\ntraining in apphcations of arithmetical processes to the more advanced forms of merchan-\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": null, "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ntile technique.\nThe work of the fourth year should be the same as is ordinarily prescribed\nin the first college year.\nIn making up this course of study primal consideration was given to the following\npoints:\n1. Practical utility should be the basis of our work.\n2. Each subject should play a definite part in the attainment of the general object,\nand instruction in this should make its functions achievable by practically every pupil.\n3. Subjects introduced, and methods employed, should follow the laws of mental\ncondition as a result of growth.\n4 All the subjects should admit of correlation. It remains with the teacher, finally,\nto employ the proper methods in order that this course shall cultivate in the pupil facility\nand rapidity of operation — ^prerequisites to success in the business world; a mastery of forms\nand processes — so essential to success in scientific research; and the habit of accuracy and\nthe power of observation — ^most valuable tools in the hands of a man whatever be his\nvocation.\n\nWHAT\n\nIS THE LEAST AMOUNT OF MATHEMATICS THAT\nBE IN ANY SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSE?^\n\nSAMUEL\n\nB. TINSLEY,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nIN\n\nMATHEMATICS,\n\nBOYS' HIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nSHOULD\n\nLOUISVILLE,\n\nKY.\n\nWhat is the least amount of mathematics that should be in any secondary-school\ncourse? In our educational system we have reached that point where the building of\nthe curriculum is of great importance. So many new studies are now clamoring for recognition that the practical and disciplinary value of each subject is placed under the microscope of practical application and scrutinized as never before. We must therefore study,\nnot only the educational value of the individual subject, but also its value in its natural\ncorrelation with other subjects.\nWhile it is true that a place for mathematics in our secondary school is assured, yet\nwould not a limited amount of arithmetical study be sufficient for the absolute material\nneeds of a great majority of mankind ? What is to be gained, then, by mathematical\ninstruction in our schools? Is a further study of this subject of practical value? It is;\nand by that word \"practical\" I mean that any subject is practical if it is necessary to the\nstudent for the better understanding of what he is doing; if it furnishes a means by which\nfurther acquirements are made possible.\nIn its entire range physics is, to a great extent, nothing else than applied mathematics.\nEven in its elementary forms a thorough study of at least the elements of algebra and\ngeometry are required for a clear understanding of the subject. Not only that, but it\nis the key that unlocks the underground knowledge of all science.\nA few days ago, when I was in my room at school jotting down a few notes for this\ntalk, one of my best boys came in, and to my reply in answer to his question as to what I\nwas doing said: \"I'll bet it will be good and plenty.\" The amount of mathematics I\nhave to offer today may seem to some of you at least plentiful, but I doubt very much\nwhether the time taken to cover it will be more than is usually given in the secondaryschool course.\nIn algebra a thorough course up to and including quadratic equations would be\nsufficient for any demand made upon the subject. Many of the merely formal difficulties\ncould be greatly subordinated or omitted altogether. Let us go through our algebra with\na blue pencil, scratching out here and emphasizing there some special topic.\nIn that part of the algebra which I have indicated I would suggest the omission\n^By request of the author the amended\npaper. — [Editor.]\n\nspellings adopted by the Association are not used in this\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n515\n\nof the theoretical considerations of the law of signs; curious combinations of brackets and\nparentheses; resolution of elaborate expressions into factors; highest common factor by\nmeans of successive division; the simplifying of fractions many times compounded; simultaneous equations of more than three unknown quantities; the binomial theorem, except\nfor the square and the cube, and artificially difficult combinations of indices. I have been\nmaking these omissions with my own classes for several years, and I do not find that it\nhandicaps them the least in the subjects that follow. I would emphasize the equation\nand make the study revolve about it as the center. The use of such forms of equations\nas arise in physics and other allied subjects should be used constantly. Factoring and its\nrelation to the equation should receive a great deal of attention. In solving the quadratic\nequation, aside from factoring it, let us teach only one method of completing the square,\nbut teach that method well. Results in the form of X =\n\n^ is all right for the mathe-\n\nmatics teacher, but in practical life it would far better be in a decimal.\nBy omitting some of the topics indicated, time may be found for the introduction of\nother things while studying the subject. Why not work in with the chapter on exponents\na study of the simple properties of the logarithm ? Much of the mystery surrounding the\noperations with logarithms would disappear if the student can be made clearly to see that\nthe laws for exponents hold for numbers as well as for letters. A few calculations vidth\nthe logarithm table would also give practice in mental calculations and decimals.\nOne of our dicta, important but now almost commonplace, is that the mind must be\nimpressed through the senses. Make use of the squared paper and introduce graphical\nmethods in elementary algebra. While much cannot be given along this line, yet it will\nhelp the student to a better understanding of not only the algebraic problems and equations,\nbut of the graphical treatment now given to so many subjects.\nIt has been said that \"the way to educate a man is to set him to work; the way to get\nhim to work is to interest him; and the way to interest him is to vitalize his task by relating\nit to some form of reality.\" In the study of geometry I would set the student to work as\nearly as possible with the ruler and dividers. In the early part of the subject the most\nimportant method of proof is that of superposition, and any student can be made to\nunderstand it if it is presented concretely. Use the cardboard and scissors freely; cut out\nthe figures and actually apply one to the other. After a while he will be able to use his\nimagination in the application. In the study of the triangle, show its application to structural work and to surveying. When the areas of figures are taken up, make use of the\nsquared paper. Let him see that the area of a trapezoid equals one-half the product of\nits altitude and the sum of its bases, concretely as well as theoretically. In all calculations\nlet him check his work by drawing the figures accurately and neatly to scale. If he is thus\nable to ascertain the truth or falsity of his work, he will gain confidence and certainty.\nAttention could then be paid to the fact that in daily life approximate results are quite\nas important as accurate results, and are often alone more practicable.\nWhile treating the subject of similar figures and ratio, I would not lose sight of the\nfact that it is the connecting link between geometry and trigonometry. Why not at this\ntime introduce the student to the sine, cosine, and tangent ? I am sure that this is not\nnearly so difficult as the thory of limits, which, by the way, I would entirely omit, together\nwith maxima and minima. Bring the cross-section paper into play again. Let him draw\na circle, and by means of the protractor divide the first quarter of the circumference into\narcs one degree in length. Thru these points of division draw the radii, and show him\nthat he now has a fairly good table of natural functions. Now teach h'im how to use this\ntable in the solution of geometrical and physical problems, and I am sure that he will more\nreadily appreciate, not only physics and mechanics, but mathematics as well.\nI do not mean to make the theoretical part of geometry subservient to constructions\nand calculations.\nFar be it from that. But carry this work hand in hand with the theo-\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nretical, so that the student will feel that he is actually doing something, and the study will\nthen seem worth while to him.\nI would strip solid geometry down to almost nothing else than the mensuration of\nthe simpler solids.\nThe study of mathematics may be greatly relieved and enlightened by sprinkling along\nincidentally historical anecdotes and biographical references.\nThe program, then, as I have already outhned, would be algebra, through quadratic\nequations, with the omissions indicated; plane geometry, omitting the theory of limits\nand maxima and minima; that part of soHd geometry which deals with mensuration of the\nsimpler soHds, and a little diluted trigonometry. This would not, it seems to me, consume\nmuch more time than is usually given in the secondary school while it would form a solid\nbasis for further preparation for college.\n\nHOW\n\nMUCH\nWILLIS\n\nMATHEMATICS\nTEACHER\nE. TOWER,\n\nENGLEWOOD\n\nSHOULD\nTEACH?\nHIGH\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nPHYSICS\n\nCHICAGO\n\nAt the meeting of this department in Boston last year a printed report upon the\ncorrelation of physics and mathematics was distributed. It had been prepared by a committee of the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers, and those who\nread it will remember the care and thoroness of the presentation of the subject.\nWhen the fundamental ideas of that report are fully developed and our teaching is\nmodified to conform to their best expression, then will our work in mathematics and\nphysics be brought to a higher degree of effectiveness than it has yet attained. While I\nbelieve that the day of our deliverance is approaching, it has not as yet arrived; and the\nproblem, \"How much mathematics shall be taught by the physics teacher?\" is ever\npresent.\nThe prevailing aims and methods in the teaching of mathematics are those fixed\nupon long ago. If the teacher attains the ends in his mathematics teaching that custom\nhas sanctioned, he feels that he is successful. The teacher of physics, on the other hand,\ndeals with a subject of recent growth — one in which the pedagogical aims and methods have\nshown a remarkable development in the past two decades; and the pedagogical success\nof the physics teacher is measured by no one standard.\nWhile physics may arouse great interest and enthusiasm on the descriptive side in\nthe exposition of the wonders of nature, it is also capable of rigid exactness in the demonstration ofphysical laws and principles. Hence, with the development of this latter phase\nof physics in secondary instruction, its dependence upon mathematics has been increasingly felt by the teacher of that subject.\nThe physics teacher finds further that the point of view acquired by the pupil in\nmathematics, secured by following the long prescribed aims and methods, is not the\npoint of view that will enable him to apply quickly and accurately his mathematical\nknowledge to the solution of the varied problems presented in the course in physics. The\npupil must be shown that mathematics is a means and not an end] that its main use is\npractical, not theoretical, at least in the secondary school.\nTo reach the best results, the physics teacher at the present time must develop this\npoint of view in his pupils. They must be trained to think of the concrete problems\npresented, and then to select the appropriate formula, process, or other device that will\nbring the correct solution. To do this takes time, valuable time, time that can ill be\nspared from the subject-matter of the science.\nThe diflSculty that physics pupils have in the mathematics of the subject — due, it\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n517\n\nseems to me, mainly to the standpoint taken in the mathematical training of the pupil —\nled President G. Stanley Hall in his recent address in Chicago to decry mathematical\nproblems and solutions in secondary-school physics. He felt that the time spent upon\nthem in high-school physics was too great for the results attained, especially when he considered the wide fields that can at best be cultivated but imperfectly. For the teacher\nof physics must cover in his year's work a wide range of topics: from inertia, capillary\nattraction, and absolute zero, to the dynamo, the steam engine, and the index of refraction of light. At first sight it would seem that if the mathematical problems presented\nmuch difficulty and took much time, it would be better to omit most of them. But this\nis a mistake. The careful, consistent training given by mathematical problems is necessary to develop a habit of clear thinking, and to make real and useful the laws and principles of the subject.\nNow, the mathematical knowledge, power, and skill needed by a beginner in physics\nshould be gained in his course in arithmetic, algebra, and plane geometry, which in most\nschools are prerequisites for physics. At present he is given mathematical knowledge\nand power, but is deficient in skill to apply his knowledge to everyday, matter-of-fact\nproblems. The physics teacher, if he properly trains his pupil, must give him this skill\nin the use of his mathematical tools; the equation, the demonstration, the proper use of\nratio and proportion in studying variation, and the use of the graphic method of representation; assisted by the fundamental operations and processes of arithmetic.\nThe subject of physics is well fitted to do this; and, if the great purpose of physics\nteaching was to give skill in mathematical processes, it would be, perhaps, the best place to\ndevelop it. But the physics pupil can ill afford to spend the time for the training necessary\nto develop this skill. It is a matter of growth and development, and this requires time.\nWe must first plant seed-thoughts and cultivate the budding ideas, before the harvest of\nuseful knowledge, power, or skill is reaped.\nMeantime the year speeds along, and pupils complain of the difiiculty of the physics\nproblems.\nMany falter discouraged with the double burden of mathematics and science.\nAgain, many physics teachers are not clear in their own minds as to the proper relation of the two elements just mentioned. This results in varied aims and efforts, and in\nmost varied results. While growth comes as a result of effort; in this strenuous age,\nwe must be satisfied only with intelligently directed effort with good tools. Anything\nless than this leads to a waste of time and strength. Educators cannot afford to be outdone in efficiency by our brothers in commerce and manufacture.\nTherefore, my answer to the query propounded by the topic assigned is that the\npupil's training in mathematics before he comes to physics should preclude the necessity\nfor the teaching of any mathematics in the physics course that will require the presentation\nof new mathematical ideas or the development of a new standpoint from which to view\nthe problems of that subject. The work of the physics teacher, as far as mathematics is\nconcerned, is in developing further the mathematical ideas received by the pupil in his\ncourse previous to taking physics.\nIn a brief summary permit me to outline the principal points suggested:\n1. The physics pupil needs mathematics to gain the ability to apply practically the subject.\n2. He must use the mathematics as a means, not as an end; from its practical, and not its theoretical,\nstandpoint.\n3. This view-point, if not already acquired, must be developed, and for this development the physics\ncourse affords little time.\n4. Skill rather than knowledge or power in mathematics is acquired by the physics pupil.\n5. Physics should not be required to develop mathematical ideas or processes fiew to the pupil; e. g.,\nthe study of variation by ratio or proportion, or graphic methods of representation.\n\nAnd, finally, may I urge upon you the truth that the practical aspect of mathematics\nis the one that not only in physics, but in fife, will make for the greatest success ?\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": null, "text": "5l8\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nREAL\n\nPROBLEM\nHERBERT\n\nE.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF\n\nCOBB,\n\nLEWIS\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\n[Secondary\n\nMATHEMATICS\nILL.\n\nUpon the teacher of mathematics is being placed more and more strongly the necessity\nof determining how he can make his teaching more rational and truly educational. The\nrapidly increasing number of teachers who appreciate the immense importance of organized effort in the improvement of mathematics-teaching, shows that the problem is in the\nprocess of solution. Individual teachers are doing great service by trying out in a constructive way plans and methods; but to accomplish much of permanent value in the\nimprovement of mathematics-teaching, there must be in all parts of the country large\nbodies of teachers who shall work together to accompHsh this end. This problem can\nnot be solved by the teachers in the universities, nor by the teachers in the colleges, nor\nby the teachers in the secondary schools; it must be solved by the joint efforts of all teachers.\nWithin the last two years associations have been organized in which vital questions\nof pedagogics have been under discussion, and the formation of these associations is\ngenerating new life and power in mathematics-teaching. From personal correspondence with the officers of these new associations I present the following summary:\nThe Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers was organized at\nChicago, April ii, 1903. The membership is now two hundred. Last year a local\ncenter was organized at Chicago, with forty members; and March 26, 1904, the Northeastern Ohio Center was organized at Cleveland, which has fifty members. It is probable\nthat two more local centers will be organized soon. The mathematics section of this\nassociation adopted as its official organ School Mathematics, which is the only journal\npublished in this country devoted especially to secondary mathematical interests. Under\nthe editorial control of Professor G. W. Myers, of the School of Education, University\nof Chicago, it promised to be a great power in the movement to improve mathematicsteaching, but lack of support has caused its suspension. Many new names, however,\nhave been added to the subscription list since the suspension was announced, and as such\na journal is needed to represent every suggestive aspect of theory and practice, will not\nevery earnest teacher of mathematics make the publication of School Mathematics possible\nby becoming a subscriber, and by calling the attention of his friends to this journal ?\nThe Association of Mathematics Teachers in New England was organized April 18,\n1903.\nThe constitution adopted states:\nThe objects of the association are to increase interest in the science of mathematics, to secure improvement in the methods of mathematical teaching and in the selection of subject-matter, to establish close relations\nwith cognate Unes of work, and to promote social relations among mathematics teachers in schools and colleges.\n\nThe work planned for the immediate future is the formation of local sections in parts of\nNew England at a distance from Boston, and the preparation of a syllabus of geometry.\nTwo informal dinners were held in Boston last winter, at which the informal discussions\non matters of interest in the teaching of mathematics were frank and valuable to all present.\nThe Association of Mathematics Teachers for the Middle States and Maryland was\norganized November 28, 1903. It has a membership of two hundred and fifty. Two\nlocal sections, one in Philadelphia and one in New York, have been organized. A little\nAnnual is to be pubUshed which will contain all data of interest relating to the associationThe Association of Mathematics Teachers in Washington was organized at Seattle,\nDecember 29, 1903. It has thirty-five members. The association was formed principally\nfor the purpose of improving mathematics-teaching. At the meeting in December a\ncommittee is to report on the question of the change of text-books which is contemplated\nin the state. The high-school course will be discussed under the following heads : {a) the\nextension of the work thru the whole four years; {h) the number of hours per week to be\ndevoted to mathematics; (c) relative importance of the applications of mathematics as\ncompared with mathematics itself; (d) is the separation of the course into algebra, plane\ngeometry, solid geometry, and trigonometry desirable?\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": null, "text": "MATHEMATICS\n\nDepartment]\n\nCONFERENCE\n519\n\nThe Association of Ohio Teachers of Mathematics and Sciences was organized at\nColumbus, April 2, 1904.\nIt has a membership of sixty.\nIts object is specifically the improvement of the teaching of mathematics and science in Ohio, and the\nestablishment of cordial and helpful relations among the teachers of these subjects. Provision is made for\nlocal centers in which may be studied closely and in detail those questions which particularly interest the\nteachers in the region concerned.\n\nIn a circular letter sent out by the secretary it is said:\nThat the time is opportune for united endeavor for the improvement of the teaching of mathematics and\nscience is shown by the number of associations formed in this country within a year with this very object. The\nassociation just organized places the teachers of Ohio in their proper position in this movement.\n\nA Kansas Association of Mathematics Teachers was organized at Lawrence, April 16,\n1904. The membership is seventy-five. Meetings will be held annually in connection\nwith the Kansas State Teachers' Association.\nPlans are now under way for organizing an association of mathematics and science\nteachers at the meeting of the Southern Educational Association in Florida next winter.\nAt the close of this conference today the mathematics teachers of Missouri are to\nmeet to discuss ways and means for improving the relations among mathematics teachers\nin this state. Reports from the mathematics sections of the State Teachers' Associations\nin Iowa, Nebraska, Indiana, and other states show that these organizations are actively\ninterested in the improvement of mathematics-teaching.\nShall we not now complete the unification of our educational forces by forming a\nnational association in which these regional, state, and local associations shall co-operate\nto make real progress in the teaching of mathematics?\n\nTHE\nCLARENCE\n\nUNIFICATION\n\nE. COMSTOCK,\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS,\nINSTITUTE,\nPEORIA, ILL.\n\nBRADLEY\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nThere seems to be a widespread feeling that we have gone too far in the separation of\nthe various branches of mathematics, and that a return should be made to a more unified\ncondition. It is my purpose in this paper to state a few of the principles which, it appears\nto me, should guide us in our efforts toward such unification. The limited time at my\ndisposal will not permit me to give an adequate discussion of these propositions, but I\ntrust that discussion will be carried on in your own minds.\nIn the first place, there is no such thing as secondary mathematics per se; the mathematics of the university of yesterday is the mathematics of the high school of today. We\nmay, however, elastically define secondary mathematics as that body of mathematical\nthought, preceding and inclusive of the differential and integral calculus, which it is deemed\ndesirable to teach in school and college.\nThe first proposition I wish to lay down is this: Secondary mathematics should be\ncharacterized by effectiveness — by adaptability to a chosen end. Mathematics is a method\nof thought, and its value lies in its efficiency as an aid in the acquiring of definite ideas.\nAlgebra should be taught, not for its own sake, but for the sake of the ends it can serve.\nThe mathematics of the university is critical, philosophic, and has its chief interest in the\nmechanism itself, the method. In the schools there is a difference. . Here the supreme\ntest should be, \" Of what use is this ?\" \"Will it be of real service to me in future work ?\"\nJudged by this test, the finding of the G. C. D. by the the EucUdean method has Httle value,\nwhile the essential importance of the theory of exponents is evident in its almost universal\napplication. This principle of effectiveness acts as a selective test, and discards that\nwhich is curious but useless, or comparatively so.\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": null, "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe goal of this efifectiveness is to be found in the fundamental purpose of mathemati\ncal study. Mathematics is a tool to be used in gaining and fixing knowledge. This leads\nto my second proposition: Secondary mathematics should be directed to the gaining o\nknowledge. This knowledge may be physical, astronomical, chemical, financial, geometrical, or analytical; but it is knowledge, and the power to gain knowledge that is to be striven\nfor. The exponent, the equation, and the co-ordinate are to be mastered because they\nare of value as tools, they are not meaningless symbols fit only for puzzle-juggling. Real,\nvital, effective thought is behind them. Little is to be gained by acquiring mere dexterity\nin the handling of them, if they are to be used to no purpose. A friend of mine has acquired\nby long-continued practice such control over the muscles of his face that he can move his\nears up and down, first one and then the other, and then both in concert; but it it is a worthless accomplishment. It is our aim to produce, not jugglers and sophists, but real thinkers\nwho can think about real things according to the mathematical method whenever that kind\nof thought is needed.\nAs a third proposition we may say that the mathematical knowledge of a student can\nbecome efficient only thru long-continued repetition. The course in mathematics should\nbe so arranged that what has been learned once shall be used as frequently as possible.\nA tool is not to become rusty and forgotten thru disuse. You cannot store up mathematical power as you would store screw-drivers and gimlets.\nIf these three propositions are true — effectiveness of tool, knowledge as a goal, and\ncontinual use — then it would seem to me that the unification of mathematics should proceed in three well-marked directions.\n1. There should be a unifying of the various parts of a given branch. The now\nmeaningless grind on radicals becomes thoughtful and purposeful when carried on in\nconnection with the equation; square root becomes an absolute necessity when the pupil\nis required to express the root of a quadratic as a decimal. No better drill in fractions can\nbe had than in the checking of fractional equations. . And so, too, in geometry a unifying\nelement is introduced when the theorems on the congruence of triangles are regarded as\ntools to be used in other investigations.\n2. There must also be a co-ordination of the various so-called branches of mathematics. Mathematics is a unit; its branches are mutually interdependent, and one may not\ngo far in one without finding that his further progress is made easier if he but take into\naccount the methods and results of the other; the one aids in clearing up the difficulties of\nthe other. The triangle can be solved only with the aid of the trigonometric functions.\nWhy, then, should not the sine and the tangent be used freely in plane geometry? So\nagain the intersection of loci and the solution of systems of equations present but one\nproblem and should be studied as one problem. There is no better application of radicals\nthan in mensuration problems. The methods of the calculus simplify the processes of\nhigher algebra and analytic geometry. Break down the existing partitions, and make\nusefulness and not logical system the criterion; but let it be a reasoning usableness.\nThis co-ordination is made the more inevitable by the demands of modern scienceteaching. The student of physics must be so equipped that he can think effectively in\nmathematical terms. The problems presented to him are not presented as problems in\nalgebra or in geometry; they are problems in mathematics. The position of the study of\nphysics in the third or fourth year of the high school would seem to require the early teaching of the elements of the branches named.\n3. There should be a more intimate correlation between mathematics and the physical sciences. We have recognized this in admitting questions of finance and mensuration\ninto arithmetic. No one hesitates to regard the finding of the cost of an object, or the\nfinding of the interest on a sum of money, as an arithmetical problem, and yet there are\nthose who will say that the tracing of the path of a ray of light thru a prism or thru a raindrop belongs to the realm of physics. I venture to say that the problem of a falling body\nis as much of a mathematical question as is the rising of the price of a commodity\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMATHEMATICS\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n52 1\n\nOur failure to recognize this has led us to waste our time on cunningly devised gymnastic problems which have little or no value in themselves, while we have left untouched\nthe rich field for the working of which mathematics was invented.\n\nDISCUSSION\n[reported\n\nby JOHN\n\nB. QUINN,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nIN CENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. LOXnS, MO.]\n\nA. V. Chessin, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.— The views set forth in the\npapers presented (with the single exception of that of Professor French) were one-sided,\nas they regard mathematics as a mere tool of practical utiUty only, and favor the elimination\nof such subjects or topics as do not serve a practical use. The mental discipline derived\nfrom the theoretical side of mathematical science, I consider equal in importance to that of\nits immediate utiHty, and not to be ignored in any course of mathematics. I recommend\nthe study of the French mathematical text-books as representing the highest type of theoretical excellence. I agree with the readers of the papers that a judicious selection of\ntopics should be made; that complicated mathematical processes involving purely mechanical drill work should be omitted; also that many cases in factoring in algebra should be\ndeferred till the theory of the subject could be unfolded, especially the quadratic trinomial.\nMr. Burrill, Fergus Falls, Minn. — Algebra and geometry should be studied separately, because of their difference in subject-matter and in methods of obtaining results\nI believe that plane geometry as now taught has a high function in the development of the\nactivities of the mind, and should not be abolished from the curriculum, as Professor\nFrench desires.\nI also favor \"blue-penciling\" in algebra.\nGeorge H. Howe, department of mathematics. State Normal University, Normal\n111. — The mathematical course of study should bear directly on a pupil's experience, with a\nview to strengthening his grasp of mathematical truths by showing him how to apply\nthem. In algebra I am in favor of the lessening of factoring, and regard much of radicals\nas of no avail. The subject of generalization ought to be emphasized as a symbolic\nexpression of ideas. In teaching geometry the idea of trigonometrical functions of an\nangle as ratios can be made plain; and logarithms may be profitably employed in numerical problems.\nE. R. Hedrick, professor of mathematics, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. —\nI desire at this point to call attention to the fact that the trend of the discussion thus far\nshows that there is a recognition of deficiencies in methods and a wide divergence of views\non subjects of detail which require earnest attention from all classes of mathematical\nteachers, and their close co-operation in deahng with the problems that confront them.\nCharles H. Smith, Hyde Park High School, Chicago, 111. — I am in favor of a close\norganization of mathematics teachers and the fostering of a mathematical journal. The\nnecessity for such an organization is shown by the good that has already come from the\npubUcation of the report of a committee of the Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers on \"The Correlation of Mathematics and Physics.\" I believe in\nconcrete methods in teaching mathematics.\nR. F. Knight superintendent of City Schools, Wichita, Kan. — Mathematics expresses\nin a formula an all-inclusive law, a truth that transcends the one-sided observation, often\nfallacious, derived from the mechanical methods of the concrete.\nC. E. CoMSTOCK, assistant professor of mathematics, Bradley Polytechnic Institute,\nPeoria, 111. — With the aid of objects or concrete methods I have secured greater interest,\nclearer mathematical ideas, and greater progress in my classes.\nJohn S. French, Jacob Tome Institute, Port Deposit, Md. — A proper course of study\nin mathematics in secondary schools should have these three views: (i) mental discipline,\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION\n[Secondary\n2\n52\n(2) utility, (3) fitting for later work. I believe that in secondary education we must regard\nthe period of the child's receptivity, having regard to his mental growth; and hence, topics\ndemanding logical treatment should be deferred till his logical faculty is developed. Secondary work should be primarily cultural, and secondarily tend to prepare the pupil for his\nlater work.\nProfessor Collender, one of the Foreign representatives from Sweden to the Fair,\nwas asked to speak on the subjects discussed. He agreed with Professors Chessin and\nFrench that a study of French and German mathematics should be made by the teachers,\nbut that their work should not be copied. He was impressed with the fact that the Americans had practical methods of doing things, which were worthy of study, and he believed\nthat after they had assimilated French and German mathematics they would give expression to them in a new and practical way, as they have done in other things.\nMrs. Klemm, of the Cincinnati High School, Cincinnati, O. — I think that there is a\nneurological reason why the minds of children of high-school age do not comprehend much\nof the mathematics taught in secondary schools.\nHave others observed this condition ?\nMr. Fisher, St. Joseph, Mo. — I recognize the presence of the defect among highschool children, but think it is due to faulty methods of developing number-concepts in\nearly training.\nMr. Knight, Wichita, Kan. — I agree with Mr. Fisher, and hold that the mind as a\nunit possesses the power to grasp certain abstractions very early; that the idea in number\nis largely subjective; that the mind must see numbers and look into the external world for\nits expression. I think that the methods of teaching mathematics half a century ago\nrecognized this, and that they were successful.\nS. B. TiNSLEY. — I desire to make clear the fact that in the correlation method of\nteaching mathematics it is a mistaken idea that correlation is necessarily a use of concrete\nand abstract relations together; on the contrary, one may precede the other in order of\ndevelopment, but eventually they must be unified.\nW. H. Smiley, of Colorado. — The main thing to fear is that a body of mathematical\nknowledge not based on a rational sound growth becomes a disjecta membra ?\n\nMODERN\nTHE\nGEORGE\n\nAIM\n\nOF MODERN\n\nARTHUR\n\nSMITH, HEAD\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nLANGUAGE STUDY\nSCHOOLS\nOF GERMAN\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nIN OUR\nHIGH\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nYONKERS,\n\nN. Y.\n\nAs the relationship of the nations has become closer, it is quite natural that the study\nof modern languages should be assigned the important place in the curriculum of our\nschools and colleges which it holds today. The increasing interest manifested in this\nbranch of education has been so marked in the past twenty or thirty years that one writer\non the subject has compared it to the revival of classical culture in the sixteenth century.\nWe deal particularly with the French and German languages in this program.\nIt is conceded that a liberal education absolutely requires that every English-speaking\nperson should have some knowledge of French and German, as a knowledge of these\nlanguages is indispensable to the mastery of literature, the arts, and sciences. Therefore\nthe teaching of these languages in our secondary schools is an important subject for discussion. However ideal our theory of instruction may be, the limitation of time imposed\nupon us by the accepted curriculum renders it impossible for a student to obtain a mastery\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n523\nof these languages, as time devoted to them is not sufficient for this, even in the case of\nthose who go thru college.\nIt is a well-known fact that very few college graduates learn to speak or write a foreign\nlanguage with fluency. There are those who think that because students do not speak\nGerman and French readily after a one-year or two-year course of study, something is\nwrong. It might be of interest to such persons to hear the words of one of our leading •\nteachers of modern language: \"The abiUty to speak fluently a modern language has in\nitself only a slight and low educational value. It is acquiring knowledge of a new set of\nsymbols. Proficiency in this accompHshment is proportional to practice.\" Thus he puts\nthis acquisition on the same level with stenography and telegraphy.\nIt is only in specific cases that a practical command of a foreign language is necessary\nto prepare the student for his life's work, and for such a case special schools and masters\nshould be employed. Anyone who has received good training in om* secondary schools\nhas, let us hope, a good foundation for such advanced work.\nOur high-school teachers have to deal with two classes of pupils: those who are preparing for college, and those who will finish their scholastic education at the end of their\nhigh-school course. In order that the college student may meet the requirements of the\nentrance examinations, he must have a good foundation. And this is equally imperative\nin the training of the student who does not intend to enter college. It is interesting to\nnote, in this connection, that the dean of one of our oldest universities, in his report for\nthe year just past, complains of the deficiency in the grammar and vocabulary of the students\nwho take the entrance examinations in French and German, and strongly advocates a more\nthoro drill in these two essentials. The experience of our best educators has taught us\nthat the aim of the high school is to impart a general culture, to broaden the mental horizon\nof the youth by bringing him in contact with the best that has been thought and expressed;\nand the study of language both ancient and modern is the gateway to the world's Hterature.\nTo many people the culture gained by study of a foreign language does not seem of\npractical benefit. Yet it cannot be denied that good results are obtained from this work,\neven tho it be of an elementary nature. In translating from one language into another,\nthe discriminating and comparative powers of the mind are called into play, the reasoning\npowers are developed, and the mother-tongue is enriched. And systematic training of\nany kind develops a logical mind.\nIt is assuredly of great value in widening the horizon of the student to learn that there\nare other people whose lives, ideals, and achievements are as important as his own, and to\nwhom he and his nation owe more than the American youth is apt to acknowledge.\nBecause a certain teacher has been successful, we naturally ask : What is his method ?\nBut the day of regarding method as the secret of a teacher's power has passed. The ideal\nteacher will receive suggestions and ideas from the study of a sincere method which will\ninfluence his own thoughts upon the subject, until gradually his own method is evolved and\nperfected.\nThe method must be the teacher's own; it may be so similar to another teacher's\nmanner of teaching that it is classified as the same method. Method is the teacher himself; his character, experience, the knowledge that he has acquired of the subject, his attitude toward his pupils — all this has influenced the teacher to express himself in a certain\npecuUar manner which we call his method. It would be interesting and beneficial to review\nthe many methods which have influenced teachers in the past, and show how many have\nrendered service to the teacher of today.\nIn the adoption of new ideas and theories of teaching modern lahguage we must bear\nin mind that the aim of our secondary schools should be the rounding out of the intelligence of the student, enabling him to handle the language and literature, not only intelligently, but in a pleasurable manner. To do this, it is necessary for him to attain a certain\ndegree of proficiency in reading, writing, and pronunciation, based upon a good foundation\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": null, "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nof grammatical and syntactical knowledge.\nHe should be able to read after a four-year\ncourse any modern literature free from unusual difficulties of the text.\nThis seems a gigantic task for the short time allowed us, especially when we realize\nthat inteUigent reading requires thoro mastery of grammar and vocabulary and famiharity\nwith pronunciation. We must have a thoro grammatical training; but grammar does not\nmean language. I beheve, however, that grammar can and should be taught thoroly\nand in an interesting manner, altho necessarily this work is known to be dry and mechanical. The memorizing and repetition of sentences taken from everyday forms of expression\nof the language aid greatly in its use. Aside from these set conversational exercises, the\nforeign language should also be used as much as possible in the class-room.\nWe cannot expect our pupils to write with any true command of the language. The\nwritten exercise must be essentially a grammatical exercise. The oral or written exercise\nof putting thought into a foreign language is a most profitable one, and particularly so if\nthe work is founded on the text in use. Translation, the exercise most used in teaching\na modern language, cannot be discontinued at any certain stage of the work. The object\nof the teacher is to get the student away from the English and to have him comprehend the\noriginal, but so long as there is doubt in the teacher's mind that the text is not clearly understood by the pupil, translation must be used. By demanding clear grammatical translation in keeping with the original we can begin to cultivate the literary sense of the pupil.\nHe should begin sight-reading in the early stages of the work, as this has the advantage\nnot only of increasing the student's vocabulary, but is an interesting exercise as well. The\nreading matter furnishes us with material for the explanation of grammatical principles,\ntranslation, and conversation.\nI do not beheve in thrusting the classics as reading matter immediately upon the\nstudent. I have been successful at first with short stories of literary merit. The vocabulary will be increased and the literary sense cultivated by covering much ground in the\nreading matter. As the student progresses, the literature should be treated in an aesthetic\nway, in order to develop the literary taste.\nWe should value highly any aids or illustrations of the text, such as photographs,\nmaps, pictures, etc., or anything which will introduce the student to the foreign setting\nor conception of the story.\nOur aim should be to prepare the student step by step to outgrow the English thought\nof the text, and teach him to read with literary insight and sympathy, so that when he finishes his course, besides having a good preparation for advanced work, his own personal\nlife is enriched, he is broader and deeper in his sympathies and convictions, and a more\nuseful and intelligent member of society.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Robert Webber Moore, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. — I am\nglad to note that so much of Mr. Smith's paper is in harmony with many ideas put forth\nby Professor Calvin Thomas. Thru his varied pubhcations, the latter's work has gone\nwidely into our schools, and no other pedagogical ideas are more acceptable or more likely\nto be productive of good.\nAttention was called in the paper to the tendency of placing a practical — I should\nrather say, a commercial — value on the study of a modern language. The time generally\ngiven to the study of a modern language is too brief. Two years is not long enough. The\npurpose of a modern language may be considered, first, as practical or commercial, and,\nsecondly, as educational.- I do not believe that the high school is the place for instruction\nin a language with reference to its practical value. A high school is an educational institution, and a language studied in such an institution has an existence also from an educational\nstandpoint.\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\n525\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nAttention was also called to the disappearance of Latin and Greek as required studies\nin a school curriculum. The classics were at one time one of the most important influences\nof culture, but Greek and Latin are losing ground, and French and German are coming\nin to take their places. But if French and German are replacing the classics, is it therefore\nnecessary to deviate from the accurate method employed in teaching the classics ? With\nonly forty-five minutes a day and twenty in a class, how much can be learned in French\nand German by a pupil, while the world about him is thinking, dreaming in English ? But\none thing can be done: habits and methods of careful, accurate work can be taught, and\ndrill in grammar becomes a necessary part of instruction. The elementary grammatical\nprinciples of a language are not known by most boys when they enter college. Their\nknowledge of conjugation of verbs, the genders of nouns, etc., is very deficient; and a\nknowledge of these principles is one of the first things to be emphasized.\nThere are a number of interesting side issues which might be profitable to the pupil.\nInterest and love for the language may be aroused and sustained by reporting to the pupils\nthe educational system of Germany; for instance, by showing the pupils that Germany is\nan active, growing, progressive country. By touching upon the literary and commercial\nactivity of Germany, its government, educational system, recent investigations in science, the\npupil can be made to feel that the German language is the language of a living, active people.\n\nTHE FUNCTION\nFRED\n\nDAVIS\n\nOF GRAMMAR IN THE\nLANGUAGE\n\nALDRICH,\n\nMASTER\n\nIN MODERN\nWORCESTER,\n\nTEACHING\n\nLANGUAGES,\nMASS.\n\nOF MODERN\n\nWORCESTER\n\nACADEMY,\n\nThe \"little red schoolhouse,\" dotting alike the New England hills and the prairies\nthat came to us thru Jefferson, is likely to go down in tradition as an educational institution\nalmost perfect in its time and sphere. Our fathers sing to us its praises; some of us, favored\nones, have been born early enough to aflBix to it the seal of our \" jackknife's carved initial,\"\nand will never tire of heralding it as an institution where fads had not displaced commonsense, and where education, and not accomplishment, was dispensed. Nevertheless, the\nattitude taken toward the rule of three, Webster's speller, and the art of parsing (\"passing,\"\nas they generally called it) was far from practical. She who could construe, according to\nthe stilted models in vogue, the twisted sentences of Paradise Lost, or who could name in\norder the capes of Van Diemen's Land, had the open sesame to the intellectual aristocracy\nof the district. And yet, after such a one had, in the fete of examination day, parried the\nfavorite thrusts of the astute committee man, she was capable of perpetrating any error, such\nas proudly complaining to the visitors crowded on the back seat: \"He hadn't ought to\nask me them hard questions.\"\nThis work in parsing, proper enough as a means of necessary drill (and the English\nteaching of today needs more of it), had overstepped its bounds, and had become an end in\nitself. Its practical value was by nature secondary, and thru the neglect in applying- the\nknowledge gained by it it had lost its indirect practicabiHty. Our pupil just mentioned\nconsidered her parsing as an art, and, as some never allowed their religion to disturb their\nmorals, she did not let her grammar interfere with her inherited habits of speech. StiU her\nneighborhood canonized her as a grammarian; and so she was.\nIn the teaching of modern languages, grammar is no more an end than it was in this\nold-fashioned parsing. We do not start out with a pupil by promising that he is to become\na speciaHst in grammar. We are to develop in him, first, the abihty to understand the\nthoughts of others as couched in a foreign language, written or spoken; secondly, the power\nto express himself somewhat in that language. As an incident of this work comes mental\ntraining; as a sequence, literary culture and enjoyment.\nThese ends, however, are ulterior\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": null, "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nand follow in the footprints of linguistic study. The essential is the faculty of understanding\nand of expressing in the new medium. The raison d'etre of grammar is commensurate\nwith the aid it can bestow in the acquisition of these faculties. Whenever the study of\ngrammar can aid, directly or indirectly, in acquiring the ability to translate, read, or write\nthe written language, understand or produce the spoken, it has its function. Wherever\nit does not so aid, it is not merely useless to our purpose, but it stands in the way of progress.\nIf it leap its bounds, it is a usurper, and the result is unsymmetrical as the parsing of the\n\"little red school house.\" When a genius begins to feel an appetite for the charms of\nabstract grammar (and there must always be such), then let us turn him into the staked\npasture where these pecuhar plants grow. But let us feed the growing flock on the succulent grasses whose assimilation gives the nutriment of normal and sane progress. Grammar, then, in the modern-language work of secondary education, is simply an aid, and\nshould be so regarded by colleges in their demands, and by preparatory schools in their work.\nHaving thus restricted the sphere of grammar, let us turn to the consideration of its\ncontent; that is: How much, and what, really aids? To discuss this wisely, we must\nclearly see the fundamental theory of grammar. We find these definitions: the science of\nlanguage; the theory of human speech. But these are academic, and do not help us any.\nWhat is its real nature ?\nA child (we will take a French child) hears its older brother say over and over mon\npere and ma mere. It imitates. It hears also mon Jrere and ma sceur, and imitates again.\nOther names he hears, some preceded by mon, some by ma. After having heard some\ntens, or hundreds, of such groups, he gets the idea, either from a reply to his curiosity,\nfrom unsoHcited instruction, or from his own unaided logic, that certain words take mon,\nothers ma, to convey the same idea. This conception is grammar, and the statement of\nits principle is to this child rule i. Other modifying words, such as le and la, are noticed,\nand their use noted. When there arrives the concept that words which require mon require\nle, this child's grammar begins to be complex, and he needs a term to clarify and express\nhis thought — a term that he has never needed with his playmates. He may at first use,\nin the limbo of his ideas, \"wow-word.\" Later he learns that his elders have agreed to call\nit \"masculine.\" After a while he attains the dignity of finding written language within\nhis ken. He finds il parle spelled sometimes il parte, sometimes Us parlent. He remembers it as an isolated case. His habits of liaison may possibly throw some light upon it.\nBut other cases of similar structure rush in upon him, and the concept in grammatical\nagreement in number is soon called forth; this is a concept based on spelling and the consequent pronunciation.\nThis homely illustration, whatever its psychological accuracy may be, shows the true\nnature of grammar. It is a series of generalizations which the untutored acqviire slowly,\nthe tutored more rapidly. Ages before our era the mental processes of the human family\nhad developed the labor-saving devices of generalization, and in language it finds one of\nits many spheres. I believe that all grammar, whether inflection, syntax, or etymology,\nfalls under this category, and we may therefore deduce the definition: Grammar is the\nbody of generalizations concerning spoken and written languages.\nWith this definition in mind, we can better discuss the content and form of grammatical\nteaching. Grammar is to be an aid, and its nature is generalization. Hence the function\nof this line of teaching is to assist the pupil in making his own all generalizations that help,\nmaturity and previous knowledge considered, in the practical knowledge of language.\nBut all generalizations help at one stage of progress or another. Hence the problem\nreduces to these questions: When shall the conquest of the various generahzations be\nstimulated ? Shall their teaching precede or follow work on the text ? That is, shall the\ninstruction be deductive or inductive ? How shall the manner of teaching vary to adapt\nitself to the different grades ?\nI assume it to be my part today to trace the foundations that underlie the subject in\nhand.\nThe detailed consideration of the queries just propounded, and others that are\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n527\n\ninvolved, is for you. Still my time allows me to pursue the main line of thought, as it now\nlies before us, a little farther. That is, shall the teaching be inductive or deductive?\nWhich gives the most timely aid ? Shall we equip our pupils with a panoply of principles\nand rules, and send them forth thus armed to attack the living language; or shall we from\nthe start work with them on the text, suggesting and formulating the right generaUzation\nas it is needed ? The answer is neither simple nor easy. In equivocal terms, it depends.\nIn general, I beUeve the latter method is the natural one. This term \"natural\" has been\nso abused that I hesitate to employ it, but it is taken here to designate the channel that\nofifers the least resistance to knowledge seeking an entrance into the normal mind. This\nmethod of having the grammar keep pace with the difficulties met minimizes the waste of\neffort, and does not cloy the student's appetite for this course. But still its wisdom depends;\ndepends upon various considerations. First, and perhaps most important, the maturity\nof the pupil.\nA young child is busy with induction; the deductive faculty appears later. Hence,\nthe younger the class, the greater the field for induction; the older the pupil, the more\nshould we resort to deduction. A child in the first year of the ordinary secondary course,\nor in the grammar grades, should be given the text primarily. Grammar should follow\nslowly, but steadily. T'he pupil beginning in the later preparatory years or in college,\nespecially if he has studied the classics, can profitably digest at first considerable grammatical teaching. The order of teaching for the younger should be from the simple to the\ncomplex, and a jumble of pronouns, verbs, and adjectives does not disturb him. The\nmore advanced pupil is often confused by a heterogenous mixture of topics and can never\nget his soundings. He may have faith in his pilot, but he instinctively likes to recognize\nthe lighthouses and to watch the compass himself. If his helmsman should be lost overboard, he wants to be able to bring the vessel to the nearest port, and ship another pilot\nwhose course he can connect with his previous bearings.\nThe other circumstances upon which this question depends are essentially \"local\nissues.\" Among them may be mentioned inadequate preparation of the teacher, the necessity of a method that at the outset demands hard work outside of the class in order that the\nsubject may have due dignity amid a pressing curriculum, and the prevaiHng character\nof text-books. These considerations in general tend toward the deductive method, but\nthey should all be regarded as accidental, and we must seek to overcome them.\nBut are we not drawing the line too sharply between induction and deduction ? For,\nafter all, the deductive faculty at once ampHfies every new bit of territory seized by the\ninductive. Whatever may be the theory, they are in practice united, and the ideal teacher\nshould seek to connect them. Let me illustrate what seems to me a proper combination\nof the two. A beginning French class meets for the first recitation. It is supplied with\nsome simple text. Pronunciation and translation are dismissed from our present discussion. In the first line the word le is met. It is translated \"the,\" and needs comment\nno more than et, \"and.\" But in the next line la stands, also translated \"the.\" The class\nhas not been concerned by it, but the teacher must arouse curiosity by a question, \" why ?\"\nSome will doubtless suggest the explanation (there is almost always some overwise pupil to\nanticipate the teacher's climaxes). At any rate, the explanation is made clear, other\ninstances on the page adding their corroborative testimony. So far pure induction.\nSuppose we consider it wise to extend the principle to un, already found, but whose\nfeminine has not appeared; deduction combined with induction. The present tense of\navoir can be developed in the same way from one or two forms observed. This process\ncan be applied progressively to a whole realm of grammar. Difficulties prematurely met\nmay be disregarded or postponed. The point at which the generalization should be made\nin any special case, and thus substitute therein deduction for induction, will depend upon\nthe good judgment of the teacher in the light of the attendant circumstances. I have\ntried this method in actual practice and have found nothing like it to hold the interest of\nthe pupil on the grammar side of the work.\nIt is hard for the teacher, but it pays.\nAnd\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": null, "text": "528\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhe can hold before him as an ideal the happy day when the student shall grasp a new\nform or structure with the avidity of a botanist in coming across a specimen unknown to\nhim. In a course where the time is short it is often impracticable to pursue this method\nand make the required progress in the required time; but in a course of proper length,\ncertain connections may be made with the college examinations at the proper time by a\ncapable and patient teacher. The demand for the grammar has equaled the supply, and\nthe product is thus salable.\nThe reference just made to botany, a scientific subject, is itself suggestive of a final\nword. Consider the old way of teaching physics. The mastery of a descriptive textbook was the main element of the work. Now and then the instructor would illustrate\nthe text by an experiment, choosing generally those that are spectacular. The parallel\nin modern-language teaching is found in drill in grammar supplemented by a little work\non the text. Reduced to the absurd it would be where the teacher would on rare occasions\nbring from a musty closet a sentance of real French or German, hold it up before his wondering pupils, and call attention to its fine points to illustrate the grammar they had studied.\nHe might even deal out choice passages on cards as rewards of merit for faithful grammatical plodding.\nNow, in physics experimentation is the basis of the work; the descriptive portion\nmerely formulates and sets in order the results of the student's research. Problems drill\nhim in the practice of his generalizations. In modern languages we find the parallel in\ntaking the text first, treating grammar as the systematizing of the student's discoveries,\nand insisting on work in composition to fix these principles.\nGrammar is then simply a means to an end, and we must not allow it to overstep\nthese bounds. Fire, the old saying goes, is a good servant, but a tyrannical master. So\nis grammar. And in the problem before us teachers, our work lies today in reducing it to\na servitude which it shall willingly render and which shall be readily received.\n\nDISCUSSION\nOtto E. Wieland, High School, La Crosse, Wis. — ^The paper gave a good definition\nof the function of grammar. We are not to teach modern languages, however, as we do\nthe classics. Grammar gives generalization; it systematizes and correlates the new with\nthe old, also the new language with the mother-tongue. The conjugation of the English\nverb, especially the formation of the compound tenses, is difficult for the pupil to comprehend. When pupils take up the study of a foreign language, they are often unprepared\nin English grammar, and hence it becomes necessary to teach the fundamental principles\nof Enghsh grammar as well as those of the foreign language.\n\nRAPID\nW. E. JOHNSON,\n\nGERMAN\n\nREADING\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. JOSEPH,\n\nMO.\n\nShould there be a combination of the intensive study of one or two texts with more\nrapid and less intensive reading of a number of texts selected from a common list ?\nI should like to introduce this paper with an illustration. When the physician has\ndiagnosed his case, he has yet to determine what medicine he will administer. It is sufficiently easy to find medicines that would antidote the disease, but some of these, while\ndoing so, would dispose of the patient, and are for that reason not desirable. Again,\nthere are remedies which, taken in certain quantities, are invaluable, while the same\nmaterials, taken in other quantities, much larger or much smaller, are deadly.\nOf all\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n529\n\nthe medicines equally potent to reach the case, that would be chosen which was considered\nleast harmful in its by-efifects. The point of skill, then, is to discern those remedies in a\ngiven case which combine the greatest potency with the least degree of harm that would\nfollow their use.\nIt is well, possibly, to treat methods of instruction in like manner. Therefore let us\ndiscuss the pros and cons of the question, taking up, first, the negative; secondly, the afl&rmative; and finally drawing a constructive conclusion from this discussion.\nWhat faults, then, can be lodged against the method under discussion ?\n1. Lack of thoroness. — The argument from this standpoint would be that whatever is worth doing is\nworth doing well, and that time spent in superficial reading would be better directed to a more thoro study of\nthe classic seriously pursued.\n2. That it dissipates the purpose and energy of the mind, the argument being that the diversion of the\nattention to a variety of objects in rapid succession is weakening to the power of concentration, which is strengthened by the serious pursuit of one subject at a time.\n3. That the result would be a jumble of words and phrases, and a confusion of ideas having no educational\nvalue and really harmful.\n\nHowever, the foregoing arguments could be properly directed against wrong methods\nonly. Yet these are three objections likely to be urged against attempting to cover more\nground than can be carefully studied.\nLet us see whether or not there are advantages which commend the method; if so,\nwe can compare the merits of suggestions arising from opposite view-points. The following\nmay be mentioned:\n1. By going over a wide range of expressions and ideas, for the sake of variety, a more easy and varied\nand less stereotyp)ed style is acquired.\n2. By this method the student is acquainted with a greater portion of that literature which makes it\nworth while to study the language.\n3. The mind may in intensive study utilize the materials which have been thus gleaned from the wider\nexperience, and thus form for itself a completed whole from the fragments so gathered. Intensive study must\nrender fruitful the results of the wider experience, and is itself enriched by the variety of material thus obtained.\n\nThus the reasons for and against rapid reading appear to oppose and neutralize each\nother somewhat as do Kant's antinomies; but whereas Kant discovers fallacies in opposing\narguments which render them equally worthless, we here see features which render both\nobjections and commendations useful.\nGuided by these suggestions, one may proceed to the formation of a constructive\ntheory, but this must be derived from the following germinal data: (i) the general purpose\nor object in view in the study of the language; (2) the psychological principle.\nWhat, then, is the purpose or object in view in the study of the language ? I conceive\nit to be twofold, viz.: (i) cultural, including training in literary intuition, an enlargement\nof the capacities of the mind for feeling and sympathy, and the formation of accurate\nstandards as to the correct in art and life; (2) utilitarian, including the acquisition of the\nart of expression, or the practical mastery of the language.\nAnd what is the psychological principle involved? I understand it to be that of\ngrowth by assimilation.\nPermit me another illustration. Place a teacup under the water faucet and turn the\nspigot. Even if the tank be emptied, upon stopping the flow suddenly you find that you\nhave less than a teacup full of water. So from an attempt to do too much rapid reading —\nmore than the student is prepared to do profitably — little, if any, benefit is derived. All\ns waste except that which is retained and made a permanent possession.\nPutting the question in a little different form, let us again ask: Precisely what place\nor use is filled by rapid supplementary reading ? I think the answer is this: It presents\nto the mind of the student a variety of formal expressions, thought material, and hterary\nideas, from which it may assimilate those most readily assimilable, according to the law\nof natural selection. No two minds will get the same things from the materials presented.\nSome will retain certain parts, others other parts; but both materials and opportunities\nare presented to all by the process.\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": null, "text": "530\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe good derived from this supplementary course depends upon two conditions, viz :\n(i) the capability of the student, and this again depends upon his previous training — his\npreparation; as before remarked, all will not receive the same, because the preparation of\nmind is not uniform; (2) the character of the work read.\nThe result of all portions of the work should be a homogeneous whole, otherwise it\nis not scientific and its value is by so much discounted. Therefore the selection of material\nfor supplementary reading is important.\nSince the process in the mind of the student is that of natural selection, the conditions\nin each individual case will best indicate what pieces can be used with greatest profit and\nleast waste. The suggestion of a few principles which in a general way should govern\nthe selection might be helpful.\n1. The selection should be comparatively easy. That is, it should be quite elementary in comparison\nwith the classic studied. In other words, it should be of easy vocabulary and free from constructional\ndifficulties.\n2. It should be interesting in itself. That is, one that pleases the average reader, and has merit as a\npiece of Uterature, in order that it may be edifying to the literary sense. Otherwise a very important part of\nthe effect would be lacking.\n3. It should be one that increases the student's knowledge of the Uterature studied. That is, it should\nfit into a systematic outline or scheme of study of the literature, in order that the pupil might make due progress\nin the literary aspect of his knowledge.\n4. It would be well if the piece were in some way related to the classic studied; as, by the same author,\nof similar subject-matter, produced in the same period, or related by sojne other circumstances. Adherence\nto this rule will minimize the difficulties of the work and heighten the benefits derived therefrom.\n\nVariety of experience is desirable in any line of activity. But in the midst of this\nvariety there must be something constant from which the activity of the mind can proceed,\nand which will serve to unify the results of that activity.\nUnquestionably, therefore, rapid reading as a supplementary exercise has a legitimate place in a schedule of modern-language training; but, aside from the preparation\nof the student for the exercise, and the character of the selection, the method pursued and\nthe quantity of work attempted have much to do in determining the value of the work.\nThe scope of this paper will not permit any discussion of the method. A few suggestions as to quantity may be ventured:\n1. To read too Kttle is to leave the pupil hungry, as it were, after whetting his appetite by means of the\ndrill he has received. The result would be a failure to exercise the very powers which one has created, the\nmethod as a whole would be one-sided, and the condition of the student's mind would be similar to that which\nin the physical man is due to lack of nomishment.\n2. Too much rapid reading would in itself be a waste. The result would be similar to that of physical\ngormandizing. It would necessarily divert the energies of the mind from definite objects of study, and rfeally\nhinder the development of precision of expression and clearness of Hterary conceptions.\n3. It is hardly necessary to add that any diminution of the prpper amount of intensive study for the\nsake of rapid reading can but result in the omission of system and a scientific basis in the student's knowledge\nof the language.\n\nWho, then, shall determine the quantity of rapid reading to be used in any given case ?\nOnly the teacher who alone knows all the conditions is competent to do this, the proper\nquantity depending on both teacher and pupil.\nSuppose, for instance, that during the first year in German the student should have\nrespite from dry grammatical drill and sentence work in Guerber's Marchen, Seeligman's\nAUes und Neues, or Miiller and Wenckenbach's Gltick Auf, or other work of similar character, for, say, one day in each week. It appears to me that both the teacher's and the\npupil's task would be agreeably flavored by the process.\nSuppose, again, that while reading William Tell the class should take up Schiller's\nBalladen as a variant; and again, during the study of Die Harzreise, if those wonderful\nlittle poems of Heine's, whose lines linger and vibrate like overtones in ear and heart,\nwere utihzed in a similar manner, the benefits of the entire course would be very much\nheightened\nthereby.\nThe pubHshing houses are supplying an increasing multiplicity of books of all grades\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n531\n\nand varieties, from which a definite Hst can easily be made up for each class, that particular\nbook being selected in each particular case which appears to supply the spe.cial need.\nIn any branch of study certain allowances must be made for the spontaneous activity\nof the student's mind. This spontaneity is increased by study, but it is quite as important\nto give it scope and opportunity as to prepare the mind for it; otherwise much of the preparatory work would be fruitless.\nIt is this, largely, which individualizes the student.\nRapid reading of supplementary matter furnishes this opportunity, and in the exercise\nthe mind, like a magnet, seizes those expressions and conceptions most capable of being\nassimilated to previously acquired knowledge.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Josephine D. Brooks, Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, Ind. — The most\nobvious danger in rapid reading is that of slipshod translation. Unless the rapid reading\nis carefully safeguarded, our pupils will turn a French passage that has been poHshed and\n•repolished until it would satisfy Boileau himself, into English that none but an experienced\nlanguage teacher can understand. This carelessness leads to the loss of the enjoyment\nof the original as well as of the use of his mother-tongue.\nOne way to obviate this difficulty might be to make the pupil understand that the object\nof each day's lesson is not the same. Let the pupil know that on given days in the second\nor third year — not before — the number of pages will be increased, that every idiom is to\nbe understood, but that comprehension, not translation, is the object of those particular\ndays. Test the pupil in class on any troublesome idiom or construction, but do as little\ntranslation into English as possible. Let him for this day read as he would read a magazine\narticle.\nOn the other days let the pupil know that his preparation of a given lesson involves a\nstudy of certain idioms, or the giving of a resume, and insist on \"tolerable English\" — to\nuse the phrase of the Committee of Ten. Let the pupil see the target, and then be merciless\nif he takes careless aim. We shall send out from our classes comparatively few linguists,\nand these few must lay firm foundations. But the desire to send out a large number of\nreaders is a legitimate ambition, and the best way to make readers is to form the habit of\nrapid reading.\nOne of the most insidious of the dangers of rapid reading is that the progress is deceptive. Herein lies a danger and a stimulus: a danger, because the overcomplacent pupil\nfondly fancies that by stumbHng on to the sense of a passage he is fast becoming a Unguist.\nThe pupil becomes facile rather than accurate, showy rather than substantial. But this\nvery deceptive quality may be the stimulus to give courage and confidence to the weak\npupil.\nThe teachers may also fall victims to this deceptive progress by measuring the progress\nof the class by the number of pages read. But we must never fail to ask: How much did\nour pupils carry away from this book ? What new sense of form ? What admiration of\ncharacter-sketching ? What pictures of heroism or of colossal egotism have been indehbly\nstamped upon our minds ? Are the idioms of everyday life becoming second or even third\nnature ? Can the pupils tell the story of the day's lesson with increasing fluency and\naccuracy ?\nDoubtless some of these questions can be answered by rapid reading, but the mastery\nof idiom comes only by painstaking, intensive labor.\nHowever much or little the time spent on rapid reading, that devoted to prose and\ngrammar must be considerable. Drill in the vernacular of the grammar as well as in conversational idiom must be constant, and it is this drill that defines the limits of rapid reading,\nat least in the class-room.\nThe method of introducing rapid reading must be left largely to the individual teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": null, "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIt may be begun carefully in the latter part of the first year in the form of sight translation.\nLater, supplenientary reading may be introduced, but sight translation in class must not\nbe dropped.\nIn conclusion, let us by all means use rapid reading, but not abuse it. If possible,\nlet us choose such material as offers the least for intensive work; let the supplementary\nreading be fiction or picturesque history — reading of such a character that the pupil will\nnot look upon it as dull and hard; reserving the dullness and hardness for the class-room,\nwhere the teacher's enthusiasm may counteract some of the dullness. Let the extensive\nreading in the class-room be systematic, so that the pupil may know the aim of each day's\npreparation; and then we may hope to lead our pupils into a larger use and fuller enjoyment of the treasures to which we have striven to give them the key.\nJ. Perry Worden, instructor in German, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. — I\nfavor more or less rapid reading in connection with intensive reading, and for these reasons :\nIt gives variety of subject, variety of style, variety of work. Seldom can a text be found\nof sufficiently absorbing interest to hold a class a whole term, and it is most desirable to\nhave some change of subject to prevent their becoming tired. Intensive work can never\nbe escaped; we have it constantly in the grammatical, philological, biographical, geographical references. How to adapt these two kinds of reading, intensive and rapid, is a problem\nfor each teacher to solve. The intensive work may be taken first and then rapid reading;\nor the week may be divided, giving a certain number of days to intensive work and one or\ntwo to rapid reading.\nW. E. Johnson, head of German Department, High School, St. Joseph, Mo. — I wish\nto emphasize one or two points in this connection. In the early stages of his work the\npupil is not ready to concentrate his mind. Later, in the third and fourth years, he has\nthe power of concentration and discrimination. Hence at this time I should strongly\nadvise the study of one text intensively. The plan pursued at State University of Missouri\nin devoting one whole semester to the study of Schiller seeiAs to me a good one. Two\nmonths is too short a time for William Tell or a classic of that type. Devote at least a\nwhole term to a man.\nUnify the work of the last two years is my plea.\n\nCONVERSATION\n\nAS A\n\nVEHICLE OF INSTRUCTION\nLANGUAGES\n\nIN MODERN\n\nDISCUSSION\n\nMax Batt, Agricultural College, Fargo, N. D. — Conversation has a place in the class\nroom. There are two classes of modern-language teachers. One, growing smaller every\nday, prefers to translate from EngHsh into German. Some teach a modern language\nsolely by this method. The other class follows the natural method. The first method\ndoes good work, but attains no more than the instructors of the classics have accomphshed;\nthe second has the advantage of arousing interest, but there are also some disadvantages\nsome objections to it, and it must be used with caution.\nThere is a golden mean between these two, however, which can be introduced in\nsecondary schools. It is impossible to use conversation in a foreign language at once\nin the class-room. Conversation must be introduced gradually. A difficulty, however,\narises in selecting a topic for conversation. What shall we talk about ? is the question\nthat naturally presents itself to the minds of most teachers. Two or three suggestions\nmight be offered to overcome this difficulty. Questions based on the text might be asked.\nThese are often found in the back of the text-book, and I often have my class turn to these\nquestions and let the pupils read them; then I have them close their books and I ask the\nquestions.\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n533\n\nProse-composition work may also form a basis for conducting conversation in class.\nAfter a few anecdotes have been translated correctly into German, assign one or two of\nthese to be retold in German for the next recitation. The pupil has then a means of learning the correct form, since the anecdotes have been previously correctly translated in class.\nThe chief aim in teaching is perhaps to arouse and sustain the interest, and this method\nproves satisfactory. It gives the pupil power and facility in expressing his thought in the\nforeign language.\nAnother method of introducing conversation into the class-room is by the use of\nquestions on the grammar. This takes up too much time, however, and hence does not\nprove entirely satisfactory.\nGeorge Arthur Smith, Yonkers, N. Y. — I am very much in favor of conversation\nin modern-language teaching, and believe it can be used to great advantage in the classroom. But we must not expect too much from it.\nI believe that a teacher of modern languages should by his enthusiasm lead his pupils\nto think that his is the only subject worth teaching, and thus he can lead his pupils on\nto love the language and literature. A teacher might pursue some such method as this:\nLet one of the pupils read a passage in German; another translate the passage and touch\nupon the syntax and grammar; a third paraphrase it. The teacher must make use of\nvariety. I appreciate very much Dr. Worden's attempt, but the pupil can scarcely master\nthe speaking of German in such a short time.\nGeorge W. Neal, Lincoln College, 111. — The importance of conversation in the\nteaching of German and French cannot be overestimated. We too often lay stress on other\nthings, but forget the far-reaching efifects of inability to speak the language. It sometimes\nhappens that a college professor celebrated for his scientific knowledge of a language\ncannot speak a word of it. President Harper of the University of Chicago set about to\ncreate the ability actually to speak a foreign language, and for the purpose of accompHshing\nthis end French and German clubs were organized at the university for the professors and\nstudents. The plan has been very successful in Chicago, and perhaps some such plan\nmight also be introduced into the secondary school with much success.\n\nILLUSTRATED\nAIDS TO THE\nTEACHING\nOF MODERN\nLANGUAGE,\nWITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE TEACHING OF GERMAN\nJ. perry WORDEN,\n\ninstructor\n\nin GERMAN,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nFour difficulties at least retard the teacher of modern language in the secondary\ngrades: the daily environment of English, the necessary hmitation of time, the pupil's\nprejudice and consequent lack of interest, and a chronic inattention growing out of the\nfree-and-easy discipline in too many American homes and grammar schools. How, then,\nmay modern language be taught so that these obstacles shall most rapidly and effectually\nbe removed ? What can the average instructor do to transport his pupils to another sphere,\nto make one minute do the work of two, to awaken a new and healthy interest and quickly\novercome any possible disHke, and to fix and hold the attention of the growing mind?\nWith peculiar force will these questions come to all who realize the advantages of easy\nand rapid acquisition of knowledge, but especially to those who toil in systems where\nmodern language finds no place in the grammar school, and the pupil approaches the higher\ngrades with not even the knowledge of the German alphabet.\nTo cross the sea to the famihar life so closely associated with the language to be studied\nwould, of course, be ideal for escaping that ocean of English which here incessantly beats\nagainst the consciousness of the child; but this being unattainable by the majority of pupils,\nreaUstic foreign scenes, with their strange and fascinating features, must be brought to\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": null, "text": "534\n\n'\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthem. Nothing will clothe the child so well with that atmosphere which eliminates the\nmother-tongue and concentrates the attention as foreign-made pictures of foreign life,\nskillfully introduced for discussion when the associated language is presented. The\nrealism gives a practical turn to the exercise, the varied scenes draw out the fire of the\nenthusiastic instructor and wake up even the easy-going teacher, and the long, slavish\nfollowing of the classical tradition in the dry grammar and reading methods is at an end.\nThe pupil learns to spell H-a-u-s only after seeing the German Haus; and, following a\nsimple psychological law whereby pictorial representations of German objects studied\ncall up instantly their corresponding German words, he never associates Haus with his\nown h-o-u-s-e.\nIf, then, illustrated aids conduce to idiomatic mental processes, say in German, to\nthinking German thoughts — quaint objects, like words in sentences for sight-reading,\nsuggesting other related objects — what apparatus can we use, and to what extent and how ?\nFor small classes — and none other should be given a teacher if the best results are really\ndesired — photographs, loose engravings, and copies of foreign illustrated journals, pinned\"\non the wall or displayed in frames with adjustable mats and movable backs, would serve\nthe purpose very well; but the ideally equipped room of any size will have a stereopticon\nlantern ready for use at a moment's notice, that landscapes, streets, interiors, and people\nmay appear vividly before the pupils. Language charts, such as the old-fashioned German wall Tajeln, with their stiffly-outlined horses and trees, and their formal question\nprimers, will find no place in a wide-awake language room: mechanical in their every\ndetail, they lack the sympathetic atmosphere needed to illuminate the inquiring mind as\nto the real character, the customs, and the environment of another people. Those\npictures not designed for language study, but in which the teacher has a live, if not a\npersonal, interest, will prove most serviceable, though many of the new, artistic German\nschool pictures, such as are so fully displayed in the remarkable German educational\nand printing exhibits, and some of the French school posters, may be found very\nadaptable; and that teacher who knows the familiar life of the country in question,\nthru residence or travel abroad, will be most successful in the use of illustrated aids.\nSomewhat naturally perhaps, the best application of pictures in the teaching of modern\nlanguage will be the most difficult — the introduction of conversation or, as some prefer\nto term it, of oral practice. Not merely because sound arrests the attention does oral work\ngive vivacity and stimulate the pupil; in conversation, however simple, the boy or girl is\ngiven something to do, and feels that he is no longer a bystander, but one whose presence\nis needed in the class-room to make the occasion a success. His curiosity is aroused, he\nis encouraged to think, his intelligence is quickened, he is called upon to exercise his judgment, the child is won! Hence the opportunity to hear the language spoken and to try\ntheir tongues at it should be afforded the pupils from the first day of actual work after the\norganization of classes. Far more ground may be covered in a given time by conversing\nthan by reading or writing — that is, if the teacher is at home with his subject and apparatus,\nand has a clear idea of what he wishes to do. No repetition should be made of the old-time\nmistake of arranging the matter in stereotyped chapters or even in groups; the teacher\nmust be alert to his own environment and the life progressing before him — he must see\nthe room he is in, note the weather without, hear the bird at the window, discover the\npersonalities in his pupils, and bring all into relation with the pictures employed. More\nthan this, he must think less of dignity and more of sociability, even to the occasional\nintroduction of fun ; he must hold somewhat to local themes and color, and adopt an address\nand side reference more or less personal; and he must maintain discipline by friendship,\nrespect, and interest.\nWherever practicable, the language taught should be the medium of instruction,\nand yet neither time nor energy should be wasted in a bungling attempt to teach\nforeign grammar with a limited vocabulary. How to conjugate correctly in German\nmay certainly be learned without the beginner ever having heard of PlusquamperfeU, and\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMODERN\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\n535\n\nif the movement be from idiomatic German to English and then back again to German,\nrather than from any sort of EngUsh to incorrect German, that Sprachgefuhl so desirable\nwill steadily be inculcated and grammatical peculiarities easily grasped. Dialogues,\nnecessarily the usual form of oral practice with a class, should often give place to enhvening\nor amusing narrative, adapted to the grade; and anecdotes, selected or composed by the\nteacher to accompany the picture discussed, should occasionally be presented direct to\nthe hearing, and translated or retold by the pupil. Here as elsewhere, if there be frequent\nrepetition of easy colloquial sentences, tending to faciUtate the reproduction of natural\nforms of expression, the tongue and the ears will prove efficient aids to memory; and repetitions and answers to questions in their fullest form, demanding the use of many words\nunder proper relations, will conduce to the largest vocabulary possible. If inaccuracies\ncreep in and grammatical or other deficiencies be detected, the teacher must pause long\nenough to repair the breach; and in all conversation care should be taken to speak slowly,\nto pronounce distinctly, and to insist on slow, distinct answers. If these points be kept in\nview, this oral work will encourage precision of thought and statement, the child will learn\nto see and report accurately, and more substantial results will be obtained than thru the\noverenthusiasm aroused by the false and unnatural \"natural method,\" promising far more\nthan it can perform, and ultimately leaving the student misdirected, crippled, and discouraged. Let no teacher imagine, however, that he will accomphsh what may be done unless\nhe works systematically and with enthusiasm; for only a tireless energy will prove the superiority of the system, and that it is more adaptable and practical than the so-called psychological methods of either Gouin or Betis. Leading, comprehensive sentences are not easily\nproduced off-hand, and conversation, while flowing smoothly, to be really effective should\nflow with a purpose. Such a purpose is attained in the introduction to foreign people,\nassuring a better understanding of the classic texts later on — one of the strongest arguments\nin favor of this plan; for a single word such as Schloss, with its corresponding illustration\nsuggesting the rise of the mediaeval town, may contain more than a glance at past or contemporary famihar Hfe, If Gemutlichkeit is untranslatable into Enghsh, it is so because\nneither the feverish American nor the more seclusive Briton knows how to enjoy everyday\nlife as the German; and if ever we are to understand what Gemiltlichkeit really means, we\nmust join the German in his family circle or accompany him to the open Garten.\nIt is not proposed, however, to introduce these pictures of foreign life only to further\nthe conversational side of modern-language teaching; the system suggested differs from\nthe \"natural method\" in that it does not train the ear and organs of speech alone, but\nexercises the eye as w'ell. From the first, provision should be made for writing down\nmuch of the language spoken — either by the teacher using the blackboard at the conclusion\nof the sentence, thus enabling the pupils to copy the forms; or by his dictating or even\nspelling the words or phrases. Brief, carefully written exercises should also occasionally\nbe required of the pupils, and discussed by the teacher before the class. As the child\nprogresses, short geographical, historical, or biographical sketches, the facts for which\nmay or may not previously have been given in EngHsh, may be prepared; poems, such as\nDie Lorelei, referring to selected pictures, may be turned into everyday prose, and even\noriginal German exercises may be prepared as text for illustrations, and deHvered orally\nin the class, care being taken to prevent the danger incidental to an inexperienced handling\nof the dictionary. Some such exercises by my pupils I have brought with me and will\nshow you in connection with the pictures before you. In more advanced classes pupils\nmay interrogate and answer each other as to the contents of pictures; and illustrations,\nwhenever applicable to the text, may be used as a basis for composition and oral work,\nthe teacher being assured that nowhere will the pupil appreciate the pictorial aid more.\nPubHshers have been short-sighted in their failure to illustrate more extensively the modernlanguage texts.\nSuch are a few of the possibilities of the method which so admirably adapts itself to\nthe teacher's own individuahty and employs so fully whatever he has of peculiar gifts.\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": null, "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFSecondary\n\nBy each teacher must the plan be tried before its merit will fully be apparent, but then\nwill be seen the force of the opinion expressed by the Committee of Twelve of the Modern\nLanguage Association, on p. 25 of their 1900 report:\nThe attempt to give scholars by eye and ear, by description and by the use of objects and pictures, a\ncorrect and vivid idea of foreign life, has been carried farther by the phoneticians than by any other school\nbut there is no reason, save the lack of rightly prepared instructors, why this feature should not be introduced\ninto every method; the neglect of it defeats one of the principal objects of modem-language study.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor Moore, of Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. — This topic has been\nmost interesting to me for years. I have been delighted with what Dr. Worden has shown\nus this afternoon, the way he planned and worked out his teaching, and his method of\ncombining pictures with conversation. Pictures can be made of great service in instruction. They enable one to create the actual feeling for the language and hterdture, to\nmake the subject a reahty to the pupil. Concerning Berlin, for example, I have collected\na hundred pictures, and I have another hundred about Schiller's Wilhelm Tell, and\nanother hundred about Goethe's Faust. So I have pictures of the Rhine, and one may\nshow pictures concerning good German hterature such as \" The Song of the Bell,\"\n\"Lurlei,\" and others. I do not place any emphasis on the great educational value of such\npictures, but they do help to sustain the interest. Such pictures, too, teach the pupils\nsomething of German art.\nA. Gideon, professor of modern languages. State Normal School, Greeley, Colo. — I\nwas obliged to be absent myself during some of the readings, and perhaps someone has in\nthe meantime touched upon the subject of great importance to me — phonetics. I was\ndehghted with what Dr. Worden said. I myself have made some experiments in the same\nfield, but perhaps not so completely and possibly not so well. However, I expected more\nreference to phonetics by the same speaker. At a recent meeting of modern-language\nteachers in Colorado every one of the speakers insisted on the importance of the study of\nphonetics by teachers. They all declared it practicable for the high school. I say it is not\nonly practicable, but absolutely imperative, especially in the extended high schools; that is,\nthe schools extended downward.\nA study of phonetics is an idispensable requisite in the training of every teacher. It\ngives the spirit of language, it gives correctness and exactness, which are the chief features\nof mathematics as a culture study. Unless the pronounciation in reading a text is correct\nand exact, the proper spirit for the language is not cultivatd.\nPhonetics as a science need not be introduced into the high schools, but it is essential\nthat the teacher study phonetics from a scientific standpoint, so as to be able to introduce\nits results in the class-room. The elementary stages are especially concerned — that is,\nthe elements which are fundamental — because they form a basis upon which everything\nelse but a slipshod translation depends.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 1904\n\nThe Department of Higher Education met at 2 130 p. m. in the library of the Hall of\nCongresses. In the absence of the president and vice-president of the department, the\nsecretary called the meeting to order. W. S. Chaplin, chancellor of Washington University, was made chairman of the meeting. About two hundred and fifty persons were\npresent.\nThe topic for the afternoon discussion was: \"Coeducation in Relation to the Other\nTypes of College Education for Women: (a) The Separate College; (6) The Annex; (c)\nCoeducation; (d) The Modification Known as Segregation.\"\nG. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University, introduced the subject in a paper\nsetting forth the general sex-problem involved.\nPapers deahng with the general subject from other standpoints were presented by\nCharles F. Thwing, president of Western Reserve University; R, H. Jesse, president\nthe University of Missouri; and James B. Angell, president of the University of Michigan.\nA brief discussion followed, which was participated in by G. Stanley Hall, R. H\nJesse, and Emil Saxback.\nAt the close of the discussion the chairman announced a Committee on Nominations\nas follows:\nWiUiam T. Prather, president of the University of Texas.\nG. Stanley Hall, president of Clark University.\nWilliam L. Bryan, president of the University of Indiana.\n\nThe department then adjourned to meet at the same place on Friday at 2 : 30 p. M.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe second session of the Department of Higher Education was held on Friday\nafternoon, July i, at 2:30, in the library of the Hall of Congresses. Wilham T. Prather,\npresident of the University of Texas, was called to the chair.\nAbout two hundred persons were present.\nThe topic for the afternoon was: \"Present Tendencies of College Athletics:\nE. Benjamin Andrews, chancellor of the University of Nebraska, opened the exercises\nwith a paper on \"The General Tendency of College Athletics.\" This was followed\nby a paper by WiUiam H. P. Faunce, president of Brown University, on \"The Historical\nDevelopment of Athletics,\" Frank Strong, chancellor of the University of Kansas, closed\nthe discussion with a paper \"The Effects of Athletics on the Morale of the College.\"\nThere was no general discussion.\nPresident Prather presented the report of the Committee on Nominations, as follows:\nFor President — Richard Henry Jesse, University of Missouri.\nFor Vice-President — William Lowe Bryan, University of Indiana.\nFor Secretary — Joseph Swain, Swarthmore College.\n\nOn motion, the report was unanimously adopted, and the officers were declared elected\nfor the ensuing year.\nOn motion, the department adjourned.\nJames E. Lough, Secretary.\n537\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": null, "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCOEDUCATION\nG. STANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF CLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nEvery discussion of coeducation that is fundamental and not merely superficial must be based on the doctrines of heredity. For animals the test of\ndomesticability is whether or not the species can be made to breed well in\ncaptivity. The same test appKes to civiHzation, which is a collective term for\nthe sum of man's efforts to domesticate himself. Races perish under systems\nthat do not fit the laws by which Ufe is transmitted. Educational systems are\nan artificial environment to accelerate and direct civiHzation, and their supreme\ntest is their effect upon heredity, which is the most precious and most ancient\nform of wealth and worth, and one ounce of which is, in Huxley's well-known\nphrase, worth a ton of education. It is now well estabHshed that higher\neducation in this country reduces the rate of both marriage and offspring so\nthat in round numbers less than a fourth of our male and only about half of\nour female graduates marry, and those who marry do so late and have few\nchildren. As Augustine said that the soul was unhappy until it could find\nrest in God, so I shall assume that man, and still more woman, without wedlock and parentage is immature, discontented, more or less defraque, and that\nall other vicarious joys of life can never quite atone for the loss of this feHcity.\nFinally, I think it estabHshed that mental strain in early womanhood is a\ncause of imperfect mammary function, which is the first stage of the slow\nevolution of steriHty, and which, as Bunge has shown, if it is once lost in a\nmother, can never be regained in her posterity. I do not, of course, assert\nthat all these results can be traced to coeducation, nor do I deny that in some\nrespects this has real advantages. I shall speak today, however, only of a few\nof its disadvantages which are now less realized.\nFrom puberty on, boys and girls normally differ from each other rapidly in\nevery tissue and proportion of body, and in every quaHty of soul. This\ndifference increases up to fuU nubility, and is greater in civilization than in\nsavagery. The Hst of even those secondary sexual differences that are now\nknown is a long and growing one. There is in girls the monthly cycle, the\nprocessional and recessional of which has about it the majesty of one of nature's\ngreatest rhythms, and which gives an ebb and flow to all the tides of woman's\ninner life, makes it larger than man's, and has made her an object of his worship. This she should emphasize rather than repress, and in the normaHty\nof it she should glory as the full efflorescence of her womanhood, altho the\nfeminists, perpetuating the barbaric idea of impurity, would minimize and\nmake her ashamed of it. To the proper estabHshment of this function everything else should for a few years be subordinated.\nOnce more, woman is more generic than man, nearer to, and a better\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\n539\n\nrepresentative of, the race, more liable to be injured by specialization. Her\nvery altruism is a constant temptation to her to take out of her system more\nthan it can bear. She is more intuitive, less discursive, has a far richer\nemotional life. If man is a political, she is a religious, animal; more conservative, less radical. Her function in childbearing and in the domestic circle is\nlarger than man's.\nIn a word, everything indicates that sex-differentiation should be pushed\nto the uttermost, and instead of the approximation which coeducation favors,\nwoman should be made more womanly as well as man more manly. Even in\na family budding girls and boys now draw apart in interests, tastes, and occupations. To run with the other sex is condemned during the early ''teens\"\nas at no other stage of hfe, for then nature prompts each sex to round out its\nown sphere apart.\nHow the high school interferes with these laws of nature is well seen inseveral recent studies which show that a large percentage of girls actually\nwish they had been born boys, and the ideals and tastes of many more are\nincreasingly masculine. This has led to the fear that we are slowly \"developing a female sex without the female character.\" More than half of the girls\nin Chamber's study chose male ideals. ''Femininity,\" he says, \"seems on the\nverge of extinction.\" The reactions against the old restraint have gone so far\nthat the ideals of a girl are at variance with the interests of the race. She often\nwants identical education, and regards any effort to differentiate as involving\ndanger of relapse to old conditions. Now, without womanly ideals the female\ncharacter is threatened with disintegration. Again, in the rapid feminization\nof our schools the woman teacher gives free rein to whatever mascuhne ideals\nshe may have, sometimes as if she unconsciously felt that, as male teachers\nwere becoming extinct, she must cultivate a bisexual character.\nBy association with boys, girls, even if they are not roughened in manners,\n.have less tendency to develop the distinctively feminine qualities, to be less\nproud and conscious of the grace and charm of ideal young womanhood,\nwhich is the most attractive and stimulating thing on earth to men. They are\na little lacking in respect for their own sex as such and do not feel its full\ndignity. Sexual selection shows that there is a sense in which woman has\nmade man by bestowing the unique stimulus of her approval upon those qualities which she deems best. Perhaps her chief responsibility in the prenuptial\nstage is to thus praise aright. It is said that association with boys makes the\nhigh-school girl less emotional, impulsive, romantic, her conduct more thoughtful, her hfe more regular. If so, this I hold to be bad. The consensus of\nwomen teachers to the contrary notwithstanding, I urge that there is something wrong with the girl in the middle \"teens\" who is not gushy, sentimental,\nromantic at least at times, but who has developed in manners and soul the\nrepose and poise that \"marks the cast of Vere de Vere.\"\nIt is said that the presence of girls is humanizing for boys ; but I insist that\nthere is something wrong with a boy of this age who can be truly called \"a\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": null, "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nperfect gentleman.\" If he is not a milksop, a lady boy, or a sneak, he is\nmorally precocious. This pin-feather age ought to be — I don't quite Hke to\nsay a Httle rowdyish and barbaric — but certainly uncouth, rude, recalcitrant to\nprim conventionahties; or else vigor is sacrificed to form. True virility at\nthis stage of life does not normally take a high polish. A blind, but strong\nand right, instinct, ripened thru millennia, now impels the boy to get away\nin certain respects from both girls and women, be they sisters, schoolmates,\nmothers, or women teachers; and if he does not actually leave school where\ntheir influence predominates, one of two things is likely to happen: either he\nsuffers subtle eviration, and his masculinity swerves from its proper orbit; or\nelse his reaction to femininity is excessive toward coarseness, perhaps vulgarity\nor he loses due respect for women from being held to too close quarters with\nthem. Thus the boy forced to see too much of girls is sure to lose something,\neither by excess or defect, from the raw material of his.manhood.\nAt eighteen or nineteen, the age of college entrance, the average girl, if\nunwarped by ill-health and undistracted by merely scholastic mentaHty, is\nwell cadenced in her physiological life, can endure great strain if it is\nwell timed, has acquired much self-knowledge and great self-respect, and\nhas intuited Hfe with amazing sagacity. During her college years she\nought to be nearer to genius and more beautiful than she can ever be\nagain. These are years when the statistics show more of her sex marry\nand become mothers than during any other quadrennium of life. These\nare years of greatest fecundity and of least mortality in childbirth. She\nis far nearer the apex of full maturity than is her male classmate of the\nsame age, and has less developmental transformations yet to undergo than he.\nHence, her mating instincts normally focus on men five or ten years older than\nherself. She excels her boy classmates in perception, memory, association in\ntime and space, and far more yet in insight in character and motives. At no\nage is her mental superiority to the other sex so great. She knows her male\nclassmate in some respects more truly than he knows himself. This he feels\nin his dumb way, and resents both her mental superiority and her constant\npresence. He, on the other hand, seems to her somewhat crude, and so far\nbelow her ideals of his sex that there is some disenchantment, unconscious\ntho it be; and thus slowly an independent, unwed life comes to seem, if not\nmore attractive, at least less inconsolable. She turns more easily to plans and\ncareers of self-support, is more confident that she can compete with and excel\nher callow male classmate, because she does not realize — and this is the frequent tragedy in woman's life — how much more those of her age will yet\ndevelop, and how far more advanced than her classmates she will find her\nreal male competitors in life; for the former will grow in mind and character\nlong after she has ceased to do so.\nPerhaps familiarity relaxes sexual tonicity — one of the most precious of all\neducative influences; and boys cease to be at their best, and grow unchivalric,\nungentlemanly in their conduct in the presence of girls; while the latter grow\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\ncareless in conduct, manner, and attire. Not only do boys feel themselves\nseen thru, but girls come to feel them not so much worth while as they seemed\nat greater distance. Thus the romance and ideaHsm that have always guilded\nthis relation wear off to dull commonplace, and marriage for both sexes has\nperhaps lost one of its chief charms.\nS4I\nBut we hasten to say that this is only one aspect of this myriad-sided\nproblem with which we must now grapple. For many boys the constant association with good girls, while it may repress the gross thoughts to which young\nmen are often prone, stimulates thoughts of wedlock before it is time for those\nwho have entered upon the long and hard apprenticeship to an intellectual\ncareer. In a man, dreams of marriage involve plans of bread-winning and\nreduce patience with the long way necessary for mastery. The girl is ripe,\nand the boy of equal age is not ; and if he marries his classmate a year or two\nafter graduation, he is. of ten handicapped in his career, and led perhaps to\nteaching or other occupations that involve a compromise with his ideals, and\nperhaps even the permanent abandonment of his chosen profession. ^The\nreaHzation of this fact, tho it be unexpressed, is not conducive to the highest\nideal of marital affection, especially if, as in most marriages of equal age, the\ngirl has had more than the usual initiative. Statistics are not likely soon to\nshow us how often the instincts to temporary celibacy which ought to dominate the young man who is preparing for expert intellectual leadership in ever\nmore overcrowded professions are thus interfered with. Nor do they yfet tell\nus whether this is more or less common under modern educational influences\nthan elsewhere.\nThat this often results from these conditions no one doubts.\nAgain, not only does the girl far more often end her education with college\nthan the boy, and not only does he graduate younger at the same age and more\nimmature than she, but, save only in preparation for teaching, the boy must\nfar more often than the girl win his livelihood by what he gets in college.\nSooner or later he realizes that he must acquire a knowledge that is practical\nand can be put to work. Purely humanistic and culture studies are more often\nthe end to her, while for him they are not so much a means as a beginning.\nThe higher education for women at its best is general, and for man it must\nmore often culminate in a specialty. In the latter the boy often has his first\ngenuine intellectual awakening, such as the girl had earlier found in literature,\nart, language, history. A man is uneducated today who is not a master in\nsome field, small tho it be. He must reach the frontier at some point, know\nwhat it is to exercise the power of original thought and research, to be an\nauthority and not an echo. Girls acquire, appropriate, accept authority, but\nby the general testimony of teachers they are inferior and go to pieces when\ntexts are laid aside and they are thrown upon their own powers. It is just\nthis that evokes the best that is in a boy.\nThus, again, we see the methods should be different, and increasingly so\nthru college. Under book and recitation methods girls will always excel, and\nboys grow listless and slow; but by research methods boys leave girls far behind.\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": null, "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nUnder the old routine, martinet, and mass-training ways girls thrive and boys\nlanguish. All educational colleges show spontaneous segregation in topics,\ngirls taking most kindly to those with bookish methods, perhaps crowding out\nthe boys, who in turn most frequent the practical and experimental courses.\nIf the same option were opened between the methods of acquisition and those\nof investigation in the same topic, the same segregation would follow, with\ngirls in the former and boys in the latter. There are topics, however, not\na few, where the presence, and still more the predominance, of girls favors\nmechanical old methods at the expense of those that are newer and better.\nThus the conservatism of the female instincts often interferes with educational\nprogress.\nIn the time at my disposal I have thus, as you see, touched only a very few\npoints in this great discussion. The higher education of women involves all\nthe difficulties of that of men, with many new problems of its own. The girls'\ncolleges think it wisest to train for self-support, and hold that if marriage comes,\nit caQ best take care of itself. I urge the precise reverse. Prepare for parenthood and domestic life, and if it does not come, women are thus best prepared\nto support themselves. The bachelor woman is often magnificent in mind\nand body. I marvel at her achievements; I love and profit by her companionship. Itis well in every community that there should be many who, in Herbert\nSpencer's terms, develop individuation even at the expense of genesis. The\ninfluence of many of these women upon both boys and girls, at least in their\nhigh-school age, is often beneficent in ways that a mother's could not be.\nThe problem of prolonging the prenubile stage of apprenticeship to life\nso as to bring the greatest good and the least evil to the largest number is an\nimmense one, of which the best of us yet know but Httle ; but we may well\nrejoice that today so many large-souled and insightful men and women have\nemerged from, and are trying to forget, the sad thirty years' war of sex against\nsex, in which one sex at least was made a sect ; and are now slowly preparing\nthemselves with all available knowledge, and with a sense of its profound\nimportance for the future of our land and race, to attack in a scientific way and\nin a religious spirit what is probably the most momentous educational question\nof this generation.\n\nCOEDUCATION\nR.\n\nH.\n\nJESSE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nAS IT HAS BEEN TESTED\nUNIVERSITIES\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nMISSOURI,\n\nIN STATE\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nMO.\n\nThe real home of the state universities is the region west of the Allegheny\nmountains. They are found on the Atlantic coast also, but there the dominant power in higher education at least is in universities privately endowed.\nIn the Mississippi valley we have a few institutions of higher learning privately\nendowed and truly admirable, but here the state universities hold the chief\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n543\n\npower. Their influence is manifest in the private schools about them. The\nUniversity of Chicago, Washington University, the Western Reserve, and\nthe Stanford would all be prompt, I am sure, to admit that they have\nbeen powerfully affected, and for their good, by the state institutions about\nthem. Thruout the land west of the Allegheny mountains all the state universities, sofar as I can remember, are coeducational in graduate and in\nundergraduate work. Because of their influence, the same is true of the best\ncolleges and universities privately endowed in the same territory, with the\nexception of Western Reserve at Cleveland, and Tulane at New Orleans,\neach of which, I believe, has a separate college for women. The University\nof Chicago segregates women in the freshman and sophomore years only.\nThis was done solely because of local environment. It is safe, therefore, to\nsay that all the best colleges and universities, with perhaps a half-dozen exceptions, from the crest of the Allegheny mountains to the Pacific ocean, stand\nfor coeducation among graduates and among undergraduates; while on the\nAtlantic coast the only great representative in undergraduate work is Cornell,\nand perhaps Boston University.\nI No college or university known to me has ever been dissatisfied with\ncoeducation after trying it fairly. I It is claimed that the University of Chicago\ntried it and abandoned it. This is not true. Some concession it has made\nto local environment, but that is all. With fair accuracy, therefore, it may\nbe said that sexually separate colleges, some for men and some for women,\nprevail on the Atlantic coast, and that in the Mississippi valley and on the\nPacific coast coeducation is dominant. I am expected to speak of it as tested\nin state universities only, for graduates and for undergraduates.\nWill you allow me to give some personal experience, not out of a desire to\ntalk about myself, but because in this way can my views best be set forth?\nI never saw coeducation in a fitting school, a college, or a university until I\nbecame president of the University of Missouri. To that post I came full of\nrules for regulating the relations of the sexes in a more delicate way than in\nmy opinion the blunt western people had realized. With me came all the\nnotions of a southern man in regard to the way in which women should be\nguarded and segregated and protected from rudeness and pleased with delicate attentions and high consideration. But with the opening of the session\nthere came a storm of work which forced me to attend to certain things and\nto postpone everything else. It was nearly thirty days before opportunity\ncame for applying my principles for regulating the association of the sexes\nand for shielding women from rude contact and for making them the recipients\nof the high consideration of which my head was full. On examination it\nappeared that the sexes were regulating themselves in the most admirable\nmanner, and there did not seem to be a gap anywhere for my fine-spun theories and chivalrous intentions. The western man pulls off his hat sometimes awkwardly and sometimes not at all. His cravat is not always tied in\nthe latest knot, and his shoes sometimes fail to reflect the image of his face;\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": null, "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nbut generally to the marrow of his bones he is reverential to women. Moreover, good traditions in my university had been established by coeducation\nfor twenty-one years. My women students seemed singularly exempt from\nlanguid sentimentahty and from tittering gush. For the space of thirteen\nyears I have found it impossible, except in details, to improve the way in\nwhich men and women of their own accord associate together in the University\nof Missouri. A greater measure of comfort for the women in their dormitory\nand in their private parlors has been secured. Sociability under good leadership has been encouraged, so that manners have improved in men and in\nwomen, so far as grace of expression is concerned. Women have been discouraged from taking rooms in houses that provide no parlors for the reception of guests, or that furnish lodgings to men also.\nHere ends the short catalog of my achievements. Quickly converted\nto coeducation, I have stood firm in the faith for thirteen years. Nothing\nthat wise men of the East may say would shake that faith, so far at least as\nthe state universities are concerned. In thirteen years, with a faculty greatly\nadorned in former years with cranks, and not destitute of that decoration\neven now, not more than four or five complaints have been lodged with me\nagainst women on any account whatsoever, and most of these were for failure\nto attend lectures. The woman, having conceived in each case a dislike for the\nteacher, had begun to cut his classes. An' interview, beginning with\nmild reproof on my part, followed by a shower of tears from the eyes of the\nwoman, and then by a strenuous effort on my part to close the interview,\nwas all that passed, the culprits returning to their lecture-rooms dutifully.\nThe ratio in my university is that of three men to one woman. The\naverage of health among the women is better than it is among the men, their\nhabits being more regular and their amusements less exhausting. The average scholastic attainments is as good among them as it is among the men, if,\nindeed, it be not better. They choose their electives quite as wisely as the\ngentlemen do. They give no trouble whatsoever in respect to discipline in\nthings either great or small. They exercise a benign influence over the men,\nunconsciously, inevitably, and irresistibly. There is no jealousy of the one\nsex against the other. The men would defend the honor of the women and\nprotect them, if occasion therefor arose, instinctively and immediately. They\nwould resent the sHghtest aspersion upon them.\nThe sexes are separate in many things. This comes by instinct. Coeducation does not mean, as some eminent men in the East seem to think, a\ncommingHng of males and females in everything. Women do not play football with men in the West. So multitudinous are the errors into which\nthe wise men of the East fall that for them at least assurances in elementary\nthings are necessary. Nor do men of the West play basket-ball with women.\nI beg the pardon of all people west of the Allegheny mountains for teUing of\nthese elementary things. My women students at least do not lodge in houses\nthat refuse to provide parlors in which to receive guests, nor do they, except\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCOEDUCATION\n\nIN\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITIES\n\n545\n\nunder extraordinary circumstances and with the consent of our adviser of\nwomen, have rooms in houses that lodge men also. Women sit in the same\nclass-rooms and laboratories with men, pass thru the same corridors, read in\nthe same libraries, and attend receptions, dances, and other entertainments\nfor both sexes, but always under irreproachable chaperons provided by the\nhosts themselves. In regard to seats in the lecture-rooms, no instance has\noccurred in thirteen years in which supervision on the part of the teacher has\nbeen necessary. The instincts of gentlemen and ladies regulate these things\nnaturally. The most womanly women known to me in Missouri and the\nmost manly men are my own students. AH these things are true also of\nevery other state university known to me.\nIn my own town there are two separate colleges for women, in each of\nwhich the pupils are jealously guarded. It requires all the authority of the\nuniversity, and some assistance from divine Providence, to prevent forbidden\nattentions from my men to these girls. These attentions are nearly always\naccepted by the girls, and sometimes are encouraged by them. I am not\nspeaking of things that are really guilty. But on my own campus men and\nwomen associate in natural and sane ways where they should associate, and\nthey of themselves separate where they should separate.\nLet it not sound irreverent to say that sometimes it seems to me that\nProvidence ought to apologize to some of our eastern friends for the methods\nemployed by nature. Thruout the animal and the vegetable world male and\nfemale, each according to its kind, spring up from common parentage, side\nby side. Segregation does not appear anywhere, so far as I can discern,\nexcept in the colleges of the eastern world. An eastern man myself, but Uving\nnow in the West, I claim the right to speak the truth, whether it be comphmentary to either region. The East is superior in many things to the West,\nwhich, in turn, is superior in other things. The law of compensation prevails\nover our country. If it is important to segregate women in colleges, why\nshould they not be segregated in libraries, in churches, in theaters, at concerts, atballs, and at receptions ? Why should we not, following Mohammedan\ncustom, separate our boys and girls in the nursery ? Children come to us\nat birth male and female. They grow up together in the same nursery, by\nthe same fireside, praying together at the same mother's knee, and are blessed\nby the benediction of a common father. The children of a neighborhood go\nto church together, to Sunday school together, on the streets they walk together,\nthey play together. Why, when puberty is established, should they be zealously segregated, as if the estabHshment of puberty were a sin ? Why should\nthey be made conscious of puberty ? Is not unconsciousness, so far as it can\nbe sanely maintained, the better way ? Of all methods of classification that\nby sex seems to me the most illogical. It is physiological rather than\npedagogical.\nLet us not injure coeducation by pushing it too far. In New England\nand the middle states there are many sexually separate colleges well equipped.\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": null, "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nI see no reason for forcing all the colleges for men to admit women, and vice\nversa. For the sake of experiment, I do wish that there were two or three\ncoeducational institutions of higher learning in New England and the middle\nstates. It would at least reduce the volume of baseless imaginations. West\nof the Allegheny mountains, with few exceptions, all secondary schools,\ncolleges, and universities are coeducational. The people are abundantly\nsatisfied. Why should we change it ? Those who are zealous against coeducation have in general had little personal experience of it. Their talk has a\nlong-distance telephone sound.\nThere are some conditions under which coeducation ought to be modified.\nWhere institutions of higher learning are situated in large cities and draw\nstudents from the surrounding country, even I believe that segregation during\nthe freshman year at least, and possibly during the sophomore year also,\nshould be adopted. Bright girls frequently finish the high-school course with\nhonors at sixteen or seventeen years of age. With a rashness that passes\nunderstanding their parents send them to a college or university in the heart of\na great city to choose their boarding places and to manage their own affairs.\nWith the innocence and trust of the country still upon them, like lambs, they\nare thrust into places where saints and wolves ahke abound. The presidents\nof such colleges might well establish for women separate -dormitories, separate instruction, separate regulations, and a separate quadrangle, during the\nfreshman and possibly during the sophomore year also. If these young\nwomen, far from home influence, are allowed to mingle freely with men, it\nis very difficult to maintain separate rules for them; and separate rules are\nnecessary in such cases for their protection. This, and this alone, led the\nUniversity of Chicago to segregate its women for the first two years. It seems\nto me that this is better than segregating them for four years, as is done at\nTulane, at Western Reserve, at Columbia, and at Harvard. That, to say the\nleast, seems needlessly long, even in great cities.\nAll universities are coeducational for graduate work. The University of\nChicago, because of its environment, is coeducational from the beginning of\nthe junior year. Nearly all western colleges are coeducational from the\nbeginning of the freshman year. There is no reason known to me why any\nuniversity should segregate its women at all, unless it be situated in the midst\nof a large city. Even in such a case I should consider the question debatable\nonly for the freshman, and possibly for the sophomore, year.\nIn my opinion, separate colleges for men and for women are often good;\nstill better, other things being equal, is the university for men with an annex\nfor women; but best of all for each sex is the coeducational university, in which\nmen and women, side by side where association is wise, and apart where\nseparation is wise, acquire together and partly from each other that training of mind, morals, body, and social habits which fits them best for larger\nusefulness.\nIn conclusion, let me call attention to the fact that the Universities of\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADVANTAGES\n\nOF\n\nCO-ORDINATE\n\nMETHOD\n\n547\n\nMichigan and Missouri were the first among American institutions of higher\nlearning to try coeducation. Each of them began to admit women in 1870.\nThe two universities that have tried coeducation longest in the United States\nare by accident placed together this afternoon on the witness stand. My\nexperience you have heard. The experience of President Angell will abundantly sustain coeducation.\n\nTHE\n\nADVANTAGES\n\nCHARLES\n\nF.\n\nTHWING,\n\nOF CO-ORDINATE\nIN EDUCATION\n\n(ANNEX)\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF WESTERN\nCLEVELAND,\nO.\n\nRESERVE\n\nMETHOD\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n[an abstract]\n\nAmong the advantages mentioned were: (i) The co-ordinate method represents the university atmosphere. This advantage applies to the co-ordinate\nmethod in contrast with the separate college for women. The ordinary college for women, be its parks never so charming, its acres never so numerous,\nits halls never so inspiring, does not impress the beholder with its scholastic\nconditions. It is Baliol, or Trinity, or St. Johns without the other colleges —\ncharming, beautiful, useful, but lacking the atmosphere of scholarship which\nhelps to make Oxford Oxford, and Cambridge Cambridge. The value of\nsuch an atmosphere for both teacher and student is great. It represents noble\ntraditions, inspirations rich and significant.\n(2) A second advantage belonging to the co-ordinate college is the advantage of the more ample equipment. This advantage, too, is to be studied in\ncontrast with the separate college. Libraries, laboratories of all departments,\ncan be made more ample under the co-ordinate method. Such equipment\ndirectly and largely contributes to the highest interest of the whole academic\ncommunity.\n(3) The co-ordinate method, moreover, removes men and women from\nconstant and intimate association with each other. There are many kinds of\ncoeducation. There is the lecture coeducation, in which students listen to\nthe same lectures. There is also the laboratory coeducation, in which they\nwork side by side in the same laboratory. There is the recitation coeducation,\nin which they recite at the same time and to one teacher. It may also be said\nthat there is the \"walking\" coeducation, and the \"dining\" and the \"calling\"\ncoeducation. Some colleges have all of these degrees; other colleges seem\nto have only the less marked. Between them there is a wide and deep chasm.\nAdvantages belong to each sort. But under the co-ordinate method no such\nconstant or intimate association is promoted. Parents are usually willing to\naccept both the conditions and the results of young women and young men\nbeing together; but they wish their being together to be under the best\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": null, "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nconditions.\nThey are reluctant for life's choices to be made without proper\nsupervision.\n(4) Positively, the co-ordinate method tends to put men and women into\nproper association. They dwell in the same university atmosphere. They\nare subject to the same general conditions. They are loyal to the same\nscholastic standards. They may or may not be taught by the same teachers.\nThey are near together, but not too near; they are remote, but not too remote.\nThe association of college men and women should be natural, healthful,\nwholesome, inspiring to scholarship, quickening to large womanhood, purifying to strong manhood.\n\nCOEDUCATION\nJAMES\n\nIN RELATION\nEDUCATION\n\nB. ANGELL,\n\nTO OTHER TYPES\nFOR WOMEN\n\nPRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY\nANN ARBOR, MICH.\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nOF MICHIGAN,\n\nI have no paper to present. I have come with no special preparation for\nthis meeting. I was asked to offer such suggestions as might occur to me after\nlistening to the papers of our distinguished friends.\nI have no a priori reasoning, no psychological analysis of the sexes to lay\nbefore you. The collegiate coeducation with which I am familiar is a historic\ngrowth. I am no doctrinaire on the subject. In the West for many years\nbefore coeducation prevailed in the colleges the boys and girls studied together\nin the schools, as they Hved and played together in their homes, and studied\nside by side in the Sunday school, and worshiped together in the church. In\ndue time their parents said: Since they have traveled together without harm\nto the very gates of the college, why may they not study side by side in the\ncollege? So public opinion, not the whims of theorists, forced open the\ndoors of the colleges that the girls might have the same opportunities of\neducation as their brothers. For forty or fifty years this joint education\nof the boys has been carried on in the West, and, so far as I can see,\nwithout those unhappy results which our philosophical eastern friends seem\nto dread.\nWe were at first often told that the health of the girls could not endure\nthe strain of college work. But many of the girls in college obstinately persisted in growing stronger with each year of study, and in general the girls\nwho did not attempt to do other things carried their work with as httle injury\nto health as did the boys.\nThen it was said that some kinds of work presented in college were too\nsevere for women. But it was soon demonstrated that there were no studies\nin which some women did not excel.\nAgain, it was protested that marriages between students of the two sexes\nwould ensue.\nThis prediction was fulfilled.\nMany of the happiest marriages\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nTENDENCY\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n549\n\nI have known resulted. And are we not justified in maintaining that an\nacquaintance of four years in the class-room furnishes as good ground for a\nwise choice of husband or wife as a chance acquaintance in a ball-room ?\nAnd those of us who recall the large number of gracious and cultivated\nwomen who, having graduated at coeducational colleges, are adorning happy\nhomes, and enriching school or church or their community with beautiful\nlives, in which every womanly charm is conspicuous, may be pardoned if we\nare not much alarmed at pictures of the supposed efifects of coeducation in\ndepriving our daughters and sisters of womanly bloom and delicacy.\nOne great pubHc advantage I must briefly refer to. Before women were\nadmitted to men's colleges, they could not generally secure so good an education as men. On this account, tho they always formed the large majority of\nteachers in our schools, the instruction they gave was seriously defective.\nThe fact that they knew this was depressing to them and deprived them of\nconfidence, even when, as was sometimes the case, their education was not\ninferior to that of the men. But when they were graduated in the same classes\nwith men, they not only had as good an education, but the knowledge of that\nfact inspired them with confidence, and brought new strength and vigor to\ntheir work. So that coeducation thru women has affected the whole grade of\nwork in our pubHc schools.\nAs it seems to be by divine ordination that the sexes are compelled to grow\nup together, I think that in the West at least we shall continue to believe that\nthey may be properly educated together, under such reasonable regulations\nas good sense will suggest.\n\nTHE GENERAL\nE. BENJAMIN\n\nTENDENCY\n\nANDREWS,\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nCHANCELLOR OF THE\nLINCOLN, NEB.\n\nATHLETICS'\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nThe net tendency of the athletic systems in American colleges, and of their\nworking, is good. Evils and infehcities exist, but they are in a way to be\neradicated, or at least kept under. Recent years have emphasized, more\nthan any before, the excellent effects of athletic exercises upon college communities. These exercises certainly further students' health. The University\nof Nebraska is able to demonstrate statistically that its second-year pupils\naverage to be stronger and healthier than those of the first year, its third-year\npupils sounder still, and its fourth-year constituency physically the most\nperfect of all. Each individual class, also, betrays this progress in health\nas it cUmbs the years.\nThe proportion of college students directly engaging in athletic sports is\nmuch larger than many critics seem to suppose.\nIn football, for instance,\n'An interesting and valuable paper on \"College Athletics\" by President R. H. Jesse of the State\nUniversity of Missouri may be found among the papers of the Department of Physical Education. — Editor\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": null, "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nyour Varsity builds up not only its lusty gang of scrubs, but, besides, an eleven,\nand perhaps a second eleven, in each of the four classes. At least double all\nthis number is more or less stirred to practice, by the hope of being needed in\nthe play at some point; so that a Httle 'leven leaveneth nearly the whole\nlump.\nAthletes help out-and-out non-athletes to mind their bodies. They\nrender attention to physical vigor fashionable. But for athletics fewer colleges\nwould have gymnasiums or regular gymnastic training, and institutions possessing these helps would find it far more difficult to keep them popular and\nefficient. This influence is of special worth at seats of learning not having\nmilitary departments.\nNothing, of course, can be more ridiculous than making bodily development one's main business. College sport is good, within limits and in its\nplace, as a means to physical and mental health and to large Hfe. We exercise\nto five; we do not live to exercise.\nThe benefits of students' physical training are not confined to the conservation of their health and their mental alertness for the time being. The good\nis indefinitely various and of incalculcable reach. Systematic exercise in\ncollege often cures grave and even congenital ailments. It relieves many\ncomplaints which cannot be cured otherwise. It wards off physical and\nmental ills to which persons of a sedentary life are especially liable. It\nlengthens the active years and the total years of men and women who are free\nfrom specific diseases. It lessens in violence, in frequency, and in duration\nsuch attacks of illness as befall quite strong people. It puts ease and cheer\ninto hard work, and good temper into all human relations. It tends to impart\npermanent strength, sanity, and order to the mind, and to create that firmness\nof will without which, particularly in the great crises of life, the most gifted\nof mortals become the sport of fate.\nIn schools whose pupils are mainly from cities physical education is imperative. City youths are apt to be ill developed in their vital parts. Even if\nthey play much, which few of them can be persuaded to do, they rarely engage\nin the vigorous exertion needed to steel the muscles of heart, lungs, and diaphragm— that first-class benediction conferred on farmers' sons and daughters\nby the hard work they have to do. Most city young people coming to college\nstill have time to perfect their physical condition, but not one in a hundred of\nthem will take proper means to do this save under some such impulse as a\nfaculty rule or a student custom.\nThe country Hercules imagines that he, at any rate, can neglect health\nwith impunity. He is a fool. Country physique is rarely quite strong, and\nalmost never symmetrical even when strong. Young men and women from\nthe farm need to continue their bodily drill and to systematize it ; else baneful,\nif not fatal, weaknesses are likely to occur in special parts, or a general breakdown, from which recovery will prove impossible. I have known Titans from\nrural homes come to college and to early death.\nBeing hardy, they fancied\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nTENDENCY\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n551\n\nthemselves sure of continuing so. Sad illusion ! They had been accustomed\nto taxing exertion, and the sudden and total remission of this proved fatal.\nIndoor practice is, of course, to be prized. All students should use the\ngymnasium long enough to locate their weaknesses and to acquire the idea of\nmethod in schooling the body. But outdoor exercises, too, should be indulged\nin as often as possible, partly for the benefit from fresh air, and partly for the\ninvaluable zest of play.\nIt is at this point that match games get their license. They are indispensable to the full and free play of the zest for play. A reasonable number of\nmatch games, duly regulated, are not only admissible, but desirable. And\nit is legitimate, pedagogically, that the competition should be as fierce as it\ncan be and still be fair. There are certainly several considerations more\nimportant than winning; yet what appears to be the ideal of some, a match\nwhere the players care little or nothing which side wins, would seem to me\nnearly worthless from every point of view. Stale play Hke that, far from\nwhetting the general college appetite for sane athletic work, would shut your\ngymnasium in a season.\nHorace Butterworth complains that college athletes gain so much more\npubUc applause than is given the turners.\nHe says:\nIt is doubtful if the total membership of the North American Gymnastic Union\nreceives as much publicity in the course of a year as does even one of the prominent athletes\nin the universities of the country in a single week, and yet they are training more athletes\nthan all the colleges put together. The vital point of difference between the work of the\nturner and the college man is that of purpose; the college athlete trains his muscles primarily\nto win a prize, for his own glory and that of his alma mater; the turner, to increase his stock\nof health and strength\nThe work of the collegian makes him brother to all showmen— actors, circus performers, vaudeville \"artists,\" patent medicine \"spielers;\" the\nturner's aim is to become a good man physically, and to maintain this condition by rational\nand systematic athletic and gymnastic exercises throughout a long hfe.\n\nThis criticism of college athletes is unduly severe, if not wholly a travesty.\nThe college people who, if any, look forward to match games with no thought\nsave of victory are hardly ever the players themselves; they are the students\ntoo lazy ever to exer<:ise at all.\nNo praise is too great for the turners ; but their numbers and their excellent\ninfluence might be largely increased were it possible for them to have a greater\nprofusion of match games. As it is, they indulge in many; and the principle\nof competition, — one performer vying with another for fame and name — plays,\nto my mind, a far more signal role among them than Mr. Butterworth supposes.\nIt is as easy to underestimate as it is to overestimate the athletic virtue of competition. Iis\nt as easy to underestimate it in practice as it is in theory.\nThe power of sound physical education reaches beyond the body. Many\nsports prevalent in college are of extraordinary intellectual worth. Football\nexcels in this respect. Good football proceeds much more from brain than\nfrom muscle. The same is true to a considerable extent of baseball, basketball, tennis, and, in fact, of every game whatever.\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": null, "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nAthletic performance mightily quickens mental action. It effects this in\na variety of ways, but perhaps mainly thru the intense interest it arouses and\nmaintains. It develops the will, an all-important supplement to the set\ncurriculum, which, as all pedagogs complain, is sadly deficient in motor and\nexecutive provision. The abihty to do a great many things, to put forth\none's utmost possible strength at moments, instantaneousness of decision, and\ngrit and steadiness for resolute conation thru long periods, are all of the highest\neducational value; and they are powers which large classes of students acquire\non track and field very much better than they do in the class-room.\nNearly all earnest sport, properly carried on, also has immense moral\nweight. It develops courage, independence in action, the sense of individual\nresponsibility; and at the same time fits for joint activities, co-operation, selfdenial, strenuousness in pursuing worthy ends, and calmness in defeat. It\nbuilds walls against the special vices to which young manhood is prone. It\nrenders college disciphne easier. Untrained onlookers may think football\nand basket-ball brutal, but the fact is that both games are a constant schooHng\nin forbearance and humaneness — doubly effective because consisting in ceaseless resistance to strong temptation. Nor is this generalization invaUdated by the unfortunate fact that a player once in a while gives way to the\ntemptation.\nWholly conservative pedagogy therefore approves, under suitable regulations, all the usual forms of college sport, with occasional fierce match trials\nin each — track athletics, tennis, baseball, basket-ball, football, boxing, wrestUng, fencing, and rowing — tho rowing is not to be so earnestly commended\nas the others, partly because few can engage in it, and partly because it is not\na very safe sport for matches.\nThe fact that our colleges and universities are now health factories as\nwell as seminaries of learning is thus among the most promising data in\nAmerican hfe. Call this booming of the body a \"fad,\" if you will; a goodhealth fad is certainly better than a bad-health fad, such as once prevailed\nwhen many men, and a still greater number of women, 'actually appeared to\n\"enjoy\" poor health.\nIt cannot be denied, after all, that, to render oiu: picture true to life, we\nare aesthetically bound to add a bit of chiaroscuro, if not some blackwash\ndetails.\nWhatever darker features appear, we shall still survey the prospect with\nhope, remembering how many evils besetting college athletics have been\neHminated in the past. The various ills from biased and ignorant umpiring,\nfor instance, at one time so grave, at least in football, as to awaken fear that\nthe game must be surrendered to professionals, are rarely heard of now.\nAccidents in football still occur, and always will; but they diminish both in\nfrequency and in severity as contestants improve, so that fewer and fewer\ncritics now denounce this game as \"lethal.\" We shall expect similar betterment in other respects and there certainly is chance for such.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nGENERAL\n\nTENDENCY\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n553\n\nIf the college athlete, generally speaking, encourages good bodily form\namong collegians, he is helping certain golden means thereto into deplorable\ndesuetude and oblivion.\nHygienic exercises in college may easily be made too set, formal, or concrete, and, with many students, they are certainly in danger of becoming too\nsevere. Let us train for record by all means, but let it be a health, strength,\nand longevity record rather than a pole-vault, shot-putting, or hammersUnging record. I always exercised in the gymnasium till crowded out by\nyounger men. I will not deny that my retirement was partly due to the discouragement following pretty uniform defeat. But there was one event in\nwhich I always bore off the palm, in which today I hold the solar-system\nrecord and am pronounced a wonder by all who have seen me perform. That\nevent is moderation.\nThe numerous athletes and trick gymnasts of both sexes congratulating\nthemselves over the cubic feet of air they can blow into the bag, on the size\nof their biceps, on the various records they have made, must not be permitted\nto lead the less accomplished student to think exercise of no account because\nit is informal. David and Goliath, Methuseleh and Samson, Hercules and\nPolyphemus, never trained in gymnasiums, and not i per cent, of the people\nin any modern community can. I plead for forms of health work suitable\nfor both sexes and all ages, at odd moments, without teachers, set uniforms,\nrigid hours or rules.\nI commend particularly to such as do not play ball or tennis certain exercises which perhaps cannot be made very popular, but can be made exceedingly useful. It is not golf or cycling that I have in mind. Both these, I\ndare say, are praiseworthy, but each requires an outfit of some cost, and\nalso, most seem to think, its own uniform. The exercises which I should\nlike to promote are deep breathing, slow running, walking, especially with\nsome object in view aside from mere exercise, and the accurate far-throwing\neither of balls or of pebbles. I wish these exercise might become fashionable\nlike golf. They call for no outfit, no special uniform, no elegantly graded\nand kept grounds; and they are suitable for well people of either sex, whether\nolder or younger.\nOur most zealous students ought to have more fun, jollity, folly. Don't\nlet idlers monopolize the vanities. Avail yourselves of all good incidental\npastimes — games, concerts, joking, light converse, novels. In proportion as\nyour work interests you there is danger of protracting it too long at a stretch.\nChange of work avails little. There is but so much nerve energy in a student\nat any time.\nQuit work and relax.\nEveryone also needs systematic, studied, professiqnal diversion — an\navocation. Be an amateur expert at some craft other than the one in which\nyou hope for promotion — mountain-chmbing, golfing, boxing, rowing, hunting,\nkeeping bees, rearing horses, cattle, or dogs. Microscopy is a splendid avocation. Systematic reading is another.\nBest of all avocations, however, are\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": null, "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthe various forms of art life and work. Without ever tempting to excess or\nsuggesting what is base, they round out, embelHsh, and enrich character, and\ninspire devotees for occupations which are more serious and more immediately\nand obviously valuable.\nI fear we may have to admit that our lordly college systems of physical\neducation influence college communities unfavorably touching these tamer,\nbut most sane and useful, helps toward keeping well.\nFiscal mismanagement of athletic sports still afflicts colleges, but it is\nlessening, and can, so far as it is of an official nature, be wholly suppressed\nby any athletic board resolute enough to insist on due oversight, control, and\naudit. Every college of size should have a paid manager of its athletic finances,\nable, conscientious, exacting — preferably not otherwse connected with the\ncollege or otherwise interested in athletics. Gate money would still be collected, but none of it misspent. Part might go into the college treasury for\npaying coaches' salaries.\nAs soon as it can be brought about, all coaches should be employed and\npaid by the college authorities directly, as sub-functionaries on the gymnasium staff, that their pay and promotion may not depend on spectacular\nor phenomenal results secured by doubtful means, but upon sincere and\nfaithful work, in the interest of the whole student body, and in an academic\nrather than a '' sporting\" spirit.\nHarder to deal with is underhanded Philistine fiscal intervention in college\nathletics — town subsidies of one sort or another provided for college athletes,\neither secretly or with the connivance of certain members upon athletic\nboards. But, under a reasonable code of regulations, this also can be prevented byfirmly insisting that no student ascertained to be thus assisted can\nretain place upon any college team. Let there be no hiring of men to engage\nin college sports, whether by athletic association representatives or by Philistines. Such a practice is inconsistent with the amateur spirit.\nAll agree that we must rid college athletics of professionalism. Every\nreasonable effort to this end should be furthered. Amateurism in college\nsports ought to be cultivated and encouraged to the utmost of our power and\nplanning. Our dread of professionalism is not that any disgrace attaches to\nthe function of a professional ball player, more than to that of an actor or a\nmusician, but that we do not wish colleges to be filled with men who make\nstudy a minor interest or cherish \"sporting\" aims. To welcome these to\ncollege without reform in their purposes would certainly be unwise and\ndisastrous.\nSays the New York Evening Post:\nThirty years ago neither press nor pubHc had gone crazy over college sport and elevated\nthe quarterback, the stroke-oar, and the pitcher into national heroes. Undergraduates,\nhowever interested in their games, were not unanimous in believing that the fate of the\ninstitution and of their own immortal souls depended upon the next contest\nThe\nunwholesome stimulation of zeal has inevitably led to professionalism in various phases;\nin some cases the players have been \"special\" students — that is, students merely in name,\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nTENDENCY\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n555\n\nsecretly paid for services on the teams; in other cases the paid players have been \"regular,\"\nbut through the leniency of soft-hearted and soft-headed professors have slipped through\nwith next to no study; and still others, though good students, have been paid indirectly,\nperhaps through connection with \"summer nines.\" At worst, we have had college teams\nwith scarcely a genuine student on them; at best, teams of students to whom athletics is\npractically a trade, who, to use President Faunce's phrase, \"play all summer and every\nsummer,\" \"acquire all the skill and endurance of full-fledged professionals,\" and drive\nfrom the diamond the genuine amateurs, \" the students who engage in sport purely for love\nof the game.\"\n\nThis picture from the Post seems to me considerably overdrawn, but that\nit limns real evils and an unfortunate situation is not open to question.\nCareful observers agree that present rules are not operating smoothly.\nSand gets at the bearings as often as oil. Interpreted strictly and lived up to,\nas of course they ought to be while in force, the rules not seldom work injustice.\nToo often they are not interpreted strictly or lived up to. Is there not a cause\nfor this, aside from men's proverbial frailty — a lurking unreason in the rules\nthemselves, which renders, and will, till the evil is remedied, continue to render,\nthe just execution of our rules impossible? The whole history of penology\nproves the vanity of mere rigor in laws, even when faithfully executed, save\nso far as the laws impress all classes concerned with the conviction that they\nare just.\nI must bracket in, right here, a trio of remarks without which what I say\nmight easily be misunderstood.\n1. The views which I present are only my personal views. I do not speak for the\nUniversity of Nebraska, whose athletic board, would, I presume, demur to a good deal that\nI am here uttering.\n2. When a college has thru its athletic authority solemnly subscribed a code of play\nrules, or entered a league possessing such a code which is understood to be in force, then\nthat college should use the whole power of its administration to see that its representatives\nlive up to that code; it has no right to ignore crimes or torts against the code simply because\nportions thereof are displeasing or absurd. Renounce the code, if you please, but while\nyou pretend to be under it, be true to it.\n3. The punctilious execution of whatever rules are agreed upon must be the sincere\nconcern of all the colleges nominally concerned. The college attempting honesty in athletic\nsport single-handed fares as does the grocer who sells pure sugar when all his competitors\nsell sand. It soon goes out of the business. It is to be feared that every college in the\nUnited States is interested in this remark, either as a felon or as a victim of felony.\n\nTo effect reform in this vital matter, to enact rules that can be enforced,\nwe need a rational notion of \"amateur\" and of \"professional,\" instead of\nimporting our definitions from Oxford and Cambridge. The criterion on\nwhich to lay all stress should be actual, bona fide studentship. I do not for\nmy part see why a young man ef character and scholarship, sincerely a collegian, as truly so as any of his classmates, with no thought .whatever of gameplaying as a profession or as a permanent source of revenue, should be stigmatized as a \"professional,\" a \"non-amateur,\" and kept off college teams, simply\nbecause, now and then, in a summer vacation, being obliged to get money in\norder to prosecute his studies, he has, instead of pitching hay, pitched ball\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": null, "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nand received a few dollars for doing so. American college athleticism will\nat this point do well not to ape that of British universities. What we desire\nin our college athletes is sincerity, scholarship, manhood, college spirit,\nneither phihstinism on the one hand, nor pharisaism on the other — purity\nversus purism or puritanism; Americanism, democracy, as against aristocracy. Let no self-supporting student be excluded from any college team\nbecause he has to work with his hands that he may the better work with his\nhead.\nIn other walks of hfe the mere receipt of money for a given sort of function\ndoes not make a man a professional. A jolly resin-the-bow, for instance, who\ngets a dollar now and then for fiddling at a country dance is not a vioUnist\nde metier. A lay preacher officiating at a funeral and receiving a douceur\nto attest the pleasure of the heirs is not thereby ordained. Many college\npresidents, it is to be hoped, at times touch bank notes in return for addresses\nby them dehvered; but they are rarely referred to as professional speakers,\nlike Gough and George WilHam Curtis; and if one of them should be so\ndenominated, something other than the money would be needed to explain\nthe choice of title. The same in regard to writing for the press, reporting,\nliterary work in general. Not the fee makes the professional, but the dominant purpose, with some reference also, no doubt, to the man's aptness or\nability for the art which he afifects.\nEvery college in the land has students of a musical turn who, both at home\nand while in attendance at college, sing or play in churches on Sunday and receive\nmoney for their service. Yet we never think of excluding such collegians\nfrom college glee clubs, choral societies, or bands, even tho some of them may\ndeserve to be named professionals. Being genuine students, they have the\nright to represent their colleges in all musical associations and performances.\nWhy not treat athletes by this same rule?\nTo exclude from representative college sports for any reason any set of men\nwho are bona fide students, standing well in their classes and honorable in\nlife and character, will not in the long run conduce to purity in athletics; it\nwill have the reverse effect. Possibly the studentship of men who have played\nregularly before entering college, or play on summer nines while in college,\nshould be examined with extra severity, but wherever scrutiny reveals a case\nof genuine studentship, the full privileges of college track and field should be\nopen.\nA man may actually be a professional in some game and yet never have\ntaken money for playing it. That is, he may possess the spirit of sport without\nthe spirit of studentship. He ought not to be ehgible, but is so under the rules\nnow usually prevailing. An athlete may also be the poorest sort of a student,\na mere hanger-on by grace, yet, if he has never happened to receive remuneration, he is eligible.\nNo end of fraud and immorahty must attend the attempted execution of a\npuritanic rule in these premises.\nPlayers called amateurs will continue to\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nTENDENCY\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nATHLETICS\n\n557\n\nbe hired and to play under pay as truly as if their salaries were published in\nthe papers.\nPresident Faunce justly denounces the systematic prevarication which has\nprevailed and still prevails in college sport. Harvard University deserves\ngreat praise for its summary dealing with a case of this kind recently.\nNearly two months before the end of his senior year, Clarkson, the famous\npitcher, had, according to the papers, signed a contract with the New York\nAmericans, accepting $500 of his salary in advance. Yet he continued to\nplay with the Harvard team until his fraud was brought to light.\nI believe that naught else has done so much to debauch consciences in\nthis fashion, inducing clandestinism, the ilUcit receiving of aid by players,\nand general philistinism within the college, as telling bona fide college students\nwishing to play the game that they cannot do this in college if they play for\nmoney outside. The unreason of the restriction is so clear that players feei\nencouraged to defy it. Young men will play in summer, taking wages in\nfact, tho no longer in name, or else taking wages indirectly, as, titularly, drugstore tapsters of summer drinks, as colporteurs of temperance tracts, or as\nagents of Bible societies.\nUnder enforced purism, also, the level of play would sink. A boy who has\nplayed well enough to have been sought after as an athlete will certainly play\nmuch better in college than one less interested. An amateur of wealth and\nleisure would not be likely to match him.\nIt is desirable, and not the reverse, to keep up some parity of excellence\nbetween college athletics and athletics in general. To let amateur play\nbecome markedly inferior would be to render it ridiculous and greatly to lessen\nits present power for good.\nCeasing to fume over summer play, which is no test whatever of scholastic\ncharacter, we shall have better success in securing obedience to those criteria\nwhich do relate to genuineness of studentship, the great question at issue.\n1 . Let no man represent any college in any match until he has been in that\ncollege a year, faihng in no study and gaining at least a 60 per cent, general\naverage standing.\n2. Promptly disqualify, whether during training or mid season, any candidate or contestant wko for a month falls below the general average named,\nor is guilty of any immorality, breach of training, or impropriety in play.\n3. Require of every team member his written statement upon honor,\ndetailing his revenue and means of support; money from home, wages and for\nwhat, gifts and from whom, etc., with the understanding that aught of misrepresentation inthe amount will, being discovered, permanently blacklist\nthe man, throughout the association and the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": null, "text": "558\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCHARACTER\nWILLIAM\n\nH. P. FAUNCE,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nIN ATHLETICS\nOF BROWN\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nR. I.\n\nTo an unsophisticated spectator it may seem surprising, or even amusing,\nthat university executives, after discussing at various commencements the\nprofoundest problems of the intellectual and academic life of America, should\nvoluntarily come here to debate the question of college athletics. ''Is it\ntrue,\" the cynical observer may ask, \"that American education has so declined\nfrom the ideals of its founders, so succumbed to the athletic craze, that even\nthe department of the higher education can find no weightier theme than the\nachievements of the diamond and the gridiron ? \" But the cynic is mistaken,\nas usual. We are not here to discuss the promotion of athletic interests. If\nthat were the object, we would better send for the innumerable captains and\nmanagers who have subdued athletic kingdoms, wrought righteousness — or\nunrighteousness — and put to flight the armies of alien colleges. But this\nsubject has been chosen because the college man is not built in separate compartments, one of which may be labeled ''athletic,\" another \"intellectual,\"\nand another \"moral.\" He is one man, noble or ignoble, developing or\nstunted, honest or dishonest, all the way thru. The unity of the personality\ncannot be broken. For a college teacher to say, \"Only my department concerns me; let the athletes care for their own,\" is to play the part of ostrich and\nhide from reality. The attitude of the student on the playground is felt in\nevery class-room. What he is in the great games which eHcit the sympathy\nand enthusiastic support of his fellows, which draw thousands of spectators\nand constitute the staple of conversation for months before and after, that he\nis and must be in the study of language, mathematics, philosophy, and history.\nThe social and moral conditions which are both effect and cause of modern\nathletic contests are the concern of every teacher in every college. They are\nsometimes understood best by those who are not themselves in the arena of\nconflict. They demand wide horizon, sympathetic but resolute treatment,\nrefusal to surrender ideals, and frankest possible utterance.\nThe history of college sport in America during the last thirty years may\nbe divided into three periods: the period of genuine recreation, the period of\nexpansion and pubUcity, and the period of systematic prevarication.\nThe period of genuine recreation the older men can easily recall. I would\nnot be classed with the laudatores temporis acti. That early period when sport\nwas pure enjoyment, without thought of amateur or professional standing,\nwith little calculation of financial results, had, of course, its infelicities and\nshortcomings. Physical culture had not then been properly emphasized.\nThe traditional student was a narrow-chested recluse whose symbol was the\nmidnight lamp. But at least this must be said: When the students of that\nday had their sports, they had a far greater amount of pure undiluted enjoyment than is possible under present artificial and complex conditions.\nWhen\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER\n\nIN ATHLETICS\n\n559\n\na friend of mine, a noted athlete, recently saw a score of students disporting\nthemselves in a college swimming-pool, he said: \"That is the ideal of recreation— spontaneous, impromptu, uncalculating ! No 'eligibility,' no vexatious network of rules, no prizes save the honor of winning, no thunders of\napplause, no gate receipts — simply pure, wholesome, healthful fun. When\nwill those days return again in all collegiate sport ? \"\nTho we cannot reverse the glass of time, it is good to remember some\nthings we once possessed. Sport was then utterly subordinate to other interests. No man who engaged in it needed to sacrifice scholarship or character.\nIt made comparatively small drafts on one's time, or nervous energy, or purse.\nTo win games was not the goal of existence, nor was losing games a reason\nfor final despair. The qualifications for \"making\" a team were not so lofty\nand difficult as to exclude the great majority of students. Any man of good\nmuscular and nervous power might hope to share in some of the games of his\ncollege. To be paid for playing was as inconceivable as to be paid for cheering or singing. \"No one then worked for money, .... but each for the\njoy of the working.\" It is true that the students as a whole then lacked some\nrallying-point, some means of expression for their corporate consciousness,\nand student feeling found vent in many a prank or even rebellion which now\nwould seem absurd or impossible. I gladly recognize all that athletics have\ndone to provide expression for the corporate loyalty and the exuberant vitality\nof the student body. But we cannot look back on the college sport of thirty\nor forty years ago without recognizing that in its naturalness, its unforced\nenjoyment, its fine spontaneousness, its freedom from sordid calculations, its\nsuperiority to evasion and trickery, it was beyond anything we have today.\nThen came, by a natural development, the period when financial considerations were forced to the front. The eyes of the managers of professional teams\nwere covetously cast on the \"stars\" in our college teams, and long before\ngraduation large sums were offered to induce our students to postpone or\nsurrender their chosen careers and join in making sport for the public. That\nsport-loving pubHc began to attend in increasing numbers the intercollegiate\ngames. Gate receipts vastly increased. Coaches of large experience and\nhigh-priced skill were introduced. Training tables were estabhshed; costly\nparaphernalia, expensive hotels, and palace cars became necessary; and college sport in a few years took on the dimensions, the apparent importance,\nthe methods, and the spirit of the professional world outside. Then the\nalumni awoke to the need of aiding their college in this new and strenuous\nrivalry. They supported captains and managers in various novel and subterranean schemes. Secondary schools were visited thruout the country,\nand promising athletes were dazzled by offers from numerous colleges. Boys'\nheads were turned before they had reached their freshman year. Their\npictures were in the sporting columns of the press, their services eagerly sought,\nand they came to expect and demand a recognition and a compensation which\nhad never been accorded to any eminence in scholarship. Thus was ushered in\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": null, "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nan era of traffic, which, however concealed from college faculties, was perfectly\nunderstood and abetted by college alumni. Good baseball players were\nbought up in the annual market by every really enterprising athletic board.\nThey might be intellectual dullards, but they could at least take one course in\nthe machine shops or listen to a series of stereopticon lectures on architecture,\nand so become quahfied to represent their college. Vigorous executives soon\nsaw the advertising power of victorious athletic teams, and large scholarships\nwere forthcoming for those who, however deficient mentally, showed promise\nof athletic prowess. Students migrated from one college to another with a\nsuddenness which only alumni in the secret could explain. The teams in\nmany cases did not represent the college or its ideals, but represented simply\nthe business enterprise and financial resources of the athletic association.\nThe history of that remarkable period will some day be written by the\nmen who created it. Pardon a few details. On one occasion, just before a\ncritical game, the pitcher of one team was offered twenty-five dollars by a\nprofessional manager, if he would desert the college team and pitch for the\n''professionals.\" Immediately he deserted — and why should he not? He\nhad no shred of interest in the college, having come there simply to make\nmoney. On another occasion a famous ball-player, receiving an offer of a\nhandsome professional salary for the season, left college in the month of\nMay, never to return, leaving for the same reason that he entered — to put\nmoney in his purse. On another occasion, half an hour before an important\ngame, the captain said to the manager: ''Here is my laundry bill. I cannot\npay it. You pay it or I do not play.\" The bill was paid and the game proceeded. Hundreds of such bills were paid without scruple in order at all\ncosts to purchase victory. This period of open traffic brought into our colleges a section of the sporting fraternity, taught our students devices which\nthey would previously have spurned, dulled the sense of honor, and seriously\ndamaged standards of scholarship. Conditions became so intolerable that a\ngeneral revolt was inevitable. To hire men to play was no intrinsic moral\nwrong, but it was none the less causing an obvious deterioration of manners\nand morals. One by one the colleges resolved to draw a sharp line of distinction between amateur and professional sport, and to insist upon the\nformer. Especially influential was a conference called by Brown University,\nand often called the \"Providence Conference.\" This conference resulted in\nthe formation of a union by several eastern colleges, which agreed that a\nstudent before he could represent his college in any athletic contest must\ndeclare that he had never in his life received any compensation, direct or\nindirect, for the use of any athletic knowledge or skill he may possess. Practically all the leading colleges adopted this rule, little dreaming that they\nwere ushering in the third period— that of systematic prevarication.\nThe new rules offered the finest possible field for casuistry and hairsplitting.\nWith student conscience behind them they would have remedied the evil, but\nthat conscience did not insist on literal enforcement.\n\nWhat is \"indirect\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER\n\nIN ATHLETICS\n\ncompensation \" ? If the students secure for one of their number an opportunity to earn money by working in a store in the evening, doing this out of\nfriendship (and friendship may be based on athletic affinity), is that \"indirect\ncompensation\"? If a senior take an athletic freshman to room with him\nwithout exacting payment of room rent, is that ''indirect compensation\"? S6i\nCan any authorities forbid such a deed of charity ? If an alumnus engages\nan athletic sophomore to work for him during the summer at market rates,\nwho can object ? But how if the interest of the alumnus is based wholly on\nthe expectation of future athletic distinction ? No theological casuistry of the\nsixteenth century was ever more subtle or specious than that which college\nsport had produced. If the senior cannot pay the freshman in any other way,\nhe makes with him some preposterous wager and loses it. Thus the money\nhas changed hands, but it cannot be shown to be compensation for skill.\n•The rules are regularly circumvented and faculties are outwitted with keen\nenjoyment. Sometimes the student, refusing to take the money himself,\norders it sent to his father or brother. Why should we use soft words when\nfacing such facts ? We are living in a time when college athletics are honeycombed with falsehood, and when the professions of amateurism are usually\nhypocrisy. No college team ever meets another today with actual faith in\nthe other's eHgibility. At a recent baseball contest the captain of one team\nsaid to a friend of mine: \"Do you see our aggregation out there? Hardly\none of them is entitled to play under the rules.\" Every college player knows\nthat the opposing team is disqualified, but no one will give evidence for the\nreason that inhabitants of glass houses do not throw stones. When the\nevidence, however, becomes public and notorious, then with a flourish of\ntrumpets the offending player is dropped, and having refurnished its reputation for athletic virtue, the team goes on until more evidence becomes public.\nThe fine sense of personal honor which would scorn to take advantage of an\nopponent by subterfuge has been replaced by the ostentatious ffinging of a\nsop to the Cerberus of public opinion.\nThe damaging results of all this in college life need not be pointed out.\nYoung men trained in such devices cannot be expected in after-years to show\ngreat sensitiveness of conscience in the commercial or political arena. Men\nthoroly instructed in the art of evading rules they do not like will not easily\nin later life be found in the ranks of municipal reform or civic virtue. If we\nallow them to remain in such conditions, can we ask that they become the\nmoral leaders of their generation ?\nBut the effect on our secondary schools is still more to be deprecated. If\nthe letters that pass between college athletic managers and secondary-school\nboys could be published, they would startle the country. Here is a specimen,\none of thousands, written to the manager of a baseball team by a boy who\nwas selecting his college:\nDear Sir:\nYou said, \"Come immediately.\" Now, I cannot come unless we can agree on the\nterms I telegraphed to you Wednesday; that is, all expenses during year — board,\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": null, "text": "562\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nroom, tuition, books, etc. — and one hundred dollars besides. It would be only extra\nexpense for me to go to see you unless you can comply with those terms, because I could\nnot stay under any other conditions.\nSo if those terms are satisfactory to you, just make out a statement signed by yourself\nand some member of the faculty, or some reliable business man in town, stating all the conditions and terms. I am also wiUing to sign an agreement. I have seen forms of college\nagreement for baseball this year, and it is so stated that nothing could be brought up\nagainst the school even if the agreement should be exposed. Of course, I must have\nsomething to show, that I may know just where I am. If you wish to do this, I will\ncome at once as soon as I receive the agreement.\nVery truly yours.\n\nMen trained in such methods thru all the years of school and college life\nmay become future leaders, but they will be leaders in the art of evading taxes,\nmanipulating courts, and outwitting the law of the land. Yet this kind of\ncorrespondence is now carried on thruout the country. An athletic boy frequently writes to half a dozen colleges and selects the highest academic bidder.\nEvery college president receives letters, stating what inducements have been\noffered elsewhere, and demanding in thinly veiled phraseology whether he is\nprepared to outbid his rivals. One of the professors in one of our leading\nuniversities has today in his possession a letter from a professor in another\ninstitution, offering to a promising athlete a guarantee of all expenses thruout\nhis college course.\nBy a natural extension the same process is now used in drawing boys\nto secondary schools. The great private schools and academies send their\nrepresentatives to elementary and grammar schools to secure by pledges and\nagreements promising athletic material, which, after it has been duly trained,\nmay be disposed of at advanced prices, to buyers in the college world.\nAfter that college world is entered, the system is further extended to cover\nthe exigencies of so-called \"summer ball.\" Many students who must earn\nmoney in the summer find that by far the easiest way to do it is by playing on\n\"summer nines,\" usually for the entertainment of guests at hotels. For several\nyears this practice has been growing, and with it has grown remarkable ingenuity in conceahng financial results. Many a student receives from thirty to\nfifty dollars per week for serving as waiter or bell boy in the hotel, while it so\nhappens that he finds abundant leisure for playing ball before the hotel piazza.\nSometimes, by the help of lawyers, a contract is drawn up with the proprietor,\ncertifying that all compensation received was for work done in the hotel and\nnone whatever for the innocent games of ball. Thus athletic authorities are\neither misled or rendered powerless. A student on one of these \"summer nines\"\nplays- beside students from other colleges, and knows that they, like himself,\nare paid for furnishing sport. Yet when he meets those students on an opposing\ncollege team the next spring, he makes no protest. He protects' his opponents\nand they protect him. As one of these men recently faced a team from a\nfamous university, he said: \"Five of those nine men played on the same team\nwith me all last summer, and I did not play for nothing.\"\nLast year a Boston\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHARACTER\n\nIN\n\nATHLETICS\n\n563\n\nnewspaper published the names of noted players from most of the eastern colleges who were engaged in this kind of summer work, and gave the places\nwhere the work was done. No denials were made, for none were possible.\n\"Systematic prevarication\" is surely a mild term to apply to such conditions.\nNow, what can be done ? If we cannot return to the situation of thirty\nyears ago, if we will not return to the open traffic of fifteen years ago, what\ncan we do to escape from the prevalent subterfuge of today ? Surely we shall\nnot abandon athletic games and sports. They are vital to our future.\nThey seem destined to play as large a part in the life of America as in ancient\nGreece or modern England. It is an ungracious task to point out weaknesses\nin what I consider essential in education. Let no abuses tempt us to give up\nor condemn college athletics. These sports develop discipline, co-operation,\nself-sacrifice, loyalty, devotion in extraordinary measure. We cannot make\nmen without them. We must not stand for a pohcy of obstruction and objurgation. But certain things are immediately necessary:\n1. A careful and candid study of the facts by all college administrators\nand teachers.- These facts will prove always interesting and often amazing.\nThis work cannot be turned over to former famous athletes as their province.\nIt concerns every teacher in every department. Let us determine that we\nwill not Uve in a '^fools' paradise.\" Let us cease to cry: '* Things may be\nwrong with you, but they are right with us.\" Things have been wrong everywhere. To acknowledge this frankly and publicly is the first step. Confession is good for the corporate as well as for the individual soul. Faculties\ncannot ignore facts without losing the respect of their students. Whether\nofficial ignorance is voluntary or involuntary, it is henceforth culpable.\n2. We need the united co-operative effort of the colleges. No one college\ncan combat this evil alone. It may valiantly start out, but if others refuse to\njoin, the isolated institution has an impossible task on hand. A common\nevil dem^ands common action. The great good which has been accomplished\nthru achieving a practically common standard of admission to our class-rooms\nwould be paralleled by the establishment of a common standard of admission\nto the athletic field. Especially do we need the help of our larger, older, and\nmore influential institutions. Under their leadership candor and honesty\ncan be re-established. But if those institutions are solicitous only for their\nown welfare, the college world will long continue to suffer.\n3. This co-operation should first be in the direction of enforcing honestly\nthe rules we already have, and then in the way of so changing those rules as\nto remove certain features of palpable injustice. Blind worship of rules is\nunworthy of us and will produce inevitable reaction. Rules are means, not\nends, and some of them may be better adapted to English than to American\nlife. If a boy of fifteen runs in a race and wins a prize, it is absurd and preposterous that he should lose his eHgibihty for hfe, and, because of one thoughtless act of boyhood, in itself morally innocent, should be forever excluded from\nrepresenting any American college in any game.\nIf a young student in an\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": null, "text": "564\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nacademy gives boxing lessons for money, it is doubtless necessary to declare\nhim a professional player. But to say that that one athletic transgression of\nboyhood hath never forgiveness is to take a position intolerably pharisaic.\nMany colleges are today demanding provision by which a student may recover\neligibiUty that has been lost. Many cases of glaring injustice demand attention. How far it will be safe for the colleges together to modify their attitude\non all these questions, we cannot say. But thru co-operative effort gradual\nreform at least is possible, and it is imperative.\nWhat we really want is to create a spirit — when that is created, rules may\nbe flung away — the spirit which distinguishes between work and play, between\nbusiness and recreation, and resolutely refuses to turn friendly games into a\nsystem of trade. American students have gone as far as they can go in their\nendeavors. It now remains for college faculties to learn the facts, acknowledge\nthem, change them, and turn athletic sports, so often now a training in collusion and evasion, into a training for citizenship, honorable public life, and the\nmoral leadership of men.\n\nTHE\n\nFRANK\n\nEFFECTS\n\nSTRONG,\n\nOF ATHLETICS ON\nTHE COLLEGE\n\nCHANCELLOR\n\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\n\nTHE\n\nMORALE\n\nOF KANSAS,\n\nOF\n\nLAWRENCE,\n\nKANS.\n\nThe effects of athletics on the morale of the college community are by no\nmeans all bad, and unfortunately are not all good. One prime reason for\nthe latter condition is that athletics as at present managed does not fit in well\nwith the ideahsm of the college. One great value of the four years spent in\ncollege is that the student is separated from the sordid things of Ufe more\nfully, perhaps, than at any other period; the professional side of Hfe has not\nas yet come strongly into view, and his ideals are being formed and developed.\nHe is not yet looking upon everything from the standpoint of material advantage, nor with the idea that he has entered upon- a tremendous competition\nin which it is incumbent upon him that he win at every cost. If the college\nitself has the right effect upon his character, his whole study and training\nrather lead him to an unselfish consideration of Hfe; to the feehng that the\nman who wins, at whatever cost, is not always the one to be admired and\nfollowed; and to believe that the results of unusual physical exertion are not\nreally worthy of the same consideration as the results of mental and moral\neffort.\nEspecially is it true that the college training does, or ought to, divert the\nmind from the professional side of life so far as its peculiar essence and aims\ngo. I beHeve college administrators look askance at anything that seems to\nintroduce this side of professionalism into college life. And it seems to me\nthat the main indictment to be brought against athletics as at present administered isjust this, that it lowers the ideals of college hfe and introduces\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmentl\n\nATHLETICS\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nMORALE\n\nOF THE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\n565\n\nthe unwelcome element of professionalism into the college atmosphere and\naffects every department of the college. This element is introductory of\nbad manners, bad temper, the lack of self-control, of an uneasy, intemperate\nlife, and a lack of continuity in thought and work. It undermines the wholesome idea of sport in its right sense, and leads directly to the idea that only\nthose who possess superior physical strength have any right to take part in\ncollege sports. It leads to contempt for the physically weak, and this contempt keeps from physical exertion those who need it most. It insidiously\nintroduces the idea into the minds of good men that departure from the\nhighest standards of personal conduct and thought are admissable because\nof the tremendous pressure toward success at any cost that professionalism\nbrings with it.\nIt seems to me clear that the vital point is to eradicate professionahsm from\ncollege athletics at all hazards. It would be better for us all to go back to the\nformless stage of college sports than to keep on in the present tendency. We\ncan never aspire to the condition where all our students take part in rational\nathletic exercises, so long as the whole system works toward cutting out all\nbut the few who are especially strong or skillful, or who are professionally\ntrained.\nIt is not my province to discuss how professionalism may be eliminated,\nbut experience indicates to us at the University of Kansas that much may be\ndone, first, by a rigid appHcation of the requirements for entrance to every\nstudent who offers himself as a candidate for admission to the university;\nsecondly, by the rigid application of the rules of the university as to the number\nof studies a student must carry and the grade of work done; thirdly, by the\napplication of a rule requiring one year's residence before a student is eligible\nto take part in intercollegiate athletic contests; and fourthly, by the introduction, just as soon as possible, of the unpaid graduate coach, and the enforcement of the rule that no man may be associated with the students of the college\nin any way who is himself profane in his speech or is in the least objectionable\nin his private daily life and conduct.\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30, 1904\n\nThe sessions of the Department of Normal Schools were opened at 2 : 30 p. m. in the\nreading-room of the Transportation Building; L, H. Jones, president of Michigan State\nNormal College, Ypsilanti, Mich., and president of the department, in the chair.\nThe first topic, \"In how Far May Child Psychology Take the Place of Adult Psychology or Rational Psychology in the Training of Teachers ?\" was presented by G. Stanley\nHall, president of Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\nThe discussion which followed was led by Alexander Caswell Ellis, of the University\nof Texas, and by E. H. Russell, principal of the State Normal School, Worcester, Mass.\nThe second topic, \" What Is the Net Gain to Education of the Recent Investigations\ninto Physiological Psychology?\" was presented by C. C. Van Liew, president of the\nState Normal School at Chico, Cal.\nA general discussion followed.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe department was called to order at 2:30 P. m., with President L. H. Jones in the\nchair.\nThe first paper, \"Out-of-Door Work on Geography,\" was presented by Mark S. W.\nJefferson, professor of geography, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.\nA discussion followed by D, C. Ridgley, professor of geography. State Normal University, Normal, 111., and Miss Montana Hastings, supervisor of training department. State\nNormal School, Kirks ville. Mo.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President — C. C. Van Liew, Chico, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Jesse D. Burks, Paterson, N. J.\nFor Secretary — Miss Anna Buckbee, California, Pa.\nThe department then adjourned.\nMontana\n\n567\n\nHastings, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": null, "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN HOW FAR MAY CHILD PSYCHOLOGY TAKE THE PLACE\nOF ADULT PSYCHOLOGY OR RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN\nTHE TRAINING OF TEACHERS?\n\nG.\n\nSTANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\nWORCESTER,\n\nOF CLARK\nMASS.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nThose who must teach philosophy to teachers are, I think, somewhat to\nbe pitied. Froebel and Herbart are good, but abstract and obsolete. The\npurer idealism, which some prefer, is inspiring but irrelevant. Most normalschool manuals, I know, are formal and verbal and move too much in the\nsphere of definitions. Experimental psychology, which has developed certain\nprecious results, especially for school hygiene, is too technical, and much of\nit has Uttle reference to teaching; while the child-study books of which we have\na number, excellent as they are, do not seem to me adequately to represent\nthe vast resources of genetic psychology for teachers, and two or three of\nthem are hopelessly doctrinaire. Froebel and Herbart give a few sound,\ndeep, and new insights into child-nature, but the applications of these precious\nhalf-truths were so detailed and premature that they now hinder further\ngenetic work, and their modern disciples look askance at what their masters\nwould have rejoiced to see. The present unprogressive status of these systems, then, is a warning against premature applications. Hence I hesitated\nwhen this topic was proposed, because, while so much has been achieved, far\nmore is ahead, and because applications suggest the most final conclusions.\nAgain, any reader of the famous and amazingly frank Confessions of a\nPhysician by a European doctor, who describes the many mistakes of experts\nin medical science, the list of new cures and treatments that turn out deadly\nfor countless patients, the fatal experiments, the errors of diagnosis, the ignorance of what to do in the critical moment, will recall the old satire of the\ndoctor, called in when disease and a human life were in desperate conflict,\nlaying about him with his club in the hope of killing the disease, but always\nvery liable to hit and kill the patient instead. If medical science, that has of\nlate celebrated so many triumphs, is thus uncertain and blundering, what\nabout pedagogy, which interferes with nature in the attempt to cure ignorance\nand other diseases of the soul, which is so vastly more complex and unknown\nthan the body ? Is our satisfaction with methods of education in direct proportion to our ignorance of child-nature, and does the school often maim as\nwell as help the body and soul of our pupils ? Child study at least greatly\ndeepens the teacher's sense of responsibihty and increases the fear of interfering with nature; and perhaps its first result is to make us less and not more\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nVERSUS\n\nADULT\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n569\n\nconfident in our methods.\nI have, at any rate, for one, reached the following\nconclusions upon this subject:\n1. The psychology of the child and that of the adult are radically different.\nThe younger the child, the less help can a teacher get from many or all of the\ncurrent philosophies. Most of them not only are utterly without practical\nvalue, but some do direct harm. If it develops the teacher, it develops her\naway from the child; raises irrelevant issues; implants presuppositions that\nbhnd to or pervert obvious facts; gives a sense of attainment that weakens the\npower of observation. To feel that one has at the outset a conception of\nmind rather than it is yet to be acquired; to start with a logical system and\nmethods, when a. genetic scheme crosses it at right angles and when there\nis almost nothing logical about the child, is to know fruit and seed when\nwe should study blossom and bud. Thus, with an important exception to\nbe noted later, adult psychology should be essentially eliminated from the\ntraining of teachers.\n2. Child psychology lays far greater stress on the body, while adult\nschemes are too exclusively occupied with mentality. For all fruitful purposes,\nmind is far more closely dependent upon the body in children than in adults.\nChild psychology begins with a scrutiny of each sense; would determine the\ndegree of defect; tests for adenoids; seeks the incipient forms of disease,\nespecially those that are school-bred and which are increasingly understood\nto be very different from the diseases of adults; studies food, nutrition, and\nmodes of exercise; looks out for normal growth in its season; regards health\nas the basis of all, and school hygiene as the beginning of child psychology.\nHere, indeed, modern paidology began, and has done its best work perhaps in\nbringing the body to the front rather than the metaphysical soul. Here we\nalready have a precious body of established knowledge and a few texts of the\nhighest value, which every teacher should know.\n3. Next comes the study of normal activities, plays and games, the instinctive feelings, fear, euphoria and pain, sympathy, friendship, disHkes-and\nanger, spontaneous interests, the crude religious stirrings, and the natural\nhistory of the young homuncuH out of school. This is the vigorous, crude\nstock into which we must graft scions from the tree of knowledge, and we have\nfar more to learn about children than we can possibly teach them. The\nyounger the child and the greater need of adaptation, the more important this\nknowledge about him. This shows the teacher the psychological opportunity and moment to dropreach hint when it will take root and grow, to tap\neach new spring of interest, to turn each rill that will later become a river, to\nanswer the unasked but budding questions that would otherwise not quite\nrise to consciousness. Without this knowledge the child is a manikin, a\ndummy with insides made of the sawdust of definition, constructed to exhibit\nthe wares of the latest fashions in curricula. As education extends in scope,\nand school makes more vital contacts with home, church, industry, and\nsociety, these interests must more and more be considered in educational\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": null, "text": "570\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nendeavor. Only a minority of the child's powers, zests, and activities even\nnow go to school; but we must aim at least to enlist a working majority of his\nsoul, for only a very small part of it wrestles with the ''three R's,\" or even\nemerges into the horizon of adults who, in this country, have less natural\nfeeling for and interest in childhood and youth than in any other land or\nrace in history.\n4. As to the educational activities involved in school work, we know something of the psychology and of the processes involved in the act of reading\nand in work with elementary number. This knowledge promises to be very\nserviceable and economical. If the teacher does not understand the psychic\nmechanism here at work, her labor is blind. So, too, wh,at children spontaneously read at different ages, the instinct of extending the vocabulary, the\npsychology of learning a foreign language, the physiology and hygiene of\nwriting, the methods of drawing, the age of its various stresses, the processes\ninvolved in geography, the modes of approaching history, the value of school\nexcellence and marks as a test of general abiHty, the detection and treatment\nof subnormal minds — in all these fields more or less results are achieved\nwhich every teacher should know; and yet it is here perhaps that very much\nremains to be done.\n5. Of psychic processes generally, the teacher should know the laws of\nfatigue, which has its curves of both lapse and recovery, and its symptoms of\ndanger, which are pecuHar to childhood; and this should be all-determining\nfor the dosage of work, for the most mind-destroying agency we know is effort\nin a fatigued state. Then come the general laws of attention and distraction,\ntheir psychology, prevalent direction under the dominion of interests of which\nwe have some precious inventories, revery — a most suggestive and interesting\nnew theme, memory, habit, conscience, association, and, last, the slowly\ndawning reason. Many of these topics must still be studied with the aid of\nadult psychology.\n6. Moral education presupposes knowledge of children's faults, especially\nthose that tend to vice and crime. Juvenile criminology has a large and\nrapidly growing but sad body of literature, some essentials of which should be\nknown in order to detect evil in its bud. Many offenses are only against\nschool order or the teacher's convenience, which are of a very different kind.\nIt is necessary in the animal stage of life to develop many traits that would be\nwrong in the adult. Obstinacy is often the first outcrop of an energetic will,\nand before puberty selfishness is perhaps normal. Many lower instincts\nmust find vent in childhood, or else there is danger later that they will not\nbe reduced in their season.\n7. Again, child study, because it brings many of the problems of philosophy and ethics out of the abstract into the concrete field, and abounds in\ndetails, illustrations, and personalities, is of very great advantage for women\nteachers, for the mind of their sex is more concrete and less prone to abstractions than that of man.\nIndeed, child study has been reproached with being\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nVERSUS\n\nADULT\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n571\n\nthe feminization of metaphysics. So far as this is true, I regard it as its pride\nand glory. It is in all lands largely woman's work. She is the best observer\nof the souls of childhood and youth, but excels man nowhere more than in\nher power to describe her own inner states, past and present. Hence most\nof the best data are her contributions. The future of questionnaire work\nlargely depends upon her. Men often suggest questions to her, and then\ntake her data, and perhaps tabulations, and knead these up with some of his\ntechnical knowledge and return it to her to use in school. The superiority\nof a woman's mind consists in that it is more genetic than logical. It has been\nwell said that Darwin and evolution came to her with less surprise than to\nman, and far more as a matter of course, and as something to be welcomed.\nFinally, adult philosophy and child study are both far vaster than the needs\nof the teacher, and only a part of the latter and a far smaller modicum of the\nformer are now needed. In industrial education it has always been found\na great gain to focus upon just those topics in chemistry and physics which\ncan be applied in the special industry, and to neglect the rest and to ignore\ngeneral principles. The same is true here. Concluding, as I do, that genetic\npsychology in the hands of an expert could already almost supplant that of\nadult Hfe, and assured that in the near future it will do so completely, I close\nby urging, with all the emphasis I can command, upon those who teach\nteachers, a mastery of all the larger aspects of their subject. Child study is\nnow a career — a professorship. No one can fully master it in a lifetime. It\ncorrelates with the whole field of the development of the soul from the dawn\nof animal instinct up thru many successive stages. Mental diseases are coming\nto take on a genetic aspect; religion finds new light from this point of view,\nand indeed the largest aspect today of any topic that deals with man, and\nespecially the greatest thing in man — mind, must have chief regard to this\npoint of view.\nII\nE. H. RUSSELL,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF STATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nIf we can imagine one of the pedagogic pioneers of the earlier half of the\nlast century — say, David Page, or James G. Carter, or Horace Mann, or\nWilliam Russell — revisiting the scene of his former labors, and if he should\nask us, as he would with eagerness, what advance our schools have made since\nhe went to his rest, one might think perhaps of athletics, or electives, or collegiate coeducation; but, in schools below the college, would any candid\nperson with command of the field fail to mention the serious attention now\ngiven by teachers and parents to the nature of children? The new era in\nthe study of organic life ushered in by Darwin has brought about, not only\nenlargement, but transformation of all branches of natural science which\nare grouped under the name of biology. Of every form of life, especially\nin its beginnings and early development, intelligent people have come to\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": null, "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nentertain wholly new conceptions. The old bottles, the static bottles of half\na century ago, will no longer contain the dynamic wine of evolution. The\nolder physiology offered comparatively little resistance to the change, because\nthe body, as any one could see, was material, and was therefore subject to\nphysical and chemical laws. But when it came to mind, there was a struggle.\nThe case of the brute was settled by allowing him instinct, a sort of envelope\nor parcel containing \"sealed orders\" sufficient for his guidance, while reason\nwas reserved as the prerogative of man. The notion that man is largely\ndominated by what in animals is called instinct, and that animals in their turn\noften act from motives which we should term reason if displayed by man —\nthis conception, now forced upon us by clearest evidence, is a typical example\nof the bottle-bursting wine which the ferment of evolution has produced.\nProfessor Wesley Mills calls attention to the significant fact that \"it was only\nrecently that animals were painted simply because they were animals and\nnot the mere servants or playthings of man.\" \"It is impossible,\" he says, \"to\nconceive of a Landseer in the age of Dante.\" .The individuality of animals\nhad not then been detached and recognized.\nMr. Horace Scudder, in a recent study on Childhood in Literature and Art,\nmakes the same remark with reference to the child, namely, that up to about\nthe time of Wordsworth children were scarcely recognized in literature or\nart as anything more than diminutive and characterless adjuncts of the family.\n\"The child,\" he says, \"has but recently been added to the dramatis personae\nof modern Hterature.\" La Farge, the painter, says that the children of early\nart \"are rather types than portraits.\" Now, I believe this is as true of education as of literature and art. Rousseau was the first, so far as I am aware,\nto detach and recognize effectively the individuality of the child as a pupil;\nand the seed planted by him, watered and tended by Richter and Pestalozzi\nand Froebel, and quickened by the genial atmosphere of modern thought, is\nbut just beginning to whiten to the harvest.\nDr. Francis Warner, of London, an indefatigable student of childhood,\nespecially in its morbid or defective conditions, would introduce the study\nof children thru the medium of a little botany, in order to get rid, as far as possible, of the tendency to range the phenomena of child Hfe under the categories\nof adult psychology. Professor Preyer, with the same thing in view, declares\nthat he has found \"the observation of untrained animals, especially young\nones, and the comparison of the observations made upon them with those\nmade upon little children, very helpful toward an understanding of children.\"\nFor the same purpose, I have felt compelled to resort, in my own classes, to a\nbrief study of entomology, dwelHng upon the almost dramatic metamorphoses\nwhich many insects undergo, as furnishing an impressive analogy to the vast\ndifferences that mark off childhood from maturity — a thing we are all snailslow to recognize and stubbornly reluctant to confess. It is hke the transition\nfrom the Ptolemaic to the Copernican conception of the universe. The\ndrawback I find in systematic psychology is that it fixes the attention of the\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nVERSUS\n\nADULT\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n573\n\nstudent upon the qualitative resemblances that make us human, rather than\nupon the quantitative differences that make us individuals. It enumerates\nthe ingredients, so to speak, that may be found by description or analysis in\nthe genus Homo, but gives little hint of the proportions in which these ingredients enter into combination. You may say that child study does not do\nthis. But child study does bring us face to face with the concrete fact of\nindividuaHty, reveaHng the infinite variety and variability of human nature —\nmost varied and most variable in childhood; and thus prepares us, so far as\nwe can be prepared, to encounter and deal with the unexpected.\nOut of the two thousand and more normal-school students whom I have\nknown somewhat intimately, I have no hesitation in saying that not more\nthan 5 per cent, were capable of grasping the fundamental conceptions of\nrational or speculative psychology. The great majority of young people\nare not sufficiently emancipated from the concrete and the sensible to hold\nsteadily in view wide generalizations with regard to mental phenomena.\nNeither are they capable of profound and accurate introspection.\nBut even admitting for the moment that the psychology of the text-book\nand the class-room has been acquired — as I should willingly concede in the\ncase of 4 or 5 per cent, of our students — it still seems to me that the acquirement, however disciplinary and delightful in itself, soars and hovers at too\ngreat a height above the school-room to descend and serve the teacher in the\nnick of time.\nAs a small contribution to the present discussion, it occurred to me some\nweeks ago to question a certain section of my graduates who had been out of\nschool long enough to give some value to their experience, as to the comparative usefulness, in dealing with children, of these two elements in their\nown normal training, namely, systematic psychology and child study, both\nof which they had pursued under equally favorable conditions. I selected\nthose of the decade of 1890 to 1900. Of 272 reports received, 70 per cent,\nwere distinctly favorable to child study; 16 per cent, gave preference to systematic psychology; 10 per cent, found the two so blended that they could not\ncompare them with one another; while 2 per cent, of the returns were so\nequivocal or uncertain as to be of no value. The only thing in this test that\nseems conclusive is that a large majority of my graduates, after several years'\nexperience as school-teachers, believe that they derived substantial benefit\nfrom the study of individual children, even tho it was pursued in a somewhat\ndesultory fashion. Many testified, as one would expect, that each study\nhelped the other.\nMy contention is that the safer course with our class of students is to keep\nthem on the inductive side; not to hurry them toward classification and the\nlarger generahzations of science.\nSome years ago, on a visit to the Natural Bridge in Virginia, I fell in with\na gentleman who, as we rambled together thru the gorge of Cedar Creek,\nmanifested an unusal interest in the flora of the locahty.\nWhen I remarked\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": null, "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nthis, he explained it by saying that when he was a schoolboy in Concord, Mass.,\nit was the practice (introduced, I believe, by Mr. Bronson Alcott) for all\nteachers to take their pupils out for a walk in the fields and woods on the first\npleasant half-day of each week; and as plants, of course, furnished the readiest\nmaterial for observation in these rambles, he had found such interest in them\nthat in his college course at Harvard he had eagerly elected botany in order\nto enjoy the great advantage of further study under Professor Asa Gray.\n''But,\" he added, ''my love of plants came far more from those walks in Concord than from Professor Gray's lectures.'-' We normal-school teachers are\nwont to talk glibly of \"proceeding from the concrete to the abstract,\" as if\nthat were a duty laid upon every human mind, and to neglect it were a sin;\nbut here was a man, intelligent, cultivated, mature, who had found his deHght\nin remainng in the concrete, to whom, perchance, as to Wordsworth, not the\nscience of botany, but the meanest flower that blows, could give \"thoughts\nthat do often lie too deep for tears.\"\nThis illustrates my position with respect to the relation between systematic psychology and child study for teachers. I believe that normal-school\nstudents and young teachers generally had better remain, for the most part,\nin the concrete, as parents do, with only so much of generalization and system\nas is needed to give support and significance to the phenomena of child Hfe\nwhich they observe. I would place observation first and observation second\nand theory last, and only then for those who are capable of doing something\nwith it besides copying it into notebooks and passing written examinations\nupon it. I was refreshed the other day to read, in the report of a recent address\nby Professor Minot, the eminent biologist, these weighty words: \"To know,\nobserve. Observe more and more, and in the end you will know. A generalization isa mountain of observations.\" How it renews our youth to be thus\nreminded that the triumphs of our art are still before us — in the glorious\nhyperbole of Thoreau, \"we haven't got half-way to dawn yet!\"\nThe child-study movement had scarcely begun when we were triumphantly\nchallenged to show \"results.\" This was twenty years ago, and it is yet too\nearly by decades to show results that would satisfy a faithless and perverse\ngeneration of such as hug the notion that the inductions of psychology are all\nmade, and only need to be deaconed off by the professor and copied out\nsynoptically by the student, to be applied deductively in practice. When I\ntook up normal-school work in Massachusetts, thirty years ago, the great\nambition seemed to be to get teaching called a science and a profession. I\nbelieve there has been great progress since that time in getting teaching to\ndeserve recognition as a progressive art and a worthy vocation. And it is my\nconviction that this progress has come about very largely thru the child-study\nmovement — crude, confused, and inconclusive as much of it has been and still\nis. I believe there is a seminal principle in the study, however obscure or\ninert it may lie, however choked by false growths around it, however chilled\nby apathy or hostile criticism.\nIt is part and parcel of the great movement\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nVERSUS\n\nADULT\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n575\n\nof evolution, and is destined, in a more solid and articulate form, no doubt,\nto share in the triumphs of that doctrine in the emancipation which it brings\nto the mind of man.\nDISCUSSION\nA. Caswell Ellis, professor of the science and art of education, University of Texas. —\nIn this discussion of the substitution of the study of child psychology for the study of\nadult psychology in the training of teachers, one important consideration seems to me to\nhave been omitted, i. e., the value of adult psychology as an introduction to child psychology.\nThe operations of the adult mind are certainly nearer to the student than are those of the\nchild-mind; indeed, they are ever present for introspection. If we go from the known\nto the unknown, as we inevitably do no matter what else we may attempt, we will first\nstudy the flow of ideas, the emotions, the mental changes and bodily accompaniments in\nour own experience; from this we get a basis of observed fact, and a habit of observation\nand of consideration of mental phenomena with which we can study and begin to understand the minds more remote. Probably the gap between the adult and the child-mind\nis first bridged by memories of our own childhood. From this we get a basis for interpretation ofthe observations made on other children. The psychology of childhood furnishes\nlikewise the bridge to animal psychology. Once having got a foothold in each of these\nfields, it is possible both to go on to wider knowledge in that particular field and to work\nback from observed facts in one to new points of view and explanations in the other fields.\nThus the observation of childhood throws great light on adult psychology and on animal\npsychology, and hkewise the study of animal activities gives new light in the study and\ninterpretation of child-Hfe. All are needed by the teacher who would try to understand\nthe laws governing the activity and growth of the minds he is to develop. The child-mind\ncannot be understood without first obtaining a fair knowledge of the mental processes going\non in our own minds to use as apperceptive organ for understanding any other mental\nphenomena. After this thru reminiscence we work over to the child psychology, and\nthru this in turn to animal psychology. As evolutionists we must recognize the need of\nknowing, not only what the child-mind is, but whence it arises and whither it must tend. As\na matter of fact, not only should normal adult psychology, but abnormal as well, be known\nby the teachers; else he cannot easily recognize dangerous early tendencies. I would say,\nthen, that, so far from Hmiting the field of psychology for teachers to child psychology, we\nmust extend it, not merely to adult psychology, but to animal and abnormal psychology.\nThis, you will say, is an impossible task. Only so because of the ignorance of psychology\non the part of our teachers who stick to the stupid and inadequate text-books. Not all\npsychology in each of these fields can be learned by the teacher; fortunately not all is\nneeded. Comparatively httle of value to teachers is yet known in each of these fields,\nmaking it all the more imperative that nothing of value in any field be omitted.\nSeven years' experience in teaching the psychology of education leads me to believe\nthat a general view of the whole field can be got in a one-year course of three periods per\nweek. After this there is an unlimited field for investigation of special problems. What\nhas been said is in no wise intended to minimize the value of child psychology. Indeed,\nthe chief value of the study of the other fields Ues in the help given thereby toward understanding child psychology itself.\nThere are three general classes of facts, sorely needed by teachers, which child psychology alone can give, (i) Concerning the periods of nascence of various tendencies and\ncapacities. We waste much time now by giving some things too soon, and lose much of\nprecious possibihties by starting others too late. The nascent periods for musical training,\nfor certain aspects of religious development, for social endeavor, are fairly well known; but\nthe nascent periods of a whole host of possibilities which the teacher must develop are as\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": null, "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nyet only roughly determined. We are hardly conversant enough with the symptoms of\nnascency to recognize it when before our eyes. (2) Concerning periods of peculiar weakness and danger. We at least know at what age the tissues of a child are most susceptible\nto the germ of scarlet fever; we know something of the peculiar moral and physical dangers\nof pubesence; something of the danger of skepticism and despondency in the later \" teens \"\nand early twenties; but ignorance of other equally important, but less obvious, periods of\nstrain or danger lies at the root of daily tragedies in the school and home. (3) Lastly, it\nis only thru study of children that the developmental relations existing between different\nphases of growth can be discovered. This is a point we are just beginning to understand.\nWe have talked of development for years, but most of us still think of it in terms of the old\nlogic of addition and substraction. From this point of view a childish activity can serve\nto promote a later activity only when the childish activity furnishes certain knowledge or\ntrains certain specific mental or physical powers which will be used in the later activity.\nNow, biology shows that the developmental relation between different stages of growth is\nfar more subtle than this. For instance, the activity and the development of the grub as\nit plows thru the earth appear to bear no relation to the organs and activities of the adult\nwinged beetle; yet the perfection of the former furnishes the essential stimulus to the\ndevelopment of the latter. The activities of the tadpole's tail seem to have no relation to\nthe development of the frog's hind legs, except to give the would-be frog a means of getting\nabout and securing food; yet the future nourishment of the legs depends upon certain\ndevelopments which the tail must bring about. Now, in our work of developing children\nwe are mere bulls in china shops until we understand just what is the developmental\nrelation which each tendency bears to earlier and later possibilities. Some of these are\nknown, others we must learn; and child psychology alone can give this needed knowledge.\n\nWHAT\nIS THE\nNET GAIN\nTO EDUCATION\nOF RECENT\nINVESTIGATIONS IN PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY ?\nCHARLES\n\nC. VAN\n\nLIEW, PRESIDENT OF STATE\nCHICO, CAL.\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe position which has been given this paper on the program of this\nsection seems to indicate that the phrase ''physiological psychology\" is to\nbe taken in a restricted sense. I shall, accordingly, endeavor to discuss the\nnet' gain to education of that psychology which we seek to get at thru, and\nin connection with, the study of physiological processes, exclusive of those\nproblems which have come to belong pecuHarly to child study and genetic\npsychology. It is very true that no sharp line can be drawn between the\npsychological field of the present discussion and other psychological fields. «\nThe best that can be done, perhaps, is merely to refer to that large and more\nor less organized body of material which has been arrived at chiefly thru the\nphysiological avenue of approach, and which does not directly attack the\ngenetic problem, except in so far as the latter is necessarily involved. For\nthe purposes of the present discussion it is quite immaterial that much of this\nstock is not, strictly speaking, so much psychological as physiological. Our\nproblem here is simply that of its educational serviceability. In his volume\non Psychology and Life, Miinsterberg rightly says: \"The hope that physio-\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nIN PHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n577\n\nlogical psychology will give us a fuller acquaintance with the psychological\nfacts as such is .... an illusion.\" In the strict sense this is true, but it is\nequally true that systematized knowledge of the physiological conditions or\nconcomitants of mental processes may, educationally, be of even greater\nvalue than a purely descriptive, introspective psychology. Directly the\nteacher and the educational mechanism deal only with a physiological child;\nfor this reason a sound mechanics of stimulation and reaction may in the\nend be vastly more serviceable than a mere description and classification of\nsubjective states.\nOn the other hand, any defense whatever of physiological psychology on\nthe grounds of the distinctly psychological services it can render education,\nmust start from the same general propositions which would underlie a similar\ndefense of psychology in general. Personally I find it increasingly difficult\nto indorse the expectations which evidently underlie the position which general psychology has come to occupy in our normal schools and in the educational departments of our universities. The whole trend of the psychologic\nmovement in training teachers seems to rest upon the assumption that somehow psychology is consciously to affect the methods of the teacher; and this\nin the face of the facts that teaching is an art; that our best teachers are still\nthose who are teachers by instinct, as it were, i. e., possessed of native teaching\npersonality and the naturally fitting teaching reactions ; and, finally, that some\nof our poorest teachers may still be found in the faculities of institutions for\nthe training of teachers where psychology is supposed to be a master-key.\nIt is, perhaps, no more than fair to confess that the one who has been\nselected to lead in the present discussion is unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, one who believes that the function of institutions which undertake\nto train teachers is, primarily, the selection of fit teaching personaHties ;\nsecondarily, their professional culture. When this fundamental requirement\nin the training of teachers has been adequately recognized, we shall get more\nthat is genuine out of our psychology and pedagogy, because then the spectacle of students trying to overcome native unfitness for teaching, by close\napplication to pedagogy and psychology, shall have been done away with.\nThe fault which I have implied is not with psychology per se, but with certain\nmisconceptions of its value as a theoretical science related to a practical and\nmore or less spontaneous art.\nTo prevent the confusion of ideas which arises when we tend to identify\npure psychological training with the teaching art, it is best here to distinguish\nsharply between the spontaneous acts of the teacher in the exercise of her\nart as such, be it in instruction, guidance, or training, and all those preliminary\nmeasures of planning, arranging, and organizing with a view to creating the\nbest possible conditions for the exercise of the teacher's art. It is the latter —\ni. e., all that we comprehend under the terms \"management\" and \"organization\"— and not the former — i. e., all we comprehend under the teaching art —\nwhich physiological psychology is, I beHeve, at present most likely to affect.\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": null, "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n. [Normal\n\nFrom the foregoing point of view, what psychology in general may contribute to the efficiency of a teacher is a stock of information which will, for\nthe most part, react subconsciously upon the teacher's art. It is quite conceivable that a good native teaching personaHty can, as a matter of information and training, be filled up with pedagogic and psychologic data; and that,\nonce thoroly assimilated so that they shall have contributed to the habitual\nmaterials of mental grasp, they should react subconsciously on practice. To\na very limited extent only may we look for conscious adaptations of the teaching art thru psychological information. This knowledge of the mechanism\nof stimulation — e. g., in the field of sight — may undoubtedly directly and\nconsciously affect certain teaching acts, devices, and methods in teaching\nreading. Yet there are grounds for pause when we find a teacher attempting\nto be an artist by psychological rules. Why do we despise the rule-of-thumb\npractitioner in any line of life? Because we know that his very consciousness of rules of action cuts off what is a distinctively human and practical\ntrait — plasticity, manifold adaptiveness. We run counter to experience at\nevery hand when we assume that clear consciousness of rules and laws is the\nprime element in all effective practice. There is somewhat in everyday life,\nfor example, over and above our consciousness of its rules and laws; and that\nsomewhat is the art of hving, the active power of social adaptation, which\nbelongs in a measure to every mother's son or daughter of us, and whose\nsecret is not yet unlocked by any system of Hfe rules and laws. We live better\nthan we know, or can analyze. In the same way no mastery of the laws of\ngrammar or rhetoric, or of any kind of literary form, ever alone produced an\neffective writer. Strong purpose, elevated emotion, and some aesthetic sense of\nfitness dominate, indeed often defy, the writer's subconscious grammar and\nrhetoric, and make for the Hterary master. So, too, technique alone does\nnot make a musician, nor geometry and the laws of construction an architect,\nnor psychology a teacher. In every case the art transcends analysis of its\nprocesses, and the true artist must be left free for a personal adjustment in\neach individual case. There are moments in the work of every artist, including the teacher, when conditions arise which he has to \"figure out,\" analyze,\nand reduce to principles; but the moment his rules and his system master him,\nhe forfeits his title to artist.\nAll this is pre-eminently true of the teacher. Here, too, we may not attempt\nto reduce creative and constructive power merely to a system of laws. Perhaps the best, then, that we can attain is a body of psychologic knowledge\nthat shall in the main subconsciously influence the teacher's judgment, attitude toward mental phenomena, and sympathetic adaptations, without, thru\nsheer consciousness of psychologic laws, checking personal freedom; just as\nthe writer creates in harmony with laws of grammar or rhetoric which he\nseldom consciously calls up. The vital problem which the teacher faces is\nnot that of childhood, nor of the child in general, but of Mary Brown and\nJohnny Black. It is this which makes her work an art. Whatever psychology\ncan do, then, to enrich that art spontaneously will be acceptable.\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nIN PHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n579\n\nFrom this point of view Miinsterberg's fear seems to me overwrought.\nHe claims to \"detest this mingling of the teacher with psychology just\nbecause\" he (Miinsterberg) does \"not wish to destroy in him the powers of\nsound and natural interest.\" \"Certainly,\" he says, \"the teacher. ought to\nstudy children and men in general, but with the strictly anti-psychological\nview; he ought to acknowledge them as indissoluble entities, as centers of\nfree will the functions of which are not causally but teleologically connected\nby interests and ideals, not by psychological laws.\" All this is true in a measure. But the writer seems to have overlooked the necessity of showing that\nsome analytic psychological interest is inimical to an interest in men and\nchildren as unities. As well say that a knowledge of grammar and rhetoric\nnecessarily destroys the creative art in the literary master, or that attention to\ntechnique in the end mars the musician's interpretation of musical unities.\nAgain, not all teaching processes will yield to a purely teleological view.\nInterests and ideals are very good stimuH when we consider the aim of education; but when the teacher undertakes those great school aims of reading,\nwriting, arithmetic, and English expression, she knows her problem is one\nof strict causation, and stands in need of all the light she can get on its conditions and processes.\nOur first question really is, therefore: What are the net reactions of\nphysiological psychology upon the practical art of teaching ? And the answer\nsuggested thus far seems to be that physiological psychology deals with a\nbody of knowledge a share of which may vitally influence the teacher's attitude,\njudgment, and adaptations in the exercise of her art. But in the light of\nphysiological psychology we cannot as yet prescribe a body of universal norms\nfor method, at least so far as the psychical aspects of these problems are concerned. Agreat body of psycho-physiological data has been developed, and\nyet we can point to but little in method due to it which is radically new. Its\nreaction is as yet indirect rather than direct, and incidental rather than fundamental. Itwill belong rather t'o child study and the ultimate development\nof a genetic psychology to effect a radical revolution in either the educational\nscheme or method. Even in the claim that physiological psychology offers\ngood auxiliary material for the teacher's professional judgment, we should\nbe modest and admit that such material is very limited.\nBut while we can at present concede no very great influence upon the\nteaching art to physiological psychology, we shall have to recognize its growing influence upon that other field which is preliminary to the teacher's art —\nthe field of planning, organizing, and managing. These are matters which\nwe tend more and more to reduce to a science, because they deal with conditions which have to be met by general requirements. It is just here that\nphysiological psychology can be most useful. Whatever has to do with the\nhygienic and sanitary conditions surrounding the child, with the healthful\nand fruitful use of his senses and muscles, with the conservation of his best\npowers for development, with the economy of time and energy, must reckon\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": null, "text": "580\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nwith physiological psychology. The grounds for any such claim are to be\nfound in the fact that the teacher deals directly, not with a spiritual being,\nbut with a physiological one. Her problem is to control physical conditions\nand physiological processes in those ways which make for the best mental\ngrowth. From the same point of view the planned organization of a school\nshould take its departure. The mechanics of stimulation and reaction, in\nother words, is the key to the organization of a school. Let me illustrate in\nthe case of a single physiological law. It is well established that sensorymotor arcs begin meduUation — i. e., begin to mature functionally — at the\nmotor end. This is a principle which may well affect the approach to many\nschool activities. That mental awakening is first a matter of muscular\nactivity — i. e., adjustment physically for purposes of higher sensory development— is a truth which school organization can no longer disregard.\nThus far we have touched rather general aspects of the question. Let\nus turn now to a few, more specific conceptions by way of illustration, either\nbelonging to, or associated with, the field of physiological psychology.\nProminent among those conceptions which may claim some attention educationally we must place that which I have just spoken of as the ''mechanics\nof stimulation and reaction.\" All that belongs to this conception can affect\nboth the teacher and school organization in a variety of ways. To begin\nwith, it makes clearer that practically there is no real distinction between\nphysical and mental training — an idea that should have liberal reaction on\neducation; that one system of education is superior to another, not because it\ndevelops mind and body, but because it develops both in one to greatest fitness that\n;\none method is better than another only in so far as it stimulates and\ntrains most in harmony with physiological conditions. The best illustration\nthat can be given just here is that of teaching the language arts. Here the.\nteacher must deal with a large number of issues; every language art involves\na number of senses, their central association, and certain habitual movements\nof expression. Each new form of expression rests in part on previously\nacquired forms. The character of expression is determined for good or bad\nby unconscious habits of expression, by the character of sense-activity, by the\ntendency to prefer one sense to another, etc. All these issues and many\nothers find a rational solution when studied in their relations to brain-processes,\nwhere their organic connections can best be brought out.\n(It may be well to add here, parenthetically, that physiological psychology\nis helping to modify our conceptions of physical training. These conceptions\nhave been extremely crude at times in the past. Brute force, prowess in\nfeats of strength and speed, and agihty have too commonly been our limits.\nNow we shall have to include in the conception all that training which affects\nthe arts of expression, personal grace and force, and skill in any practical\nart ; and all of these matters of physical training will have to be combined and\nunified in one system of educational practice.)\nWe are fast approaching the time when all processes of training whatsoever\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nIN\n\nPHYSIOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\n581\n\nwill be studied and undertaken in the light of what has been found to be sound\nand true of physical training. As a matter of fact, I do not at present recall\nany philosophy of exercise or drill in school work which has back of it as sound\nreasons as the pugiHst puts into his training. Who of us, in fact, can tell\nwhen, how much, and how best to drill ? Yet drill is unquestionably, and\nalways will be, a fundamental process in the schoolroom. This much we\nknow, that all stimulation is productive of destructive (i. e., catabolic) change,\nand that growth (i. e., anabolic change) is dependent upon it. This seems\nto offer some definite rational basis for the sound limitation of stimulation\nin school work; only the problem still remains: Just where does stimulation\ncease to be followed by a specific increase in growth ?\nAt present, then, in spite of all that has been accompKshed in the study\nof drill, exercise, fatigue, our knowledge on these subjects is but liberally\nsuggestive, rather than positive and final.\nClosely related to the foregoing is the problem of the rhythmic nature of\nphysiological processes, which again is valuable for its educational suggestiveness rather than its finalities. We know that physiological processes, especially those associated with growth and training, are fundamentally\nrhythmical in character; i. e., subject to strong impulses of activity at certain\nperiods, which are in turn followed by periods of little or no activity. It is\nvery evident that if education can catch these impulses (in language, writing,\nreading, for example) on the uprise, it will have an undoubted advantage in\norganization and the arts of instruction ; but it is equally evident that at present\nit never does it except as a matter of chance, for it has no adequate means of\nidentifying the uprise of impulses. Again, what shall be done with the period\nof rest ? is a question by no means solved.\nTo physiological psychology we owe a clear development of the thought\nthat all experience, direct or indirect, has meaning, value, and purpose only\nwhen seen in the light of its reaction upon life; that there is no sensation\nwithout action. It would be difficult, indeed, to measure the influence of\nthis conception whose educational imperative demands that all experience\nand knowledge be worked over in terms of fitting action, conduct, behavior.\nHere the educational aim and the biological law are as they should be — in\nharmony.\nAgain, we owe to physiological psychology a good scientific basis for a\nfundamental attack upon the old fallacy of the dogma of formal general\nmental discipline. That dogma can no longer stand. We recognize that\nwhatever general power of attention, memory, imagination, observation,\nreasoning, and the like, the child possesses are his by right of birth and nature.\nHere we cannot create; we can only train. And our training must in every\ncase be special, not generic. It is of vast importance to the child that the\nteacher recognize betimes that only by training his observation, or attention,\nin many avenues — i. e., by training special powers — has he any guarantee\nof breadth of power and adjustment.\nSome of the commonest difficulties\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": null, "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nin instruction in the language arts, for example, are due to the fact that the\nchild's attention or observation is all eyes and no ears, or no muscular sense\nof articulation. Wherever, then, the exercise of these powers becomes necessary, special training also becomes necessary in every instance.\nThen, too, we may reverse the statement of the problem. Not only does\ntraining in one line not imply training in another, but excessive training in\nany line may directly diminish for the child his chances of developemnt in\nother lines. The spectacle is not uncommon of training being carried to the\npoint of arrest of development, if not obsession, manifestly for two reasons:\n(i) we try to make training in one line so effective that it shall atone vicariously\nfor training in other lines; and (2) at the same time forget the physiological\nconditions of training. I have not time to illustrate how radically and beneficially the overthrow of the dogma of formal general mental discipline may\nreact on education. The possible practical reactions are countless. Suffice\nit to say that as a result of neurological investigations in their relation to mental\nprocesses, we should in the future prate far less of the training of powers, and\nmake directly and unequivocally for breadth and variety of specific adaptations to environment in the training of children.\nThe work that has been done on the physical basis of the emotions is\nanother field for educational reflection. Certain matters of instruction,\nespecially where the arts of expression are concerned, a great deal of the teacher's work of guidance and discipline, and much that has to be considered in\nschool organization, must deal with this problem of the emotions and their\nphysiological conditions. Whatever belongs to a fitting aesthetic and moral\ndevelopment is in the last analysis a matter of healthy physical tone and sound\nphysical habits. For example, the mood is one of the most powerful factors\nin morality, affecting alike conduct and spiritual, if not intellectual, ideals.\nThe knowledge, however, that the mood is the resultant of certain visceral\nsensations, rationalizes, or should rationalize, our treatment of it.\nThe fields of suggestion and imitation which have also been very closely\nassociated with physiological research need but a passing mention. We have\nlong been acquainted with their educational significance, especially in all\nwork of social and moral training, and in certain phases of instruction in the\narts of expression. Suggestion is a conception which may well claim a still\nwider influence with teachers. It is a method of stimulation which must\nbe studied for its limitations as well as its possibilities. There are times in\nthe life of the pupil, for example, when the personality of the teacher counts\nfor more than all else. This is well, provided that personality can so temper\nand control his suggestions as to preserve to the child, and particularly to\nthe youth of secondary or college age, his own intellectual independence and\nintegrity. The doctrine of suggestion, then, which is intimately concerned\nwith all the emotional and intellectual Hfe of the individual, reveals a still\nhigher type of moral influence for the teacher.\nI have only been able to cite briefly a few of the conceptions which seem\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n583\n\nto me fundamental in the influence of physiological psychology on education.\nIn general, my thesis has been that these conceptions will influence the educational system consciously chiefly thru their reaction upon planning and organization. They have the power to regulate more beneficially and rationally\nthe physical environment of the child and the conditions under which teaching\nacts are most successful. Their reaction upon the attitude and method of\nthe teacher will remain for the present limited and chiefly subconscious.\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\nMARK\n\nS. W. JEFFERSON,\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nPROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY, MICHIGAN\nCOLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nWhen the men of the Renaissance discovered the wisdom of the ancients,\nbooks came into wonderful honor. Such applications of ancient knowledge\nas the voyage of Vasco da Gama to India and of Columbus to America only\ntended to confirm those who knew the writings of the ancients in this homage\nto their works. Here were men who knew. On their words actions might\nbe based with confidence in the result. Education had simply the task of\nmaking these writings known to the young, and they would have the best\npossible start in fife. That is the dominant note of education in those centuries.\nYet even then there were men of real power who were building beyond the acquisitions of the ancients, using and improving their methods to get a nearer\nknowledge of the universe itself as well as the old writings about it. With\nthe expansion of the idea of freedom in the nineteenth century a vast progress\nresulted from the direct study of the natural world in its every aspect; so\nvast a progress that the conviction grew that education, too, must dwell\nless exclusively on the things written down in the classic tongues and more\non direct observation of the things of which knowledge was sought.\nOur schools call the earth an oblate spheroid — a phrase suggestive of\nmediaevalism. The Greeks called it a sphere simply because they knew it\nwas not flat. The men of the eighteenth century called it an oblate spheroid\nbecause they saw it was not a sphere. Modern knowledge of its irregularities\nwill have it a geoid, or just earth-shaped. A ball is a good name for it. Education has now little interest in its shape until the high-school course in physics\nis reached.\nIt is felt that the elements of all the sciences are to be taught in the early\npart of geography, but there is some uncertainty among teachers as to what\nconstitutes the elements of a science. My notion is that we should have,\nnot little books about things, but a little contact with things in the way of\nillustration. Instead of treating children to a diagram and explanation of\nthe cause of the seasons, their attention should be directed more to the actual\nfacts of the seasons — the varying height of the sun in the sky, the varying\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": null, "text": "5^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nlength of the day. It is logical to have the high sun and the long day firmly\nassociated with the heat of summer before we attempt to point out the causal\nnature of the association. This advice is not new, but it is still needed. Nature study in the schools is an evidence that we are trying to do well by the\nchildren in this direction. Concrete geometry in the grades is in the same\nline and is strongly urged.\nIt is the question of the laboratory method. In general, the progress of\nhuman knowledge has been by observation, and the record and discussion\nof observations. Progress is enormously facilitated by the records of past\nwork accumulated in books, enabling each investigator to stand, as it were, on\nthe shoulders of his predecessors; but further progress is possible only by\nfurther observation, and past progress is intelligible only in the Hght of the\nobservations on which it was founded. This is the part laboratory methods\nshould play in education. The basal concepts that the race has acquired\nby observation must be acquired by the individual in the same way. Education was generally defective in this regard thru the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Words were habitually put in place of ideas.\nThe rise to ascendency of science in the nineteenth century was effected by\nmen who rebelled at this domination of the printed word, as they rebelled at\nthe domination of unfit rulers. My plea, the plea of all who are interested\nin geography today, is that geography, like physics and chemistry, may break\naway from the dominion of the printed word and start with the basal concepts\ngained by observation. You all know Horace Mann's story of the children\nwho answered with admirable precision and promptness all the questions put\nto them about the natural divisions of the earth — oceans, continents, gulfs,\nand islands ; but, when asked by a visitor if they had seen this earth they were\nreciting about, replied in good faith and unanimously that they never had.\nThe earth itself is all about us. Cape Horn or the Rocky mountains are not\nmore essential parts of it than the region about our house. Let us not have\na little book of home geography with which to start our pupils, but let us take\nthem out to make acquaintance with the near parts of the world for themselves.\nImagine a course in music with no sounds in it. Imagine the children having\nall the melodies described to them as things that would be beautiful if they\nheard them sung, but never to hear them. Do you think they would care\nmuch for music or stay long in school to study it ? Yet what is this but the\nmethod that is employed in geography? Distant lands are described in\nterms that are made known to the class only in description. Pages of lessons\nare assigned and hours of classes pass that are unillumined by any gleam of\ncomprehension. Teachers themselves too often have no associations with the\nmatter of the lesson out of the book.\nThe laboratory of geography is all out of doors. Why not visit it ? For\ngeography this is to give the concept of the elements of land form that make\nup the actual earth, and the meaning of their symbolic representation in maps.\nMuch of the difficulty of modern physiography lies in the reader's ignorance\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n585\n\nof the units of land forms as realities, tho many of them are abundant and\neasily recognized by a child. Rivers have been regarded as water flowing\ndownhill, mostly toward seas or lakes. This river of the definition has smoothly\ndrawn parallel banks between which the water flows steadily onward. But\nthe first river we come to has no such parallel banks; it is a succession of pools\nand rapids. It is not curious in this; it is not flowing over harder and softer\nrocks; it happens to flow over masses of homogeneous clay. In the pools\nthe water is circulating slowly, always in part against the general course of\nthe stream. Here the width is five or six times as great as in the narrows.\nThe depth varies as much. Some of the water that has plunged into the\npools rises again at the farther border to escape down the next rapid. Not\na small part of the water in our river at any moment is actually ascending.\nIn a half-mile walk the other day by the bank of a river, I found it bathed\nfor a third of the distance by water flowing upstream. These things that I\nhave mentioned are not exceptional details. Go out tomorrow and look at\nthe first stream that you encounter. It will certainly show you many or all\nof these features that I have pointed out. You cannot find the stream with\nparallel banks and water descending steadily toward the sea. Again, it is a\nfair chance that you will find the water muddy. If you could examine the\nstream bottom, you would certainly find gravel, sand, or silt traveling along\nall the time. How common those color names for the world's rivers: Blue\nNile, Red river. Yellow river. Black river, Colorado river, River Rouge, Kara\nSu, Kizil Su, Rio Negro, and the Niger. As for the stuff that travels along on\nthe bottom, note the sand and gravel sheets left on grassy flats beside the river\nwhen the floods of spring have subsided. There is good ground to regard\nthe material other than water which the water bears along in one way or\nanother as perhaps more significant than the water itself. The river is always\nin a valley. In the lower parts of that valley are always found deposits of the\nmaterial excavated from that valley. They have come down in the stream.\nThey constitute the soil on which dense populations of men Kve. They are the\ngift of the rivers to men, and like the valley itself are the only habitable part\nof the* mountains. The broad valleys and picturesque gorges of Switzerland\nare no less the gift of sediment-laden streams than are the plains of Belgium,\nHolland, north Germany, Hungary, and Lombardy, spread out for the densest\npopulations of Europe by the same rivers that won the sediment from the massive Alps.\nI should like to believe what I hear, that the high-school age of the middle\n\"teens\" is the time to reason, the earliest fit-for-geometry age, and that it is\npreceded by a stage when it is better rather to attract the attention and drill\nthe memory. This is the period in which most of the work in- geography is to\nbe done. I understand further from President Hall that in the very earliest\nyears — along in the first, second, and third grades perhaps — ^mere showing,\nwithout putting a strain on the attention or memory, is more in order. I\nwould definitely try, then, to interest in the earlier years and never seek more\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nS86\nthan an emphasized association in the later years. I beheve that children\nknow nothing more interesting than the world of out-of-doors. This interest\nI would utilize. They tell me that children's first interest is in hving things,\nfor which reason geography is little adapted, they say, for nature work with\nthe little ones. I find here, however, the best reason why geography is so\nadmirably fitted to their needs: it is so very much alive if you take it in its\nout-of-door aspects, and not its book forms, which are dead enough. I know\na Massachusetts city of forty thousand people where in my mind's eye I see a\nclass of thirteen- and fourteen-year-olds digging away for an hour at the delta\ndisclosed by the temporary draining of a mill pond, changing the course of\nthe inlet stream by simply damming it, and deHghtfuUy watching it cut httle\ncanons and build new cones of detritus at its emergence. They do not seem\nto think the thing dead. I do not think their little brothers and sisters\nwould have lacked interest. I am sure their minds would not have been\nstrained.\nHere my friend the geologist steps in and reminds me that it is all very\ninteresting, but that it belongs to geology rather than to geography, just as\nmy friend the botanist will protest if I stop with my class to look at the grouping of some plants — pure plant geography, of course. This is a realm of\nnature the botanists like so well in these days that they want to fence it off\nfor theirs under the name of plant ecology. The fact is that geography is\nregarded as uninteresting by so many incompetent judges that they naturally\nfeel that any interesting thing should be at once transferred to some other\ndepartment of knowledge. I am not much disturbed by the protests of invasion. The delimitation of geography from other sciences is too difficult for\na mere geographer. I must leave that for the school superintendents and\nprofessors of psychology. Meanwhile, the world being made of a great\nvariety of things Httle and big, far and near, I propose to use the Httle and\nnear ones to give students basal concepts for the great and far.\nFor that is what it must come to presently. When we have grown intimate with our home river in drought and flood, in summer and winter, let\nus use it to build up the concepts of Nile and Amazon. Most of the facts\nof distance places we must learn from maps. Here are other basal concepts\nto be got ready. Why is it so many of my students tell me that they are\npermanently \"turned around\"? That they have fixed notions about the\nnorth that do not accord with the behavior of the sun, and will not for all that\nthey may do ? If the map of the home locality had been studied and used\nas the class went about the country itself; if they went about the country with\ncompass in hand — and a compass is as much needed in a school as a dictionary; if they used that map and that compass, however little, to locate and\nfind the things in which they were interested, be it the flowers, the birds'\nnests, the nut trees, the fishing and swimming places, the skating places, or\nthe other things dear to a boy's heart and good for a teacher to know about,\nthe north would settle down into its place without more ado; and when the\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n587\n\nmap of South America or Australia had to be brought out, those rolls would\nnot he South America and Australia, as they too often are today, but symbols\ndistinctly aiding vivid conceptions of those distant lands.\nWe Americans are not making what we might of maps. Some of the\nnational departments at Washington are making beautiful ones, notably the\nCoast Survey and the Geologic Survey. Their maps are cheap, too — much\ncheaper than any other good maps made anywhere — but not used as much\nas they should be by teachers, in part because they are not effectively advertised. In the Agricultural Building you may learn by a glance at excellent\nmaps the distribution of products in Germany and Japan, but no state in\nour Union gives us the same opportunity. In the Mining Building only\nNew Jersey, Maryland, and Japan make use of maps. If you do not think\nmaps so important, look at those I have spoken of; see how much they tell and\nhow well. Compare our map of the Philippines and Porto Rico in the United\nStates Government Building with the German maps of southwest Africa in\nthe Agricultural Building. See how significant is the Land Office set of maps\nillustrating the history of the Louisiana Purchase. The finest map of North\nAmerica is a German one in the Education Building. We have not been\ntaught to read maps, and we do not use them. The Filipinos have been\nallowed to put the north of their great outdoor map of the islands to the east,\nand all the maps of the Exposition have the south at the top of the page.\nPresident Hall would have us cut down the time given to geography to a\nfourth or an eighth of the present amount. These quantities differ enough\nto suggest that they are rhetorical and not to be taken seriously. If a fourth\nis the proper amount, or even near it, an eighth would seem too little. If\nan eighth is about right, a fourth is clearly excessive. Such a prescription\ncan hardly come from a careful physician or one who has fully diagnosed the\ncase. The subcommittee on geography of the Committee of Ten, including\nAmericans distinguished for their geographical attainments the world over,\nadmitted that the results now attained are not proportionate to the time they\ncost. They suggested observational geography from the start and went into\nvaluable details in describing what they meant. They emphasized, above\nall, the need of teaching more geography to the teachers. There is a sense in\nwhich the teachers of geography today know less geography than the teachers\nof many years ago, and this is not wholly to be regretted; yet unaided forgetting isnot sufficient progress. The committee urged in 1893 that an elementary course in physical geography be put in the last year of the grammar school,\nwhile physiography should be taught in the last year of the high school as\nsoon as properly trained teachers could be obtained. This physiography, I\ntake it, would differ from physical geography by using the strict logical arguments of geometry, physics, and chemistry in the treatment of causes and\neffects. While such teachers could not be obtained, a course in geology might\ntake its place; either of these courses to be given as advanced work with field\nand laboratory exercises.\nThey declared that without such courses as these\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": null, "text": "588\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Normal\n\na serious danger threatens the whole line of geographic study, for the great mass of\nteachers of geography have not taken courses beyond the high school; and if they are not\ntaught the elementary processes and principles of these sciences there, they will have\nlittle strength as teachers of geography. They cannot go much beyond mere facts and\nformalities.\n\nThis program has been in print now for ten years. What has been accomplished ? A year ago I made an investigation into the status of geography in\nthe high schools of Michigan. One hundred and twenty-nine of the larger\nhigh schools of the state reported, and the general conclusion I draw is that\nnot a dozen schools in that great state are doing what was advised. The last\nyear in the high school has physiography in but two schools and geology in\nonly six. Add to this that physical geography is not generally taught in the\ngrammar schools, and we have the net result that the course in physiography\nor geology is simply omitted and the grammar-school geography pushed up\ninto the first year of the high school. The mass of the teachers are still receiving little preparation for good work in geography. The Committee of Fifteen\nexpressed its satisfaction with geography as of great educational value and\nmade it a liberal time allowance in the suggestive program it prepared. Sixty\nminutes a week of this time was allotted in the lowest two grades for oral\nlessons. If this weekly hour were given mostly to out-of-door work in the open\nweather of spring and fall, the best possible foundation could be given for later\ninstruction on the regions of the earth. But it cannot be hoped to get the class\nahead of the teacher. The teacher must be got out of doors first and be taught\nto see. She will find there health and renewed strength for her daily task,\nand a source of delight in the world about that she has never suspected.\n\nDISCUSSION\nD. C. RiDGLEY, professor of geography, State Normal University, Normal, 111. — If\n\"out-of-doors\" is to become an important factor in the education of the child, it must\nfirst have an important place in the preparation of the teacher. This means that it must\nreceive careful attention in the courses of several departments in the normal schools, notably\nnature study, biology, and geography. I wish to speak briefly concerning what may be\ndone in this direction in the department of geography.\nA course in geography in a normal school should be so planned as to give the student\nan opportunity to have frequent lessons in outdoor or excursion work. Not until the\nteacher thoroly understands the value of the excursion in his own education can we expect\nto accomphsh what is desired in this line in the elementary schools. The normal schools\nshould send forth a body of teachers so well prepared to do effective work as teachers from\nthe book of \"out-of-doors\" that they will act as leaven which shall leaven the whole.\nTo indicate the character of the work which seems to be profitable in this direction,\nI shall state what has been done in out-of-door work in some of our classes. In the normalschool classes at Normal, 111., we have visited Mackinaw Dells for stream work; Sugar creek\nand its branches, for stream work, drainage basins, and divides; the brick-mills, for a\nstudy of different kinds of rock and the use of clay rock taken from the mines near by;\nMiller Park, for a study of a dam and a reservoir; a grist-mill, to see the process of flour\nmanufacture; a rug factory, to see a loom in operation; Deer Park and Starved Rock,\nsixty miles away, to see how streams have cut their gorges in soHd rock.\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nWORK\n\nIN GEOGRAPHY\n\n589\n\nDuring the summer session of 1903 in the normal school of Dekalb, 111., the classes\nvisited a creamery to see butter-making and pasteurizing of milk; Curler's dairy farm,\nto learn how milk could be so carefully handled as to make it unnecessary to sterilize it,\nat the same time making it so valuable that it sells in Chicago for twice as much per quart\nas ordinary milk.\nThe longest trip made by the students at Dekalb was one of twenty hours to Chicago.\nThe party numbered fifty. The special purpose was a visit to the stock yards and Swift's\npacking-house. In addition to a careful inspection of the work at the stock yards, we made\nshort visits to the Field Columbian Museum, the Art Institute, the Public Library, and\nLincoln Park.\nNot only should the normal school give academic training to its students in work\nout-of-doors, but provision should be made by which the student-teachers of the training\ndepartment may conduct such excursions with the children and use the results for classroom work in succeeding lessons.\nIt is our plan to arrange for some out-of-door work by each class in primary geography each term. The excursion is conducted by the critic teacher and student-teacher,\nand the work forms the basis for one or more lessons in the class-room. It is believed that\npractical work of this kind will prepare a student to do efficient work in this Une as a\nteacher in his own school.\nThere is another and recent normal-school organization in which most effective work\ncan be done in training teachers to make use of out-of-doors. This is the normal-school\nextension classes. In the city of Chicago, under the direction of the superintendent of\nschools and the principal of the Chicago Normal School, classes have been organized and\nprovided with teachers wherever twenty-five or more teachers wish to pursue the same\nfine of work. In this way several thousand teachers of Chicago are systematically pursuing\nsome line of study which is certain to increase their efficiency in the class-room.\nDuring the spring of 1903, while teaching in the Chicago schools, I was invited to\nmeet a group of teachers for a lesson in geography once each week. At one of these\nmeetings I asked whether, any would like to go on Saturday excursions. A number\nwished to do so, and an invitation to meet on a certain street-crossing on the following\nSaturday brought out a dozen teachers to visit the stock yards. Two weeks later twentyseven visited the Weather Bureau station in the Auditorium tower. Professor Cox took\nus into his inner room and showed us how he makes weather.\nIn May twenty-five teachers went forty miles to visit Dunham's horse farm — two\nthousand seven hundred acres and five hundred horses. We were met at the station,\ndriven to the farm-house, and entertained at dinner. This was followed by as fine an\nexhibition of horses as the original of Rosa Bonheur's famous \"Horse Fair.\" We were\nthen driven over the two thousand seven hundred acre farm with its fine grounds, woods,\ndeer park, great fields of corn, oats, and hay, making our final stop at the railway station.\nAll this was due to the courtesy and generosity of the owners of the farm.\nOne Saturday in June sixty teachers made a trip along the Drainage Canal by special\nelectric car to Romeo, four miles on canal by boat, visited the controlling works at Lockport, took dinner at JoHet, visited the Des Plaines river to get the relation of dam to\npower-house, saw how the Illinois and Michigan Canal crosses the river, examined the\nlock in the canal by which boats pass the dam, and visited a stone quarry.\nSuch excursions prove to teachers the value of out-of-doors to themselves and make\nthem more desirious of having their pupils read lessons from the same great book.\nThe normal schools are not alone responsible for such training 'of teachers. A large\nresponsibility rests upon the superintendents and principals of the schools thruout the\ncountry. If out-of-door work is to be done, these are the officials who can have it done if\nthey believe in it and make it a part of their school creed.\nIn the handbook of the Stockton (Cal.) school exhibit in the Education Building,\nCabinet VI is described as illustrating the school excursion.\nTwenty-six separate excur-\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": null, "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nsions are here listed, and work on each is exhibited in the cabinet. They include excursions to factories, gardens, orchards, mines, irrigation works, oil refinery, farms, and other\nplaces of interest to the child. An examination of this cabinet shows most excellent results.\nThe children have had an opportunity for map-drawing, illustrative drawing, wide observation, and language work, never supplied by schoolroom conditions alone. The actual\nexperiences of the children are well shown in this exhibit. This illustrates well what is\ndone in one school and is suggestive of what superiijtendents and principals may do if\nthey consider this kind of work of great value.\nIf we believe that the work of \" out-of-doors \" is good reading for the child, let us see\nthat the teacher is prepared to do this work as well as the lessons in arithmetic, grammar,\nreading, and other common branches of the school course.\nMiss Montana Hastings, supervisor of the training department, State Normal\nSchool, Kirksville, Mo. — True teaching is not so much the process of giving information\nas it is the process of awakening thought or finding the interest which already exists, then\nproceeding to make conditions favorable for the child's development.\nFrom the beginning the child has a keen interest in home, music, myth, and nature.\nHe can be easily approached thru any of these centers. In fact, his very organism demands\nthat he be given freedom to develop from all these centers. Nature needs no introduction\nto him. Every call from woods and fields finds a ready response in his own soul. He has\nobserved nature all the years of his early life, and modern education demands that this\nobservation shall not cease upon entering school. The world of nature is his world, and\nhe should not be denied the privilege of knowing the use, and loving the beauty, of his own\nrealm. The teacher should study to direct his explorations intelUgently, and, by a systematic accumulation of material for closer study, help him to drink the deeper from these\nwells of rich, varied, and thoughtful experiences.\nThe children should make the collections. They will mean more to them. The\nclose observation of the specimen in its environment will vivify the most commonplace\nsubject. The frog swimming in the pond, hopping in the grass, sitting on the log, is worth\nmore to the child's education than a dozen in glass jars brought to the class for laboratory\nstudy. But after the child has seen the frog in its environment, a collection of frogs'\neggs used for the purpose of observing the process of development furnishes material for\nan intensely interesting and profitable study.\nCollections should not be made merely for the sake of having collections. The\nelementary-school room is not the place for a museum where specimens are kept scientifically labeled for the sake of the scientific names. These become valuable to the child\nonly as he learns to interpret their meaning. Each collection should be made for a definite\npurpose, at the proper time, and in the best way; and if the specimens are to be kept for\nfuture study, arrangements should be made for their preservation; if they are not to be\nused again, they should be removed from the room. Too often specimens are shelved, or\nhung promiscuously about the room; and even the windows may be found piled up with\nuncared-for spoils of the field. Dust accumulates and pests — mice, for example — infest\nthe place. A feeHng of disgust arises in the mind of the naturally orderly child, and much\nof the educational value of the work is lost.\nTo many teachers field lessons mean an unsystematic, aimless gathering of material.\nBut according to the experience of the best teachers in this work it is considered most helpful always to plan the lessons around certain centers of interest. If it is a lesson on plant\nlife, select some plant-Hfe center — for example, the distribution or the propagation of common plants; or a single tree may furnish a great center for interesting study. If it is a geographic center, choose some \"geographic unit,\" such as the slope, rain and its work, divides\nand drainage, etc. Thus the child is enabled to see relations, and will easily and naturally\nbe led to look for the underlying meaning.\nThe following centers of interest may be found in the child's explorations, and the\nmaterial may be accumulated and used as suggested:\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOUT-OF-DOOR\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\n591\n\nSeed-dissemination. — On such a field trip the children will observe what seeds simply\nfall to the ground, what kinds are carried by the wind, what ones stick to their clothing,\nwhat seeds are carried by the water, etc. The children should return with specimens of\nas many kinds of seeds as are found, and in the next few lessons study the structure and\nappendages of the seeds and fruits which aid in their dispersion. These questions will\narise: Which ones of these plants are injurious to crops ? Can anything be done to prevent their distribution ?\nBulbs and root stalks. — Make a collection of wild-flower bulbs, as the dog's-toothed\nviolet, jack-in-the-pulpit, blood-root, meadow lily, wood sorrel. Plant them in a protected place. The following spring the children will feel fully repaid for their eflforts.\nIf possible, secure a collection of hardy plant bulbs, as the jonquil, the narcissus, and\nthe tulip. Let the children prepare a bed for them near the house and on the south side.\nThe artistic arrangement should be considered. Also another collection, such as the canna,\ndahlia, gladiolus, should be carefully packed in sawdust and kept until spring. Bulbs\nand fleshy roots of the garden vegetables furnish material for much practical study.\nPotting plants. — Make a collection of slips for rooting and potting. Let the children\nprepare the soil and perform every step of the process. Thru this kind of work they will\nlearn many valuable lessons on the propagation of plants which mean much more than\nthe gathering of flowers to be picked to pieces, or simply the gathering of leaves for\nmounting.\nCaterpillars. — The tomato worm is the most interesting. Collect a few — one may\nanswer the purpose. Place him in a box of soft earth, and watch him sink himself into the\ndarkness to remain until the warm days of spring, when he will emerge a new creature.\nHow wonderful this is to the children.\nForest. — Trees in autumn : Collect foHage, fruit, nuts, buds, and branches. Observe\nconditions. Trees in winter: Collect small twigs, and cutoff instead of breaking; compare. Trees in spring: Collect twigs, with leaf buds and flower buds; observe; compare.\nSelect one tree for special study. Bring to the class-room for inspection leaves, buds,\nfruit. Leaves, if any, effected by insects. What insects infest the bark ? Do the insects\nsting, or gnaw the leaves or suck the sap ?\nGalls. — A collection of galls from weeds and trees would be interesting, if studied\ncarefully.\nSoils. — Select, if possible, an area that includes a variety of surface, such as hills,\nslopes, valleys, open areas, lowlands. Several valuable excursions may be made with\nsoil as the center of interest. Let the children find different kinds of soil, and place a\nsample of each kind in small paper sacks — one variety in each sack — and bring to the\nclass-room. Samples of clay, loam, sand, vegetable mold, and mixtures will be brought.\nThese samples will furnish material for several lessons. Experiments should be made to\nascertain the physical properties of the soil which are concerned with plant growth.\nForms of land and water. — Much has been said in favor of the sand-table and the\nmolding-board for giving the child adequate notions of the different land and water forms.\nThese may do in absence of better material, but so long as there are hills, slopes, ponds, and\nrunning streams, where the children can see almost any type of relief, why depend upon\ninaccurate representations to give true concepts ? After the child has learned the different\ntypes of geographic forms from actual observations, he can be taught to map them intelligently with any material commonly used for map work: clay and other material to build\nrelief maps; chalk-modeling of plain, stream, divide, mountain, and outline maps. These\ncan be produced with a clear understanding of every fine and stroke.\nFrom such experiences the child can be taught to symbolize tKe world.\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nTRAINING\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 1904\n\nThe Department met in the assembly hall, south gallery, Agricultural Building, at\n2:30 p. M., and was called to order by the president, Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena,\nCal.\nAfter a brief address of welcome, the president introduced W. S. Jackman, dean of\nthe University School of Education, University of Chicago, who presented a paper on \"The\nConstructive Idea in Education.\"\nThis was followed by a paper on \" Manual Training in Sweden,\" as shown by exhibits,\nby Mr. Carl Lidman, Stockholm, of the Swedish Commission, Education Department,\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition.\nFollowing were reports on school work as shown by exhibits :\na) From the Teachers College, New York dty — Miss Maxy Hyde, instructor in manual training, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York city.\nb) Indianapolis, Ind. — Louis A. Bacon, supervisor of manual training, Indianapolis, Ind.\nc) Pacific coast — Miss Ella V. Dobbs, supervisor of manual training, Helena, Mont.\nd) New York city — Clarence E. Meleney, associate superintendent of schools. New York dty.\ne) Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, lU. — Charles A. Bennett, head of department of manual arts,\nBradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, 111.\n\nThe chair then appointed the following committee to nominate officers for the following year:\nJesse D. Burks, Paterson, N. J.\nBert M. LeSeuer, Schenectaday, N. Y.\nMiss Ella V. Dobbs, Helena, Mont.\n\nThe chair appointed a Committee on Resolutions, as follows:\nFrank M. Leavitt, Boston, Mass.\nCree T. Work, Denton, Tex.\nAnson W. Smith, Brooklyn, N. Y.\n\nThe department adjourned to Friday, July i, at 2 : 30 p. M.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 45 by President Chamberlain in the assembly\nhall of the Missouri State Building. A paper was presented on \"The Manual-Training\nHigh School versus Optional Work in the Regular School,\" by Charles B. Gilbert, New\nYork city.\nThis paper was discussed by C. M. Woodward, director of Manual Training School,\nWashington University, St. Louis, Mo. ; and a brief reply was made by Mr. Gilbert.\nAt this point the following resolution was offered:\nResolved, That the following resolution be presented to the National Educational Association thru its\nCommittee on Resolutions :\nInasmuch as many teachers and artists have so enthusiastically indorsed the statuary and decorative\nsculpture work of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and inasmuch as we believe that the preservation of much\nof this art would conserve the highest interests of the art side of our educational efforts, be it resolved :\n1. That the National Educational Association hereby petition the management of the Exposition to\npreserve the said works of art, and to donate them to the schools of this country.\n2. That the President of this Association appoint a committee of five of its members to confer with the\nmanagement of the Exposition regarding this matter, to plan and execute all details, such as receiving whatever\nmay be donated, the distributions of such donations, etc.\n\n593\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": null, "text": "594\n\n^^ TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TJON\n\n[Manual Training\n\n3. That said committee be, and is hereby, authorized to draw upon the treasury of this Association for\nsuch sums as may be previously approved by the Board of Trustees, for the purpose of defraying necessary\nexpenses in the preservation of said art.\n\nO. A. Hanszen, director of manual training, public schools, Dallas, Tex., explained\nand advocated the adoption of the resolution.\nThe resolution was adopted.\nThe remaining papers of the program were then presented as follows:\n\"What May Be Done in the Country Schools?\" by Alfred BayHss, state superintendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111.\n\"Progress in the South, as Shown by Exhibits,\" by Brown Ayres, dean of the Academic\nColleges, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following, which was adopted:\nResolved, That the Manual Training Department of the National Educational Association hereby expresses\nits appreciation of the opportunity afforded by the management of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and of\nthe National Educational Association for observing the extensive foreign and domestic exhibits of manual\ntraining and industrial work; that these exhibits are to be approved for their scope, their arrangement, and the\nskill and progress they display; and that the exhibitors be, and are hereby, commended for their efforts in thus\nadding greatly to the effectiveness of the educational display at the Exposition.\n\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\nFor President — Arthur H. Chamberlain, Pasadena, Cal.\nFor Vice-President — Chas. L. Kirschner, New Haven, Conn.\nFor Secretary — Frank M. Leavitt, Boston, Mass.\n\nUpon motion of Charles A. Bennett, it was voted to adopt the report and to instruct\nthe secretary to cast one ballot for the nominees. The ballot was so cast, and the candidates\nwere declared elected.\nThe department then adjourned sine die.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nWILBUR\n\nS.\n\nAND\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nFrank M. Leavitt, Secretary,\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIDEA IN EDUCATION\n\nJACKMAN, PRINCIPAL\nOF THE UNIVERSITY\nUNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO,\nCHICAGO,\n\nELEMENTARY\nILL.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt is not the purpose of this paper to discuss at length the psychological\nbasis of manual training. There is now a general agreement that a free play\nof motor activity is fundamental in the development of mental images or\npictures. It is generally recognized that to inhibit the motor impulses or to\ndirect them toward a wrong or trivial end is to stop mental growth as definitely\nas tho we were to impair or destroy the senses themselves. It can do no\nharm, however, to pause for a moment to emphasize this point. During the\npast decade and a half the great importance of sense-training has been duly\nset forth. This, naturally, has induced a careful consideration of the entire\nsubject of expression, but we have been slow to realize the real and vital\nrelation that expression bears to the work of the senses in the educative process.\nExpression in all of its forms has been regarded as important chiefly as a\nmeans of discipHne; we have looked upon drawing as being useful mainly\nbecause it is a means of training the eye; upon modeling as a means of train-\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nIDEA\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n595\n\ning the touch; upon manual training and physical culture as a means of disciplining the muscles and of developing the human form; whereas these are\nbut the incidental, tho necessary, ends. The real purpose of all these forms\nof motor activity is the development of a mental image or picture which is\nat the same time being realized in a useful and valuable external and material\nproduct. It is an important fact to note that when a subject of study is pursued primarily as a means of discipline, whether it is discipline for either\nmind or body, it at once becomes juiceless, uninteresting, and, educationally,\nworthless — the very end itself for which it is pursued being defeated. It is\nthe failure to understand the true function of expression that is responsible\nfor lack of skill; and it is the lack of skill that has led to the insistent demands\nfor drill work, in all its various forms, in order to reach that degree of skill\nwhich it is necessary to acquire in order to produce an actually useful and\nvaluable external product.\nThe careful consideration which the constructive idea is beginning to\nreceive at the hands of thoughtful teachers is starting a real reform. Here\nand there some spirits are leading the way to better things. Here and there\nothers groping blindly have followed in sheer desperation, seeking some relief\nfrom the deadly grind of the old regime. There is a great outcry against\nmuch of the old. We now have some drawing and painting, and .clay-modeling,\nsome manual training, some textile work, some bookbinding, some iron work,\netc., where a dozen years ago we had nothing of the kind; and this is encouraging. It has brought great relief, for which all should be profoundly\nthankful. It has given variety where before was monotony; and this is an\nimprovement. It still remains, however, that as yet the place of art and\nindustry as an integral part of the curriculum is undetermined. No one can\nbe found to say certainly what the final motive for this kind of work is. People\ndo not yet agree as to what kind of work should be undertaken, nor are they\ncertain as to what should be done with the products of such labor.\nThis general confusion of mind is due to the fact that all work in expression\nis usually considered by teachers as a means of securing some kind of discipline thru repetition or drill. When the teacher actually discovers that discipline is neither the primary nor the immediate aim, but that the only\nfunction of expression is the development of the image, the relation of the\ndifferent modes of expression to each other becomes at once very clear. The\nteacher is immediately compelled to seek for an image that is worth having,\nand the proper social motive causes him to seek for it among the varied needs\nof mankind.\nMany teachers, however, do not see this, and they are still in a state of\nmental confusion regarding the real reasons for the work. In the early\nperiods of manual-training history one of the arguments used against it was\nthat it tended to educate children for the trades. This objection seemed to\nimply that a tradesman or a craftsman is a child of misfortune. We have\ngiven much attention to its ethical power, its moral worth, its discipHnary\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": null, "text": "596\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nvalue to the muscles, and to its hygienic possibilities; but these virtues seem\nto be conceived as abstractions valuable as educative means in proportion to\nthe distinctness of the separation from practical and useful results. So, the long\nand weary years of nearly two decades have passed with children making\njoints that never inclose anything. They have made wooden spoons in a\ncountry and for a people where wooden spoons have never been used. Such\nhas been, and such still is, generally speaking, our conception of educative\nprocesses thru a cultivation of the motor activities.\nThe attempts made to foster the artistic in the schools present much the\nsame history. We have procured numberless pictures and sculptured forms\nthat other peoples have made under an 'inspiration that now has greatly\nweakened in human life, and we have told the children that a study of these is\ntheir elementary lesson, their first step toward a knowledge of the beautiful.\nAssociated with these methods in education — and I fear we must call them\nthe results — are the serious facts that we have neither craftsman nor artists\nwho will attribute much of either their outlook or their skill to what they\nwere able to get in the ordinary schools.\nIt serves but little purpose to say that we must put the pupils to work.\nChildren are at work already by scores and hundreds in the southern cotton\nmills, where I have watched them, in the midst of the unspeakable clatter of the\nmachines, move back and forth like weary human shuttles tying threads that\nwere endlessly breaking. It is a wonder that someone has not before this\nthought to correlate literary culture with this industrial work by having the\nchildren read the beautiful story of Sisyphus. There are in Chicago, I have\nbeen told, fifteen thousand children who at an all too tender age are toiling in\nthe shops; and in the country, much of the farm life for children is but little\nbetter. Rather than this kind of industrial training, let there be open air\nand sunshine, with no labor at all, but, instead, let us have continual idleness\nand play.\nThru all this confusion in the detail of school-teaching we may be encouraged to believe that a few fundamental principles are beginning to operate\nin the direction of order. The one that I would mention, as of chief importance, isthat occupations, whether play or work, are the basis of the social\nrelation. An aggregation of human beings is by no means necessarily a\nsocial body. The only influence that can change an aggregation into a social\nunit is that which goes with occupation and industry. Formerly this was\naccomplished in the schools chiefly thru play; lately the effort is being made\nto develop and cement the social ties thru work. The question now is.\nWhat work ?\nIt would seem that the motive for constructive work must be found in the\nneeds of the home and the community at large, which to the pupils are plainly\nevident. The gap which separates the home and the community as they are\nfrom what they should be is one that in large measure must be bridged by handwork.\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nIDEA\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n597\n\nIn order to enlist the best efforts of the pupils, the scope of the work must\nbe greatly broadened. Until recently, constructive work has meant almost\nexclusively woodwork or sloyd, and, as it has been stated already, it has been\nconcerned in results outside of and beyond the pupil's interests. This has\nbeen improved by attaching less importance to technical perfection, and by\ngiving more attention to the function and purpose of the thing made. In\nthe best schools there is but little attempt to formulate a set curriculum composed of definite exercises, the work taking on more and more the color of local\nconditions. In one school observed, for example, the primary pupils spent\na part of the year in building a good-sized playhouse for the kindergarten in\nthe same school. They not only built the house, but also made toy furniture;\nthey decorated the walls with materials selected by themselves and according\nto designs of their own. They painted the outside to suit their own taste,\nand in doing all of this they felt the pleasure and received the reward that\ncome to those who help others more helpless than themselves, and they also\ngot a few fundamental ideas of a practical character on the subject of homemaking. This involved constructive work of many different kinds, and the\nvalue of each was many times enhanced by the unifying idea which made them\nall necessary. This is vastly different from the plan pursued in the earlier\nstages of manual training, where the pupil worked thru a set of exercises upon\nan entirely false interpretation of the principle, ''from the simple to the\ncomplex.\"\nIn the upper grades there is no reason why the pupils should not work\nupon repairs and other matters needed about the school and home, under the\ndirection of the teacher. The value and usefulness of such work make a\ndirect appeal, and the result can be measured in the usual terms employed\nin everyday life.\nAnother most valuable form of constructive work is sewing, which is especially appropriate for the girls. At the graduation of the pupils from the\nJewish Training School in Chicago, of which Mr. O. J. MiUiken is principal,\nthe girls, some eighteen in number, wore dresses which had been measured,\ncut, and made by themselves, each pupil making her own. More than this,\neach girl by helping in the school lunch-room had earned the money with\nwhich the dress had been purchased. By every test that we can apply to\nvalues in human life, as to attainment, culture, and ideals, this work was far\nbetter for these eighth-grade pupils than any amount of the usual graduation\nessay-writing which we commonly find on such occasions. The children\nshould be taught to sew by sewing from the beginning something which is\nworth wearing, something which the child can appreciate thru its actual\nworth as a made product.\nA third division of constructive work which has much of promise in it is\nclay-modeling. This is especially true when the products are either finally\ncast in plaster or burned in a kiln. An outfit for simple, effective, and useful\nwork in pottery is not very expensive, and when once in operation it opens up\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": null, "text": "598\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\na new world of artistic constructive work that is fascinating to the pupils.\nIt fascinates because, by means of it, each sees how he can make a direct\ncontribution to the artistic life of home and school. It is an exceedingly\nsimple and direct means of expression. The plasticity of clay lends itself\nreadily wherever the question of form either for use or beauty is involved.\nIn plaster, or when glazed and burned, the products become permanent — a\nfact which adds immensely to the value of any form of expression. The\nresult may take the form of a plaque or panel designed for some space needing\na special decorative piece; or it may represent a graphic shape and incident\nin history; or as a vase it may represent the pupil's idea of the human form.\nIn all of these directions it makes a demand for initiative that places it at once\nin the front rank as a means to mental growth.\nAnother Hne of construction which lends powerful support to much school\nwork of other kinds is that of printing from types. I have in mind a beautiful\npiece of work that was done in the Francis W. Parker School by Mr. Merrill,\nthe teacher In German. The pupils read a German story, and afterward\ndramatized it. The play was set up in type, printed, and beautifully bound.\nThe final form of the result was valuable because it was useful, beautiful, and\npermanent. It involved initiative, thought, and skill on the part of the pupils,\nand it therefore afforded discipline of the highest type, without there being\nany sacrifice of time and energy to empty drill. This work was none the less\ninteresting from the fact that when the teacher began he was without definite\nknowledge as to the methods and processes involved. The teacher and pupils\nworked it out together.\nAnother field that offers almost unlimited opportunity for constructive\nactivity is that of cooking. Children from the lowest grade up may and do\ntake part in this with the greatest pleasure and profit. In connection with\na well-kept garden it is an original source of instruction that is most valuable.\nIt yields products whose value bears a direct and a very evident relation to\nthe knowledge the pupil possesses and can acquire. The younger children\ntake part in much of actual cooking; in preserving fruits by various methods;\nin making jeUies and in arranging these for immediate use on the table; they\ncan assist at serving at the table and in many ways contribute to the social\nwelfare of their classmates and parents. The older pupils look farther into\nthe deeper scientific meaning of the work. Experiments in chemistry and\nphysics are needed, and these call for an increasing delicacy and dexterity\nin manipulation that make this subject from the constructive side alone rank\nsecond to none among those that have been mentioned. A thoro and scientific\nknowledge of this subject, perhaps more than any other, is needed in every\nhome. Upon no other one thing does our well-being — physical, mental, and\nmoral — so closely depend as it does upon wholesome, well-prepared, wellserved, and properly eaten food. That the people should for a much longer\ntime treat this occupation as a side issue in education seems to be incredible.\nThere should be a sharp line drawn between the class of constructive work\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCONSTRUCTIVE\n\nIDEA\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n599\n\njust described and a large amount of hand-work that springs from another\nmotive. In working out the culture-epoch theory as it is commonly applied,\nthe children are now allowed to do a large amount of hand- work representing\ndifferent aspects of the primitive industry and activity. This is of a distinctly\nlower type, since it is always in accord with a pattern of some sort that has\nbeen derived from pictures, descriptions, or other historical sources. When\na child builds the model of an igloo used by an Eskimo or the model of a wigwam; or when he builds a rude brick oven in which he bakes potatoes; or when\nhe reproduces a vase in clay, or some form of wood or wicker ware once used\nby primitive peoples, he is employing a direct form of expression that is invaluable in enabling him to imagine the lives of earlier peoples, and he is getting\ndirectly some notions of the conditions that surrounded them. These lessons\nand such construction are purely illustrative, and they are valuable because\nthey do something toward enhancing indirectly the pupil's appreciation of\nhis own life and its conditions. But they are to be classed with the so-called\nexperimental work in science which is done for the purpose of illustration or\nto verify the work of others. It is a mistake to claim that such work has much\nof original value. To be sure, it must not be lightly treated. But it is absurd\nto suppose that the pupil is discovering anything in particular when he is\ndoing it. When the children build wigwams, \"long houses,\" and similar\nstructures, they are not working out original primitive instincts; they are\nmerely trying to illustrate in a rather faint way, and in play, that which they\nhave been told in a story. Such exercises involve the constructive idea, and\nto the limits which we encourage play in children they should be encouraged.\nBut they never should, and they never can, be ranked with the constructive\nwork already described, which leads to a product that is valuable, because\nit is useful and beautiful. The fact is that the primitive instincts of childhood\nwork themselves out independent of the materials employed. The actual\nneed is that they be given freer opportunity to treat thru play, and work\nin their own primitive and original way the material that is normal to their\nsurroundings. They will, thus be enabled to go farther and do better, because\nwhat they plan and do wilf be aided by what they can see. They will not be\nwholly dependent upon what they have read or have been told. Thus the\nprimitive instincts will work themselves out more fully thru a playhouse made\nof an old store box which can be fitted up along the lines of a modern dwelling,\nthan they will thru a wigwam which they try to construct after a description\nor picture. The vital thing to be looked after is the primitive instinct itself,\nnot the material which some primitive people have used or the plans of living\nthey may have followed.\nTo sum up, it would seem that the constructive idea tends to work itself\nout with children in two ways: (i) it includes such work as bears at once upon\nthe present social and economic conditions, and it deals with materials derived\nfrom the child's own surroundings; and (2) it appears, in play mainly, in an\nattempt to illustrate stories that they read or that they have been told. It is\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": null, "text": "600\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nnot the intention to set one of these over against the other; each has its place,\nwhich should be duly recognized by the teacher and properly provided for.\nThere is a tendency now, however, to carry the work under the last head too\nfar along in the grades. It is childish, embryonic, and quickly over with. In\nthe latter division one must put much of the work that is so popular with\nunthinking teachers. Under this head will fall much, if not all, the work\nin raffia, bent iron, basketry, mat-weaving, bead-work, and all such forms that\ndo not, and for the most part cannot, result in products whose value the pupils\nthemselves can appreciate. It is almost pathetic to see how teachers wax\nenthusiastic and eloquent over these transient and trivial aspects of the\nconstructive idea, but remain cold and indifferent to those aspects which when\nproperly worked out mean so much in every way in human life.\nThese are matters, however, which time and thought will at last properly\nadjust. The tide has turned, and the current is setting in the right direction.\nTime was when scholarship and culture were estimated in accordance with\none's knowledge of books; the time is rapidly approaching when they will be\nmeasured also by what one can do with his hands to uplift the life of man. A\ngood book is worth its influence; its writer is to be estimated in accordance\nwith what he contributes thru its pages toward the quiet and sanity of living.\nThere is no real reason why the man who makes a chair or a table or a bit of\nornament in clay or plaster which adds to thje peace and comfort of Ufe should\nnot rank in terms of power, of scholarship, and of culture with the one who\nwrites the book that does the same. The value of the output, of the product,\nin terms of human life, is the test of both, and who shall say that one is the\nlower and the other the higher? True culture, in algebraic phrase, is the\nproduct of righteous thought and action; it is the legitimate offspring of the\nbrain and the hand. Under this conception of culture, the goal of all educational effort, the constructive idea as a means of education has its place assured.\n\nMANUAL\nCARL\n\nTRAINING\n\nLIDMAN,\nOF THE SWEDISH\nLOUISIANA PURCHASE\n\nIN\n\nCOMMISSION,\nEXPOSITION,\n\nSWEDEN\nEDUCATION DEPARTMENT,\"\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nIt is well known that Sweden takes an important part in the movement\nwhich, directed against exclusive brain-work at school, strives to make systematically arranged manual work an important element of rational education.\nA Swedish educational sloyd system has been devised and worked out, and\nafterward adopted in many other countries, both in and out of Europe.\nBy ''Swedish educational sloyd\" is meant the system of instruction and\nthe method worked out at the Naas Slojdlarareseminarium (Naas Manual\nTraining College), where most of the Swedish male and female teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN SWEDEN\n6oi\n\nwho impart instruction in sloyd have received their training. In an address\ndelivered at this congress last Monday [see papers of the National Council],\nthe Swedish commissioner, Dr. Lagerstedt, called attention to the Naas\nManual Training College, its foundation, and its work. I will, therefore,\nexclude this and give a short account of the principles that are characteristic\nof the Swedish sloyd system, the originator of which is Mr. Otto Salomon,\nwell known also in the United States.\nThe Naas system was first mentioned in connection with its significance\nas a system for training in work, the aim of which was chiefly pedagogical and\nnot economical. The two important fundamental rules of the system stand,\nof course, in close connection with this: the rule that the instruction shall be\nmethodical, i. e., be given in a methodical way — this in contrast with the plan\nformerly employed of allowing exterior contingencies to deterimne what should\nbe executed by the pupil ; and the rule that the instruction should be given by\na pedagogically trained person, and not by the first artisan who offered himself.\nAccording to the Naas system, instruction in sloyd shall constitute a factor\nin general education, and not be a direct training for any special handicraft.\nIts purpose is: to awaken an interest in, and a respect for, manual labor; to\naccustom the pupil to habits of order, exactness, attention, and perseverance;\nto develop in him dexterity, promptitude, judgment, and skill; to train his eye\nto discern and his hand to execute; to develop a sense of form and taste; to\nstrengthen his physical powers.\nOther important fundamental principles are: that the instruction should\nbe voluntary, not compulsory; that useful objects, and not articles of luxury,\nshould be made ; that the articles made should become the property of the children, and not be sold for the benefit of the school; that the work should be\ncarefully executed, and not carelessly done ; and that the work should be carried\nout with the body kept in a good position. It may perhaps seem that all these\nrequirements are self-evident and scarcely worth mentioning. But they and\nseveral others have first been adopted as parts of a connected whole, in the\nNaas system, and each of them has had to strive hard in order to gain any\ngreat degree of general recognition.\nConcerning the Naas method, its chief characteristic is that, in contrast\nwith many other methods in the sphere of instruction in manual labor, it does\nnot build upon practicing abstract exercises — sawing, planing, the use of the\nchisel, etc., etc. — but upon the making of concrete objects which can be used\nin daily life, and which hold good when viewed from an aesthetical standpoint.\nA series of models is used as a guide in construction; this series again being\nbased upon a series of about seventy exercises. As a result of the series of\nmodels being based upon exercises, any one model can he exchanged for\nanother which may be more suitable to the place where the instruction is given.\nThus, in the matter of instruction in sloyd, the Naas system has endeavored\nto apply the didactic rules of proceeding from the easy to the more difficult,\nfrom the simple to the more complex, from the concrete to the more abstract.\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAs patterns the Naas method employs either models only, or both models and\ndrawings, or drawings exclusively. Among the models there are many which\nare termed ''modeling models,\" which are of great importance for the development of the eye and the sense of form. Special weight is laid upon the use of\nthe knife, which, according to the Naas system, should be the fundamental tool.\nSloyd instruction in accordance with the Naas system is taught chiefly to\nboys from ten to fourteen years of age, and that is the reason why at Naas the\nsloyd instruction has been limited to sloyd carpentry, as being the most suitable for boys of that age. But, as may be seen from the Swedish school\nexhibit, there are two other kinds of sloyd that have been introduced into\nseveral schools — for instance, the Stockholm common schools — namely, cardboard sloyd and metal sloyd; but these also have the same purpose, and are\narranged in accordance with the same system as the one exhibited by the\nNaas series of models.\nThe Swedish school exhibit contains also a series of models in manual\nwork for girls, or, as we call it also in this case, sloyd; and this is the reason\nwhy I think it proper to make a few remarks in regard to this girls' sloyd.\nInstruction in girls' sloyd is not compulsory in the schools of Sweden. A\nsubvention from the state was first obtained for girls' sloyd in 1897, the boys'\nsloyd having enjoyed that advantage already some twenty years earlier. Girls'\nsloyd has, nevertheless, been kept going, and during the last two decades it\nhas even succeeded in acquiring a place in the curriculum of many schools\nwhere this subject was previously wanting.\nThe cause of this is that we begin more and more to see the importance of\nmanual work of different kinds as a means of education. In connection with\nthis the necessity has arisen of having a system for the subject in question.\nSuch a system existed already in Germany; viz., the so-called \" Schallenfeldt\nmethod.\" In the beginning of the eighties this method was introduced into\nSweden, but it was soon found to be less suitable to our conditions. The\nquestion then was to work out of this method a Swedish method of our own.\nAn attempt in this direction is the \"Stockholm method\" (common-school\nmethod), planned by Miss Hulda Lundin, superintendent of girls' sloyd in\nStockholm, which has been introduced extensively both into our training\ncolleges and into the secondary schools for girls.\nThe aim of the instruction in girls' sloyd, according to the above-named\nmethod, is to exercise hand and eye; to quicken the power of thought; to\nstrengthen love of order; to develop self-activity; to inspire respect for carefully\nand intelHgently executed work; and at the same time to prepare girls for the\nexecution of their domestic duties.\nThe solution of this problem is in no wise easy, but the experience of years\nhas taught us that it can be obtained by applying the following principles :\nI. The instruction should be given as much as possible by practical\ndemonstration of the subject. In sewing it is accomplished by a sewing-frame,\nand in knitting by means of large wooden needles, and balls of thick, colored\nyarn.\nAt the same time blackboard drawings are constantly being used.\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n603\n\n2. The exercises should be planned and carried out in the most strictly progressive order, so as to enable the pupils to execute well the work required of them.\n3. When the pupils enter upon a new phase of work the instruction should\nbe given to the whole class collectively; otherwise the time which the teacher\ncould devote to each pupil separately would be insufficient for thoro instruction.\nAccording to this method the instruction should comprise knitting, plain\nneedlework, darning, mending, marking, tracing pattern designs, cutting out\nunderclothing and other garments.\nWhat has now been said with regard to girls' sloyd is intended to show that\nthe teacher has not only to instruct, but to educate her pupils; and besides\ntechnical ability she should also possess pedagogical skill.\nThere is no longer any lack of efficient teachers. Instruction in sloyd, as\nabove mentioned, has already been introduced into our training colleges for\nfemale teachers. Besides this, of late years a number of courses have been\ngiven for training teachers in methodical instruction in sloyd. During 18821903 more than one thousand teachers have been trained in girls' sloyd by\nHulda Lundin's course.\nThe instruction in needlework in the secondary schools for girls aims at\ngiving the pupils technical skill in plain needlework, knitting, hemstitching,\nembroidery, patching, darning, marking, etc. The different kinds of stitches\nare introduced in series, increasing gradually in difficulty.\nIn some schools a course of plain dressmaking is also given. Besides, the\npupils in most secondary schools have the opportunity of learning art embroidery, as during the autumn term they are allowed to do different kinds of fancy\nwork, special consideration being given to the development of their sense of\ncolor and of beauty. Swedish patterns and national needlework are chiefly\nchosen for this purpose.\nFrom what I have now said it may be seen that the Swedish sloyd system\nis based on certain general principles and not necessarily connected with any\nspecial series of models.\nDirector Salomon says very truly:\nRemember that you can work according to our system without using one of our\nmodels, and that it is possible to use our models and still not follow our system. We must\nnot forget that the letter of the law killeth, but that the spirit giveth life.\n\nREPORTS\nI.\n\nMISS\n\nON WORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\nPOSSIBILITIES OF ART IN CONNECTION WITH HAND-WORK,\nSHOWN BY EXHIBITS FROM THE TEACHERS COLLEGE,\nNEW YORK CITY\nMARY\n\nB. HYDE,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\nIN MANUAL\nTRAINING, TEACHERS'\nUNIVERSITY,\nNEW\nYORK\nCITY\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nAS\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nA few years ago the term \"manual training\" seemed a very narrow one, particularly\nto those more directly interested in other fields of work. Nevertheless, today the manual\nelement in school work is recognized, by those who have given it careful consideration, as\nan essential factor in the all-around development of the individual.\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": null, "text": "604\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nWe all agree to the thought that both school and home training is primarily to fit one\nfor life, the better to cope with problems that arise each day; but is not our struggle as teachers, after all, for simplicity in living ?\nThe teaching of handicraft extends far out into the fields of life. In studying materials\nand processes it touches the industrial world, and the social thru appreciation of labor.\nDoes it not occur to us frequently that we are surrounded by too many things, both\nin our homes and school buildings, which have the tendency to make life complex ? Let\neach of us Hve up to his belief that to have a few good things about one tends to enrich life,\nrather than to be surrounded by the many of mediocre value.\nSo many ask the question: \"How shall we know the good thing when we see it?\"\nI believe that to have struggled for the most perfect results in making some article gives one\nthe power to judge as to whether a thing is truly good; also judging one's own work by that\nof others. Love for beauty comes with knowledge; and truest appreciation is gained thru\nexpressing one's thoughts in some medium that lends itself to most careful manipulation,\nwhere construction, form, and color have to be considered. Can we not live up to the\nideal so appropriately expressed by William Morris: \"Let us make only those things we\nknow to be useful and believe to be beautiful}''\nWhen in the hands of one person rests the teaching of both design and execution (I\nspeak of design in the broadest sense of the word), the responsibility is great; yet I believe\nthe two ought not to be separated.\nAt the college last year the course of study in handicraft was planned with the thought\nin mind that more could be gained by a study and application of natural and rather crude\nmaterials, gradually introducing those prepared and more refined. In this way the\nlimitations of one and possibilities in others were emphasized, and the fact that materials\nmust be suited to the objects made. This year a different course of procedure seemed\nadvisable in adjusting plans for a design to precede each article made, which necessitates\nthe introduction of one art principle after the other, working with paper, cardboard, raffia,\nwools, cord, clay, iron, and wood.\nThere is indeed a means of expression in whatever medium we work, but paper and\ncardboard seem to lend themselves most naturally to some of the first principles in proportion and design in general. Two principles that meet us everywhere are those of carefully\nconsidered proportion and harmony in color combinations. From this point it is possible\nto get a little footing by applying the designs made to books, blotter backs, portfolios,\nboxes, etc., before taking up problems in weaving of rugs or blankets, where combinations\nin color have to be more carefully considered and the lesson learned that only a well-cut\nspace will produce harmony.\nIn some problems in weaving, where the color in warp and woof threads is varied, the\ncutting of a space unsymmetrically gives one a chance to work out a plaid or checked\ndesign. In designs for baskets form as well as color has to be considered, and with some\nfree-hand cutting as a preliminary the students seem to be able to work out a fairly good\nform, altho the difficulties to overcome in using materials not yet handled to any extent are\nalmost too great to express what is desired. To be sure, the American Indian woman has\noftentimes succeeded in producing beautiful forms in her baskets, has used harmonious\ncolors, and worked out exquisite designs, but all unconscious of their beauty; while we are\nworking for the truest appreciation of beauty.\nIn connection with sewing: The first problem taken up is the sampler, on which are\nworked fundamental stitches and those evolved from them; then they are applied to a few\narticles such as needle-books, cushions, and bags. Simple border designs are readily carried out by the use of outHne or cross-stitch on pin cushions and needle-books, while monograms composed of many straight lines and few curved seem well adapted to bags of various\nkinds; and again color plays an important part in the choice of materials used. Sofa\npillows with a stencil pattern washed on with water-colors illustrate harmony in two tones\nof one color.\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n605\n\nPottery gives one a chance to study }orm as does nothing else in the course; and\npossibly it ought to precede basket-making another year in consideration of this point. I\nfeel that in no more definite way can one gain a truer appreciation of beauty in the subtile,\ncurved line; for with clay there is no possibility of evading what one has to express, and the\nsense of touch is developed to a marked degree. As an introduction to the making of a\nvase or bowl, a study of the arrangement of still-life objects in a given space, and reproducing the sketches in various tone-relations, gives an opportunity to make simple compositions.\nDesigns for Venetian iron can be worked out in the square, with straight hnes and\nangles; as, for instance, in the old standby — the teapot stand or lantern — making use of\nlong curved lines in bracket or hooks. Punched copper shades surprise one in the possibility to express balance in dark and light most efifectively, and color here is produced by\nburnishing and holding over a flame.\nThe problems in wood combine knife- with bench-work. Designs for boxes, frames,\ncalendar backs, etc., lead one to consider the construction side first of all; then the most\nsimple decoration possible, perhaps only straight lines, helps one to appreciate that the\nuse to which an article is to be put determines its character. We find stains' or watercolors enhance the value of wood if colors suggestive of wood are used, and kept near in\nvalue when two tones are combined.\nThe art element in manual training should be the one to make it live. Where better\ncan we apply the principles : beauty in line, balance in dark and light, harmony in color ?\nIs there not a great opportunity for one to help the cause in construction and applied\ndesign if one but feels satisfied with simple refinement ?\nDo you say that, after all, it is the most difficult to express ? We often hear one speak\nof ''art and hand-work;\" let us rather say \"art in hand-work.\" I believe that if teachers\ndo their part understandingly we shall have a public that will learn to appreciate the good\nor beautiful, and scorn the poorly made article.\n\nII.\n\nREPORT\nLOUIS\n\nA.\n\nON WORK IN MANUAL TRAINING SHOWN\nEXHIBITS FROM INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nBACON,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nINDIANAPOLIS,\n\nBY THE\nIND.\n\nFrom a study of the exhibits it appears that something is being done, but much may yet\nbe done, on the art side of manual training. It may be well to consider for a moment why\nthis side of the manual-training work has heretofore received so little attention.\nThe first reason for this, I believe, is to be found in the history of the movement.\nManual training in its inception laid special stress upon the process side of the work.\nThe careful technical manipulation of the tools involved has been thought to constitute\nthe educational value of the work. It was not until later that the product was given consideration. And then it was merely of secondary importance, so that naturally an artistic\nresult was Httle sought for.\nThe second reason for this divorce between art and manual training may be found in\na characteristic of the American people — the lack of an art appreciation among the masses\nof the people. It may be that such a spirit of commercialism and industrialism so pervades\nour national life that utility is paramount, and there is little time for the consideration of\nbeauty.\nCertain it is that, as a whole, we are not an art-loving, art-living people.\nMr. Fenellosa tells of an incident that illustrates how different are the common people\nof Japan. He and his wife were travehng in that country, and were obliged to wait several\nhours at a small station for a connection. While sitting on the platform watching the sunset\nacross the rice fields that stretched away in the distance, a freight train pulled up on the\ntrack in front of them.\nMr. Fenellosa, who speaks Japanese fluently, spoke to the engin-\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o6\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\neer, told him how they had been enjoying the beautiful sunset, and asked him if he could\nmove his train a Httle so that they could see. The engineer, instead of replying as we can\nimagine an American engineer would do, was much pleased and backed his train a matter\nof thirty yards that they might better enjoy the beauties of that Japanese sunset. Is the\ncontrast not a striking one ?\nThat there is a responsibihty upon us for the development of a more genuine appreciation ofart in this country seems sure.\nFew families comparatively are able to have good paintings or pieces of sculpture in\ntheir homes. The poorer classes must be content with articles of household use. But\nhow inartistic, how absolutely ugly, are most of these articles at present ! And this is not\nbecause furniture of good design is more expensive. Good artistic furniture can be made\nby machinery. It is a fallacy to believe that all machine-made furniture is poor. The\nreason we do not have better, more artistic furniture is because the public does not\ndemand it.\nIt becomes our duty, as teachers, to educate the public taste in this regard, and in no\nway can it be done to better advantage than thru the influence of the manual-training\nwork.\nIn a similar way, teachers and supervisors of sewing have a mission to perform. Not\nonly can they influence choice in the color and combinations of materials and the decorations employed, but they can have an influence in the manufacture of the materials that\nthey be good in workmanship, in color, and in. design.\nIn both sewing and cooking the economics of the subject should be given careful\nattention.\nThere is a wide field here for usefulness for manual-training teachers.\nSince the introduction of sewing into the colored schools of Indianapohs, the pupils\nshow a marked difference in personal appearance. In some cases the change was so\napparent as to cause comment by both teachers and parents.\nAnother side of the work I wish to touch upon. We will call it the side of the \"varied\nindustries.\" By that I mean manual-training work that does not confine itself to any one\nparticular line of work in any one grade — wood-working, for example. There should be\nvariety and flexibility in the work, and a choice of different materials. This is possible,\nand even necessary, in a plan of work which embraces healthy correlative problems — problems that enrich and make clear the work of the school. There was made, for example, in\nthe seventh grade in one school this year a small mediaeval castle. The pupils were reading\nIvanhoe and studying the history of the period: the hfe of the baron, his means of offense\nand defense; and a small castle of concrete was built by the manual-training class. To\nbegin with, there was the moat, which necessitated two drawbridges, one for the horsemen and the other for the foot passengers. Inside the entrance was the portculHs or iron\ngate which could be lowered for security or dropped on an advancing foe. Beyond this\ninclosure was the castle proper. A tower at one place served as a watchtower, and also\ngave the baron and his family a place of security for the night. The battlements were not\nforgotten, nor the dungeons beneath the tower. The roof, the drawbridges, and the working parts were of wood, while the walls, floors, etc., were of concrete (sand and cement).\nThe walls themselves were about two inches thick. In this way the children became\nacquainted not only with the life and customs of the people of that period, their pieans of\nwarfare, their architecture, etc., but with the field of concrete construction which is so much\niised at the present time. Indeed, the whole field of industry opens up such a wide opportunity for experiment and investigation that the possibilities for manual-training work are\npractically unlimited.\nThe manual-training shop should be a laboratory where the children should have an\nopportunity to become acquainted with those facts and forces which are making for our\nindustrial progress as a world-power.\nFrom these two points of view, the arts and the varied industries, I would have you\nespecially consider the Indianapohs exhibit.\nOn the art side of the work the use of color\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n607\n\nin the finish of the pieces is suggestive. The design of the outUne of the piece and the\ndecoration, hmited usually to a simple grooved line, all give interesting problems in art;\nand altho there is much room for improvement, a beginning on this side has been made.\nOn the other side, that of the varied industries, of which the castle and the iron bridge are\ntypes, the field is so broad, and so little explored as yet, that scarcely a beginning has been\nmade. But that there are great opportunities here seems certain. The next few years\nought to show marked advance along both of these lines in the manual-training work in this\ncountry.\nIII.\n\nREPORT\nMISS\n\nELLA\n\nON\nV.\n\nWORK\n\nDOBBS,\n\nAS SHOWN BY EXHIBITS\nCOAST\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF MANUAL\n\nTRAINING,\n\nFROM\nHELENA,\n\nPACIFIC\nMONT.\n\nCertain fortune-tellers finish their prophecies with \"what you do expect, what you\ndon't expect, and what is sure to occur.\" In preparing this report my thoughts have followed a somewhat similar division, namely, \"what we have done, what we have not done,\nand some things we must do.\" It would be sufl&cient, perhaps, if I were to speak of our\nachievements only, but I believe true progress is attained only thru a careful consideration\nof our failures, with their causes, and an earnest effort to strengthen every weak point.\nYou will pardon me, therefore, if I emphasize the second point.\nIn considering what we had done, the exhibits speak for themselves, tho they do not\nalways give a correct impression of the real situation. A small school by great effort may\nmake a fine display. Another, content with reputation already gained, fails to reach its\nusual standard.\nCalifornia's exhibit is very disappointing, many schools not being represented at all.\nSome good work is shown, but not suflacient to give a correct idea of the extent of the\nwork in this great state. Colorado makes by far the best showing of the Pacific states.\nWe have yet much to learn in the matter of school exhibits. To be of real value to the\neducator, the age and grade of the worker must be considered. These items are frequently\nomitted, especially in the displays of basketry.\nAn intense wave of interest in this brand of hand-work during the last few years has\ncaused it to be introduced more generally than any other form of work, and in all grades\nfrom kindergarten to high school. The fact that the first attempts of the youngest workers compare very favorably with the first efforts of the older ones seems to indicate that\nthis work is best suited to the lower grades. Los Angeles exhibits a fine collection of raffia\nbaskets, from first- and second-grade children, in which the workmanship compares favorably with that of older pupils.\nOutside of California and Colorado, manual training is yet in its infancy. Arizona,\nNew Mexico, Montana, Oregon, Utah, and Idaho exhibit a little work, mostly of good\nquality. In nearly every case, however, it comes from one or two schools only. The\nprospect for the future is bright, and many new departments for hand-work will be\nopened this fall.\nProminent among the things we have failed to do is the lack of definite purpose and\ncontinuity in our course of study. The situation is an inevitable stage in the progress of a\nnew idea which must be experimented upon. Like all new ideas, hand-work as an element\nin education has had a varied career. It has grown sometimes from the kindergarten up,\nsometimes from the high school down; with corresponding differences in application and\nmethods. While the leaders in either case are able to prove their theories by results, the\nfollowers are apt to fall short of the mark, and much of our work is of the haphazard\norder.\nExamples of the simplest forms of basketry are shown from every grade below the\nhigh school, while some quite difficult constructions in wood and cardboard have been\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": null, "text": "6o8\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nattempted even in the kindergarten. Removal from one town to another should not affect a\nchild's ha-nd-work any more than his arithmetic or geography.\nThe world is calling more and more insistently for men who can do something well.\nThe criticism of our schools most frequently heard from parents is that we teach a little\nof many things and nothing thoroly; that the common schools do not fit one for practical\nlife; and, because many have received the most practical part of their education outside\nthe school house, an unhappy idea is gaining ground that higher education is a waste of\ntime.\nClosely related to the lack of definite purpose is the lack of close relationship between\nthe hand-work and the head-work. The novelty of the idea together with the joy of\ncreation is sufficient to hold the interest of the pupils, and good results are bound to follow.\nBut without doubt these good results would be greatly increased if the teachers of both\nlines were not only in full sympathy, but were seeking thru definite plans and hearty\nco-operation to accomplish the same definite purpose.\nAt first workers in the new field felt too uncertain of themselves to stray far from the\nbeaten track, lest by a misstep they lose ground to their opponents who were waiting to\nsee the fad die. The necessity of a broader interpretation of the idea impressed itself upon\nmany who have attempted to meet the need in various ways, and an artificial correlation\nhas been effected by making apparatus for use in other lines, by illustrating the book\nlessons, by giving the pupil his head, as it were, and allowing him to work out his own\nidea. These plans work well enough under certain conditions, but may result in dismal\nfailure. The thing desired is often beyond the pupil's abihty, and poor workmanship\nresults, or the process is long drawn out and interest is lost.\nSo long as manual training is regarded as a \"special\" subject — a sort of adjunct to\nthe so-called regular work — any attempt at close correlation will be to some degree unsatisfactory. believe\nI\nthe keynote has been struck by some of our recent writers in the suggestion that the hand-work be made the central thought in our course of study, and the\nhead-work be such as grows naturally from it. If we begin with what the pupil can do\nand do well, we shall find no lack of interesting material growing from it to occupy his mind.\nI believe I would go one step farther and demand that, while we make hand-work the central\nfeature in our plans, we shall not only choose projects which are in accord with the interests of the young workers, but the material used shall be so suited to their constructive\nabihty that it will be possible for them to do good work from the beginning — such that we\nmay say in commending, \"It is good;\" not, \"It is good for a little boy.\"\nIn the days when more hand-work was done in the home each member of the family\nhad his part to do, and felt the necessity of performing it well. The younger children did\nthe simpler things, but their work must be as well done as the rest, and they early learned\nthat what was done at all must be well done. I am inclined to the opinion that as much,\nif not more, lasting benefit will be received by the pupil who learns a few things thoroly,\nwho can do a few things well, who has never learned to slight any work, as will come thru\na broader horizon less perfectly understood. In the variety of materials at hand today it\nis certainly possible to find some work which can be well done even by kindergartners.\nAmong the problems we must solve, one of external and one of internal import are\npressing upon us. From without comes the question of more general diffusion of the\nmanual-training idea, especially in the smaller towns. In view of the rapid increase in the\nnumber of manual-training schools and their general popularity, this may not seem much\nof a problem, but its magnitude is easily appreciated if we compare the number of schools\nhaving a manual-training department with those having none.\nIdaho reports: \"Practically no manual training in this state outside a few government\ninstitutions.\" Nevada reports: \"Nothing, except a very complete course in the State\nUniversity.\"\nThere are vast sections in which, outside a few larger cities, practically nothing is\nknown of our work.\nThis seems true of East and West aHke.\nOnly a few weeks since, a\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\n609\n\nHelena mother called to watch her son at work. She said : \" This sort of work is not common\nback east, is it? I wrote to some friends in\" — I think the place was Chicago — \"that\nCharles was going to sloyd and making such fine things, and they wrote back: 'Who is\nthis Mr. Sloyd from whom Charles is learning so much ?' \"\nNot only are many people not awake to the fact that manual training exists as a\ndefinite part of school work, but a vastly greater number have a very meager conception\nof its real meaning or value. One feature or another is emphasized in different minds, and\nit is variously regarded as a recreation hour; a sort of fancy work; a chance to learn something practical which may mean dollars and cents by and by; a time to make anything\ngreat or small suggested by the mama at home or the teacher at school; something to be\ndone or left undone at the whim of the pupil or parent; one of the many extravagant\nexperiments in which teachers love to indulge at the expense of the taxpayer. By an\never-increasing minority it is given its true place as an essential element in education. In\nthe solution of this problem the normal school is a potent factor, and we should not consider our days of missionary work ended until every normal school shall not only require\na course in manual training, but shall regard it as of the same importance as arithmetic\nor language.\nIf I have described the situation correctly, and our weak points are lack of definite\npurpose in our methods and close correlation with other elements in education, then our\ngreat effort should be to evolve a system which shall begin somewhere and end somewhere,\nand stand for something when completed; which shall have some vital connection with\nthe rest of school work and with life outside of school. I use the word \" system \" advisedly;\nit has been much abused; but without systematic efforf we shall accomplish Uttle of real\nvalue.\nIt is not the province of this report to discuss methods, but a few suggestions may not\nbe out of place.\nSome of us believe, with good logic to support the belief, that by selecting certain\nfundamental principles which enter into every department of life, and presenting them in\nlogical order one by one, allowing the pupil time to become master of each, we shall lay a\nfoundation so firm and strong that he may build upon it any superstructure which his\nlater interests may dictate.\nSome of us believe, with equally strong arguments back of the belief, that we shall\nbest succeed by helping the pupil to find himself; that, by directing his natural interests\nand stimulating his creative instinct, we shall find what is his bent and assist him to make\nthe most of his powers.\nI said these two extreme positions were backed by equally strong arguments. If this\nbe true, shall we not find a safe walk midway between them ? The monotonous similarity\nin the array of flower-sticks and plant-stands in numerous exhibits from Maine to California, together with frequent questions, such as, \"Have I got to make a wedge ?\" \"What\nshall I do with this when it is finished ?\" show the weak point in one plan.\nUpon the definition of \"interests\" hangs the secret of the other. If by \"child's\ninterests\" we mean the things which have most to do with his welfare now and in the near\nfuture, it is one thing.\nIf we mean the things he likes or dislikes, it is quite another.\nWhile we acknowledge the value of making the work interesting in the common\nacceptance of the term, we must admit that there is sometimes great gain to the worker\nwho does an uninteresting thing well because it is right.\nWhile we emphasize the value of developing the creative instinct, is it not well to remember that where one is born with the qualities of leadership, there are apt to be at least ten\nwho will do well if they make good followers ?\nIs there not sometimes as great benefit to be derived by the pupil from attempting to\nfollow the excellent example of his teacher as set forth in an accurate piece of work — call\nit model, if you will — as he receives from working out his own ideas in a crude way ?\nIs it- not possible to build a course of study in manual training which shall cover a\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": null, "text": "6lO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nmost definite series of fundamental principles, which shall retain the best of the many\ngood things comprehended in the term \"sloyd,\" and at the same time be so flexible that it\nwill allow full play for the creative powers of the ingenious boy, awaken and develop a\ntrue sense of art, hold in check the impulses of him whose interest is here today and there\ntomorrow, while it secures at least mechanical proficiency from him whose creative instincts\nlie too deep for expression ?\n\nIV.\n\nREPORT\n\nON THE NEW YORK CITY EXHIBITION OF WORK\nDJiAWING, CONSTRUCTION, AND DESIGN\n\nCLARENCE\n\nA. MELENEY,\n\nASSOCIATE CITY SUPERINTENDENT\nNEW\nYORK CITY\n\nIN\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nThe exhibition comprises work in free-hand and illustrative drawing, in applied\ndesign, elementary construction work in raffia, cord, weaving, sewing, basketry, cardboard, and wood. The work of the first six years is done in the class-rooms by boys and\ngirls, and the wood-work by boys in the school shops during the last two years. During the\nseventh and eighth years the girls have advanced sewing or cooking.\nThe manual work is under the direction of directors and deputies in the several subjects. Each deputy is assigned to a school district in which there are two hundred or more\nclass teachers. The work in the class-rooms is done by the regular class teachers, and\nthe cooking by special teachers.\nThe exhibition contains drawing, and construction work from all grades of the high\nand elementary day schools, from the evening schools and from the vacation schools.\nThe work exhibited will be found in cases containing swinging frames, and in portfolios,\nwhile the models in cardboard and wood are on the shelves. The wall cases are arranged to\nillustrate the eight-year course of study. The first frame in each case shows the printed\ncourse of study for the year, with a syllabus in detail; then follow photographs of children\nat work. There are thirty pages of selected specimens of class work, arranged in sequence\nof subjects. The first ten pages show drawings of familiar objects; the second ten pages\nshow, for the lower grades, illustrative drawings, and for the higher grades drawings of\nplant forms. In each case the last ten leaves are covered with models illustrating the course\nin construction and appUed design.\nThe work of the different boroughs of the city is not differentiated, all contributing\nspecimens to each grade. The work shown is characteristic of that done under all the\ndirectors.\nIn the portfolios will be found illustrations of the course of study by subjects, one\nillustrating the work of the several years in plant-form drawing, another illustrative\ndrawing, another design, and so forth. The index indicates the borough contributing\nthe work. In the cases and upon the shelves will be found the constructive exercises.\nMost of the cardboard models are covered with cartridge paper or book Unen, and decorated by water-colors. Scrapbooks made by pupils are also shown. Some of the woodwork represents the exercises done in the shops, and some in the class-rooms illustrating\nthe co-ordination of the work in working drawings, construction, and design. Some are\nspecimens of \"communal\" exercises made in the shops, by groups of pupils in the seventh\nand eighth grades, devised by the shop-teacher in consultation with the science teacher, and\nillustrating common mechanical powers, or machines, or illustrative apparatus to be used\nin connection with science lessons.\nOther exhibits of the constructive work of the first three years are to be seen in frames\non the walls and in a number of cases and portfolios. The work exemplifies the course of\nstudy and shows the development of the hand-work growing out of the kindergarten\noccupations.\nIn the manual work of the primary grades a carefully thought out sequence consisting\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n6ii\n\nof models in cord and raffia is shown. The materials used are particularly adapted for\nmaking articles within the child's abiUty, for use in both home and school, and an opportunity isgiven to develop the creative faculty by the graded exercises. The child begins\nin the first year with the soft cord, learning to make a series of chains and knots. This\nwork does not. require too minute muscular adjustment, and teaches the children to be\nambidextrous. In the second year the raffia work is taught, and the girls begin their\nsewing on canvas, with coarse needle and worsted. In the third year some basketry is\ntaught the boys, weaving to both boys and girls, and the stitches are further developed in\nthe girls' classes. When the fourth year is reached, the girls continue their sewing, learning to draft patterns, mend, and make garments.\nThe vacation schools afford a fine opportunity for the development and extension of\nthis form of constructive work. The exercises lead to much that the children are able to\napply unaided in the making of useful articles at home, and thus acquire the habit of industry and of self-entertainment. In the vacation schools and in the playgrounds groups\nof children are organized into classes and taught these exercises by one of their own number chosen as a leader. The cases and portfolios labeled \"vacation schools\" contain much\nof this work.\nA set of decorated shop models is shown to illustrate the work of an entire class, each\nbased upon a type model, but modified in design and in decoration according to the individual idea of the pupil. The articles to be made are determined by the shop-teacher, there\nbeing no prescribed models for all schools. This idea is carried out to permit of the largest\nliberty, and to satisfy the ideas of the community in which the school is located — the\ninterest of the child being the incentive.\nThe decorated models represent the development of the theory which underlies the\ngeneral course of study in the arts. The aim of this is stated in the introduction to the\nsyllabus of the course to be \" a development on the part of the pupil of individuahty and\noriginality in planning and execution, and of appreciation of what contributes to that\ndesirable attribute — taste;\" the arts being further taught that \"through the expression of\nhis deep-lying instincts to tell, to construct, and to decorate, the child may become conscious\nof his own powers and of their value, of his relation to his fellow, and to the world in\nwhich he lives. Things are planned and made in order that he may gain the constructive\npoint of view.\"\nEach pupil in the shops completes each term a number of simple utilitarian models\nfor practice sake, and then constructs a form from his own working drawing and decorates\nit with a design devised by him for that particular purpose. The types of the models made\nvary in each of the workshops, and the individual pupil is also permitted to determine the\nproportions of his own model within due limitations. The decorated models shown, therefore, represent an actual and not theoretical co-ordination of work in sketching, mechanical dravdng, constructive and applied design, in color and joinery. It should be noted\nin addition that, as the mechanical drawings are gotten out by the class-teacher in consultation with the shop-teacher and district supervisor, the theme enlists the co-operation of\nall three teachers to the desired end.\nIn the case of girl pupils of the upper grades a similar plan is adapted, the constructed\nforms being made in the class-room, of pasteboard covered with book linen, canvas, etc.\nAnd this principle is carefully observed in the sewing classes.\nThruout the course it is the effort to present the manual arts as a co-ordinate whole,\nand not as a series of unrelated studies. The different branches (drawing, construction,\nand design) are everywhere closely related to one another, while the exercises involving\nthem are made to rise from the interests of the child and the necessities of the class-room\nand the general curriculum. It is also the aim to present the arts as an integral part of\nthe general course, as an essential element that is in the curriculum. With this idea in\nview, the child is required to plan only those things which he is subsequently to make, and\nto design only those decorations which he is subsequently to apply.\nEach operation is\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": null, "text": "61 2\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nofifered to him as one making toward an end which he understands and recognizes. The\nknowledge he gains is always knowledge for use.\nThis plan is developed from the earliest years, the manual work being offered to the\nHttle child, not as a special subject, but as a means of expression — as a means whereby\nhe may gain the power to see accurately, to judge with discrimination, and to record the\nresults of his judgment with ease and certainty.\nBesides the emphasis upon the proper development of the work as a central element in\nthe primary curriculum, much stress is placed upon the necessity for giving the child opportunity for personal initiative and original solution, and to gain a mastery of definite occupations that shall furnish him the means, the method, and the incentive to employ time to\nadvantage. Stated in a word, the object may be said to be the development of the arts as\nan educational agent leading the pupil to think and do for himself.\n\nV.\n\nREPORT\n\nON\n\nCHARLES\n\nTHE\n\nEXHIBIT\nOF THE\nINSTITUTE\n\nBRADLEY\n\nPOLYTECHNIC\n\nA. BENNETT, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MANUAL\nBRADLEY POLYTECHNIC\nINSTITUTE,\nPEORIA,\nILL.\n\nARTS,\n\nThe exhibit of Bradley Polytechnic Institute is significant, fijrst, because Bradley\nInstitute itself is the embodiment of a new ideal that has been coming forward in educational thought during the past two decades; and, second, because the exhibit is wholly\na Bradley Institute product, and therefore expresses the spirit and character of the school\nin a marked degree.\nBradley Polytechnic Institute, founded by Mrs. Lydia Bradley, includes two schools;\nthe School of Arts and Sciences and the School of Horology. The School of Arts and\nSciences has a six-year course covering the work of the academy, or high school, and the\njunior college, or freshman and sophomore years of college work. By thus uniting the\nfirst two years of the college with those of the academy, Bradley Institute has placed\nitself in harmony with the modern university system, as distinct from the older college\nsystem. It recognizes the fact that today the work of the junior college is more like that\nof the academy than it is hke the work of the senior college. In other words, the break\nin the student's course, when it comes between the second and third college years, is less\nmarked and more rational than when it comes between the fourth year of the high school\nand the first year of the college. It has other points of interest, but it is not my purpose\nto present them now. The fact I wish to point out is that, having adopted the six-year\nplan of organization, a very rich and unified curriculum becomes possible — a curriculum\nfitting students for the professional schools and the university, or preparing them for a\nlife of usefulness in a variety of industries and occupations. With courses in the languages, Hterature, history and government, mathematics and the sciences, drawing*\nengineering shopwork, and domestic economy, Bradley Institute is especially favored in\nits facilities for helping a young man (or a young woman) to discover what he is best fitted\nfor and to start him on the road to success.\nFive groups of studies are open to a student: the sciences, engineering, classics, Hterature, and the mechanic arts. The latter has been changed recently to cover only four\nyears instead of six, thus making it a technical course of secondary-school grade in which\nis found the maximum of drawing, shopwork, and appUed science.\nThe School of Horology is a trade school for watchmakers, jewelers, engravers, and\nopticians. From this school men go directly into positions requiring a high degree of\ntechnical skill. On account of the completeness of its equipment, this school holds a\nunique position among schools of horology.\nTo make evident the character of the work done in each of the courses in these two\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORTS\n\nON\n\nWORK\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\nschools, the relation of the courses to each other, and to indicate the spirit in which the\nwork is done, was the aim in preparing the exhibit of Bradley Institute now in the Education Building. Four different means were employed in the exhibit:\n1. Charts and maps. — Two of these are of special significance — the colored chart\nof the curriculum of the School of Arts and Sciences, and the map showing the distribution\nof students who have attended the School of Horology.\n2. Wing-frame cabinets. — In these may be found photographs of buildings, classrooms, laboratories, workshops, etc., and outlines of courses arranged by departments.\nMany of these outlines are illustrated by means of photographs, notebook pages, drawings,\nor samples of written work.\n3. Cases. — These contain samples of students' work in mathematics, literature,\nlanguage, history, biology, food work, sewing, art, manual training, jewelry, engraving, etc.\n4. A hook of information. — This gives a historical sketch and many details of organization and of courses.\nThese four means of exhibiting have been unified by an installation which is harmonious in design. Each case and piece of furniture composing the installation was\ndesigned and made at the Institute. The designing was done by members of the faculty\nof the department of manual arts, and most of the pieces were made by the superintendent of buildings assisted by an ex-student. A few were made by students in their regular\nclasses. The photographs, including the enlargements, were made by both students and\nmembers of the faculty; likewise the charts and maps; while the glass-work in the screen\nis the work of a class of girls and was designed by one of their number. The metal letters\nof the sign on the rear wall are the work of a class of boys.\nAt this distance from the exhibit it is well-nigh impossible for me to give explanations\nthat will be of any material benefit to the visitor. The exhibit must be seen to be understo d. shall\nI\ntherefore close my explanations at this point.\nIn closing, however, I may be pardoned for stating, from the standpoint of manual\ntraining, what I believe this exhibit offers in the way of suggestions:\n1 . Those who are studying the problem of manual training for a general high school,\nas distinct from a manual-training high school, will find here that work in the manual\narts has become an integral part of a broad high-school curriculum, and that, in common\nwith English, mathematics, and historj;, it is required of all students — of some much, of\nothers Httle.\n2. New laboratory courses in mathematics may be found here.\n3. It offers suggestions to those who are looking for ways of making more vital the\nrelationship between art and manual training.\n4. It may encourage those who believe that in metal working there is a rich undeveloped field of manual training, especially for secondary schools.\nTo anyone who wishes to make a thoro study of the exhibit I advise that he begin\nwith the chart of the curriculum, and then follow thru the wing-frame cabinets, beginning\nwith No. I. After this has been done, he should give some attention to the larg» cases\nand the book of information. He is sure to find many defects in the exhibits; he will often\ndiscover \"what not to do;\" but he may also get a few helpful suggestions. We hope he\nwill discover what we beUeve to be a fact: that Bradley Institute has begun its career in\nharmony with that spirit of the times which seems fittingly expressed in the quotation from\nRuskin which appears on the central cabinet in the exhibit:\nLife without labor is guilt;\nLabor vdthout art is brutalit\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMANUAL-TRAINING HIGH\nSCHOOLS OR MANUAL\nING IN HIGH SCHOOLS\nCHARLES\n\nB. GILBERT,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\n[Manual Training\n\nTRAIN-\n\nCITY\n\nPostulate: The segregation of manual training in separate high schools\nmeans giving the fullest enjoyment of its advantages to the minority who\nelect to attend these schools, and entirely deprives all other secondary students\nof all manual- training instruction.\nThe proper answer to the question of the title, then, involves much more\nthan appears upon the surface. At least three fundamental educational\nquestions must be answered first. They are:\n1 . What is the purpose of manual training in secondary schools ? Is it\nexclusively educational, exclusively occupational, or has it a dual purpose ?\n2. What is the function of the state with regard to industrial or occupational training?\n3. What time, if any, should be set by school authorities when students\nmust select their future occupations, and thereafter receive definite training\nfor them, or be deprived of certain important educational advantages ?\nOf course, I shall not attempt to answer these three great questions in full,\nbut I hope to show their bearing upon the question at hand, and to show that\nour answer to that will depend upon the views we take of the other three questions; because, if the purpose of teaching manual training in secondary schools\nis purely educational, it stands to reason that it should be a co-ordinate part\nof the curriculum of all secondary schools where it appears at all. If it is\npurely occupational or industrial, then when the time has arrived in the course\nof education for the choice of an occupation and for directing all energies\ntoward that, at that time manual training should cease to be a part of the\ngeneral curriculum and should be given only to those who desire to make\nuse of it for occupational ends.\nIf the time for this choice is the end of the elementary-school course and\nthe beginning of the secondary course, the question is settled at once. Separate manual-training high schools should be maintained instead of manualtraining courses in other high schools; that is, whenever economic conditions\nrender it possible.\nIf it has both an educational and an occupational purpose, then provision\nshould be made for meeting both these ends.\nIs it one of the offices of the state definitely to equip by technical\ntraining young people for their chosen callings ? If not, and if the purpose\nof teaching manual training in secondary schools is not educational, but\noccupational, then there should be no manual training taught after the elementary school. If it is the function of the state, on the other hand, to teach\ntrades, and if the time to begin is the end of the elementary course, and if the\npurpose of teaching manual training is to lead to these trades, then, of course.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nthere should be separate schools for the subject, and their courses should be\nsufficiently enlarged to include practically all remunerative trades.\nDoes this seem like an impossible discussion of the question ? It is simply\nputting the case fairly, because the teaching of manual training is for educational or occupational ends, or both. If the first or the third, it stands to reason\nthat it should not be segregated and placed so that the majority of students\ncannot take it. If the second, then it should be so segregated.\nNow, to answer these questions, is the purpose of teaching manual training\neducational or occupational ? In the elementary grades, educational without\ndoubt. If it is educational up to the end of the grammar-school course, on\nwhat principle does it cease to be educational and become purely occupational\nat the beginning of the high school ? Is it not, indeed, one of those very subjects which especially appeal to the adolescent, bringing into his horizon that\nsense of reality from the lack of which he is apt to suffer at that time in the\nordinary school course ? This is not saying it may not also be occupational.\nSurely no one can reasonably claim that if it is a desirable subject for\neducational ends up to the age of fourteen, it ceases at that point to be a\ndesirable subject. That being the case, why should the great majority of\nhigh-school pupils who have pursued it with interest up to that point then be\ndeprived of it. For it follows necessarily that if it is segregated and taught\nonly in a single school, even in a large city like New York, only a very\nsmall minority of the high-school students can have any of it, and whatever\neducational value there is in it is consequently lost to the majority.\nSecond, at what time does it become absolutely necessary for the youth\nto select his calling, under penalty of being deprived of valuable educational\nopportunities if he does not so choose ? The answer is easy. There is no\nsuch time for all or a majority. It is purely an individual question. Some\nmust leave to go to work at a calling chosen or thrust upon them as soon as\ncompulsory-attendance laws allow, or sooner, if they can evade the officers.\nOthers must go to work at something definite for a livelihood after leaving\nthe grammar-school course. In fact, the vast majority of boys and girls\nleave before reaching the high school, as we all know. Some, a saving minority,\nare allowed by good fortune and their parents to pursue their education\nfarther and go thru the high school, and a rapidly decreasing minority thru\nthe college and university. And very many go even thru these last without\nhaving decided what definite line of work they will pursue in life. They are\ngathering knowledge to use and accumulating power.\nNow, shall the state step in at any point and say to those fortunate youth :\n\"You must give over some elements at least of the general culture which\nyou are enjoying, unless you decide now what calling you want to pursue?\"\nClearly, it is not a function of the state to determine the age at which the youth\nshall either go to work for a living or decide what he will do for a living. If\nthat is true, then on what ground can a subject which has proved to be of\ngreat educational value thru the elementary course be taken away from him\nat this point unless he chooses a calling ?\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": null, "text": "6l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nThird, is it a proper function of the state to give exclusively occupational\ntraining at all ? That is a question that I am not prepared to answer definitely\npro or con. If T should say this is the function of the state, I should be accused\nat once of rank sociaUsm; but if I were to call attention to the law schools,\nmedical schools, dental schools, and agricultural schools, sustained in practically all of our western states at public expense, tho most of them of university\ngrade, I should prove that I have good company at least in my sociaUsm.\nIndeed, if the function of education by the state is to make better citizens,\nand the abiUty to earn a good living and the wise choice of an occupation are\nfundamental to good citizenship, it is difficult to formulate a telling argument\nagainst occupational training at public expense. But suppose we make a\nconcession in this direction — we surely do not place ourselves in the class of\nthose who would give only occupational training and who would deprive\nthose not choosing an occupation of some important element of culture.\nConsequently, if manual traim'ng is an important element of culture — so\nimportant that it is worth the state's while to pay cost and to put it into\nall the elementary schools; and if it is also an especially valuable training for\nthe students during the adolescent period, ought not the facihties for its pursuit to be placed within the reach of all secondary-school students, even if we\nalso grant special facilities to those who choose some occupation to which\nmanual training leads, and who want to continue in school, and if we regard\nit as the office of the state to furnish this occupational training ?\nIs not my point clear ? It may be well to have special manual-training\nschools. It is certainly well to have thoro manual-training instruction thru\nthe secondary school for all who wish to pursue this with a view to using it\nin the work of life, but the arrangements made to meet the needs of such\nshould not ignore Ihe larger class of those who would pursue the subject for\nits cultural value. While manual training should be offered to the fullest\nextent to those students who want to pursue it thoroly and broadly, should\nit not also be offered in more limited courses to those who want to give a shorter\nportion of time to it ? Should not those boys and girls who have had an hour,\nor two hours, or three hours a week thruout the elementary school for this\nwork be allowed to devote an hour, or two hours, or three hours a week during\nthe secondary school to the same work?\nOne of the chief arguments in favor of the adoption of manual training\nin elementary schools is that it furnishes a new medium of expression, because\nit is so readily correlated with the other subjects, especially the mathematical\nand scientific. Does this cease to be true in the high school ?\nAnother strong argument generally employed for manual training in the\nelementary schools is its democratic influence, its tendency to create sympathies between those who toil with their hands and those who do not; to dignify\nmanual labor. Does this value cease when that most important of all developmental periods — the adolescent — comes in ? Can anyone advance any good\nproof that a single educational advantage which is admitted to belong to\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nthis subject during the elementary-school period ceases to belong io it for the\nsecondary period ?\nMy position, then, is that the opportunity to pursue manual training as a\ncultural study should be offered to all secondary students; that a further\nopportunity to pursue it as an occupational subject should be offered to those\nwho have determined at as early a time as that of entering the secondary\nschool that they want to make this use of it.\nIt is evident that this can be better done in the ordinary high-school building than in a special school; and of this arrangement I will speak in a moment.\nThere is one special objection to the separate manual-training school of which\nI will speak here, and whose force I recognize, altho I may advocate special\nschools in certain cases. That is, the tendency of all such institutions is to\nplace the emphasis upon the mechanical, at the expense of the intellectual,\nfeatures of the curriculum. It may be said that the special manual-training\nschool is not necessarily vocational, but the very fact that it is a special school\nalmost of necessity makes it such. The specialists who are doing the teaching,\nfrom force of habit and from uncontrollable psychological causes will put\nthe stress of their work upon those features which are specifically manual\nand will make it an occupational school. I state this practically a priori.\nAn observation of schools generally also will confirm it.\nThe manual training school needs a corrective. It needs the contact\nwith students and teachers who are more concerned with other phases of education than this in order to keep it sane and sound and wholesome, unless we\nwant it to run into the trade school pure and simple; and surely no one here\nwants that.\nThere are economic conditions also that of necessity will affect the answer\nto this question in most cities. These conditions will vary according to circumstances, chiefly, perhaps, according to the size of the city. A manualtraining school run independently is, on the face of it, a very expensive school.\nA full corps of teachers for all the subjects — mathematics, languages, sciences,\nand the rest — must be maintained and a full corps of shop instructors; and\nunless the school is a large one so that the classes can be kept full, which is\nnot the case in the smaller cities, the expense is very great. In very large\ncities, of which there are but a few, it may be that there will be students enough\nwanting to make manual training the major course of their secondary-school\nwork to justify this expense.\nNew York, Chicago, and Philadelphia, and possibly Boston, St. Louis,\nand San Francisco, with perhaps two or three other cities in the country\ncould maintain manual-training schools in which the cost per capita would\nnot be very much greater than in the ordinary high school. The cities of a\nlower grade — from 150,000 population, say, to 300,000 — can do this with\ndifficulty by shaving salaries and by paring down expenses; but even then\nthe expense will be somewhat larger than for ordinary schools. But when a\nsmaller class of cities is reached, especially those below 100,000, it will be found\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": null, "text": "6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nthat the per capita cost of students in special manual- training schools is so\ngreat as to be practically prohibitive of such schools.\nBut, to my mind, stronger than all economic arguments for manual training in the ordinary secondary school is the need of the ordinary secondaryschool student for some of it. There is no reason why a good high school,\nteaching all the subjects, should not have a complete manual-training equipment as a part of its plant. In my judgment, every good high school should\nhave such an attachment, and should offer to students who want to pursue\nmanual training fully just as complete courses in it as can be offered in the\nvery best separate manual- training school; and also to those students who\ndo not desire to make manual training the major subject, limited courses of\none or two hours a week, continuing the interest started in the grammar school,\namplifying and illustrating the other subjects of the curriculum, especially\nmathematics and the sciences, enlarging the views of life, and furnishing a\ncertain amount of valuable manual dexterity without materially increasing\nthe cost of their instruction or of the manual-training work. Moreover, the\nstudents who are taking the special manual-training courses can have the beneficial influence of the very best teachers in all the other subjects, and of contact\nin class with those students who are making specialties of Latin, Greek,\nmodern languages, history^ literature, mathematics, sciences, and what not.\nThis mingling of those who are taking different courses in one school is\nof advantage to both. There is a little danger of class feeling between manualtraining high schools and other high schools. The students in the classical\nhigh schools are apt to look down a little upon the students who are taking\nmanual-training courses, and the students of the manual-training schools\nare apt to have a rather uncomfortable, antagonistic feeling toward the mere\n\"book\" students, as they deem the others.\nIt is sometimes said that teachers in the regular high schools are not in\nsympathy with manual training, and that it will not have a fair chance if made\na part of the regular school. There is no stronger argument for such a union.\nIf teachers are narrow enough to undervalue this great subject, they need the\nbroadening influence which comes from contact with it. If it is all that we\nclaim for it it will stand for itself, and if put into a good high school as a\nregular course, with a complete and extensive equipment, with a full corps of\nspecial teachers, and with large classes taking it with enthusiasm, no one need\nbe found to stand as its defender.\nExperience running over a good many years has shown me how popular\nsuch courses as may be allowed in manual-training schools can be made with\nthose students who are not specialists. I think it is unfortunate to have the\nlarge number of students entering the high school specialize early. I confess\nto the old-fashioned belief in old-fashioned culture, enriched and enlarged\nby new-fashioned studies, among which stands manual training. If it is so\ngood a thing, do not hedge it off by itself and limit it to the few; let all have it.\nKeep it where the many can see it, and come to value it, and can take advan-\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\ntage of its courses to the fullest. So I would have all high schools, as I have\nsaid, with full manual-training equipment, which should be considered as\nessential a part of their plants as are the laboratories and the class-rooms. I\nwould have courses such as would appeal to both boys and girls, and have\nthem open to all — major courses for those who desire to differentiate their\nwork at this point, and minor courses for those who need them. I would\nbring all the boys and girls into the same environment and under the same\ngeneral influence, and treat manual training thru the high school as at least\neducational and for all, and, in addition to this, occupational for those who\nwish so to make it.\n\nDISCUSSION\nProfessor C. M. Woodward, director of Manual Training School, Washington\nUniversity, St. Louis, Mo. — There seems to be substantial agreement between Mr. Gilbert\nand myself as to the ends to be secured in organizing manual training in secondary schools.\nWe agree that some manual training should enter into the secondary curriculum of every\nboy (and girl), not for occupational, but for educational ends. Neither of us approves\nof trade-teaching in public secondary schools. Both of us wish to postpone the choice\nof a course of study with a definite view to an occupation until after the first year of the\nhigh school. Perhaps we agree in postponing it still longer. Both of us are unwilling to\ndeny to any pupil a reasonable demand for a thoro course of manual training. If Mr.\nGilbert had had my experience in contact with classical and manual schools, he would\nprobably agree with my a posteriori conclusions as to segregation.\nI do not approve of so much talk about occupational training in any high school.\nEverything studied has, or should have, value in the occupations of Hfe. Everything\ntaught should be taught thoroly, as tho the welfare of every pupil in the class depended\nupon the teaching and the learning being done well. It is worse than poison to lead a\nboy to feel that what he is studying will be of no value to him in after-life; that it is \"mere\nculture.\" I regard it as extremely unfortunate for a fourteen-year-old boy to be allowed\nto say to his teachers: \"I am going to be a lawyer, or an electrician, or an engraver, or\na grocer, or a journalist, or a machinist, or a gentleman of leisure; and hence I don't wish\nto study this or that or the other, because such study will be of no use to me.\" I have\nno objection to a boy's fancies.\nHe must have them, but they should not be taken seriously.\nOne day I was showing a visitor the St. Louis Manual Training School, and we came\nupon a class reading Caesar. \"What in the world are these boys studying Latin for?\"\nthe visitor asked in amazement. \"What did you study Latin for?\" I asked in turn^\n\"I am a bachelor of arts,\" was all he felt it necessary to reply. \"Perhaps these boys\nwill be bachelors of arts sometime,\" I added. \"Then what are they in a manual-training\nschool for?\" Of course, he could not understand. There are many such people still\nliving — they cannot understand; but Mr. Gilbert and I understand, and we are sanguine\nthat all will understand in due time.\nThere is one point where Mr. Gilbert and I difi'er : He thinks it a good thing to have\na boy who, after a fair trial with a branch of study, has been allowed to omit it by a proper\nchoice of a course of study, to be in daily contact with another boy whose taste has led\nto an opposite choice. One takes Greek, the other descriptive geometry; or one elects\nancient history, and the other mechanic arts. Do they stimulate each other, or do they\nhave a tendency to unsettle and upset each other ? I think it best for such students to\nstudy apart with all the zeal they can.\nI do not approve of the way in which Mr. Gilbert uses the words \"majority\" and\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": null, "text": "620\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\n\"minority.\" He assumes that if we have manual-training high schools and Uterary\nhigh schools, the former should receive only a minority and the latter a majority. In\nfact, he assumes only one manual-training high school in a large city like New York.\nWhy should we not have as many manual-training schools as will meet the demand ?\nWhen one school is full to the limit, build another, and so let everyone have his wish at\na time when that wish means something.\nIt goes without saying that this discussion can apply only to communities where at\nleast two high schools are necessary — say, to centers having 25,000 or more people. A\npopulation of 25,000 should have a high -school attendance of 1,000, which is enough for\ntwo schools — 250 boys and 250 girls in each school.\nAgain, I do not assume that the organization of a manual-training high school would\ninvolve the exclusion of all manual training from the other high schools, as until recently\nwas the case in Boston and elsewhere.\nContrasted with the Boston plan is the Chicago plan, which ofifers, or plans to offer,\na year's work in manual training in every high school, and at the end of a year transfers\nto the manual-training high schools those who wish to take a full course of manual training,\nand transfers to a classical or a commercial school, those who do not wish to continue\nmanual training. I approve the Chicago plan, and I heartily commend it to all cities;\nfirst, because every high-school pupil should have a chance to develop his executive,'\nmechanical abiHties, no matter what his outlook for occupation may be; secondly because\nit pushes ahead for one year more the date of a final choice of a course of study.\nI base my position on several reasons:\n1. The expense of complete equipments. Bench-work in wood is inexpensive, but\nlathes and motors and all the metal-working tools and appliances are expensive, and\nwhen the probable demand of high-school pupils is met, it is wasteful to provide more.\nIf instead of one or more complete outfits partial ones are provided, the scheme is inadequate. At least half our boys want manual training, and if we are to keep them in school,\nwe must give it to them. Abundant experience proves that manual-training high schools\nhold boys who would otherwise drop out,\n2. The weekly program for a manual-training school cannot be made to fit, or\nco-operate advantageously with, the program of a classical school. The manual contingent of classes have double periods in the shop — and they should go with full ranks, or\nthere will be lack of economy in teachers; hence they cannot combine with other students\nin academic studies. Again, they study different subjects, and they, generally take the\nstudies they have in common a different number of times per week. When both drawing\nand shopwork are required of every pupil, the boy recites three academic lessons daily, and\nhis mathematics, science, and foreign language or history come four times each per week;\nhis English, three times a week for four years. The classical pupil generally has four\nrecitations daily, and each five times a week.\nA class in Latin or history may range from ten to forty pupils. A shop class under\none teacher should never exceed twenty-four, and when a tool laboratory is fitted for\ntwenty -four boys, the twenty-fifth boy drifts idly about without bench, lathe or anvil,\nand feels as forlorn as does the man who boards a sleeper at midnight and finds all the\nberths occupied. Hence the few shop boys out of a large classical section are generally\nsent to shop by themselves. Whenever I visit the shops of a manual-training high school\nI find every place occupied and the teacher's services fully utilized; while in the high\nschool in which manual training is optional, I generally find the shop divisions small and\nthe teacher's time partly wasted. No two musical notes were ever more discordant\nthan the weekly program of a classical and of a regular manual-training school.\n3. In every school which is well conducted there is systematic correlation between\ndifferent subjects and co-operation between different teachers, so that one branch of\nstudy is made to illustrate another branch. For example: All the processes of our forging shop, our brazing and soldering shops, are used to illustrate the principles of physics\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN HIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n621\n\nand chemistry. Our geometry, plane and solid, gets uncounted illustrations and applications from \"projection,\" \"intersection,\" and \"shadow\" drawing. The exercises of\nthe machine shop serve to illustrate the principles of friction, moments, the development\nof heat, electricity, the action of steam, compressed air, etc. All these illustrations would\nfall flat and weak upon the ears and eyes of pupils studying Greek instead of shopwork\nand drawing.\n^ On the other hand, before a class of manual boys whose acquaintance with the traditional fields of study is of necessity limited, all reference to mythology, Greek and\nRoman history, classical biography, and the writings of Homer, Virgil, and Cicero, generally lacks force and application. I recall a scholarly and venerable teacher of ethics\nand political economy who always found engineering students \"woefully ignorant of\nmatters which every well-educated person ought to know.\" Had he gone into their\ntechnical lectures and into their engineering laboratories, and been put on the rack\nhimself, he in turn would have been found \"woefully ignorant of matters which every welleducated person ought to know.\" When manual and classical students mix in classes,\nprofitable correlation is well-nigh impossible.\n4. There is a fourth reason why it is not wise to combine closely into one program,\nwith joint exercises in common studies, students like those in a literary school and in a\nmanual-training school. There is in the two schools a difference of atmosphere, of educational tone, noticeable to every careful observer. In the one school the larger proportion\nof studies are rcognized as lying at the very base of future success in business, in industrial\nwork, or in professional life. To the pupils of that school such studies are serious matters,\nand in the consciousness of their own zeal they look with disapproval, if not with contempt, upon one who confesses that he has no interest in such work beyond passing his\nfinal examinations.\nOn the other hand, the pupil who is giving his attention to subjects remote from the\npresent time and from modern industrial interests is prone to pity, if not despise, the boy\nwho is compelled by taste or by circumstances to devote himself to what he calls \"breadand-butter\" subjects. Thus, when brought into intimate relations, instead of inspiring\neach other to greater zeal, the effect on each side is to lead to suspicions that the books\none is reading and the work one is doing are, after all, of little or no importance. Such\na result is unfortunate in every way. I do not say that all boys feel as I have said, but\nmany do, and they give direction to pubUc opinion. The ideal of one school is \"culture,\"\nwhich, as Emerson says, is valued, not for what it enables one to accomplish, but for what\nit is supposed to accomplish in the student himself. The ideal of the other school is practical ability — the power to take hold and do things, useful and remunerative; to control\nforces, and to gain a mastery over materials. Let me add, in parenthesis, that this mastery\nof materials and natural forces is not gained without a great and precious accompHshment\nin the student himself.\nThere is more than one avenue to culture.\nEvery teacher who has had charge of both kinds of schools recognizes and respects\nthis difference in tone and atmosphere, and he prefers not to mix the two kinds of pupils in\nhis classes. For seven years I was principal or assistant principal of a classical Academy;\nand for twenty-five years I have had charge of a manual-training school; and I know\nwhereof I speak.\nI am not alone in the beUef that it is to the interest of both kinds of schools that they\nbe maintained apart. Look the country thru, and you will find school managers who\nhave studied the matter agreeing with me in nearly every instance.\nDr. WilUam T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education, says:\nWhat we want is the manual-training school side by side with the high school as an independent institution.\n\nThis was said ten years ago, and Dr. Harris wrote me recently that he had seen no reason\nto change his mind.\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": null, "text": "62 2\n\nA^^ TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA L ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nPresident David S. Jordan, of the Leland Stanford University, writes:\nI have always recognized the value of manual-training high schools in which a good secondary education\nis given in connection with manual training. Such schools rise above the level of mere trade schools, and\nthrough their breadth of view, accompanied by practical drill, are doing a good work in America. We need\nmore of them. Those interested in better education would not have such institutions take the place of the\nclassical high schools. They would rather see them develop side by side, and each should be equally open to\naU who can make use of their work.\n\nPresident Eliot, of Harvard, says :\nManual-training schools ought to become habitual parts of the American school system. Such schools\nare more expensive than schools which do not require mechanical apparatus and the service of good mechanics\nas instructors, but they will repay promptly their cost.\n\nFrom the Report on American Industrial Education, written by the late Professor John\nB. Johnson, I quote:\nYoiu- committee are in substantial accord in their beUef in, and in their support of, the manual-training\nschool as now organized and operated.\nThey would like to see them multiply.\n\nDr. Belfield, the director of the Chicago Manual Training School, now one of the\ndeans of the School of Education connected with the University of Chicago, js a man of\ngreat experience and good judgment. When consulted upon the question of consohdating\nor maintaining separately a classical academy and a manual-training school, he replies:\nBy all means keep the schools separate and independent. Preserve yoiu- rigid required course of study,\npreserve your traditions; and preserve your name.\n\nSuperintendent Thomas M. BalHet, in his paper on ''European Schools,\" written\nseveral years ago, said :\nThere will be at least three types of high schools in the future, and they are now indeed in process of\ndevelopment : the Uterary high school, the manual-training high school, and the commercial high school.\n\nThis conclusion has evidently been strengthened by several years' experience in connection with the high schools of Springfield, Mass.\nHe writes me this spring as follows :\nMy convictions are becoming more pronounced the more I study the problem, and are strongly in favor\nof keeping the two kinds of schools separate. Perhaps my convictions are stronger than the facts may warrant.\nI have the feeling that it is virtually impossible to get a man as principal of a high school who is heartily and\nintelligently in sympathy with the classical department and also with the manual-training department. Where\nschools are combined it almost invariably happens that a classical man is made principal who has not a full\nappreciation of the meaning and possibilities of the manual-training department\nI believe that it is best\nto keep separate purely literary high schools and manual-training high schools, and put at the head of each a\nman who is strong in the Unes of work which the school is to do. I hope sincerely that before long we shall have\na shop, at least for wood-work, and possibly some elementary iron-work, in every hterary high school, so that\neach pupil may get the benefit of hand-training in connection with his academic work. But a Uterary high\nschool with a shop is not the same kind of a school as a manual-training high school where all the academic\nwork is co-ordinated with the shopwork, and where the shopwork is carried on much more extensively than is\npossible in a hterary high school.\nI doubt also whether there is any economy in combining manual training and classical high schools, except\nin small communities. I know of no member of the Springfield school board or of the high-school commission\nwho advocates the uniting of the two schools under one management.\n\nIt is interesting to note that in Cambridge, Mass., where the population calls for three\nhigh scl\\ools, and where the presence of Harvard University naturally stimulates both\ncourage and caution. Professor's BalHet prediction of three kinds of high schools is\nexactly realized. After experiencing for several years the peculiar conditions of optional\nmanual-training courses in a Uterary high school, the Cambridge committee unanimously\nagreed upon three high schools for a total of 1,200 pupils, viz. : a Latin school, a commercial\nschool, and a manual-training school. That plan I indorse; but I would have the first\nyear's work in them all identical.\nCharles B. Gilbert. — It is impossible for me to answer all of the points in Dr.\nWoodward's able and interesting discussion with which I do not agree. His point of view\nis so radically different from mine that our differences of opinion are fundamental, and\nthere is no common ground on which we could come together.\nThe basis of Dr. Woodward's argument is the division of society into fixed classes,\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN COUNTRY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nfor which preparation must begin in infancy, before the youth are able on rational grounds\nto select their own lines of activity and their own fields of operation.\nIt is quite likely that there are arguments in favor of the manual-training high school\nstronger than the arguments against it which I have advanced, but they are not those\nadvanced by Dr. Woodward, from my point of view. Indeed, the question, as a practical\none, is almost wholly local. It is unwise to go against traditions and conditions which\nprevail in any city for the sake of carrying out a pure theory. I know manual-training\nhigh schools that are so important factors in the school situation that their distribution\nwould be a local calamity. But my argument was based wholly on the consideration of\nnew conditions, where there are no perjudices and no investments to help determine\naction.\nNow, what is the substance of Dr. Woodward's objections to manual training in high\nschools ? That students will not be sufficiently well grounded in manual training for\nclass purposes. His argument is for an aristocratic society wholly; mine is for a democratic society. I would have manual training taught because of its cultural value for all,\nand because it is likely to help a very large number to the choice of a livelihood; and not\nbecause it sets apart some for a calling already predetermined.\nDr. Woodward's argument proves too much. One of his objections to manual training in high schools, for instance, is that students taught in the same classes from different\ncourses cannot understand the illustrations of the teacher if they are based upon manual\ntraining. Think of it. Even at this period of infancy the line is to be so sharply drawn\nthat the students in the classical course cannot even understand allusions to manual training made by a teacher in a class in English. That out-Germanys Germany, and I maintain that it is wholly undemocratic and dangerous. One of the strong arguments, as I have\nsaid, for manual training in high schools is that it brings the young people of all classes\ntogether and makes possible better citizenship. Young people who are together for four\nyears, reciting every day together in the same classes, even if they are to a degree differentiated, are more likely to understand one another and to get along together in the world\nbetter than those who are separated at the beginning of the high-school course. I myself\ndo not believe that the manual training will suffer one whit. I am confident that with an\nadequate equipment it can be carried on just as thoroly and just as well as a department\nin the high school as in a separate manual-training school; but even if it could not, I should\nstill be in favor of manual training in high schools because of higher grounds. If necessary,\nI should say less manual training and more democracy. The school life is more important\nthan any subject, even a specialized one, and the school life in our secondary schools must\nfit our citizens for the larger life of the world.\nFinally and for all, I shall as long as I live be unalterably opposed to any school\narrangement which tends to divide our future citizens into classes at this early age.\n\nWHAT\n\nMA Y BE DONE\n\nALFRED\n\nBAYLISS,\n\nSTATE\n\nFOR MANUAL TRAINING\nSCHOOLS ?\nSUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nIN COUNTRY\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nFor the purpose of this discussion it may be conceded that regular and\naccurate work with carpenter's tools — the lathe, forge, hammer, and anvil —\nis an instrumentality second only to the book in school education, and that study\nof natural objects and well-directed experimentation in the growth of plants\nare agencies of quite equal rank. Manual training and nature study are\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": null, "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nco-ordinates, and as used in elementary-school training one can hardly think\nof either to the exclusion of the other.\nThe question \"What may be done in the country schools ? \"altho affecting\nnearly one-half the school enrollment, does not involve the merits of the constructive or nature-study ideas, and may be answered briefly as well as somewhat categorically.\nIt is a question of conditions. The country schools are out in the country,\nwhere the best schools might be, and where the weakest schools are. They\nare generally poorly housed and indifferently equipped. As a rule, there\nis but one room. Even a cloak-room, or entry, is an exceptional luxury.\nThere are no closets, bookshelves, pictures, nor any too much of the conventional \"apparatus.\" The terms are short. The teachers are the younger\nand less prepared, or the older and less progressive; tho this rule has its exceptions. In the country district the inertia of old ideas is not easy to overcome.\nNature study in the country school often dates from some Arbor Day, and\nthe case of the Uttle girl up in Michigan, whose father took her out of school\nbecause he found the teacher raking the yard and planting some trees, is,\nessentially, not isolated. The average country school-teacher has not tact\nenough to install a manual-training outfit and maintain his hold on the\nneighborhood.\nThen there is the apparent disadvantage in the composition and organization of the country school. It is eight grades in one. The roll contains from\nfive or six to fifty or sixty names — sometimes more, and occasionally not so\nmany. The children vary in age from five to twenty years. The small\nschool is given to the young cousin, sister, or aunt of the boss director, and\nignored or neglected by the community. The large school generally falls\ninto the hands of an old-timer who has done so much time in the business\nthat he has become unable to \"find time for the fads.\"\nAnd, again, there are real difficulties. Image, if you can, the very bestarranged country school you know. Now, where are you going to locate\nyour shop ? Where will you store the wood, and the raffia,^ and the clay, and\nthe tool chest? This is a problem in school management even to one who\ncan see clearly how to employ all the ungraded children at once.\nLess, therefore, must in equity be expected of the country school. But,\nin exceptional cases, something may be done.\nA young woman, teaching in the country, for the excellent reason that\nshe had been crowded out of town, in the course of two school years, both\nshort, contrived somehow to have the boys fit up quite a workshop in an\nunused stall of a near-by stable. There was nothing said about the \"introduction ofmanual training,\" or the project might have failed. They wanted\nto make a sled \"for the boys to draw the girls on,\" so in the beginning it was\nmerely part of their play. The tools and lumber were brought from the\nhomes, and after the sled followed some shelves for books; whereupon it\noccurred to the head boy one noon that a cabinet, with a glass door, for their\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMANUAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN COUNTRY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n625\n\n''specimens\" would be about the right thing. Nature study had not been\n''introduced.\" The directors would hardly stand for that. But some of\nthe geography class had gathered a few fossils from a quarry and some different\nkinds of wood that grew along the river, and one of the boys had caught a\npretty good-sized gar-pike, and, \"just to see if they could get repUes,\" they\nhad written letters to schools in other parts of the country mentioning their\nstock in trade; exchanges had accumulated and were still coming. So they\nneeded a cabinet, and, without a thought of manual training, set to and made\nit. There were some pictures. They would look better in frames; so they\nframed them. They wanted to see how long it took different seeds to germinate\nand grow up and get ripe; so they experimented with them. Nothing was\nsaid about a school garden; nor was it expected that there would be anything\nto sell; but the proceeds bought a book. The flowers were planted just to\nmake the yard look prettier. Something had been said about \"watering with\na rake,\" which somebody did not believe, so they proved up on it.\nThus manual training and nature study broke into one country school. How\nboth disappeared and were not when that teacher got married is another story.\nThere were 2,500,000,000 bushels of corn raised in the United States in\n1902. This, however, did not wholly stop corn production in the corn states.\nOver there in the Agricultural Building you may see two great pyramids — one\nwhite, the other yellow — built of carefully selected samples of last year's crop\nin Illinois. They are built of the seventeen hundred prize packages of ten\nears each, selected by competent judges from eight thousand similar packages,\noffered by competitors in every Illinois county, save one. If you have a winning way and can keep a secret, the custodian may possibly show you the firstprize package. To the novice in com it is not so much unlike all the rest, but\nthe young owner, I am told, has been offered ten dollars an ear for it by the\nlargest corn-grower in South America, whoever that may be. The first premium ismerely a polled Angus calf, warranted to bring five hundred dollars in\nthe market if the recipient does not care to keep him. The lowest is half a\ndollar, and the gradation is fair, a ninety-dollar wagon and the governor's\ncheck for fifty dollars being in the list somewhere. This much manual training\ngot into the country schools of one state by the effort of one man who wanted\nsomething to bring to the Fair, and is, of course, a mere incident.\nThe secretary of the State Farmers' Institute offered as many kernels of\nchoice seed corn as could be carried for two cents to any boy who would send\nhis address and inclose the stamp. Four thousand five hundred and ninety\nboys responded. The manager of the extension bureau of the college of\nAgriculture got word to the boys that he would supply a fine blank for a\n\"report\" to all who would ask for it. Two thousand eight hundred and\nsixty-two boys sent for the blank, and eleven hundred arid twenty actually\nreported to him. Much of the corn raised from this seed was exhibited at\nthe county institutes, and in some cases instructive lessons in corn-judging\nwere given with the samples thus provided as a basis.\nThis year five thousand\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": null, "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nfive hundred packages of seed com have been distributed, each package\naccompanied by a little memorandum book, containing suggestions for a\nreport, scale of points, rules to be used in judging corn, measurements of\nstandard ears of different varieties and for different sections of the state, and\na blank memorandum of the conditions and various steps in the experiment.\nThe boys of some counties are working independently and on a little larger\nscale, supplementing the Institute supplies from their own resources. In\nWinnebago, Lasalle, Menard, and other counties there are organized boys'\nclubs, working under the guidance of the county superintendents, and carrying\non various lines of farm and garden work. You heard something of the\nWinnebago county way Wednesday morning.\nOne county superintendent, who wishes to conceal his identity, has rented\nsix acres. He pays the rent, plows the ground, and gets it ready for the crops.\nThe boys plant, hoe, rake, weed, harvest, and market the products. Each\nboy gets half the proceeds of his own work. Forty boys enlisted, fifteen quit\nbefore they began, and two sold out early in the season. I am not going to\ndefend the commercial features of this vacation school. There is not time\ntoday.\n\nFor that matter, no defense is necessary.\n\nSaid Emerson:\n\nIs it possible that I, who get indefinite quantities of sugar, hominy, cotton, buckets,\ncrockery ware, and letter paper by simply signing my name to a cheque in favor of John\nSmith & Company, traders, get the fair share of exercise to my faculties by that act which\nnature intended for me in making all these far-fetched matters important to my comfort ?\nIt is Smith himself and his carriers, and dealers, and manufacturers; it is the sailor, the\nhidedrogher, the butcher, the negro, the hunter, and the planter who have intercepted\nthe sugar of the sugar and the cotton of the cotton. They have got the education, I only\nthe commodity.\n\nThose lads in Coles county will get both education and commodity, and\nif the superintendent comes out whole, it is all right that way.\nHere are some photographs which answer the question under consideration\nas to one country school. The first shows the house and the school — forty-six\nchildren and one teacher. The next is an interior view of the same school.\nThe third is a close view of one end of the schoolroom. In less time than one\ncan count four it may be seen that there are books, pictures, plants, and cabinets of specimens from each of the three great ''kingdoms of nature\" in some\nvariety. The fourth is a picture of some of the manual products. The next two\nviews are subterranean. One shows part of the working outfit, and the other\nthe \"department\" of domestic arts. These two pictures are absolutely\nunique, and cannot, I venture to say, be matched in this exposition. The\nlast is the garden — \"four rails square\" — looking pretty rank in the picture,\nbut it, too, has been the fruitful source of education, commodity, and cash.\nThis odd one, like Rip Van Winkle's next drink, we need not count. I throw\nit in for the evidence it seems to contain that they do not work at the bench\nor in the garden all the time. It may fairly be inferred from it that they\nsing, draw maps, and even learn to write. That rather fetching primary chart,\ntoo, is home-made.\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTH,\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\n627\n\nI have indicated the limitations of the country school as it now is, referred\nto some outside agencies which seem to be co-operating with the authorized\nteaching forces, and shown by the pictures what is done in one, and may be\ndone in many such schools.\nMuch more than has thus been indicated cannot be done until the country\nschools are consolidated and graded. That is coming in due time, and just\nas we now see country people sending their children to town, we shall see some\ncity people sending their children to the country to board and go to school.\nIn the good time coming, the advantages of clean air, elbow-room, trees,\nwild flowers, babbling brooks, and other country agencies and elements of bodily\nand spiritual freedom, not the least of which will be the new country school,\nwill be seen so clearly that they will be given to the greatest possible number,\nand desired for all the children.\n\nPROGRESS\nBROWN\n\nAYRES,\n\nOF THE\nDEAN\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTH,\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nACADEMIC COLLEGE,\nORLEANS,\nLA.\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\nTULANE\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nThe educational progress of the South is hardly to be judged from the\nexhibits shown by the few states represented. Several of the southern states\nare conspicuous by their absence from the Palace of Education, and those\npresent there have, as a rule, only a partial exhibit of their schools and higher\ninstitutions. This is greatly to be regretted, but it is a fact. It should not\nbe concluded, however, that the incomplete showing indicates a lack of substantial advance and a good degree of development along most of the lines\nwhich are being followed in other sections.\nIt is pertinent to ask why a special study should be made of the showing\nof the South as a section to be judged by itself, rather than to include its\nshowing for whatever it is worth in a general examination of the exhibits of\nthe whole country. I ask this question advisedly to emphasize the fact that\nwe have become accustomed to look upon the South as a section by itself,\nhaving problems and difficulties that exist to only a limited extent, if at all,\nin other portions of our common country. The presence of two races to be\neducated, with only one race to bear the burden of the education of both,\nmakes a difficulty which does not exist to the same extent elsewhere. The\ngreater proportion of rural population in the southern states must also be\ntaken into account in any fair estimate of relative advance. And yet, with\nthese facts allowed, I wish to say as a southern man that the South does not\nwish to have established for it a standard in any sense lower than that which\nobtains or is to obtain for the rest of the country. There is no sufficient difference between the peoples of different sections of the Union to make it desirable\nto judge them by different standards in any of their activities, except such differ-\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": null, "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nences as are inseparably connected with the physical character of their\nenvironment. I should prefer, therefore, to present to you today in this brief\nstudy of the progress of the South in the teaching of manual training a simple\nstatement of facts, begging that you will, for our own sakes, judge them by\nan absolute, rather than a lowered, standard. I have become heartily tired\nof a tendency which undoubtedly exists, to speak with a certain satisfaction\nof an institution, a course of study, or an equipment for any kind of work\nas ''the best in the South.\" Such a statement may really be a damning with\nfaint praise, unless the standard of the South is to be substantially that of\nother sections. Help us then to realize all of which we are capable by demanding in your judgment the same loftiness of ideals and quality of results which\nyou demand elsewhere.\nIn making the rounds of the Education Building we find a disappointing\nmeagerness of exhibits from many southern states and localities where praiseworthy steps have been taken to introduce manual training. Some states\nhave no exhibits at all, while those of others are wholly inadequate to give\nmore than a superficial idea of what they are doing along educational lines.\nI feel under the necessity, therefore, of not hmiting myself to a consideration\nof the special and limited exhibits shown, but of using them, so far as they\ngo, to illustrate the general movement of the section from which they come.\nWhere no exhibit is shown from a section in which good work is being\ndone, it will be desirable to call attention to this fact. If one derived his\nknowledge solely from the exhibits, he would be justified in reaching the\nconclusion that manual-training instruction has not yet made much progress\nwith us. And if one has in mind the pubHc-school system only, extending\neven to the high schools, it is perhaps too true that the actual achievements\nhave not been especially noteworthy. It is only in a few pubHc schools here\nand there that well-considered plans for manual training have been put into\nexecution, excepting drawing, which is now pretty generally taught. In a\nfew schools scattered thruout the length and breadth of the section there exists\nan excellent leaven which is working slowly but surely for the improvement\nof the others.\nThe most noteworthy early attempts at the introduction of manual training in secondary schools in the South were made under private endowment.\nThe Miller Manual Labor School in Albemarle county, Virginia, was the\npioneer in this work, and remains today one of the most perfect examples\nthat we have of this special type of school. Under the able management of\nits director, Charles E. Vawter, it has been for many years a model for schools\nof its class. The manual-training school estabhshed by President William\nPreston Johnston, as an integral part of the then existing preparatory school\nof the Tulane University of Louisiana, at New Orleans, was the next conspicuous foundation of this character. Under the direction of Professor\nJohn M. Ordway it had reached a considerable degree of development and\nefficiency when it was thought wise to abolish the preparatory school of the\nuniversity, and with it went the manual-training school, its equipment being\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPROGRESS\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTH,\n\nAS SHOWN\n\nBY EXHIBITS\n\n629\n\nused since 1894 in the instruction of college students only. The Tulane\nManual Training School made an impression, however, which has resulted\nin the development of other secondary schools in Louisiana and elsewhere,\nin which manual-training features are conspicuous.\nThe estabHshment of the land-grant colleges thruout the Union has\nundoubtedly had a most stimulating effect on the pubUc interest in manual\neducation. This effect has been felt in the South as in the North and West,\nand if conditions have not been as favorable with us for the rapid carrying\nout of the idea in the primary and secondary schools, it is nevertheless distinctly before the minds of educators in every southern state as a goal to be\nstriven for. Not only in the land-grant colleges has manual training become\na feature of the curriculum, but in many higher institutions such instruction\nis given as a phase of the training for the engineering profession. At the\nUniversity of Virginia, Vanderbilt University, and Tulane University fine\nequipments exist and good courses are taught, and they in their places have\neffected public sentiment in favor of the education of the eye and hand as\nnecessary and rational.\nFrom the influence of the colleges the wave has spread downward. In\nmost of the southern states industrial schools have been established for boys\nand for girls, sometimes separate and sometimes together, and for whites and\nblacks alike. In these schools of secondary grade the manual- training idea\nis often carried over into the trade-school idea, the industrial awakening that\nhas occurred in the south making such transition inevitable. The true\nmanual-training idea has, however, not been lost sight of, but is steadily before\nthe minds of the most advanced teachers as something to be realized in all\nthe schools as quickly as pecuniary conditions will allow. The small amount\nof money available in the average southern school is sufficient to account for\nall the deficiencies that we find in them. Small salaries secure as a rule only\npoor teachers, and little initiative can reasonably be expected of such teachers\nunder conditions that would discourage the most capable and enthusiastic.\nNevertheless, the situation is far from hopeless, the exhibits of many of the\nstates showing very creditable work in all the grades in which hand-work\nhas been introduced.\nInasmuch as the age of students in the lower classes of the land-grant\ncolleges is about that of good high-school students in more favored sections\nof the country, it will not be improper to call attention to the considerable\namount of manual work being done in such institutions throughout our\nsection.\nMost of the agricultural and mechanical colleges are making exhibits in\nconnection with their state exhibits, or in the collective exhibit of the agricultural and mechanical colleges made by the national governinent, or in both.\nThe character of work shown, both in drawing and in shop-work, compares\nfavorably with that done elsewhere. There is a very intelHgent and active\nclass of men at work in these institutions, and the exhibits made by them are\nworthy of careful inspection.\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": null, "text": "630\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Manual Training\n\nAmong the endowed institutions mentioned above, Tulane University is\napparently the only one showing manual work, its exhibit in the Louisiana\nsection including a full course in wood- and iron-work carried out from the\nstandpoint of engineering education.\nThe ''industrial institutes\" or ''industrial schools,\" referred to above,\nare reaching a considerable number of young people of both sexes and both\nraces. They are admirable in their object and, in most cases, in their results.\nWe find, however, that not many of them are exhibiting at this Fair. Interesting exhibits of such schools may be seen in the state exhibits of Arkansas,\nLouisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Texas. There is no exhibit from the\nMiller School of Virginia, already referred to, which is cause for regret.\nManual work is being done by the normal schools in most of the southern\nstates, which, of course, will have its effect rather promptly in the grade\nschools. This is a hopeful feature. The attention being paid to manualtraining work in all the southern summer schools is also sure to bear good\nfruit thruout the length and breadth of the land. In the Summer School of the\nSouth, at the University of Tennessee, at Knoxville, where twenty-five hundred\nteachers from all the southern states are gathered for serious study, instruction in all forms of manual- training work is given to large classes, reaching\nin grade from the kindergarten to the high school. At the School of Methods\nof Virginia, held at the University of Virginia, where over one thousand\nteachers are annually in attendance, the same thing is true. In North and\nSouth Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, and in other states there are summer\nschools in which such instruction is given. It is evident that all this will\nsoon have its effect.\nThere are to be found among the exhibits of the high-school grades of the\npublic-school system examples of admirable work, but they are not numerous,\ntho scattered rather broadly. In the exhibits of Arkansas, Kentucky,\nLouisiana, and Texas there are creditable displays showing development\nalong approved lines.\nSome form of hand-work is becoming reasonably general in the grammar\nschools in towns, and, in fact, in many rural schools. Besides the kindergarten work found pretty generally scattered, rafha-work, sloyd, basketry,\nbeadwork, weaving, sewing, and cooking have all taken hold here and there\nand exhibits of the results are shown.\nThe importance of manual training in the education of the deaf, dumb,\nand bhnd has been well recognized for some time thruout the South. One\nis not surprised, therefore, to find in the exhibits of several states the evidence\nof the excellent results to be obtained from the unfortunate ones of these\nclasses.\nIn conclusion, I beg, in behalf of the southern teachers, to report progress\nand to state that, with the steadily accelerating interest in popular education,\nit will be only a little while before the South will be well to the front in its\nmanual-training work.\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 1904\n\nThe first session was held on Tuedsay, June 28, at 2 : 30 p. m., in the assembly hall of\nthe Agricultural Building, President James Frederick Hopkins presiding. The general\ntopic was \"Art Education for the People.\"\n\nThe program was as follows:\n\nPresident's address, James Frederick Hopkins, director of art education, public schools, Boston, Mass.\nI. \"The Influence of the Art School and Museum on Civil Life,\" by Edmund H. Wuerpel, Superintendent of St. Louis School and Museum of Fine Arts.\n7.. \"The RepubUc of France — A nation of Art,\" by Professor Jean Marduel, associate secretary of technical instruction, French Commission to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\n3, \"Art Education in Germany,\" by Professor Leopold Bahlsen, commissioner of the German Education\nSection, Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\n4. \"The Art Educational Exhibits of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\" by Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley,\ndirector of art education, St. Louis public schools.\n\nAt the close of the program the president announced the following committees:\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nMiss Anna Vandalaine Henkel, St. Louis, Mo.\nMiss Lillian S. Cushman, Chicago, 111.\n\nMiss Bonnie E. Snow, New York city.\nMiss Mary A. Woodmansee, Dayton, O.\n\nON INVESTIGATIONS\n-\n\nJames Frederick Hopkins, Boston, Mass.\nCharles M. Carter, Denver, Colo.\n\nWalter S. Goodnough, Brooklyn, N. Y.\nLeslie W. Miller, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\nThe meeting adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe second session was held on Thursday, June 30 at 2 : 30 p. m. In the absence of\nthe president, Miss Mary A. Woodmansee, Dayton, O., was elected president pro tern.\nThe general topic was \"Art Education for the Student,\"\n111.\n\nThe program was as follows:\n\n1. \"Art Education for the American Student,\" by James W. Pattison, art lecturer, Art Institute, Chicago,\n\n2. \"Organization for Art Education in Great Britian,\" by Captain Percy Atkin, British representative\nfor education to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\n3. \"The Educational Influence of Public Outdoor Art,\" by George E. Gay, director of the educational\nexhibit of Massachusetts at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\n4. \"Education for Artistic Handicraft in Sweden,\" by Professor Charles Lidman, professor of art in the\npublic schools, Stockholm, Sweden.\n5. \"The Training of the Art Student, as Shown by the Exhibits at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\"\nby Miss Anna Vandalaine Henkel, first assistant supervisor of drawing, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\nAt the completion of this program business was taken up. The 'Committee on Nominations reported the following nominees:\nFor President — Mrs. Matilda Evans Riley, director of art education, St. Louis, Mo.\nFor Vice-President — Frank Collins, Borough of Queens, Manhattan, New York.\nFor Secretary — Miss Stella Trueblood, assistant supervisor of drawing, St. Louis, Mo.\n631\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": null, "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe secretary was instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the department for the\naforesaid nominees. The vote being so cast, the nominees were declared elected as oflScers\nfor the ensuing year.\nAs there was no other business to come before the department, the meeting was\nadjourned sine die.\nLillian S. Cushman, Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE OF A GREAT EXPOSITION AS AN\nEDUCATOR— A WORD OF INTRODUCTION\n\nJAMES\n\nEREDERICK\n\nHOPKINS,\n\nDIRECTOR OF ART\nBOSTON,\nMASS.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nART\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n\"The wisdom of all ages is none too great for the world's work,\" said the\nlamented President McKinley during his famous speech at Buffalo in\nSeptember, 1901. Thus he justified the exhibition which he was then visiting; and thus are justified all great expositions of man's progress. The\nmodern exposition is a collection of the world's achievements for the world's\ninspection. Therein may we make comparisons, refresh our minds and spirit,\nand plan most wisely for future developments. This great Louisiana Purchase Exposition, upon which has been spent so much time, loyalty, and\ntreasure, gives us *'a living picture of the artistic and industrial development\nat which mankind has arrived,\" and truly offers a new starting-point from\nwhich all men may direct future exertions.\nIt is well that the National Educational Association should meet within\nthe gates of this grandest of expositions. Here for the first time in exposition\nhistory do we find education adequately housed, presented at the head of the\nscheme of classification, and represented by a wealth of arrangement and detail\nnever before approached. America here shows to the world that she depends\nupon her educators to pave the pathway thru which man enters social life,\nand right nobly does she present the work of her loyal teachers. Second in\nthis grand scheme of classification comes the field of art in which this department isso deeply interested ; and what a picture of the power which lies behind\nart education is presented within the gates of this cream city of the forest!\nHere as in a mirror is reflected the real condition of man's development in\ntaste, in culture, in character, and in productiveness. Third in this arrangement is the field of liberal arts and appHed sciences, giving clear pictures of\nthe results of education and culture. Here inventive genius is shown controlled\nby taste and scientific expressions, and in keeping with this twentieth-century\nspirit, dominated by artistic expression.\nTherefore in these three grand\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nAS AN ART EDUCATOR\n\ndivisions — education, art, and arts and sciences — do we have a clear picture\nof the result of man's education and culture, his inventive genius governed by\nhis taste, and his scientific expressions governed by artistic inspiration. Thus,\nthen, in this great Exposition as in no other way do we find how the teachers\nof general education and the trainers for art education have joined hands in\nequipping the boys and girls of this great nation for the opportunities of\nlife in the fields which are here so clearly presented.\nThe influence of these great international expositions is tremendous and\nfar-reaching for the cause of art education. The Crystal Palace Exhibition in\nLondon in 185 1 led to the establishment of that great scheme for industrial\nart education which, centering at the Victoria and Albert Museum at South\nKensington, sends forth its inspiring influence to provincial cities and even\ninto remote thatched hamlets. Philadelphia in 1876 displayed the first\nattempts at industrial art-training which progressive American cities were\nundertaking, and pointed so clearly the need of a higher national taste that\neducators everywhere undertook to make the study an integral part of the\nschool course. France reorganized her public-school courses after her exposition of 1878 and extended her training in appHed arts after the exposition\nof 1889. Manual-training and industrial art education were shown to be\nsuccessful features of the educational display at Chicago, and so intimately\nrelated that there the present interest in the arts and crafts may be said to have\nbegun.\nThere was another side of that great exposition of the Columbian celebration, and that was its great influence in developing an appreciation of the\nbeautiful. The splendid effect produced by the arrangement of grounds,\nwaterways, and groupings of buildings had a most marked effect upon many\nof our great American cities. All over the land we find the harmony of its\narchitecture and sanity of decoration echoed in numerous important pubHc\nbuildings and private residences. Reflected in the dream city by the lake,\nAmerica saw for the first time her architects, sculptors, painters, and landscape gardeners working in harmony to produce a fine, thoughtfully planned\nresult. And America did not forget the lesson. The grand new Library of\nCongress would probably not have been the thing of beauty we know today\nhad the Chicago Exposition not held out its lesson of beauty. Our Public\nLibrary at Boston profited by that union of architect and decorator; and all\nover the broad land, in municipal structures, in commercial buildings, hotels,\nclub-houses, and residences, do we find the influence of this most inspiring\nawakening. Truly the study of a great international exposition is the study\nof an epoch-marking display.\nNot only was the Chicago Exposition a great awakening to our American\npeople in architecture and in civic art, but it brought about the better recognition of what was meant by more beautiful pubHc Hfe. Many of our great\ncities had estabHshed park systems; several had acquired by right of eminent\ndomain great outlying areas which later generations were to see grow into\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": null, "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ngreat public parks; and some few municipalities had undertaken with success the decoration of those park systems with sculpture and architectural\nembellishments. Under the influence of outdoor art associations, this movement has spread and extended until in several sections in this Louisiana Purchase Exposition we find extensive photographic exhibits illustrating this\nphase of our progress toward a more tasteful life.\nMassachusetts has been somewhat of a pioneer in this direction, as she\nhas done pioneer work in many another educational direction, and she sends\nto this Exposition a photographic display of her parks and boulevards, her\ndrives beside river, lake, and shore, and the decoration of those outdoor\nbreathing-places by beautiful examples of sculpture. It would not be fair\nto close this meeting, devoted as it is to the art education of the people and the\nstudent, without some recognition at least of this movement for public outdoor art. Such a paper has been prepared for us by a Massachusetts educator of long experience, one who has been identified with many of the great\nexpositions, and who knows school work as a student, teacher, principal, and\nsuperintendent.\nAlongside the public school as an educational force stands the public\nlibrary, and buttressing these institutions on either side is the art museum.\nIts influence in the community is enormous, and in widely separated sections\nof our country collections large or small are being established as definite\nhelpful servants in the uphft of the community. New York, Boston, and\nChicago have their establishments in which their citizens are indeed proud.\nSt. Louis has an institution, which, while it may not occupy today the same\namount of floor space as those in older cities, yet yields the place to none as a\npowerful civic influence. Director Wuerpel will tell us about the influence\nof the museum and the art school in the civic life which we are visiting.\nWithin the walls of this Louisiana Purchase Exposition the mind naturally\nturns back to the France which granted to us this great area. Napoleon\nwas indeed farsight ed in many directions, and left his lasting impression on\nthe present republic of France. In no way did he influence the present\nnation to a greater extent than by that famous decree which compelled the\nstate to grant to every boy and girl training in drawing, in color, and in applied\nart. It was the results of that decree which made it possible for France to\nrecover so quickly after those terrible years of the Franco-Prussian war. It\nwas her industrial art interests, with her agriculture, which gave her the money\nto pay so quickly the greatest war debt which the world has ever seen imposed.\nFor years America has looked to France for inspiration in artistic industries, and she has not looked in vain. In textiles, in pottery, in examples of\nhousehold art, in all lines of arts and crafts, as well as in the realm of fine art,\nFrance has led the world. She has fostered education, encouraged the exhibition idea, and sent her students as teachers into the schools thruout all the\nworld. We are fortunate, indeed, in this Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\nin which she would naturally take the pride of a mother watching the progress\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEXPOSITION\n\nAS AN\n\nART\n\nEDUCATOR\n\nof a married daughter, to be able to study such a magnificent display under\nsuch happy guidance as is to be offered to us today.\nCrowning the hill, at the left of the Festival Hall rises the dome of Germany's building. Scattered thru every section of this great Exposition are\nthe magnificent exhibits which, under the high patronage of Germany's most\nenergetic ruler, stand as monuments of the careful, methodical effort which\nher commissioners have put forward. Those of us who are particularly\ninterested in education will find the display most complete. Therein can we\nstudy what perhaps cannot be found anywhere else within the gates of this\nExposition, namely: courses of study suggested, planned, and arranged under\nan emperor's direct guidance.\nArt education and art appreciation is no new thing to the German nation,\nbut those of us who have been able to study its progress, as we have traveled\nunder the blue skies of the fatherland, will testify that only during the last\nfew years has it come to its greatest fruition, and this is due to the inspiring\npersonal influence of Kaiser Wilhelm II. As patron of exhibitions, as a planner\nand personal donator of examples of sculpture and outdoor art, as a draftsman\nof high repute, and above all the most inspiring teacher, he rightly stands\ntoday at the head of art education of Germany, and his influence is felt thruout\nthe realm. We shall be told something about the progress of Germany, and\nwhat the various exhibits here in St. Louis have to offer us.\nMany educational reformers have started their schemes for revolutionizing\nconditions with the children in pubHc schools. When Great Britian back\nin the fifties realized that she did not have as many art industrial workers\nas she desired, and recognizing her dependence on foreign nations for many\nof the aritstic things which she consumed, she planned to establish art schools\nand museums. England will always owe an everlasting debt of gratitude to\nthat most courteous, cultured gentleman, the prince consort, who conceived\nand carried forward the first great international exposition in the Crystal\nPalace in 1869, which has served in a general way as a type of all following\nworld's fairs.\nAt the close of that exposition, finding, what seems rather strange to us in\nthese modern days, a large and generous balance to the credit of the exhibition, it was determined by Queen Victoria and her council of education to\nestabhsh what we know now as the Victoria and Albert Museum at South\nKensington, which one of our American educational writers has aptly termed\nthe power-house of British art-educational progress. I have no desire to anticipate in any way the story of this organization for art education in Great Britian\nwhich one of our speakers will give us at a later session, but I would relate a\ncondition which I observed last summer, showing, as it does, the wide-spreading\ninfluence for good which her majesty and the prince consort thus so successfully estabhshed.\nThe little thatched village of Winsted lies down in the west country of\nDevon.\nTo it the South Kensington authorities last year sent a choice, but\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": null, "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nnot extensive, collection of textiles, laces, and other woven art products. They\nwere on view before the students of that little art class, held under the picturesque roof of one of those tiny cottages. Last fall, in London, in the exhibition of students' work held annually in the Metropolis, the judges, representing\nsome of the best minds of England, gave one of the highest awards to a girl\nstudent working quietly, but so earnestly, in the same little Winsted. Truly\nthe great Victoria and Albert Museum casts its bread upon the waters, and\nit comes back after many days.\nA little over thirty years ago there arose in Sweden a recognition of the\nfact that the old household industries were rapidly passing away in the face\nof invention of machinery and the establishment of large manufacturing\nenterprises. During the long winter evenings in that northern peninsula the\nfarmers and the village folk had been accustomed to carry forward the manufacture ofwooden tools, household utensils, hand-weaving, and the preparation of clothing for all the members of the home.\nIt was found by farsighted Swedish educators that the loss of these household industries would prove a national calamity, and, under the inspiring\ninfluence of Dr. Salomon at Naas, schools were established for the training\nof the young Swedish people in these old household industries. Our American\nmanual trainers and art educators were not slow to see the 'educational value\nof these methods and processes, and public school courses thruout the\nUnited States have been widely influenced by these helpful educational schemes\nin the Northland. Particularly has this been true in the field of artistic handicrafts. Three fields of interest have been offered to the progressive American\neducator seeking for opportunities for artistic expression outside of the routine\nfields of sewing and household art. They have turned to the primitive western\nIndian and studied in basketry and weaving the ideals of primitive life. To\nthe colonial looms of early American days has been given study, and from it has\ncome much inspiration. Lastly, but by no means least, do we find the influence\nof this Swedish hand-weaving in our industrial art courses.\nNo member of this association can afford to overlook the wonderfully\ncomplete exhibit which Sweden has offered to us for study in the Palace of\nEducation.\nWhen the dream city beside the lake came to an end in that fall of 1893,\nAmericans said that never again could such an exposition be conceived,\nplanned, and carried to successful completion. It was said that, as in the\ndays of ancient Greece the nation had offered its best in that magnificent\noutburst of architectural enthusiasm, so nothing which would be attempted\nin the future could equal the exposition city beside the lake.\nBut St. Louis has proved that the dream could be duplicated, could be\nenlarged and extended in a way far beyond any comprehension. The Visitor\nto this Louisiana Purchase Exposition cannot say this is a replica of Chicago,\nso unique, so individual, and so beautiful are its features. Philadelphia may\nhave paved the way, Chicago shown the possibiHties, but to St. Louis must\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ART\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nMUSEUM\n\nbe given the palm for actual successful accomplishment. As the influence\nof Chicago went out in great pubHc buildings, in the finer decorations of those\nbeing erected, and in a higher national appreciation of what was meant by\ncivic beauty, so St. Louis must have its influence also along all those lines.\nIts special promise, however, will be to hold out to the world a picture of the\nplace of beautiful sculpture in connection with magnificent architecture,\nenshrined in a landscape setting of rare color and beauty. The Louisiana\nPurchase Exposition is a monument of our progress toward the more beautiful public life, and as such it will stand as a milestone, showing the highroad\nover which we have come, and pointing forward to an American art development, the like of which Greece, or Rome, or France has never seen.\n\nTHE\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nEDMUND\n\nH.\n\nWUERPEL,\n\nOF THE ART SCHOOL\nON CIVIC LIFE\n\nAND\n\nSUPERINTENDENT OF ST. LOUIS\nOF FINE ARTS, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nART MUSEUM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nMUSEUM\n\nIn order properly to estimate any influence on our lives, we should not\nhesitate to face quite candidly, and without circumvention, conditions as\nthey exist. For influences of any kind can be measureed only in the degree\nin which they may change, for the better or for the worse, those conditions\nwhich surround us.\nLet us examine, then, the conditions which go to make up what we are\npleased to designate our \"civic hfe.\" There can be no question that the\ndominating note in our civic life today is— money. This is a bald fact, baldly\nstated, but it is none the less true. There has been in the past a measure of\nexcuse for such a condition, but we should welcome and encourage any influence\nwhich may bring about a change. No power in this country is so mighty\nas that vested in wealth. With this magic key the American wanders to the\nremotest corners of the earth, and all doors are opened to him. But the mere\nopening of these doors does not always reveal the treasure within the portals.\nWith eyes that see not he glances about, tarries a moment, not dreaming of\nthe hidden delights ; then hurries forth to other conquests in ignorance, happiness, and conceit.\nThis man who has amassed wealth, is the power in the land. If he can\nparade this much-coveted power before the envious eyes of his fellow-men, if\nhe can successfully maintain his pre-eminence among the horde of lesser\npowers, the soiurce from which his wealth was derived is rarely questioned.\nLet him, however, slip ever so little, and the dogs are about his heels. Should\nwe be proud of such a representative of our nation ? He stands for good or\nfor evil according to the manner in which he wields the power he has obtained.\nIn narrowness, ignorance, prejudice, and selfishness he may lead to bad\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": null, "text": "638\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthings, but enlightened by the redeeming breath of love, sympathy, and\nknowledge he should advance the interests and standards of the entire nation.\nUntil it can be directed in this nobler, higher way, for universal good, it is\nperhaps as well that this great power should be controlled or made to lie\ndormant.\nBusiness success — and by that I mean the success implied by money — is\nthe goal of all ambitious citizens. In the hurry and strife incident to the\nsuccess of a business career the nicer and more delicate matters of life are\nmostly overlooked. I would not go so far as to say that this is always so, but\nunfortunately for our national reputation it is much more so than in the nature\nof events it should be. Within a comparatively recent period, as years count,\nour educational institutions laid greater stress on this phase of life than on\nany other. There was cause for this; we were a young nation, and had our\nway to make in the world. This period of probation has happily passed,\nand it is time that we should recognize a higher standard of success than that\nof mere wealth. For our past conduct we may plead a measure of excuse,\nbut for what we are about to do in the future we must hold ourselves strictly\naccountable. What was at first a necessity has grown into a custom, the\nbrightest crown of glory is given to him who has achieved business success.\nFrom this point of view we judge ourselves; is it, therefore, to be wondered\nthat from this point others should judge us ? Are the accusations, the gibes,\nthe ridicule, with which we are met abroad altogether unjustified? That\nthey happen to be most unflattering does not, to my mind, call for resentment\non our part, but for prompt and intelligent action.\nThe strenuousness of our hves has become a by-word. Shall it always\nremain so? Shall we continue to ignore the fact that we are no longer a\nnation in its infancy, tottering across the nursery floor on uncertain feet,\nignoring the example of our elders, persuing, in youthful, hot-headed conceit,\nthe ways of the ignorant ?\nWe are accorded honorable places in enterprise, dexterity, and fearlessness ;\nwe have established great institutions of learning; we are accounted a people\nof alertness, ingenuity, and generosity. But do we ever hear ourselves lauded\nas a people of taste or culture ? Would we not prefer that that side of our\nlives be spoken of in whispers, or better still not spoken of at all ? It seems\na great pity that with the other virtues accorded us, that of taste should be\nomitted. We have no artistic perception, and civilized nations show their\nmeasure of and contempt for our well-established ignorance in no way more\nstrongly than in the so-called works of art with which they have seen fit to\nflood our country. The Japanese would hardly care to send to the civilized\nnations of Europe such work as they are sending to the United States. All\nthose qualities which make the art of the Japanese so unique and masterful\nare almost wanting in the greater part of the work which our deluded countrymen admire and, alas ! buy. They as well as other nations take advantage\nof our profound ignorance, and, catering to the American taste, avowedly\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF ART\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nMUSEUM\n\nmanufacture art for the American market, fostering thereby a taste which\nshould be condemned. Prints, rugs, potteries, metals, enamels, carvings,\nbooks — in fact, everything that should bear the stamp of good taste and\nrefinement — are presented in the most glaring, inartistic manner conceivable.\nThe cost of manufacturing such articles is less than it would be to produce\nthe more worthy kind, the greater part of the work on them being done by\nmachines, usually of American make. Hence the percentage of profit is\ngreater, and as we do not always know the difference between the genuine\nand the fraud, the merchant waxes wealthy. This state of affairs is more in\nevidence than is generally known or conceded, and is the result of unwarranted\nconceit — a conceit which is the earmark of beginners.\nThe intelligence of our artisans, their ingenuity, skill, adaptabiHty, and\nquickness to understand and to imitate what is placed before them, enable\nour domestic manufacturer to compete with the foreigner. He not only\nreproduces the foreign article most skillfully, but, relying on his native taste,\nhe introduces changes, improvements if you will, which go far toward eliminating any trace of art which the original may have had. \"High art goods\"\nare flourished in our faces, and the salesman parades as the apostle and connoisseur of art. Think you that this is an exaggerated picture ? Am I at all severe\nor unjust ? Think a moment and you will see that in the main I am right.\nAfter all, what we want to get at is the plain, unvarnished cause for this\nevil. Some of us, nauseated at the vulgar display in our shop windows, rebel.\nWe demand better things. The wily salesman, well trained at least in his\nduty, casts aside the domestic in favor of the real ''imported\" article, direct\nfrom a London, Vienna, Paris, or Tokyo of which he may not know the\nexistence. And still we of the difficult taste are not satisfied. \"Have you\nnothing simple in design, quiet in color and execution ?\" you ask. \"Well, no,\"\nis the reply; \"we do not carry that fine of goods. It is not popular; people\ndo not care for that sort of thing, and it does not pay us to carry such stock.\"\nAnd if perchance you accidentally happen upon the very thing you want,>J;he\nprice is prohibitive, not so much because it is vastly more expensive to\nmanufacture an article of merit, but because the merchant, realizing that\nperchance his money is locked up in a slow-selling article, must charge a\ngreater price to cover the interest for this lost time. This is not idle surmise\non my part, but the result of investigation and repeated inquiry. We cannot\nget good, simple things at moderate prices because there is not enough demand\nfor them to warrant the merchant in carrying them, and not enough good\ntaste to force him to do so. As long as we do not know good from bad, we\ncannot blame the merchant for the precaution he exercises.\nCan any influence be more potent in our civic existence than that of culture\nand simple refinement ? Can our standard be raised ? Can our place among\nthe civilized nations of the world be assured without due consideration of that\nmighty factor, taste ? How are we to cultivate it ? That is the point.\nThere are two classes to be considered : the artisan who produces, and the\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": null, "text": "640\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\npublic who either buys or merely enjoys. They must both be trained, each\nin his own manner. Heretofore it has been the province of the art school to\ntrain the professional man only — the painter, the sculptor, and the architect.\nWe have to a certain extent fostered art education because of that conceit of\nwhich I have spoken. I come back to this because it is well to look our national\nfault frankly in the face, and, where possible, to remedy it. So I say that we\nhave supported art education mainly because we did not care to be defined as\nan inartistic race, but not from any inherent love for it or appreciation of what\nit might mean to us as a country. We established art schools for the few.\nBut may I ask, have we derived the best good from them which it was possible\nto obtain ? Have we blinded those who know ? Have we established an art\nof our own, or even an appreciation for the art of the rest of the civilized world ?\nWe have given excellent technical education to a favored few, who have\ninstantly rewarded this blessing, bestowed, by fleeing the country in which\nthey saw neither sympathy nor tolerance. Can we altogether blame them ?\nHave we gained nothing from this ? Are there no lessons to be learend from\nthe failures of the past ? Yes, assuredly so ; or you would not be here assembled, would not be organized as an Art Section of the National Educational\nAssociation. It has created a regiment of faithful workers like yourselves,\nwho are willing to be pioneers in this movement. Surely that, if nothing else,\nis worth while.\nThe lesson we have learned is that in order to benefit our civic life we must\ninfluence the masses thru our art schools and art museums. We must educate, not a few victims of incipient art fever, who may or may not develop into\nfull-fledged ''cases.\" We must first destroy the commonly accepted notion\nthat art is limited to the few who paint pictures, hew marble, or design buildings, and inoculate in its place the idea that art is for all. We must show\nthat beauty enters into every field of human activity, that it is within the reach\nof all thru the medium of either the art school or the art museum. We must\nmake it clear that nature, to whom we all go for inspiration, does not hide her\ntreasures for the few, but for the willing; and the function of our art institutions\nshould be ever to increase the number of the willing.\nAn unusually strong manifestation of this wiUingness should be fostered\ninto the making of the artisan; this is the function of the school; not alone\nfor the dreamer of dreams, the creator of abstract beauty, but for the skilled\ncraftsman who is to bring home to us less favored ones the practical application\nof these beauteous dreams. I would not exterminate the higher order of artist ;\nby no means. The wholesome development of taste, and all that it implies,\ndepends on the professional man. But the art school must stand for a broader\ntraining and a wider reach. What we need in the United States at this stage\nof our development is an army of skilled artisans to produce, and a trained\npublic to appreciate. Without appreciation the work would count as nothing.\nWe must develop the idea of the practical good of art, since from this point of\nview it seems to appeal more strongly to the mind of the average American.\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] INFLUENCE\n\nOF ART\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nMUSEUM\n\n641\n\nWe may create a great many bad and useless workmen, but that is the fate\nof all schools. In spite of our excellent public educational system, we cannot\nclaim that all students turn out to be shining lights of erudition. We must not\nbe discouraged by the greatness of the task we have set ourselves, but must\nlook ever forward, leaving the past to take care of itself. There are many\ngerms of true artistic perception buried in the souls of the masses, and what\nwe must do is to uncover them, to lay open to the blessed light of intelligence,\nmethod and order, these undeveloped ideas of the beautiful. We must encourage the lesser arts so that all arts may become great. There should be no\n\"lesser arts.\" And, above all, we must make of art a business. Did the man\nof business but give to the consideration of this subject the same care which\nhe bestows on his own particular field of energy, he would recognize the great\npotential gain there is in the intelligent application of art to all business. Why\nhave older nations fostered the arts, and particularly the schools of applied\narts ? Why have we been forced to pay, at a great consumption of our legitimate profits, vasts sums of money to foreign workmen except as a just tribute\nto their superior skill, taste, and workmanship. The tide is ever flowing on\nto that point when we shall have to take national recognition of this question\nof the training of our craftsmen. The opportunity lies open to them; schools\nfor this purpose have been estabhshed on all sides. It is the false conception\non the part of the pubKc which keeps them from their own. The public must\ncome to a knowledge of the case before there can be any great amelioration.\nIt must be made, thru our art museums, to see things as they really are. Reading and a most commendable attendance at lectures will not bring forth a\nresult, for the education of the artistic senses must be achieved thru feehng\nand seeing. The earlier this education is begun, the better. It is in a measure a very weary task to bring about an evolution of this kind thru the training\nof the present generation. Many of us are too set in our ways to accept, without question, ideas that have been foreign to us all our lives. Therefore it is\nwiser to begin with the younger generation — the school children. But this\nfact does not altogether absolve the parents from a duty which they owe to\nthemselves as well as to their children. They must lend at least their moral\nsupport to the work by attending the art museum, and this use of museum\ncollections by the general public cannot be too strongly dwelt upon. Some\nurgent means should be devised to bring the people into direct personal contact with that which stands for art. We all absorb something from continual\ncontact ; and even if it creates in the minds of some a decided antipathy for art,\nthis is preferable by far to that deadening indifference which it is hopeless to\ncombat against. Art as well as other enterprises can gain a foothold against\nmere antipathy, but will eventually be suffocated by spiritless indifference.\nIf we can make the people enjoy the museum collections, we shall be on the\nhighroad toward seeing a result from our efforts, and this result will be a\ngreater enjoyment of life, a wider range of vision, a brighter prospect beyond\nthe narrow confines of our daily horizon.\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": null, "text": "642\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nOur state of civilization differs from that of the savage in the degree of\nknowledge, appreciation, and enjoyment we get out of our Hves. Nothing\ncan rob us of that enjoyment of the beauties of nature which follows the secret\nof being able to see them; and these are the things which make hfe worth\nliving. The continuous rut into which the narrow confines of our daily task\nforce us can be eased and smoothed by those delights — delights to be had by\nall ahke, young or old, wise or simple, rich or poor. And the beginning of the\nroad to these pleasures is the art museum. Music has been conceded a high\nplace as a civilizing influence, and yet all that the majority of the hearers\nget from good music is but a moment of respite, of forgetfulness. We all need\nit in the dreary routine of Hfe.\nNow music is not the only art that lulls the senses to pleasant rest. We\nhave eyes as well as ears, and our lives are made pleasanter and nobler by\nlearning to use them. The art school should be the training school of the eyes,\nand if the young learn nothing more than to find, see, and comprehend beauty,\nthe school has fulfilled one of its most important missions. Art, I have always\nmaintained, should not be purely educational in its motives; that is, we\nshould not expect to get any practical returns from it unless we take it up as a\nprofession. It should suffice that we get pure pleasure from it. Our prosaic\nAmerican mind may rebel at this seeming waste of time. We cannot conceive\nthat it is possible to devote time to that which does not bring us a return in\ndollars and cents. Here is the stumbling-block in the way of our progress\nWe must begin to take account of those things which do not bring a material\nreturn, mere wealth. Has the soft quiet of a fading landscape, the poetic\nmystery of a moonlit night, or the tragic symphony of a brewing storm no\nmeaning for us ? Is there no compensation in a thoro accord with the varying\nmoods of nature ? To bring it closer to us : do we find no compensation in\nsurrounding our lives with those things which are made more beautiful by\nart ? Is it no pleasure to eat from a plate that does not curdle the food upon\nit with the hideousness of its color or designs ? Is there no delight in having\nour walls covered with delicate and pleasure-giving tones; in possessing lamps\nof good, simple design; rugs that do not rise and trip us with the brutality of\ntheir inharmony; hangings, utensils, and furniture that are a rest to the weary\neye ? Truly, the power of good, attractive, rest-giving homes is to be taken\naccount of. We cannot afford to eliminate the few sun-spots which are within\nreach of all of us. Anything that will give us rest, that will cause a lull in the\neternal grind of our too monotonous lives, should be hailed with gratitude and\ndelight. \"In ignorance lies bliss \" is not a philosophy to be encouraged. Why\nput aside that rich feast of sensuous delight with which each life should be fed at\nleast in moderation ? Why blind the senses to those pleasures which a small\ndegree of direction, a small sacrifice of time, will bring to all ? We are not all\nso rich that we can buy these pleasures; and, being rich, will our wealth purchase for us that which our senses have not been trained to see ?\nIf we lay aside, quite calmly, all manner of prejudice; if we consider the\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF FRANCE— A NATION\n\nOF ART\n\n643\n\nbearing that the art school and museum have on our civic life, we shall no doubt\ncome to something like these conclusions: That the art of a nation measures\nits degree of culture; that this culture means the greater enjoyment of life;\nthat the people who enjoy life in the noblest, highest degree are the leading\npowers in civilization ; and that to take advantage of any and every opportunity\nwhich presents itself of raising the artistic, aesthetic, moral condition of the\nrace should be the highest duty of its educators.\nThe day that sees a universal acknowledgement of the utility of art; the\nday that universal use, not for the speciaHst* alone, is made of the training of\nthe art school and the collection of the art museum, that day will herald the\nera of a new and nobler American nation.\n\nTHE\nPROFESSOR\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF FRANCE— A NATION\n\nJEAN MARDUEL, ASSOCIATE\nGENERAL\nCOMMISSION OF\nPURCHASE\n\nOF ART\n\nSECRETARY OE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION,\nFRANCE\nTO THE LOUISIANA\nEXPOSITION\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nThe National Educational Association having asked me to read a paper\non ''The Republic of France — a Nation of Art,\" I shall try to give you a\ndescription of the different exhibits sent to your beautiful Exposition by the\nFrench government.\nAs the object of this Association is education, it seems to me that most of\nthe time should be devoted to the educational exhibits. As you have probably\nnoticed, our French educational exhibit is divided into three principal parts:\nfirst, the different schools, as primary, secondary, and superior, including the\nuniversities; second, social economy, and, third, technical instruction, such as\nis given in the practical and training schools.\nThe primary instruction, the display of which occupies the large room to\nthe left as one enters the French Educational Section thru the main entrance,\nis represented by an important collection of works both by pupils and teachers,\nsuch as pupils' notebooks, including grammar, elementary arithmetic, geography, etc. The educational method of France is quite different from that of\nAmerica. Altho some of the maternal schools, which correspond to what you\ncall kindergartens, are for both boys and girls, in the greater part of our\nprimary schools boys and girls are not taught together. It would be too great\na task to describe the different works accomplished in these schools, but I\nthink it is very similar to that done in your kindergartens.\nWe have also what are called the elementary primary schools. There is\nan exhibit containing photographic displays, showing the- progress made in\ntwenty-five years in the building, comfort, and installation of these schools.\nA quarter of a century ago the primary-school buildings were old houses, built\nwithout the slightest regard for comfort and hygiene.\nAll or most of these old\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": null, "text": "644\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nschool-houses have now been replaced by the \"scholar palaces,\" as some\npeople call them.\nIn this exhibit many pupil's notebooks may be seen, in which it is easy lo\ncatch at a glance the general mode of teaching by the French schoolmaster.\nThese books are of three different kinds : the daily book, containing the ordinary\nexercises of each day; the monthly book, in which is inclosed a general monthly\nexercise by the same pupil on each subject, enabling one to collect in a small\nvolume a specimen of each exercise, from month to month, and in this way to\njudge of the progress made by the pupil; in a word, to compare the scholar\nwith himself; and the ** rolling book,\" so called because it goes from hand to\nhand, receiving successively the work o^ each child attending the same class,\nwhich permits the comparison of pupils of a class and to appreciate in this way\nthe progress of the collectivity which is called a class. The great number of\nthese specimens exhibited shows that this is a method in practice in all the\npublic schools of France.\nThere are about forty numbers indicating the successive points that can be\nreached with a complete primary education. As you very probably know,\nthe instruction is compulsory in France, and every child, male or female, has\nto attend the public school regularly until thirteen years of age. Some twentyfive years ago one could find occasionally country people unable to read or\nwrite, but since the children have been compelled to go to school such an\noccurrence is no more to be found, unless one might happen to meet some very\nold people in some small village far off in the country.\nIt is necessary for a citizen to know how to transact business, small tho it\nmay be, and so the pupils are taught the use of the different stamped papers,\nissued by the government, necessary in every transaction.\nI wish to state that, France being a very fertile country, lessons in agriculture\nplay a prominent part in the instruction given in special primary schools, and\none can see in our exhibits the great attention given to it. A remarkable\ncollection, containing seven volumes, shows the surprising results obtained\nin a group of about one hundred small villages by a school inspector in\nBrittany.\nIn order to enable one to see as well as possible the organization of secondary\ninstruction in France, and also the method used and the results obtained, the\nministry of public instruction has collected in the three rooms devoted to that\npurpose a number of documents, which may be divided into two parts. ' On\none side the work of the pupils (exercises, compositions, drawings, etc.) have\nbeen arranged by classes; most of the secondary schools being represented\nby some exercise. If one examines these works, he can easily form an idea\nof the average standing in the studies. On the other side there has been collected a number of works connected with the general organization of secondary\ninstruction, and an entire list of documents connected with the formation of\nthe teaching force. There can be found the subjects of compositions given\nin the different competitions or in the most recent examinations, as well as the\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF FRANCE— A NATION\n\nOF ART\n\ncopies of the papers of the candidates who have successfully passed the examinations and competitions for chairs in lyceum^ and colleges.\nThe exhibits of the superior schools include documents sent by our most\nfamous superior schools, such as the \"College de France,\" the Museum of\nNatural History, the practical school of high studies, the \"Ecole des Chartes,\"\nand the School of Oriental Languages. The universities of France were, and\nsome are still, administered by the government, but in the year 1883 a motion\nwas made in the faculties and academic counsels to pass a decision enabling\nthe universities to administer themselves under the supervision of the government. The situation of higher education in other countries showed the necessity\nfor the rival university which had been created by the city of Paris in the\nMiddle Ages. The difficulty arising from the absence of unison had struck\nevery mind. Notice was taken of the numerous common interests which the\nfaculties should have watched, but which their isolation had compelled them\nto neglect. The inquiry, commenced in 1885, showed the necessity for a\nreform; it resulted in two government decisions in 1885, organizing in each\nacademical center a fund for the faculties. Thus was created the organ of\nnew life — the general Counsel of Faculties. These reforms produced noteworthy, tho incomplete, results. Then came the thought to give to higher\neducation a real unity. The institution of the new universities is the legal\nconsequence of this desire. A law was passed on July 10, 1896, giving to the\nbodies of faculties the name of universities, and substituting for the general\nCounsel of Faculties the Counsel of Universities. The funds of the university,\nvoted by the counsel on the proposition of its chairman, must be approved by\nthe minister, the necessary credit being voted and authorized in the same way.\nThe largest university is the one of Paris, where the students may take the\ndegrees of doctor of letters, medicine, pharmacy, sciences, etc. The University\nof Paris is six centuries old. It is situated in the palace of the Sorbonne,\nwhich was rebuilt between 1884 and 1900. This palace covers an area of\nabout 21,000 square meters, between the rue des Ecoles on the north side, the\nrues de la Sorbonne and Victor Cousin on the west, the rue Cujas on the south,\nand the rue Saint- Jacques on the east. It was built by the architect Mr. Nenot.\nIn the same building are located the Faculties of Sciences and Literature\nand the library for these two faculties, known under the name of the University\nLibrary.\nThe Faculty of Protestant Theology is located on the boulevard Arago;\nthe Faculty of Law, in the palace du Pantheon; the Faculty of Medicine, in\nrue de I'Ecole de medecine.\nThe Faculty of Sciences has two branches, one at rue Michelet and the\nother at rue Cuvier. On January i, 1904, there were 54 students attending\nthe Faculty of Protestant Theology, 4,752 at the Faculty of Law, 3,496 at the\nFaculty of Medicine, 1,546 at the Faculty of Sciences, and 1,830 at the Faculty\nof Letters; making a total of 11,678 students. These figures do not include\nthe Superior School of Pharmacy nor the Normal School.\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": null, "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe University of Paris has an exhibit on the right side of the main entrance\nin the French Section of Education.\nThe second university of France is the one at Lyons, comprising four\nfaculties: law, philosophy, medecine, and pharmacy, and sciences. On\nApril I, 1903, there were 2,650 students attending the courses of this university, the work accomplished being practically the same as that done in Paris\nand at the other universities, of which I shall mention the largest: Aix, Marseilles, Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille. Students from foreign countries are also admitted in these universities, and in\nParis there is a committee of which Mr. Casimir-Perier, former president of\nthe French Republic, is president, and Mr. Paul Melon general secretary.\nThe provincial universities have local committees by which they are cared for.\nIt would take a very long time to give details on the work accomplished in the\nuniversities, and to give the names of the professors composing their staffs.\nA very fine exhibit is the one of technical education from the ministry of\ncommerce. Altho the space allotted is very small, the display is quite interesting. The exhibits have been furnished by different schools, and the visitor\nmust not forget that all the work is by boys and girls. When one enters the\nroom in which are the exhibits of schools of arts et metiers — which translated\ninto EngUsh would mean schools of ''arts and trades\" — and the practical\nschools for boys, he will notice on the walls large frames covered with tools\nof every description. The precision with which these articles have been\nexecuted is really wonderful. There are also two dynamos, a gas motor, a\nboiler, and a complete outfit of watchmaking tools; also clocks and watches\nworking as well as if coming from a professional jeweler.\nA room of about twenty-five square yards has been devoted to the practical\nschools for girls. There are dresses, laces, and embroideries, which may give\nan idea of the training received by the pupils in three years. Some of the\ndresses are nicely finished, and most of the visitors admire a portiere of yellow\nsilk on which a peacock is embroidered. Some leather-work exhibited in\ncases seems also to attract much attention.\nIn the section of technical instruction can also be found exhibits of many\nsocieties and business schools, such as the school ''La Martiniere\" for boys\nand girls, the \" Ecole Pigier,\" etc.\nThe special instruction in foreign languages is represented by the Berlitz\nSchool of Languages. Several shorthand schools have also an exhibit there.\nIn its unity the exposition of technical instruction shows specimens of all the\ncharacteristic methods of technical education. Schools, societies, and industries have taken part in this manifestation, and, thanks to all of them, it has\nbeen possible to put on foot an interesting exhibition.\nThe most artistic part of the French exhibits, in its unity, is without doubt\nthe National Palace of France to the right of this building. This palace is the\nexact reproduction of the Grand Trianon at Versailles. It is formed, as you\nwill notice, of three rectangular buildings which encircle the court of honor.\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nREPUBLIC\n\nOF FRANCE— A NATION\n\nOF ART\n\nThe porch is of an imitation of marble and gives the impression of luxury and\ngood taste which characterize the productions of the century of the great king,\nLou'is XIV. There is only one slight difference between the national pavilion\nand the Grand Trianon. According to the documents of the seventeenth\ncentury, and after the projects of Lepautre, the architect of the real Trianon,\nthis monument was to be decorated with groups of children which do not exist\nin the real building. The architects of the pavilion, Messrs. Umbdenstock\nand Roger Bouvard, have luckily made this reconstitution, giving to the edifice\na more life-like aspect.\nAt the entrance of the French concession can be seen a monumental iron\nfence of the style of Louis XIV., which occupies the entire frontage of the\ngardens. Permit me to say a few words about these gardens, which have\nbeen laid out after the plans of Mr. Vacherot, the greatest architect of France\nin that line. The trees have been imported, and some of them have been\ntrained to make a fence. The task of Mr. Vacherot and his aids was a very\nhard one, considering that the garden was built on red clay.\nThe gallery of the pavilion is occupied by the great reception-room, which was\nfurnished by the \" Noble National Guard.\" This room is thirty-eight meters\nlong and nine meters wide, and the ceiling is seven meters high. The carved\nceilings frame three great decorative panels painted by one of France's most\ntalented young painters, George Roussel. Persons interested in art will not\nfail to notice how difficult it was for the artist to conceive a tint which would\nthoroly harmonize with the rest of the decorations.. As his subject the\npainter has chosen the motto of France, ''Liberty, equality, fraternity.\"\nUnder the allegory of ''Liberty\" one sees France coming in 1772, offering her\nsword to America to help her to acquire her independence. In \"EquaHty\"\nthe figures represent the commerce and industry of the two nations. \"Fraternity represents,\" in a symbolic group, America receiving France in 1904.\nIn a corner of the ceiling a child unites the flags of the two countries.\nThe great reception-room contains the beautiful tapestries representing\nepisodes of the reign of Louis XIV. The first represents an audience given\nby the king to Cardinal Chigi, July 29, 1664. The drawing was made by\nLebrun and Von der Naulen. The second pictures the entrance of the\nking into Dunkirk on December 2, 1662; the third, the siege of the city of\nDouai July, 1667. These tapestries are unique, and persons looking at them\nare surprised to see that the colors have not faded at all, spite of the fact that\nthey were made about three hundred years ago. In the same room can be\nseen the busts of several of France's greatest men.\nA very beautiful and artistic exhibit is the one of the National Porcelain\nManufactury at Sevres. Mr. Sandier, artistic director of the manufactury,\ncame himself to St. Louis to put everything in the right place, and, thanks to\nhim, this exhibit is one of the prettiest corners of the French building. There\nare immense vases, and many statues some of which represent the year and the\nfour seasons.\nEvery piece in this exposition has been manufactured purposely\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": null, "text": "648\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nfor the place it occupies, and they are samples of the most beautiful pieces of\nwork ever made in the renowned factory.\nThe city of Paris occupies three rooms in the right wing of the palace.\nThe municipal administration has tried to render its exposition most agreeable,\nat the same time trying to conserve the technical interest that the administrative services of a large city present. There are statues, paintings, medals, and\netchings of the principal works decorating the city hall of Paris. Architecture\nis represented by plans and drawings reproducing the types of the principal\nmonuments of the city: the Sorbonne, Palace of Fine Arts of the city of Paris,\narmories, professional schools, primary schools, etc. The services of pubhc\nworks, of light, of water, etc., present graphics and statistics.\nThe general decoration comprises some views of Paris' most famous\npromenades, and two great panels from de Grinberg: Notre Dame and \"Le\nPavilion de Flore.\" In the midst of these, green plants and flowers produce a\nbright effect.\nIn the left wing is a beautiful room called \"Salon des artistes decorateurs.\"\nThese rooms have been named thus because they have been decorated entirely\nby Mr. Dubufe and the Society of Decorative Artists. The first salon is twelve\nmeters long, six meters wide, and seven meters high. It is decorafed by compositions from the ingenious brush of Mr. Dubufe: first, poetry; second,\npainting and sculpture; third, music; fourth, architecture. The ceihng has\nfor its subject France passing. The architect of this room is Mr. Pierre\nSelmersheim, who drew the designs of most of the furniture.\nNext to this room is the one called \"Salle Dubufe.\" On the wall is a\npainting of this great artist representing the glories of France: first, Roland at\nRoncevaux; then, in a cloud, Napoleon and the great army; and in the center,\nunder the arch of triumph, the apotheose of one of France's greatest poets,\nVictor Hugo.\nIt would take too long to name all the artistic exhibits of France at the\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition. We have done our best to participate in this\ngreat event, feeling that we ought to do all in our power to beautify with our\nworks this splendid Exposition; and I am sure that every Frenchman admires,\nas I myself do, the great progress of the United States in the last one hundred\nyears. France will always be glad to see America go ahead, as the two countries have been, are, and always will be, I hope, the two sister-republics.\n\nART EDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nIN GERMANY\n\nPROFESSOR\nLEOPOLD\nBAHLSEN,\nCOMMISSIONER\nOF THE\nGERMAN\nEDUCATION\nSECTION, LOUISIANA\nPURCHASE\nEXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThe German government that sent me to St Louis as the commissioner of\nthe German School Exhibit takes a lively interest in the proceedings of the\ndifferent sections of the National Educational Association, and is convinced\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nIN GERMANY\n\n649\n\nthat the work of your Association is very valuable to education and the progress\nin culture. In order to prove this deep interest, especially in the questions\nconcerning art education, our government instructed one of the most prominent\nauthorities in art education to supply me with the official material for my\ntask — the man who rendered the most valuable services to develop the reformed\nmethod of teaching drawing in German schools, and who prepared our German\nexhibit in drawing and decorative work, Professor Pallat, of Berlin.\nAllow me to express the thoughts of this highly esteemed gentleman, which\nfound the entire approval of the German minister of education.\nIn Germany we have had but a short time a brief and significant expression\nfor what in EngHsh is termed ''art education.\" When in 1901 several friends\nof art and the school met to arrange for a congress that was to find means for\nthe aesthetic education of the people, it was only after much consideration\nthat they found the name of Kunsterziehungstag. They well know that by\nthis term they did not express it grammatically in quite a correct way, because\nkunsterziehen hterally means ''educate art.\" As it is, you do not wish to educate art, but you wish to educate for art and by art. From that day the\nexpression Kunsterziehung has been generally accepted. It was quickly\nspread by the publication of the results of the congress which were edited\nunder the title Kunsterziehung: Ergebnisse und Anregungen des Kunsterziehungstages in Dresden am 28. und zg. Sept. igoi.^\nThe Dresden Congress was intentionally devoted to what the English term\n\"art.\" Another Kunsterziehungstag which took place on October 9-1 1, 1903,\nat Weimar, treated the topic \"German Language and Poetry.\" A third one\nin 1905 will be devoted to \"Music and Dancing.\"\nThus you see the expression Kunsterziehung spreads beyond the reign of\nart, and will evidently within a short time mean the whole of the aesthetic\neducation. This education occupies the pupil in an active way as well as in\na passive. The pupil is active by practicing art; but to this there have been\nobjections, on the grounds that it is not the duty of the school to bring forth\nartists. There would be danger of bad amateurishness. We have reason\nto fear this, as we see that many who are unqualified devote themselves to art.\nThe cause of this is that a certain talent for drawing and modeling is mistaken\nfor real artistic gift. The capability of drawing from copy or nature no doubt\nis of some value and of use for any technical profession, but this is not what\nforms the artist. It is the keen sight, the deep perception, and the power of\ndelineation and invention. No doubt it is partly the fault of the old method\ninstruction in drawing that copying is freely overrated, whereas the memory\nfor form and the gift for delineation and invention have not been sufficiently\ndeveloped. Instruction in drawing went much astray in the nineteenth century, though certain men in the eighteenth and at the beginning of the nineteenth century had shown the right way.\nLet me tell you the order which one of them, Wilhelm von Humboldt, the\n' R. Voigtlander's Verlag, Leipzig, 1902.\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": null, "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nhead of the Prussian public instruction, gave to the Royal Academy of Art in\n1809:\nIt has been noticed that the instruction in drawing is most imperfect and that we\nare in want of a reliable method. The old method is of no use to art or general education,\nas the pupil seldom has the practice he is in need of for the power of intuition or delineation,\nor of a facility for transferring on paper things from nature, thus to avail himself of drawing\nas though it were a language of his own. As it is, they attain only a certain facility for\nachieving neat drawings from models. This is of no particular use, and later on may be\nlost to them. The instruction in drawing in elementary schools ought equally to consider\nthe education of an artist as well as that of man in general. The main point is to bring up\nthe young mind to the perception, delineation, and invention of form in particular. In\nthis way the inferior talent might be strengthened, and to the real talent good opportunity\nmight be given to develop and express itself.\n\nIf the demands of this order had been universally spread and observed\naccording to their intentions, toward the end of the last century we should probably not have been obHged to lay stress on the active side of art education.\nFirst of all the pupil should be made active so as to enable him to express his\nideas, feelings, and thoughts independently.\nOn the second Kunsterziehungstag one of the gentlemen spoke as follows:\nThe capability of expressing itself is a child's natural gift, which has been its own from\nthe very first dawn of consciousness, and which it develops to the day of its entry at school.\nAt school these powers were scarcely ever taken into consideration. On entering the\nschoolroom the child was treated as though it were its entry into the world. Instead of\n. continuing, school breaks off and starts something quite new. During the first days\nschool should give the child nothing new. One ought merely to endeavor to make the\nseeds of development take root in the new soil.\n\nWhen these words were spoken they were no longer appropriate concerning the instruction in drawing, since within the last decades of the past century\na great change had begun. We hope the latter may in due time lead us to\nacquire the expression of one's inmost self by way of drawing, as a matter of\ncourse, just as one acquires vnriting and reading. A child's abiUties with\nreference to these powers should accordingly be developed. If we should\nattain this, we need not fear any increase of amateurism. As yet the overrating of a superficial ability to draw and of mechanical perseverance may\nnot cease altogether, but willj no doubt, be limited by the regard for original\nand characteristic expression.\nIt is remarkable that it should not have been the pedagogues of art instruction, but the representatives of science, who first took up again Humboldt's\nideas. Professors in the university, Hke Virchow, Brumm and others, were the\nfirst to regret the insufficient talent for observation and the need of expressing\nby drawing. There were demands that the powers of observation and dehneation of the young should be developed more thoroughly as a counterbalance to\nthe mere notional way of thinking and of learning only matters of memory.\nIn free-hand drawing at school geometry and ornaments then prevailed. The\ninstruction exclusively taught drawing from the blackboard, or from wood\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nIN GERMANY\n\n651\n\nor plaster models, and was tedious and tiring for the pupil.\nThe outcry for\na change arose in about 1890.\nLet me name some of the most important works reating the reform of\ninstruction in drawing. In 1887 appeared Georg Hirth's Ideas oj Instruction\nin Drawing and Artistic Professional Education. In 1893 appeared Konrad\nLange's sensational book which was called The Artistic Education oj the\nYoung People in Germany. At the same time Alfred Lichtwark was at work\namong drawing-masters at Hamburg. There the first association of masters\nof cultivation of aesthetic education was formed in 1896. Thus the first\nenergetic advance toward the reform of instruction in drawing has been made.\nPrussia was the first of the great federal states to follow this direction.\nIn the plans of instruction of 1882 and 1892 special stress was laid upon the\nfact that drawing and painting from nature should be the main object of\ninstruction in drawing in the schools. In 1901 a new plan of instruction was\nintroduced into secondary and normal schools, which was fundamentally\nuniform. Tho for municipal schools a similar plan had been formulated, it\nhas not been generally introduced, as we have to wait for a sufficient number\nof teachers having acquired thoroly the new system of instruction.\nThis new method does not regard with disdain the natural drawing that\nthe child, led by inclination for play, has been practicing before its entry at\nschool. This childish way of drawing must be taken up again, and one must\ntry to keep up the pleasure the child took in it. The child must not be made\nto draw, with mathematical correctness, squares, triangles, and other geometric forms, which the grown-up would do by ruler and compass. It must\nbe sufficient for the 'child to describe on paper the things of its surroundings\nand its way of perceiving them. By and by perception thus expressed will\nbe corrected by a more minute observation of nature, and continual practice\nwill enable the hand to dehneate more correctly.\nAll subjects must, throughout the first years, be drawn from memory and\nnot from nature. Any abstract drilling by practicing eUipses, circles, and\nspirals should be avoided. As the energetic endeavor of grasping the characteristic side of a subject proceeds, the technical execution will naturally\nimprove of itself, and will remain the more personal the less there has been\ndrilHng of certain movements. The main object of instruction is not mechanical skill, but the ability of expression. The pupil's drawing is to show that\nhe has clearly conceived and taken everlasting possession of the essential part\nof the form of a subject — an ivy leaf, a butterfly, a vase, etc. Thus the\ninstruction gradually leads from the childish drawing from memory to drawing from nature. The advances in delineation which the child makes by this\nmethod depend on its gifts and on the knowledge and abihties of the masters,\nand also on the time at disposal. A certain limit has not been fixed. Provided\nthe master has the required capability, he is left at hberty to lead on his pupil\nto drawing figures and landscapes.\nThus in general the pupil is to have a good opportunity for practicing\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": null, "text": "652\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nunconsciously the natural gift of delineation. This is the artistic tendency\nof the new plan of instruction that perfectly agrees with Humbolt's deas.\nSince it had often been the case that the most gifted pupils had not taken any\ninterest in their drawing lessons, it has now been made a duty in the instruction\nnot only to advance the average pupil, but to discover he talents and to give\nliberty to their individual development. It will be the similar duty of all\nelementary schools, as well as of secondary and normal schools, to treat the\nquestion of free-hand drawing as has been mentioned.\nAs to the subjects of instruction the master has his choice. But there is\nan official list of means of instruction which are worth recommending.^ Also\nthe architecture of the school building and monuments is considered in the\ndrawing lessons.\nAs a consequence of the transformation of the instruction in drawing in\nthe schools, a reform in the education of drawing-masters has taken place\nwith'n the last years. At a number of academies of art and polytechnic\nschools special classes have been arranged for the training of drawing-masters.\nThe pupils who must have a general knowledge of drawing at their entrance,\nwill be specially trained in two years for the teaching of drawing in the\nschools.\nIn Prussia we take but the general educational school into consideration,\nwhereas in the south of Germany they also train masters for industrial technical schools. Consequently the courses last longer, and include also the\ndelineation of decorative drawing. But, generally speaking, we are becoming\nquite convinced that delineation of ornaments cannot be learned merely by\ndrawing. It would be more appropriate to arrange courses in special workshops for masters. There the delineation for certain purposes and for the\nassigned matters should be practiced.\nThe Ubungsschulen which have now been established for some years at\nthe Prussian normal schools for drawing-masters have specially been arranged\nfor their methodical education; they can voluntarily be attended by any\npupils. This institution has proven a splendid thing for the introduction of\nthe masters into the ideas and practice of the new method. It is a great\npleasure to see both masters and pupils making much progress by this sensible\nway of instruction. Some specimen products of the newly organized instruction in drawing have been exhibited at the German exhibition. The courses\nof instruction of the different kinds of schools are represented by pupils'\nworks. Besides, thirty-five schools have exhibited drawings of several variously gifted pupils made during the last terms. All this gives us an idea as\nwell as an insight into the capacity of the different kinds of schools concerning\nthe active side of art education.\nIn the same section pictures and sculptures render clear another point of\nart education which makes the pupils impressible for art and endeavors to\nrefine their taste by showing them good pictures.\nThis tendency is as yet\n' Paul Schahl Lehrmittelverzeichniss fiir den Zeichenunterricht, Berlin S. O., Neander Strasse 16.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nIN GERMANY\n\n653\n\nnew in Germany. The first Kunsterziehungstag in Dresden was the cause of\nits rapid advance. Ever since German artists and pubHshers have been\nenergetically at work producing cheap pictures suitable to a child's comprehension and fit for the decoration of the bare schoolroom walls. This sphere\nof work has been ei^tered by the firm for Breitkopf & Hartel, and Teubner\n& Voigtlander, in Leipzig, and for i^ischer & Franke in Dusseldorf. They\npublish colored original lithographs; viz., lithographs that have been designed\nby artists especially for school purposes and which they have drawn themselves upon the stone. The artists also indicate the colors and superintend\nthe production of the printing. The results of this proceeding are original\nworks as well as hand-drawings and etchings. The pupils are thus made\nacquainted with the very best of modern art.\nOther pubHshers, for instance the \"Verlag des Kunstwartes,\" the \"Neue\nphotographische Gesellschaft,\" and the \" Gesellschaft zur Verbreitung klassischer Kunst in Berhn,\" sell cheap reproductions of old masters. One can\nbuy now for 5 cents good reproductions of Leonardo, Diirer, Rembrandt, etc.\nA special store, the Albrecht-Diirer-Haus in Berlin, has been founded, which\nsells means of instruction in drawing and artistic wall decoration for schools.\nIn placing the pictures two points must be taken into consideration.\nFirst of all there might be a changing of frames, allowing you to take the\npicture out and change it. This system will soon make the children\nacquainted with various pictures. In favor of this mode we might say that\nit keeps awake the child's interest, which would soon be gone if it had constantly to look upon the same pictures. But, at the same time, it would be\na difficult task to place the pictures, with respect to their size, shape, composition, and colors, in harmony with their surroundings, though this would be\nbut a natural request. One might even require that these pictures, hung up\nin a schoolroom, should, as frescos do, give the formerly bare room a certain\nstyle of its own. The pupil should feel at home in his schoolroom and become\nfond of its particularity.\nBesides, this mode will teach the pupil how to decorate a room with good\ntaste and small means, and how to influence his home aesthetically. When\nwe try to comply with all these demands, we shall find difficulty in changing\na picture without disturbing the harmony of the room. Provided a school\nhas an ample supply of pictures, it could easily, by changing several pictures,\nproduce a new harmony. One would hardly need to change the pictures\noftener than once a year; for instance, during the summer holidays. For if\nyou change them too frequently, you will arouse the children's curiosity more\nthan you will lead them to take interest in art.\nAt the Augusta- Schule in Berlin — a girl's school and normal school for\nlady teachers — the royal Prussian ministry of public instruction tried thus to\ndecorate the present schoolrooms which differed from one another but in number and a few old pictures of little artistic value. There had to be considered\nthat these pictures should answer the comprehension and age of the children.\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": null, "text": "654\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe rooms of the lower grades have been decorated with pictures similar\nto those of a child's picture-book. Those of the middle grades contain\npictures taken from life, legend, or history. The upper-class rooms mostly\ncontain landscapes or reproductions of old artists. Besides, in several of the\nclass-rooms and on the landings plaster casts and reliefs have been placed.\nConsidering that the building is not new, there was much difficulty in giving\neach room a different and particular style. Henceforth, when architects\nendeavor to make schools more homehke, there will be none of those difficulties. The new construction of the walls will be more favorable to the\nhanging up of pictures. Happily we may state that among architects also\nthere reigns the conviction that a school should not only be built for use, but\nthat it ought to be a piece of art as well.\nAs far as the effect of art on a child's mind is concerned, artists and experts\nwish it to come on independently and unconstrainedly. To explain these\npictures in a scientific way would be as inappropriate as it would be to make\nuse of them as objects of demonstration for natural science or for history.\nNor do we think much of history of art concerning art in education. We are\nafraid that premature knowledge might hinder the unprejudiced perception\nof a piece of art, and might also bring up amateur critics instead of lovers of\nart. In spite of these considerations, if the master should at times be certain\nof the effect on the child's mind, he may renew the interest a child takes in a\npicture, and may also draw its attention toward the special way the artist has\nof expressing his ideas. A drawing-master whose special vocation it is to\nopen his pupil's minds to the beautiful in nature and art has most of all an\nopportunity for thus demonstrating.\nLet me close with the good wish that all drawing-masters might be individual and productive artists, so as thoroughly to fulfill this task.\n\nART EDUCATION\nMRS. MATILDA\n\nEVANS\n\nFOR THE\n\nRILEY, DIRECTOR OF ART\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nPEOPLE\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nWhen the people of a great nation can be brought together to witness the\nhighest results of the activities, not only of its own individuals, but of the whole\nworld, the educational effect in any direction cannot be overestimated. It\nmay not be immediately apparent, but the results, when attained, are immeasurable. Especially is this true of the artistic sense, as all things useful must\nmore and more conform to this sense as they become more and more perfectly\nadapted to their various uses.\nOne of the primary objects of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition was\neducational, so much so that it has been called an exhibit of processes rather\nthan products; and at no time has the artistic side been neglected.\nBeauty\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nof arrangement and construction was one of the first considerations when the\nExposition was designed, and the best artists and architects were consuhed\nand their best ideas adopted. The results are magnificent. The various\nexhibit buildings, each perfectly adapted to its use and ornamented with\nappropriate designs and sculptures, are arranged with a view to perfect harmony of form and structure. As much thought and attention has been given\nto the different buildings, that they might express by their design and decoration the purpose for which they were intended, as to the exhibits which they\ncontain.\nThe Exposition grounds are beautiful and harmonious, because their\narrangement has been planned with reference to the relation of one part to\nanother, and cannot fail to suggest to anyone the desirabiHty of beauty, of\nharmony, of fitness.\nBack of all art education there must be a desire for, and an appreciation of,\nthe beautiful and fitting, often inarticulate and unexpressed, it may be, but no\nless sincere. Therefore, before there can be any genuine art education of the\npubHc, these feelings must be awakened. The beautiful picture to be seen\nfrom Festival Hall, or from any of the numerous hilltops, must surely stir\nwithin one, no matter how engrossed he may be in his daily occupation, a\nfeeling that there is much that is worth while outside of business pure and\nsimple — or, as we now call it, commerciahsm — and a desire that he may know\nmore of those things that go so far toward harmonizing life with its environment,\nand how they may be obtained. This desire will result in the seeing eye and\nunderstanding heart.\nA glance in any direction shows a scene of beauty and gives an intimation\nof many beauties still unseen. One of the most subtle phases of true art is to\nstimulate the imagination to see in the invisible a continuation of the beauty\nindicated by the visible. This has been exquisitely accompHshed by the\nartists who located the various features of the Exposition; nothing inharmonious has been allowed to mar the view; even the Pike, that conglomeration of\nvarious exhibitions, has been made attractive by its varied architecture.\nThe natural inequahties of the grounds lend themselves admirably to the construction ofthe beautiful picture. Nature has been interfered with here only\nto bring it into harmony with the new uses to which it has been put. Many\nof us deeply regretted the destruction of the beautiful natural forest which\ncovered much of the ground now devoted to the Exposition, but while such\nbits of nature can be seen in many localities undisturbed, such a collection\nof the products of human industry required that such alterations should be\nmade as would adapt it to this changed purpose. The hills remain as nature\nformed them; millions of people will return to their homes with this picture\nindeHbly impressed upon their memories, consciously or unconsciously\ninfluencing their conceptions of beauty in architecture and the arrangement\nof grounds.\nThe distribution and arrangement of trees, plants, and flowers has been\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": null, "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\ncontrolled by no inartistic or unpracticed hand. This work, having been\ndone by some of our most noted landscape gardners, is surely a lesson in art for\nthe instruction of the public. Flowers in themselves are always beautiful,\nbut how often do we see them so inartistically arranged as to detract noticeably\nfrom the beauty of the individual flower, instead of combined so that each\nenhances the beauty of the other ! Altho the casual observer may not comprehend the cause of the difference, the impression remains to stimulate to greater\neffort. This is an art education so far as it goes.\nThe large exhibit palaces are valuable, in the way of art education, in that\nthey show in a striking manner how much their simphcity adds to their impressiveness and dignity. There is no meaningless detail. Where sculpture or\ndecoration is used, it suggests the purpose of the building and is always in\nharmony with it. This is true of all the sculpture of the Exposition, whether\non the buildings or on the grounds. In every case it expresses an idea, some\nphase of development. The more this feature of the Exposition is studied,\nthe clearer this becomes.\nInside the buildings the opportunities for the study of art in its broadest\nsense are almost unlimited. From the gigantic engines in the Machinery\nBuilding, down to the almost microscopic carving in the Japanese exhibit,\neverything shows the progress of human industry toward that goal of true art,\nthe perfect adaptation of a product to the use for which it is intended.\nMany of the state and foreign buildings are good examples of domestic\narchitecture, especially taken in connection with the lawns and gardens surrounding some of them. Some of our own state buildings are very artistic\nin their furnishings, besides containing many articles of historic interest and\nvalue. The French have given us a copy of the Grand Trianon, which, with\nits soft-toned furnishings, and wall- and floor-coverings, is a delight. If the\nmaterials used in the furnishing, and decoration of this charming palace are\nbeyond the reach of people of moderate means, the beautiful colors and the\nexquisite arrangement are not. We are indeed fortunate to have an opportunity to see in this building wonderful examples of the famous Gobelin tapestries, as well as a representative collection of Sevres china, in which are some\nstriking examples of the use of plant forms in decoration. The French building\nis open to the public on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays.\nThe Austrian building is especially pleasing and restful, with its furniture\nof simple Hues and soft tones of grayish-green; no polish, no gloss. Particularly beautiful in design are the cases, wall-cabinets, tables, etc. The cases\ncontain many beautiful examples of Austrian glass, laces, and embroideries,\nand on the walls are some fine pictures. In one of the rooms is a frieze of\nscenes showing peasant life and costume. The building itself is a striking\nexample of the new art; it was first built in Austria, taken to pieces, and reconstructed here.\nThe German building, a copy of a part of the Charlottenburg Castle, gives\nus a much-needed example of soHdity and spaciousness.\nNo crowding, no\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": null, "text": "Depaxtment]\n\nART EDUCATION\n\nFOR THE\n\nPEOPLE\n\nclutter of unnecessary articles of furniture and decoration.\nIn this building\nare some especially good examples of wainscoting in natural woods without\nstain or varnish.\nFrom the windows of the second floor a beautiful view of the\nFair can be obtained..\nnotice.\n\nThe curtains against these windows are worthy of\n\nIt would be impossible for me to mention all of the exhibits worthy of study\nin the various buildings; in fact, I have not yet had an opportunity to see them,\nand will mention only a few which I consider particularly suggestive. In\nthe east end of the Varied Industries Building is the German exhibit of housefurnishing, decoration, and arrangement, which I hope all of you will see.\nThere is a small reception-room in the northeast corner, near the door, and a\ndining-room in the same suite near by, which are beautiful, as are all of the\nrooms of the German country house, built in the court of this building. One\nis struck with the effect produced by the use of natural woods, both for wainscoting and furniture, entirely guiltless of varnish or polish, the soft tones of the\nfloor- and wall-coverings, the durability and simphcity of the furniture, and\nthe harmony of the whole.\nThe general exhibit of china, pottery, glass, and silver articles is very\npleasing, and expresses an honesty and fitness of purpose that are very convincing.\nThe exhibit of Delft and Rozenberg ware in the Holland section should be\nseen; as should the Danish exhibit of pottery, china, small silver, and needlework. The arrangement of these exhibits can be studied with advantage.\nMuch attention is given to harmony of details. The floor- and wall-coverings,\nand draperies where used, are neutral in tone, but not weak, and are evidently\nconsidered as a part of the whole. Crowding is avoided. Where the space\nis limited, the number of articles is restricted.\nThe country house, which is a part of the Enghsh exhibit in this building,\nis certainly well worth seeing, and the various features are clearly explained\nby the courteous gentleman in charge. Some of the materials used for coverings and hangings, shown in the general exhibit of the EngHsh section, are good\nin color and design.\nI would also call attention to .the exhibits of Rookwood and Van Briggle\npottery, and that of silver plate of the Gorham Company, in the Varied Industries Building, of which we have good reason to be proud.\nThe Italian exhibit of marbles and bronzes in the Manufactures Building\nincludes many beautiful pieces. It is really a pity that the space allotted to\nthis exhibit does not permit of a better arrangement.\nFor those interested in gardening and the beautifying of home and pubhc\ngrounds — and what interest can be productive of more real pleasure — there\nare many valuable suggestions. While much of the gardening is necessarily\nformal in design, the arrangement generally is good, the shrubs and flowers\nmassed around the buildings, with clear, open spaces between and in front.\nGood examples of the strictly formal are the sunken garden between the\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": null, "text": "658\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nLiberal Arts and the Mines and Metallurgy Buildings, the garden surrounding\nthe English building, and the garden of the Grand Trianon, the latter being\nvery elaborate. The grounds about the Agricultural and Horticultural\nBuildings are very pleasing as a whole, and some beautiful bits of gardening\ncan be found there; while the Japanese garden is truly a dream of dehght,\nshowing the co-ordination of nature and art in a very marked degree.\nI have mentioned briefly a few of the many representative and comprehensive exhibits, showing the result of careful training of eye and hand, and\nthe study of form, color, and design. In the exhibits contained in the Education and Social Economy building, in which, as teachers, we are all much\ninterested, and which will, no doubt, be the subject of your careful attention,\nis shown the process of this training and study. One most suggestive and\nencouraging fact strongly brought out by these exhibits is that the art education\nIn the pubHc schools thruout the country is along the same general hues and\nwith one common aim. It is, to some extent, influenced by local conditions,\nbut not necessarily to its detriment. An example of how it is affected by local\nconditions is shown in the exhibit of the Mississippi schools. Twenty years\nago saw the beginning of art education in the schools of that state, and soon\nafter it was made a part of the pubHc-school curriculum. At that time there\nwas but one cotton-mill in the state. The work in art education has developed\ngradually until now the child in the kindergarten weaves raffia, paper strips\nstrings, rugs, baskets. From that on are designed patterns suitable for weaving, aHttle more difficult in each grade. When the high school is reached,\nthe children take the raw cotton from the patch, make it into thread, dye it\nwith natural dyes, and weave it Into cloth, using he designs they have made.\nThe gentleman in charge of the Mississippi exhibit, who gave me this information, says there are now seventy cotton-mills in the state, where twenty years\nago there was but one — the result, at least in part, of this work in the schools;\nand where formerly the merchants of the state sent to Fall River and Liverpool for their cotton goods, they are now supplied by the mills of their own\nstate.\nThe exhibits, as a rule, are beautifully arranged, and show less effort for\nfine, finished work; and there is very httle isolated work. Formerly the child\nwas taught to make a design; now he is taught not only to make, but to apply\nthe design. The general aim is for growth and development in all fines of work.\nThe work exhibited shows not alone the training of the hand with the eye and\nwith the mind, but the expression of the soul. It is the work of children, often\ncrude and unformed, and, on the other hand, often surprisingly good; but an\nunderstanding and appreciation of that which is good is developed, which will\nlead eventually to a universal demand for the good. And this is really the most\npotent fac or in he art education of the people.\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nORGANIZATION\nCAPTAIN\n\nPERCY\n\nFOR\n\nART\n\nFOR ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\n659\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\nATKIN, BRITISH\nREPRESENTATIVE FOR EDUCATION,\nPURCHASE\nEXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nEarly in 1800 the results in England of neglecting the children of the poor\nwere so alarming that the absence of means for educating them could no\nlonger be disregarded. Then arose two enthusiasts in the cause. Andrew\nBell, a churchman, founded the National Society, and Joseph Lancaster, a\nnonconformist, organized the British and Foreign School Society, and from this\npoint educational questions were rarely absent from parliamentary debates.\nHowever, all the earHer legislative proposals proved abortive; but the need\nfor action was so great that in 1833 a sum of £20,000 was voted \"for the purposes of education.\" No central administrative machinery had been established, and the government therefore made grants of this money thru the two\nsocieties named.\nIn 1836 another phase of education received state recognition when £1,500\nwas granted for a Normal School of Design. Along both these lines considerable and rapid development took place. In 1839 the Education Department\nwas started, and, thru grants made by it to elementary schools, and the regular\nexercise of the right of inspection which accompanied them, the government\nextended its influence over all parts of England and Wales. Around the\nCentral School of Design other provincial schools were established and subsidized bygovernment grants, all of them controlled by the Department of\nPractical Art. To this department in 1852 a Science Division was added,\nand thus evolved the Department of Science in Art. Four years later the\nsupreme control of these two Educational estabhshments was united in the\nsame hands in the office of a vice-president who was to be the representative\nin Parliament of both the Education Department and of the Department of\nScience and Art.\nThe administration, however, of these two offices remained quite distinct,\nbut their spheres of action, at first quite separate, subsequently approached\none another thru the upward extension of the elementary school and the\ndiversion of the attention of the Science and Art Department from the instruction of adults to the teaching of the schools. The relations of both these offices\nto the institutions which they subsidized were very greatly modified by the\npassing of two Acts of Parliament. The Elementary Education Act of 1870\nestablished popularly elected local authorities with which the central office had\nto deal; while the Technical Instruction Act of 1889 intrusted the execution\nof the new duties to the recently created county councils, under the general\nsupervision of the Science and Art Department.\nTechnical education may be said to begin with the nineteenth century.\nIn 1800 Dr. Birkbeck started courses for workingmen in Glasgow\\ He continued this work when he removed to London, and thru this influence institutions which aimed at providing instruction for workingmen were established\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": null, "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nin many of the principal towns of England. But the movement failed to retain\nits hold upon the interest of workingmen. Many a mechanics' institute degenerates into a kind of social club for small tradespeople rather than for workingmen. The great exhibition of 185 1 once more called attention to the need\nof such instruction of the working classes, and one of the results was the creation of the Department of Science and Art, which has always devoted a\nconsiderable portion of its funds to the diffusion of scientific and artistic knowledge by means of evening classes. But the local resources available were so\ninsufficient that much of the work this department was intended to undertake\nremained undone, and there arose a further cry for increased opportunities\nfor technical instruction. To meet this demand the Technical Instruction\nAct was passed in 1889, and the execution of this act was intrusted, as already\nstated, to the local bodies which had been created in the preceding year by the\nLocal Government Act.\nAs far as any remedy was possible, it was secured by a wise administration\nof the Technical Instruction Act; but the chief need was for co-ordination in\nthe work of the various authorities.\nThe Board of Education Act of 1899 was the first application of this principle, and under it all the government departments dealing with education and\nendowments appertaining thereto were organized in three branches — elementary, secondary, and technological.\nThat is the position today.\nOur national organization for art education, altho not faultless, has proved\na useful experiment for other countries, and its working and results have been\ncarefully inquired into by successive foreign commissioners in view of similar\norganizations being set up in their own countries. It began its work when\nindustrial art was dead in England, and even in 185 1 industrial art had scarcely\nbegun to revive, for the illustrated catalogue of the great exhibition of that\nyear, which gave illustrations of the best art work exhibited, compares very\nunfavorably in contrast to the art work of today as shown in the Annual Report\nof the National Competition.\nThe organization had to create the instruments by whom the work was to\nbe done, to send them to centers where no standard of art existed, and where\nthe seed sown was often hindered in its growth as much by the mistakes of the\nfew who, while anxious for the cultivation, did not possess sufficient knowledge\nto give it wise nurture, as by the apathy of local magnates or the opposition of\nvested interests.\nAt the present day drawing, as taught in every inspected school for at least\none and a half hours a week, must include free-arm drawing in its syllabus,\nand it must provide for drawing from actual objects and must encourage,\ndesign. The government lays down general principles on which drawing\nshould be taught, but it leaves a large Hberty of suggestion to managers\nand teachers. But no scheme for drawing is allowed to count as part of the\nschool work until it has been approved by the inspector of schools for the\ndistrict.\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nFOR\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\n661\n\nThis makes the instruction more real, the conditions of teaching simpler,\nand gives free play to the originaHty both of managers, teachers, and pupils.\nAnd now to turn to the general principles on which art education in England\nis conducted.\nExperience has proved that the designing faculty, if exercised in conjunction with the earhest studies in drawing is more easily, pleasantly, and rapidly\ndeveloped than is a higher power of technique in drawing, and serves as a\nmost valuable aid and stimulus to acquiring that necessary technique. The\nhard and fast rule that, before allowing any exercises in design, the pupil must\nbe conversant with the elements and principles of ornament, as these have\nbeen evolved by theorists from the designs of the past, and also with the\nchronological and geographical developments of art, is not laid down in\nEngland. Such studies, it is felt, cannot be pursued with the necessary interest\nand intelligence by one whose inventive faculty is allowed to lie dormant, or\nis even repressed, for he cannot understand their meaning or appHcation. Of\ncourse, much material may be gathered, but it will generally be undigested,\nand the student may be full of this knowledge and yet no nearer being a\ndesigner.\nThe main object is the acquirement of the art of drawing, but the introduction of exercises in designs add an important element which makes it\neasier to acquire the drawing power and raises the subject to a higher rank\neducationally.\nMany children, even when very young, as we have all observed, are fond\nof drawing birds, insects, animals (especially pigs), the human figure, fairies,\nand grotesques. These are in the beginnings recollections of what they have\nseen in books, altho they soon begin to make them tell a story or illustrate an\nincident. We encourage and direct all this in the pupils, helping them to do\nthis better and to make fuller use of their powers.\nAll writing is merely memory drawing, and experience has proved that they\ncan better obtain all the spirit and essentials of a design from memory than\nwith the constant example before them.\nDrawing from plant forms as a means of teaching to see objects is generally\nfound to be more interesting than drawing from geometric models only, and\nis more directly useful in design. Pupils are therefore encouraged to take\nevery opportunity to make careful studies of plants, thoroly mastering one at a\ntime; to make use of them in design, and therefore to find a new interest in\nthem and see beauties which were before hidden from them.\nIt has been well said that \"the lines which are easiest to draw by the hand\nare those which contain the most beauty, and these cannot be drawn by instruments as can the circle, the square, the triangle.\"\nMost people will agree with this. For, as contrasted with the circle, which\nis one monotonous uniform curve, such lines are full of emphasis, strength,\ngradation, variation, and subtlety. Because of the natural action of the\nwrist, a full curve will always graduate to a straight Hne, and if you start with\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": null, "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\na curve approaching a straight Hne, it soon becomes rich and full. Such\ncurves, too, are those most plentiful in nature.\nThe power to gather from Nature, and to make use of as few or as many\nof her quaUties as may under the conditions be desirable or possible, is the\ndistinction between the artist and the mere copyist.\nWe try to get pupils to make use constantly of the stores of material they\nacquire, as they gather them in; otherwise they only cloud the mind by their\nvery abundance, and will make more difficult their first efforts in design, from\ntheir not knowing what to select and where to begin.\nIn our exhibit we show some designs by boys of thirteen and fourteen in\nfree-hand brush-work entirely composed of two indicated elements. In the\nlessons natural forms and method of growths are more or less suggested, partly\nbecause the curves easiest described by the hand are those most frequently\npresent in plant forms, and partly because, when the initial or principal lines\nwere drawn, their combination suggested a plant to the designer, and consciously or unconsciously gave a distinction, an individuality, to the forms\nwith which these leading lines were clothed. If, therefore, the pupil can\nstore his mind with the memory of shapes, and farther on of the color, tone, and\nmethods of growth of plants, he will obtain a large fund of material for designs,\nand the use of these forms in them will arouse an interest in his mind which\nmerely abstract forms can never awaken, however beautifully they may be\narranged. Not only are plant forms to be made use of, but the whole world\nof life — insects, birds, fish, animals, etc.\nAn interesting example of this is to be found in the British exhibit from\nthe art master of the Arbroath High School. I think the gradual reaching\nto detail thru first large and then smaller masses and groupings is one of the\ngreatest essentials in all drawing, not only of leaves and flowers, but of figures,\nanimals, and landscapes too.\nDrawing, we must all admit, is a fine relaxation from school studies. It\ndevelops early the powers of observation, invention, and creation — faculties\nwhich are in the highest state of excitement in the youthful mind; and it\nrecognizes that the first principle of the teacher's art is to stimulate into action\nthe powers possessed by the child, and to feed these with food in quantities\nnecessary for their healthy growth.\nIn England and Scotland encouragement is given to collective teaching by\nlectures and demonstrations at the blackboard. Collective teaching, we\nthink, allows more time for individual supervision. The pupils see the master\nat work; they learn to draw with knowledge (for the work of the lecture on\nthe blackboard is gradually developed before the pupils) instead of to practice\nunintelligent copying, and a common art language is established between\nteacher and pupils which is impossible by the mere copying of separate examples. It keeps the teacher in touch with his class, enabling him to enter into\nthe mind of the pupil by himself grappling with the same difficulties as beset\nthem.\nThe motives and object of the lesson are stated once and for all, instead\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nFOR\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN ENGLAND\n\n663\n\nof being repeated to each student. And what a weight of trouble in endless\nrepetitions is spared the teacher ! Collective teaching is equally necessary in\nfree-hand, geometry, perspective, ornament and design; but, of course, in\nregard to model drawing, light and shade, and all the higher work, individual\nteaching is more regularly adopted.\nArt-teaching today means more than training the eye to perceive, and the\nhand to delineate form and color. Primarily, it means the educing from,\nor leading out of, the pupil his special and individual power of expressing his\nown feelings about nature; not merely the mechanical power of portraying\nthe facts falling on the eye, but suggesting the emotions which those facts\ncreate in his soul.\nThe art work of the London Polytechnics (of which we show a selection)\nranges from the elementary drawing, which every technical student is urged\nto learn, up to the highest developments of fine art and design. Largely\nattended life classes, classes in wood-carving, modeling, art needlework,\nmetal-work, masonry, and carpentry attract in the aggregate more than\nthirty thousand students, day and evening. The Polytechnics are providing\nmore than one-third of the art teaching of London. In the national art competition several of them usually stand at the very top of the list of successful\nart schools. The works of their students now appear in the Royal Academy\nexhibition alongside your Sargent and Abbey, and still more numerously in\nthe arts and crafts exhibition in London.\nAttention has latterly been directed to the influence of examinations upon\nart education, and widely diverse opinions are expressed in relation thereto.\nThe government has, however, discontinued examinations in the elementary\nstages of art subjects. Some hold strongly that the influence of examinations\nis good, and that they are absolutely necessary as a stimulus for the pupils;\nothers look upon it as a harmless and undisturbing element in school life\nwhich is necessary because of the satisfaction felt by parents in the certificates gained by their children ; while some are strongly opposed to examinations as interrupting, if not actually preventing, a sound educational course\nof study. The last government report on art instruction in England and\nWales assures us that there is little cause for anxiety at present in regard to the\nhigher branches of art instruction, as they are on the whole being well worked\nand steadily developed. But the serious falling off in the elementary work\nof evening schools is a matter to which the attention and energies of the\nlocalities coneerned have been very carefully directed, and whether there is\nsomething in our national character that demands the stimulus of examination\nor not will appear during the next few years.\nIn Great Britain we are at the beginning of a great improvement in regard\nto schools of art. In some places it is now realized that the school of art has\nfunctions and branches of study, which are necessary in these stressful days,\nwhich differ greatly from those of the early Victorian period when, by the energy\nand foresight of the late Prince Consort, schools of art were first estabhshed.\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": null, "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nUnless the craftsman is brought under good art influence, his work will have\nan inferiority in style and character that will prevent its reaching the highest\nvalue.\nIt is gratifying to find that, in many of the schools, there is a general movement in the direction of strengthening the equipment necessary for efficient\ninstruction.\nI have endeavored to give you some general outhne of the history of the\nScience and Art Department of the British government, and some general\nideas as to the aim of the work, and I will now, having brought you up to the\npresent day, ask your kind forbearance while I venture to state a few statistical\nnotes on the work that has been done.\nWe spent £']6,']2i in 1902 on art education in England and Wales, being\n135. lod. per student (1*0,852 students). Of these, 54,085 were in 232 schools\nof art, and 56,788 were in 2,123 ^^^ classes. We pay igs. ^d. per student in\nart classes. We gave ten royal exhibitions (255. a week for forty weeks for\ntwo years); twenty local scholarships (£20 a year for three years); five local\nexhibitions of £^0, of which the Board of Education provides £2^, 467 free\nstudentships; 148 summer courses, with ^£3 allowance and return railway fare.\nThe national competition has been and is a powerful influence upon art\ninstruction. It keeps up a condition of emulation and of wholesome rivalry\nbetween the various schools and classes, and causes the advanced students\nto put forth their utmost endeavors to distinguish themselves in the contest\nfor medals and prizes. On the other hand, it may give rise to a dangerous\ntendency toward working in a set groove in various branches of work, e. g.,\nwhen a certain type of composition, such as in decorative design, has received\nthe approval of the examiners. In the last national competition, 5,422 works\nwere selected; to these 5 gold, 80 silver, and 212 bronze medals, and 442 book\nprizes were awarded. A selection from the accepted works was sent to Belfast, Edinburgh, Newcastle, and Salford for public exhibition.\nThe Councfl of Advice for Art appointed by the government has expressed\nthe opinion that facilities should be given to students in schools of art to carry\nout, or to see carried out, some of their own designs in the material for which\nthey were designed, as this would show whether or not they were suitable.\nThe council felt that nothing but harm could come from encouraging students\nto make designs, on paper or in plaster, without any knowledge of their suitability for execution in the material employed. The regulations have now\nbeen altered so that practice by students in design classes of craft methods for\nexecuting work in actual materials is recognized as a constituent part of a\nstudent's art training.\nEndeavors are made to simplify and consolidate school work by making\ninstruction in subjects of science and art (of a kind and amount to be determined bythe general aims of the school) an integral part of the general education given to all pupils, rather than to encourage the teaching of a multitude\nof subjects to special sets of pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOUTDOOR\n\nART\n\n665\n\nAs I have already indicated, it is felt that art, if properly taught, has a great\neducational value, altogether apart from the subject learned. It develops\naccuracy of observation, reasoning from effect to cause, a power of analysis,\na love of the beautiful, a tenderness and susceptibihty of mind, habits of neatness, an accurate workmanhke use of the hand; and, in addition, is of value\nin the teaching of science and other subjects.\nI must express to you my thanks for having been permitted to address\nthese few remarks on this very large educational question as we view it in\nEngland.\n\nTHE\nGEORGE\n\nEDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE\nOUTDOOR ART\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nE. GAY, DIRECTOR, EDUCATIONAL EXHIBIT OF MASSACHUSETTS\nLOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nAT THE\n\nMy theme concerns the architecture of public building and sculpture in\npubhc parks and streets in the single aspect of their educational influence.\nI am asked to say what part public outdoor art plays in public education.\nIn a general way, we may say, of course, that in many particulars it sets\na standard for private art; that it creates ideals; that private dwelhngs will\nbe in better form and will be ornamented in better taste because public buildings are more stately or more dignified or more beautiful, and because parks,\nlawns, and roadways contain the best specimens of the sculptor's art. The\nreal in art and conduct is always the child of the ideal, and ideals are begotten\nof noble deeds and high achievement.\nArchitecture has a high moral significance that is reflected in pubhc life.\nThe tower that rises toward the skies is a perpetual call to high living.\nGrace and beauty appeal to the best that is within us. StateHness and\ndignity rebuke meanness and strife. ''Let us build our lives as well,\" is the\nanswer of the soul to hall and temple. The edifice that is adapted to its\npurpose calls to truth and honor. Repose in architecture provokes dignity\nin pose and bearing. Height shouts courage and hope. One cannot look\ndownward in a cathedral. The mind refuses to dwell on the dust beneath the\nflags, and rises like the music from the choir to the towering arches above.\nWhen sculptured ornament is added to architectural strength and repose,\nthey become still more eloquent. Their voice is made sweet, and its carrying\npower becomes greater. The veriest clown takes off his cap and stands\nagape before a Corinthian column. As a discord in music adds beauty to the\nsucceeding harmony, so ugliness in ornament may sometimes emphasize the\nbeauty of a structure. The griffins in the cornice, bark they never so loud,\nare silenced by the voice of wall and roof.\nMural sculpture which portrays great historic events and the achievements\nof heroes is a challenge to noble endeavor; incites to patriotism, it may be, or\nto defense of home or honor, or even to martyrdom in a righteous cause.\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": null, "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nMural sculpture of another sort excites the poetic nature of the observer, for\nit gives pulse and rhythm to the currents which flow from wall and tower and\ncolumn and pilaster. Hector bidding wife and boy farewell has sent many\na man to the defense of his country; a dancing satyr has given new breath to\nthousands of weary men.\nIn Boston we spread the history of our Pilgrim ancestors on the walls of\nour buildings. Chicago places the life of Marquette in bold relief in the center\nof its busiest mart. St. Louis records in stone the generous deeds of its patron\nsaint. We are better because the lives of these men are ever before us.\nStatuary in parks and public squares has great value as an educator. It\nteaches history and biography. French's minute man tells the story of Concord and Lexington to a thousand pilgrims every year. DeSoto tells to every\nresident of the Mississippi valley the story of his march. Washington in scores\nof cities in America, Washington in the center of Paris, tells the story of successful rebellion against unrighteous power. Longfellow in a dark corner\nof Westminister Abbey is a beacon telling the story of America growing in\nculture and grace as well as in stature and power.\nSculpture teaches good government also; for it emphasizes statesmanship\nand civic progress. Webster still proclaims that the Union must be preserved.\nLincoln still breaks the shackles from bondmen, white and black. And he\nwho regretted that he had but one life to give his country while he lived has\ngiven a thousand lives to that country since his death. For sculpture embodies\nideas. The lion of Venice, the eagle of Rome, the lily of France — what are\nthey but the very hearts of nations? The Column of July, the Statue of\n.Liberty, the Triumphal Arch — what are they but the prolonged shouts of\nvictory over prostrate foes?\nSome sculpture teaches only beauty; and beauty is sufficient excuse for being.\nWhat man but walks more erect as he sees in marble or bronze an artist's\nconception of Apollo? What woman but has more respect for the \"human\nform divine,\" and tries to possess it, when she looks upon a sculptor's Venus\nor Juno ?\nIt is well, therefore, that every city and hamlet in the land should place in\nits public places these instructors in history and good government, these\nmodels of beauty, these preachers of righteousness.\nIt is well that this beautiful park, as it gathers the nations from the corners\nof the world, should erect noble buildings for their use, should beautify and\nenrich them with the sculptor's chisel, and should place on buildings, on bridges,\nand on plazas their triumphs of representative art. Let us learn their lessons\nand gain inspiration and strength from their words.\nIn Boston we have just erected a noble monument to a noble man. On\nits base we have carved a noble motto: \"A soldier in the army that kept the\nUnion whole.\"\nTeachers, we too are soldiers in an army. Let us labor to keep the Union\nwhole.\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": null, "text": "ARTISTIC\n\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION\nMR. CARL\n\nLIDMAN,\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\nFOR ARTISTIC\nEDUCATION\nPURCHASE\n\nIN SWEDEN\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\nIN SWEDEN\n\nDEPARTMENT, SWEDISH COMMISSION,\nEXPOSITION,\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nLadies and Gentlemen:\nI have not considered it proper to decline the honor of the invitation to\nspeak on the subject in question on this occasion, and this because I am of\nthe same opinion as the esteemed president, Mr. Hopkins, that education for\nartistic handicraft not only takes place at the institutions of which such education isa special aim, but that it constitutes, or ought to constitute, a part\nof education in general. I beg to remark that, being myself a teacher in the\npubHc schools of Stockholm, I intend to speak only of two subjects taught\nthere, namely, sloyd and drawing, which I consider to be of special importance\nwith regard to education for' artistic handicraft.\nIn the countries of the North the light nights of the short summers are\nsoon succeeded by long, dark winter evenings. The agricultural population\ncannot then work in the fields and meadows, but, in accordance with the\ncustom of their forefathers, these people are obUged at such times to find\nemployment within the four walls of their cottages. Here, in olden times,\nthe members of each family — among this number the servants were also\nincluded — gathered readily around the stone hearth, upon which a warm\nbright fire of large logs blazed merrily, and, to the strains of a ballad or a\nhymn, or while listening to one of the many northern legends, their fingers\nwere busied with some useful occupation. The men, for example, made\nspoons, ladles, benches, tables, and other articles necessary for farm work or\nfor home, often ornamenting each object with simple and tasteful designs;\nwhile the women tended the spinning-wheel and the loom, or stitched some\narticle of dress intended for their own use or that of the men. Such work,\nexecuted with simple aids of persons not belonging to any guild has, in Sweden\nfor long ages, gone by the name of \"sloyd\" (Swedish slojd).\nBut, in consequence of many co-operating causes, this skill in sloyd had\nby degrees begun to diminish, and, in some places, even to die out and disappear. Much of the work which in former ages had been executed in the\nhomes of the peasantry was now taken up by the rising manufacturing industries. About thirty-five years ago the Swedish people began to see the danger\nof this, and that was the reason why they tried to take such measures as should\nreinstate the sloyd of their forefathers in the honorable position which is its\nproper due, and which it had formerly held.\nWhether it be a question of spreading any new knowledge, any new kind\nof work, or of reviving that which is on the verge of extinction, we can, as is\nwell known, go to work for the most part in two different ways. We can\nendeavor to influence either that part of the population which is already come\nto adult age, or that part which is still growing up; to influence either the\ngeneration that is, or the generation that will be.\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": null, "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nThe latter way will probably prove to be the surer one on the whole ; for\nthe mind of the child is, as we know, always more receptive than that of the\nmature man. Good schools, therefore, is the best gift any period can give\nto a future one.\nAt the same time that those who are striving for the revival of sloyd came\nto see that it was the child in its school age that they should endeavor to\ninfluence, the friends of an improved system of popular, education began to\nhave their eyes opened to the fact that sloyd was an educational means of the\ngreatest value, well worth incorporating with the theoretical and practical\nsubjects of instruction already adopted.\nResigned to, and received by, the schools, the sloyd question remained no\nlonger a politico-economical one, but became rather a pedagogical one, and\none of ever-increasing scope. The attempt to use the school in order to train\nsloyders was changed to the endeavor to use sloyd in order to educate the men\nand women of the future. The school in the service of sloyd was changed to\nsloyd in the service of the school. But this thought was by no means new. The\nhistory of pedagogy can show that, for centuries back, almost every pedagog\nwho stood a head higher than the multitude endeavored to maintain the\nimportance of bodily labor as a mighty means of education. Comenius,\nFrancke, Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, Salzmann, Pestalozzi, Frobel, are, as\nwe know, stars of the first magnitude in the art of education, and all of them\nhave given expression to the opinion that the training of the hand should proceed simultaneously with that of the head and the heart. But, as is well\nknown, it was only in our own times that this thought was understood and\nrealized to any very great extent.\nAmong the sloyd schools established during the period we have mentioned,\nthat at Naas was one of the earliest. Naas is an estate situated about eighteen\nmiles east of Gothenburg. This old property was thirty-five years ago in the\npossession of August Abrahamson, who had retired to the place in order to\nenjoy the fruits of an industrious Hfe. Here, assisted by his nephew, the\npresent administrator and director of the institution. Otto Salomon, he established in 1872 the Naas sloyd school for boys, later on reorganized to Naas\nManual Training College, which is now a state institution, its main object\nbeing to educate teachers in pedagogic sloyd.\nThe courses in sloyd given at Naas have been pursued with a special\ninterest. At the close of 1903 the total number of students amounted to\nabout five thousand, but a good many students have taken part in two or\nseveral courses. The actual number of individual students amounted to\nfour thousand from thirty-five different countries; seventy- three of these\nstudents have come from the United States.\nThe instruction, at which attendance is compulsory, given during the\ncourses is partly theoretical, partly practical. While the former includes\nlectures and discussions, the latter is chiefly represented by sloyd and drawing.\nThe theoretical instruction during different courses has been concentrated\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nARTISTIC\n\nHANDICRAFT\n\nIN\n\nSWEDEN\n\n669\n\nnow upon one branch, now upon another, of that widely extensive subject,\nthe pedagogics of sloyd.\nThe work in the sloyd-rooms forms a whole with the theoretical instruction,\nand is arranged as can be seen by the Swedish school exhibit. In arranging\na series of models, the exercises entering into this kind of sloyd are made the\nbasis for a gradual progression. This is a characteristic of the Naas method;\nfor by this means it has been found possible to maintain the demand made by\nthe partakers in the course, that the work executed by them should be neat\nand exact. They have not been allowed to hand in incorrect or half-done\nwork; and even if, as may be, more than one student, unaccustomed to such\nneatness and exactness, has complained of the ''pedantic way\" in which the\nwork of the students has been examined, the complaints have been received\nwith equanimity. For it is undoubtedly owing to the maintenance of these\nstrict requirements that it has been possible to open the way to the schools for\na system of sloyd instruction which laid weight, not upon the amount, but\nupon the quality, of the work executed.\nThe sloyd instruction according to the Naas system is introduced into\nalmost all of the Swedish common schools. One of the main objects of this\ninstruction is to train the eye of the pupil to discern and the hand to execute.\nSpecial weight is laid upon the development of the eye and the sense of form.\nAmong the models there are many which are termed \"modeling models\" —\nform models — and which require a freer employment of the tools. According\nto this the fundamental tool is the knife. One of the principles is that sloyd\narticles should be satisfactory from an aesthetic point of view.\nThose who desire to get more information in regard to Swedish pedagogic\nsloyd I beg to refer to a pamphlet, obtainable in the Swedish School Exhibit,\nentitled The August Abrahamson Foundation Nads, and edited by Otto\nSalomon. With regard to the work in the schools that have for their special\nobject education for artistic handicraft, I beg to call attention to the Swedish\nSchool Exhibit, where the Technical School of Stockholm exhibits work of\nits students, and especially to that section of the school called \"The Higher\nArt Industrial School.\"\nRegarding the teaching of drawing : I have had opportunity to observe the\nschool exhibits of the United States; that in this country the old method in\nthe teaching of drawing, to let the pupils be occupied by abstract drawings,\nhas been abandoned; and that instead thereof drawing from actual objects\nhas been introduced. The very interesting address delivered by Dr. Bahlsen in\nthis room last Tuesday informed us that Germany also has adopted this\nmethod with great advantage. I have only to remark that such a reform has\nbeen undertaken in Sweden; i. e., copying from drawings has been displaced\nby drawing from actual objects, selected, of course, according to certain rules.\nThe fundamental principles are : Instruction in drawing should be chiefly\nbased upon the immediate rendering of characteristic form from the child's\nsurroundings, both in nature and in daily life. Development of the abihty of\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": null, "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nthe child to observe independently, to understand and to reproduce an object,\nboth as to form and to color, accompanies the instruction in other subjects.\nHow these principles are enforced is illustrated by models for drawing and\npupils' work that are to be seen in the Swedish School Exhibit.\nAt the same time that teaching of drawing as arranged in accordance with\nthe aforesaid principles receives greater practical importance, it also gets\nmore interesting and is in a very high degree instrumental in developing the\npupil's artistic inclinations.\nBut it is not only by instruction in drawing and sloyd that the child's\nsense of art should be developed. One must also try to influence the child\nwith regard to this by other means.\nBefore closing, I wish briefly to mention some points of view to which\nattention has been paid in our country'. When a new schoolhouse is to be\nbuilt, the best possible architect is chosen in order that the building, altho it\nbe very plain, should by its proportions have an educating influence. In\nthe choice of colors for walls and of school furniture this requirement also\nought to be observed. The walls of the schoolhouse ought to be decorated,\nif possible, by original works of art, or, for lack of such, by good reproductions.\nIn order to help our different kinds of schools in this effort, a society has been\nfounded that has frescoes painted by eminent artists, and valuable reproductions, bought in order to present them to the schools. A sketch of such a\nfresco by the well-known Swedish painter, Carl Larsson, is to be seen in our\nart exhibit.\nThe teacher ought to take the children to collections of art, where such\nare to be found, and he ought to open their eyes to the beauty of nature in the\nschool garden and on excursions. By doing one's best to give the children\nbeautiful surroundings, by teaching them to observe and to reflect on these,\nand to make, themselves, beautiful works, will result, no doubt, in a more\nrefined taste and an improvement in the artistic handicraft of the nation.\n\nART EDUCATION FOR THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, AS SHOWN\nAT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION IN THE\nNORMAL\nCRAFT\nMISS ANNA\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nVANDALAINE\n\nART\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHENKEL, FIRST ASSISTANT\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOLS,\nST. LOUIS,\n\nAND\n\nART\n\nSUPERVISOR\nMO.\n\nHANDI-\n\nOF DRAWING,\n\nSo large a subject for a few minutes' talk is indeed appaUing, and so I\nshall try to give briefly only a few of the impressions given me by my visits\nto the Exposition during the past few weeks.\nGradually the idea that we Americans are not an artistic people will grow\nfainter as we grow not only to love and appreciate art and beauty, but also to\nbe creators and producers of artistic and beautiful things.\nThe opportunity\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPEOPLE\n\n671\n\nto see such productions from many countries that is given to the great masses\nof our people by a world's fair such as was held at Chicago eleven years ago,\nand is now with us in St. Louis, is one great factor in creating the appreciation\nof art that must exist before the second stage can be attained, the desire to\nachieve artistic production.\nA few years ago the term ''art\" suggested to the majority of people a vision\nof ''oil paintings,\" done generally by a maiden aunt or deceased grandfather,\nwho, one would hear announced with great pride, had never taken a lesson. I\nhave vivid recollections of being called upon to admire these works of art, and\nof inward struggles to refrain from suggesting that some good instruction\nmight not have been such a disastrous thing after all. At that time sculpture\nalso was sometimes suggested by the term \"art;\" but surely only sculpture and\npainting.\nI shall frankly confess that, with this few minutes' talk in view, I have\nrecently become a listener to conversations not intended for me — conversations of people visiting the Exposition, as I have examined the pictures in the\nPalace of Fine Arts, or looked at the costumes of the Japanese of a thousand\nyears ago as shown in the central pavillion in the lovely Httle Japanese garden\non the hill, or listened to the music while I rested before continuing my search\nfor the beautiful or interesting. I find that there is a much wider understanding ofthe term \"art\" than existed eleven years ago; that the term is no\nlonger applied only to painting and sculpture, but that in many minds it is\nreclaiming its broader and truer meaning.\nThere are several causes for this ; several conditions have worked this result.\nFirst I shall place the influence of the great expositions beginning back in\n1876 with the Centennial at Philadelphia. Of that my only recollection is of\nhearing described a wonderful piece of sculpture in butter — a butter cow. But\nI have also the lasting pleasure that some quaint Httle Japanese paintings\nbrought from the Centennial afforded me all thru my childhood. I think\nwe still have the butter cow and the Japanese paintings, but now the order\ncould be reversed and the paintings placed first.\nThen came the Chicago fair, and with it to multitudes, Hke myself, their\nfirst opportunity to see really fine works of art. As the weeks advanced, the\ncrowds in the art galleries grew greater and greater.\nAt that time the development of art appreciation was doubtless with many\nin its first stage — the stage where it is the story told by the picture that holds\nthe attention, and brings the visitor again and again before certain pictures.\nThat no other picture at the Chicago fair attracted such crowds as did \"Breaking Home Ties\" shows this. It was the appeal to human experience that\ndrew the people, not the understanding of art.\nIn watching the people in the Palace of Fine Arts in St. Louis, I am strongly\nimpressed by the growth and development that have taken place in eleven\nyears. This is surely one of the immediate results of our great expositions.\nTo be sure, we still have the man from Missouri who was heard to say the\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": null, "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nother day that the exhibition of pictures at the St. Louis fair is \"fine, fine,\nremarkably fine;\" why, he spent two hours and a half in the picture galleries,\n\"yes, two hours and a half,\" and he considered the time well spent. This\ngentleman's interesting statement does not, however, affect the truth of the\ngreat growth along these lines.\nThe second factor that is contributing to this greater understanding is the\nwork in our pubHc schools. I have not been asked to speak about the public\nschools, but I cannot leave them out. It is comparatively few times that one\nis asked now why art education is undertaken in our public schools — schools\neducating pupils from every imaginable and unimaginable sort of home in\nthis land of ours. The question, quite general only a few years ago, about\nwhether the aim is to make professional artists of the pupils is a rare one,\nalmost as rare as whether we expect the pupils to follow a literary career\nbecause they are required to study English and composition. Intelhgent\npeople quite generally acknowledge the right that art education has in the\ncourse of study in our pubUc schools.\nI have had a good deal of pleasure recently in listening to the replies of\nchildren of fifth and sixth grades when I asked them about the aim of certain\nexercises they were required to do. For example: Why paint plant forms or\nsketch them with pencil? Why make designs of any sort? In only a few\ncases did I receive the reply that the object was to make artists or designers\nof them. To make them quick to see, to enjoy, to become skilful with their\nfingers — many were the answers, and the general trend of them was indeed the\nreal aim — education — tho the answers were given in childlike language. If\nthis be true of quite young children, how is it with the pupils in our normal school\nand our art schools, and with that still larger school, the people generally ?\nThe solving of the problem of art education for the American people is not\nso slow as it seems at first, and the helps are many. Many are to be found\nhere in this St. Louis Exposition. Those immediately concerned in education are finding an immense amount of help in the Education and Social\nEconomy Building.\nI am glad that all these exhibits are under one roof, making it possible to\nsee and compare our ways with those of other countries. We find that in\nJapan there are normal schools just as there are in America; art schools, just\nas in America. So in other countries. In talking to a native of India a few\ndays ago, whose pure English was a great pleasure to me, I found that it takes\nsixteen years to complete the course in India. So it does with us, when we\ntake the eight years before the high school, four in the high school, and four\nyears in college.\nWe find upon comparing that the ideas of modern education in the different\ncountries are not so different — only the special ways of carrying them out.\nOur friends from across the different great waters seldom believe in educating\nthe boys and the girls together. But the more important point all agree upon,\nand that is, that they all be educated.\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nPEOPLE\n\nFor the methods of the schools we may study the exhibits in the Education\nBuilding; also for the methods of the art schools. For the results of those\nmethods in the first instance we must study the people; in the second, we may\nvisit the Palace of Fine Arts.\nIn studying the people, what are we sure to discover? That they are\nintensely interested in all sorts of handicraft, and in processes. It is a curious\nand interesting fact that, along with greater perfection of machinery and\nmachine-made things, has come a revival of handicraft and hand-made things.\nThe old order is reversed.\nIn these hand-made things, whatever they may be, do we find that subtle\nsomething we call art. Of the many buildings it has been my privilege to\nvisit at the Fair, in not one have I found a lack of opportunity to study art\nin this broader sense. In the \"Liberal Arts,\" the ''Manufactures,\" the\n** Varied Industries,\" what manifold opportunities! What chaste designs in\nfurniture, what wonderful work in textiles, what in carving, in metal-work,\nin leather! It is quite impossible to enumerate the things worthy of attention.\nHow are these things educational? Contact with excellence in any form\nwhatever, if it beget the desire to make our own efforts more worthy, is sufficient explanation. Pure joy in realizing beauty, and the effort to attain it in a\ngreat or a small way, is worth all effort.\nGoing from the great palaces of exhibits to the buildings of the various\ncountries, the same opportunities are unfolded.\nI have seen only a few of the state buildings, but in those few I have found\nmuch to enjoy and to study. New York is so dignified and harmonious. Mississippi shows a reproduction of the old home of Jefferson Davis, Beau Voir.\nIn it are many things of historical interest. Indiana has a delightful state\nbuilding. The coloring, the furniture, the arrangement thruout are unusually\nharmonious and satisfying. The paintings of the Hoosier School of Artists —\nSteele, Forsyth, Adams, Stark, and many others — are well arranged, and prove\nthat Indiana has an unusual number of strong painters. The collection of\nthe bits of original manuscript of their writers shows how many authors\nIndiana has produced.\nAmong the achievements of the different countries, what could be more\nexquisite than the Japanese garden ? To- go to the top of the hill and look\ndown over the restful stretch of green thru which runs the little stream winding\nin and out, as Nature herself would have made it, and in that stream the large\nirregular stepping-stones, the masses of beautiful Japanese iris with their\nlavender and purple blossoms and long straight leaves casting their lovely\nreflections in the water, convinces one of the perfection that may be attained\nthru art. Could we not take some hints about gardening? Have not the\nJapanese themselves shown in this very spot the superiority of that natural,\nirregular arrangement over the set beds of regular .shapes ? We have only to\nconsider the flower-bed at the top of the hill, which is a crescent, and not half\nso delightful as the iris in the pool below.\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": null, "text": "674\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Art\n\nNow, to consider for a moment the exhibits in the Palace of Fine Arts. I\nmust confess in the beginning that it has been impossible for me to visit more\nthan Germany, France, Great Britain, Canada, Sweden, Holland, and to\ntake one brief run thru the United States section. In every place there was\nmuch that held me with greatest interest.\nIn the German exhibit the portraits by Lenbach stand out from all else\nin my mind. In the French exhibit the superb work in metal and leather by\nM. de Lignereaux can be seen in the cases. Every design has a symbolic\nmeaning, and in it all one feels the touch of the artist profoundly absorbed\nin his art, combined with perfect workmanship. Look at the beautiful clock,\nthe design the pine with its cones, the falling pine needles standing for the\npassing of the moments.\nSwedish exhibit.\n\nCarl Larsson's interesting work is to be found in the\n\nThe British section contains the work of Farquharson — night scenes and\nsnow scenes with sheep. In this section look at the beautiful books in the\ncases. To me the work of Great Britain in books and bookbinding, illumination, and designs for textiles is more admirable than the pictures. By\nthis comment I do not mean that there is not a wealth of material to study, to\nenjoy, to assimilate.\nThe Dutch section has filled me with deepest pleasure. Josef and Isaac\nIsraels, Blommers, Tromp, Haverman, Schwartz, and many others have I\nlooked at, not only once or twice, but many times. The deep harmonious\ncolor, the beautiful composition, the subjects, and the technique are, every\none, sources of interest and pleasure.\nOf the United States exhibit I shall say nothing, but it is only because of\nthat one hasty visit, not because there is nothing to see and to make one's\nown.\nIn all the exhibits of the Palace of Fine Arts there are cases showing\npottery — exquisite pottery — of beautiful form and entrancing color and\ndecoration; there are examples of textiles, baskets, metal, furniture; wonderful\nexamples of bookbinding, etc.\nAt the World's Fair in Chicago there were only painting and sculpture in\nthe Fine Arts Building. That all these other things are shown in the Palace\nof Fine Arts at this time seems to me to indicate that we are surely growing to\nappreciate the broadening of the term \"art.\" We are only going back to\nthe understanding of art as it was known years and years ago, when the\ncraftsmen were also artists.\nIf our study of the exhibits at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition leads to\nthis knowledge of the deeper, broader meaning of art, then will the American\nnation become in the future a really artistic nation. Then will the integrity\nof our work be the one thing for which we shall care. Integrity in our work\nmeans integrity in character. If general education, which in the future\nmust include art education, does not mean the development of integrity of\ncharacter, then indeed are we far from our ideals.\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST SESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 1904\nThe department met in Recital Hall, adjoining Festival Hall, on the grounds of the\nUniversal Exposition.\nVice-President William A. Wetzell opened the meeting at i : 30 p. m. with a brief\nmemorial of Sterrie A. Weaver, president of the department, who died in April, 1904.\nA piano solo by Ernest R. Kroeger was heard with much pleasure.\nVice-President Wetzell then deHvered the annual address, and was followed by a\npaper by Mrs. Marie Burt Parr, supervisor of music of primary grades, Cleveland, O., on\n\"Primary Music Methods.\"\nP. C. Hayden, of Iowa, moved that the chairman appoint a nominating committee\nof three. The motion was seconded and carried, and the chair appointed as such committee Miss Anna M. Allen, of Peoria, 111.; Mrs. F. E. Clark, of Milwaukee, Wis.; and\nHerbert Griggs, of Denver, Colo.\nP. C. Hayden stated that there were a number of important committee reports to be\nheard at this session, and moved that when adjournment was taken it be to meet at i : 30\nThursday afternoon.\nThe motion was seconded and carried.\nPapers were read as follows:\n\"Rote-Singing and its Proper Place in Public Schools — Practice versus Theory,\" by\nW. A. Hodgdon, Supervisor of Music, St. Louis, Mo.\n\"Music in PubHc Schools a Means of Culture in the Community,\" by Miss Lucy\nRobinson, supervisor of music. Wheeling, W. Va.\nAdjournment was taken as previously voted.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe department was called to order in Recital Hall at 1:30 p.m.; Vice-President\nWetzell in the chair.\nThe report of the Committee of Three appointed at the last annual session to co-operate\nwith the committee of the New England Educational League, consisting of Benjamin\nJepson, of New Haven, Conn., C. A, FuUerton, of Cedar Falls, la., and Miss JuHa E.\nCrane, of Potsdam, N. Y., was distributed.\nP. C. Hayden moved that the report be adopted by this meeting. The motion was\nseconded, and, after some discussion in regard to the manner of giving credits, was adopted.\nMr. Wetzell then called on Mr. Tapper, chairman of the committee appointed at\nMinneapolis, and continued at Boston, on the \"proper literary and musical training of\nthe supervisor and of the musical training grade teacher.\" The report was read by him,\nas also a letter from Samuel W. Cole, of Brookline, Mass., a member of the committee.\nGeorge E. Krinbill, of Dixon, 111., and Arnold J. Gantvoort, of Cincinnati, O., members\n6 5\nof the committee, also presented their views on 7the\nquestion.\nMr. Hayden moved that the report be approved by this department, a;s a report of\nprogress, and that the committee, as named above, be continued for another year to complete the same.\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": null, "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nMrs, F. E. Clark moved to amend by adding a clause that the committee be requested\nto embody in its completed report next year a plan for providing for a board of examiners\nand for carrying out in detail the suggestions of the report. The amendment was agreed\nto. A. J. Gantvoort, of Cincinnati, O., moved, as a further amendment to Mr. Hayden's\nmotion, that the report include high-school or normal-school music education or its\nequivalent.\nCarried.\nThe motion of Mr. Hay den as amended was then carried.\nThe committee which was continued by the motion consists of:\nThomas Tapper, Boston, Mass.\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, O.\nO. T. Corson, Columbus, O.\nSamuel W. Cole, Brookline, Mass.\nGeorge E. Krinbill, Dixon. 111.\n\nChairman Wetzell called for the report of the Committee of Ten, and Mr. Hay den,\nthe chairman, appointed to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Sterrie A. Weaver,\nmade a partial report covering the first, second, and third grades only.\nW. A. Hodgdon, of St. Louis, Mo., moved that the committee be continued to next\nyear in order to complete its report. The motion was seconded. and carried. This committee iscomposed as follows:\nP. C. Hayden, Keokuk, la.\nB. C. Davis, Atlanta, Ga.\nMiss Anna M. Allen, Peoria, 111.\nE. B. Birge, Indianapolis, Ind\nMiss Estelle Carpenter, San Francisco, Cal.\nF. E. Howard, Bridgeport, Conn.\nA. J. Gantvoort, Cincinnati, O.\nC. A. FuUerton, Cedar Falls, la.\nMiss Julia E. Crane, Potsdam, N. Y.\n\nAs these committee reports were incomplete, it was ordered that they be not printed.\nA. J. Gantvoort moved that a committee of three, of which P. C. Hayden should be\nchg-irman, be appointed by the chair to prepare a memorial of the late Sterrie A. Weaver\nand of his work in this department, and that the same be published in the School Music\nMonthly. The motion was seconded and carried, and the chair appointed as members of\nsuch committee Mr. Gantvoort and Miss Hughes.\nThe meeting adjourned to Friday afternoon at i : 30 p. m.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe program was opened in Recital Hall at i : 30 p. m. by a violin solo by Master\nFrederick Heizer, of Sioux City, la.\nMr. John Towers spoke briefly on the care of boys' voices.\nMaster Harrison Brown, of Sioux City, la., rendered a vocal solo, with violin obligato,\nby Master Heizer.\nThe following papers were read :\n\"Methods versus Results,\" by W. H. Pommer, supervisor of music, St. Louis, Mo.\n\" Pubhc-School Music in its Relation to the Community and the Church,\" by N. Coe\nStewart, of New York city.\n\" The Pubhc-School Music Supervisor in His Relations to the Professional Musicians\nand the Professional Educators,\" by Frank T^^agel, Highland Park College, Des Moines, la.\nMr. Hayden read a letter from W. Scott, secretary of the New England Education\nLeague, and moved that the co-operative committee which was appointed last year be\ncontinued for another year. The motion was seconded and carried. Following is the\ncommittee:\nBenjamin Jepson, New Haven, Conn.\nC. A. FuUerton, Cedar Falls, la.\nMiss Julia E. Crane, Potsdam, N. Y.\n\nB. C. Davis, of Atlanta, Ga., moved that this department request the Secretary of\nthe National Educational Association to pubHsh in the volume of Proceedings the report\n\n\\\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": null, "text": "SECRETARY'S\n\nDepartment]\n\nMINUTES\n\nof said committee. The motion was seconded and carried. The report will be found\namong the papers and discussions of the department.\nMr. Hayden called up a motion which was last year referred to this convention, having\nbeen presented by Benjamin Jepson, of New Haven, Conn., seconded by T. L. Roberts,\nof Utica, N. Y., making the School Music Monthly the oflBcial organ of this department.\nA motion by Mr. Davis to take said motion from the table for discussion was seconded\nand carried, and thereupon, upon Mr. Davis' motion, duly seconded, the School Music\nMonthly was adopted as the official organ of this department of the National Educational\nAssociation.\nMr. Hayden, as chairman of the committee on memorial of the late Sterrie A. Weaver,\nthen presented a report, which was, upon motion, adopted, as follows:\nResolved, That this department adopt the tribute paid to Mr. Sterrie A. Weaver, our deceased president,\nby President William A. Wetzell, as an expression of our feelings of regard and esteem.\nResolved, That the tribute referred to, be printed in our minutes, and a copy of the same be sent to Mr.\nWeaver's family.\nEXTRACT\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nIt is with feelings of profound sadness that I assume the duties and responsibilities of presiding officer of\nthe Music Department of the National Educational Association. Little did I think, one year ago, that I should\nbe called upon to stand in the place of one who had given his whole life to the cause of school music. I wish I\nhad that command of language which would enable me to pay a fitting tribute to the memory of the man who was\ntwice honored with the presidency of this department. But a sorrowing heart cannot always express in words\nthe depth of its grief, nor do full justice to a life so nobly lived and so generously sacrificed. But we know this\n'the silver cord has been loosed, the golden bowl has been broken,\" and the spirit of Sterrie A. Weaver has taken\nits flight to Him who gave it. With uncovered heads and uplifted faces we reverently say, \"Thy will be done.\"\nIn the death of Mr. Weaver this department lost one of its truest friends and advocates, and an indefatigable\nworker in the cause of school music. He came to us with a message which he delivered faithfully, fearlessly, and\nfaultlessly. He was a man with an idea, to the development of which he gave his profoundest thought, the total\nof his physical and mental energy, and finally his life. There are thousands thruout this broad land who revere,\nand will ever hold in grateful remembrance, the name of this man; because from him they received that equipment\nand inspiration which is leading them to eminent success. He was unselfish in his nature, generous to a fault, and\nhelpful and inspiring at all times, always giving more attention to the welfare of others than to his own. He\nnever knew when he had reached the limit of his powers of endurance, and thus labored on and on until the spark\nof life went out. His death came suddenly. On Monday preceding his death he was found in his accustomed\nplace, enthusiastically at work. On Wednesday he died. During his delirious moments on the night preceding\nhis death, his conversation related wholly to the Boston meeting of last year, and the sight-reading exhibition\ngiven by his class of boys and girls from Torrington, Conn. He even sang some of the exercises they sang at\nthe time, and expressed great pleasure at their signal success.\nBut what I have said, and all that I may be able to say, will not add one beam to the halo of glory that\nsurrounds his name.\n\nThe good h*e has done will live on and on thru the years yet to come.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented by Mrs. Clark, as follows:\nFor President— Willisim A. Wetzell, Salt Lake City. Utah.\nFor Vice-President — Mrs. Marie Burt Parr, Cleveland, O.\nFor Secretary — P. C. Hayden, Keokuk, la.\n\nUpon motion of Mr. Gantvoort, duly seconded, the report of the committee was\nadopted, and the secretary was instructed to cast the ballot of this section for said officers.\nThe ballot being so cast, the nominees were declared elected.\nB. C. Davis, of Atlanta, Ga., suggested the desirability of so arranging the program\nin the future as to give opportunity for discussion upon the papers presented.\nPresident Wetzell then declared the department adjourned until the next annual\nmeeting.\nP. C. Hayden, Secretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": null, "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nPAPERS\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nAND\n\nPRESIDENTS\nWILLIAM\n\nA. WETZELL,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nADDRESS\n\nOF MUSIC, CITY SCHOOLS,\nUTAH\n\nSALT LAKE\n\nCITY,\n\nIt is with feelings of profound sadness that I assume the duties and responsibilities ofpresiding officer of the Music Department of the National Educational Association. Little did I think, one year ago, that I should be called\nupon to stand in the place of one who had given his whole life to the cause of\nschool music. I wish I had that command of language which would enable\nme to pay a fitting tribute to the memory of the man who was twice honored\nwith the presidency of this department. But a sorrowing heart cannot always\nexpress in words the depth of its grief, nor do full justice to a Hfe so nobly Hved\nand so generously sacrificed. But this we know: ''the silver cord has been\nloosed, the golden bowl has been broken,\" and the spirit of Sterrie A. Weaver\nhas taken its flight to Him who gave it. With uncovered heads and upHfted\nfaces we reverently say, \"Thy will be done.\"\nIn the death of Mr. Weaver this department has lost one of its truest friends\nand advocates, and an indefatigable worker in the cause of school music. He\ncame to us with a message which he delivered faithfully, fearlessly, and faultlessly. He was a man with an idea, to the development of which he gave his\nprofoundest thought, the total of his physical and mental energy, and finally\nhis life. There are thousands thruout this broad land who revere, and will\never hold in grateful remembrance, the name of this man, because from him\nthey received that equipment and inspiration which is leading them to eminent\nsuccess. He was unselfish in his nature, generous to a fault, and helpful and\ninspiring at all times, always giving more attention to the welfare of others\nthan to his own. He never knew when he had reached the limit of his powers\nof endurance, and thus labored on and on until the spark of life went out. His\ndeath came suddenly. On the Monday preceding his death he was found in\nhis accustomed place, enthusiastically at work. On Wednesday he died.\nDuring his dehrious moments on the night preceding his death, his conversation related wholly to the Boston meeting of last year, and the sight-reading\nexhibition given by his class of boys and girls from Torrington, Conn. He\neven sang some of the exercises they sang at that time, and expressed great\npleasure at their signal success. But what I have said and all that I may\nbe able to say, will not add one beam to the halo of glory that surrounds his\nname.\nThe good he has done will live on and on thru the years yet to come.\nBefore we proceed with the regular order of business, I desire to call your\nattention to a few matters which I deem of vital importance to the success of\nthis meeting and to the standing of our department. We have gathered here\nfrom various sections of our country to participate in discussions pertaining\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\nto the advancement of music work in our schools, both pubHc and private.\nWe are here for a purpose, and that purpose is to arouse an interest and enthusiasm in this work, which will not die with the adjournment of this meeting.\nWe are here to devise ways and means of improving the work and adding to its\nefficiency.\nI have attended many of these meetings, and it seems to me that in all our\ndiscussions we have lost sight of the real subject of all true teaching — and that\nis the child. I have listened to many excellent papers and discussions on music\nin the high school, music in the colleges, and music in universities ; but we have\nheard little on that phase of our work which I deem more important than all\nthis — more important because of its fundamental nature — music in the primary\ngrades. So much depends upon a right beginning. The music hope of America\nlies in the proper, systematic, and pedagogical training of the children. I am\nan enthusiastic advocate of the strengthening of the work in the primary\ngrades of our public schools; and I hope that at our next annual meeting this\nsubject will receive that attention to which it is justly entitled. I have had\ncorrespondence with more than twenty of the leading school-music supervisors\nin the United States, and they unanimously agree with me that the matter\nof elementary music-training has not received due attention.\nThen, have we not in our discussions lost sight of the practical side of our\nwork ? Have we given to the average supervisor that which he can take to the\naverage grade teacher for immediate use in the schoolroom? Do not large\nresponsibilities rest upon us at this point? How can we hope to make our\nmusic in the advanced grades of the schools what it should be, when we fail\nto do that fundamental work which shall constitute a good foundation for this\nmore advanced work ? No firm structure can be permanently erected upon a\nflimsy foundation. We can never hope to have an American type of music\nso long as we fail to give attention to the essential beginnings. Germany owes\nher musical progress and standing today to the thoro, fundamental work done\nwith her children in the kindergarten and primary schools.\nIn our dehberations we talk nicely and discuss learnedly, but with it all\nthere is a lack of unanimity of purpose — a lack of concert of action. We have\nbut httle planned to do. We might talk forever of the cutting quaHty of the\ngrindstone and its power to put an edge on an axe, but this value of the grindstone will never be made manifest until power is appHed and the grindstone\nis made to revolve. Or, if you please, a crank must be attached. I have a\ngood deal of admiration for a crank. It — or he or she, as the case may be — is\na means of communicating power.\nIt — or he or she — makes things go.\nWe have material enough in this department to put an edge on musical\nmatters in the United States, if we can only get that material to revolve. We\nneed a crank. What a power this department may become in establishing an\nAmerican type of music, or in starting a movement which will result in this\nmuch-desired end! By implication I have said that this department is not\nat this time a very strong factor in the musical progress of America.\nI hope\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": null, "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nI offend no one when I say this, but I beheve I am right. But, I am asked,\nwhat shall we do? Well, a committee has been appointed to prepare or\nsuggest a course of study for the music supervisors of America. This committee will make a report at this annual meeting. I call this a good beginning.\nAnother committee was appointed one year ago to suggest a uniform course of\nstudy in music for the public schools. I call this an excellent addition to the\nbefore mentioned good beginning. Now, when these reports are made we shall\nhave the material revolving. Can we keep it moving until something is\naccomplished ?\nLet us look about for the weak points in our work, and make an effort to\nstrengthen these weak points; let us make an effort to overcome those obstacles\nagainst which we have to contend in the preparation of the average grade\nteacher. What can be done to make her work more efficient ? What can be\ndone to make the supervisor more helpful to her? Should the work of the\nsupervisor and his teachers be simply that of giving elementary musical training ?\nIs it not the province of these to create within the hearts and minds of the children an insatiable desire for more advanced work ? Are the local musicians\nalways in sympathy with the work of the supervisor and grade teachers?\nCannot something be done to impress upon the mind of the local musician\nthat the work done in the public schools is fundamental — simply supplementary\nto the work of the studio teacher ? Can it not be shown to them that it is\npossible for the work to be so efficiently done that the drudgery necessarily\nattending the first few lessons of the child in the studio will be eliminated;\nthat the work will have been carried on to such an extent that the professional\nmusic teacher need give attention only to the technical part of -musical training ?\nCan we not make greater efforts to impress upon the minds of the patrons of\nthe public schools and the general pubhc the importance of musical training in\nthe schools ? I believe it is possible for us, if we are of one mind, and will\nenthusiastically take hold of the matter, to bring about a wonderful change\nin the attitude toward this subject, and that this may be done in a relatively\nshort time.\nAll great reformations have been brought about thru energetic and enthusiastic efforts, backed by an intelligent purpose. I stand for our country and\nall that is good in it ; but if what we have is not as good as it ought to be, then I\nstand for and with those who say, \"Let us make it better.\" That something\nmust be done is apparent to all thinking people. We have reached a critical\nperiod in this work of the public schools. The time has come when we must\nput ourselves under our work and Hft it up to the view of an inteUigent public,\nthat they may render judgment as to whether our subject is entitled to recognition and encouragement or not. If it is not, then it is our fault— we must\nmake it better. If it is entitled to recognition, we must so present our claims\nto this gazing pubHc that they may be compelled to recognize and encourage us.\nI trust that in our discussions we will confine ourselves closely to the subject presented in the papers at these meetings, and that we may allow nothing\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": null, "text": "PRIMARY\n\nDepartment]\n\nMUSIC\n\nMETHODS\n\n68i\n\nto come up which will detract our minds from the serious matters which we\nhave to consider at this time. Let us eliminate all unprofitable discussions\nconcerning matters which are foreign to our cause. It has been charged that\nthis department is absolutely controlled by book-pubhshing interests. I think\nthis is an error, for I know of no such dominating influences since I became\nassociated with the department as an official. I do not desire to rule arbitrarily,\nbut I must say at this time, if the subject is presented, I will declare it wholly\nout of order.\nI can not do otherwise and be true to the cause I represent.\nI desire that you shall give full credit to Mr. P. C. Hayden, our secretary,\nfor the preparation and arrangement of the program which will be presented\nto you during this meeting. At the time of Mr. Weaver's death Mr. Hayden\nwas giving him all the assistance he could in the preparation of the program,\nand, since he had the matter well in hand, I requested him to continue until\nhe had completed the same. We have men and women upon the program\nof national reputation, who will read papers to us which will give us food for\nmuch serious thought and reflection.\n\nPRIMARY\nMRS. MARIE\n\nBURT\n\nMUSIC\n\nMETHODS\n\nPARR, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC\nCLEVELAND, O.\n\nIN PRIMARY\n\nGRADES,\n\nThe technical work of the primary grades consists of:\na) Voice-building and placing of tone.\nb) Rhythm.\nc) Audition and tone relationship.\nd) Staff notation.\ne) Invention.\n\nProceeding upon the theory that the child must sing either correctly or\nincorrectly, we first give our attention to placing the tone.\nThe most psychological definition of voice I have seen is given by Dr.\nEmerson, president of the Emerson College of Oratory: ''The human voice\nis that sound, reinforced by the resonant chambers, which reports the physical\nand mental states of man.\" He further states: \"The voice is educated thru\ninducing right states of mind while using it.\"\nThe province of the teacher is to secure to the child the environment desirable to vocal expression. The voice will express physical condition and mental\nactivity, and the latter is both intellectual and emotional.\nLet us first discuss the physical condition. There are four chambers of\nresonance — the trachea, the pharynx, the nares, and the mouth. In order to\nproduce a clear, ringing tone, all these cavities must be perfectly free and unobstructed. We accomphsh this by inducing right states of mind in the child.\nThe most important factor is the control of the breath. To secure deep\ninspiration of breath, we direct the mind of the child to the beautiful rose, and\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": null, "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nhe inhales its odor, thereby expanding his lungs freely. The degree of freedom\nwill be commensurate with the abandon of enjoyment he yields to the sense\nof smell. If we should ask a roomful of children to \"take a deep breath,\"\nwe should see most of them swell up like little toads — lips compressed, eyes\nstarting from the sockets, every muscle perfectly rigid. But by inducing a\nright state of mind the physical becomes the free agent we desire.\nThe first vocal sound given is the imitation of the buzzing of the bees; and\nthe pupil is led gradually and with cumulative interest, until the free, open\ntone is given, calling into play all the chambers of resonance. To vitalize all\nthe air in the lungs, we have the children play that they are bees, using the tone\nabout middle C, which is as low as most little children can easily vocalize.\nMany illustrations can vary the play and secure placing of tone. You will\nnotice that, in buzzing, the teeth are together, but the lips are parted.\nNow use the humming-bird for your example and hum on the letter w,\nletting the lips be slightly parted and perfectly relaxed. If done correctly,\nthe vibration will fairly tickle the lips. Then prolong the sound to a syllable —\n''moo;\" let the children play they are ''bossys\" or ''moos.\" In case any\nrealistic boy should bellow his \"moo,\" let the teacher pretend fright at the cross\ncow.\nAnother word equally effective is \"no.\" Let the n be the swirling string\nof a sling, and the o the round pebble which is cast.\nBut few English words close with an open vowel. The children must learn\nto sing thru the consonants which impede the tone.\nChoose \" nom \" for the first complete word. Let the children play it means\n\"no ma'am,\" and ask them a question which they will answer by \"nom,\"\nvocalizing and prolonging the n and m.\nThe complete phrase. — Having learned to vocalize and control the breath,\nand to vocalize every element of a complete word, the next step is phrasing.\nIn reading, a phrase is broken if the thought is interrupted; in singing,\nthe phrase is broken if the breath column is interrupted. The consonants\nwhich close most of our words would cut off the breath column if we did not\nexercise care and learn to preserve uninterrupted flow. Take first a short\nphrase of three words — use the tones do, mi, do on the syllable \"la.\" This is\ncomparatively easy, for the / is liquid and the vowel open. Then substitute\nthe syllables \"do,\" \"mi,\" \"do.\" This is a little more difficult. Be sure the m\nof \"mi\" is vocalized.\nThen use the words \"good morning\" to the same tone.\nSometimes, in order to keep the breath column uninterrupted, I have\ndrawn a circle on the blackboard thus :\nand had the children sing\nwhile I traced it, and then had them use /^^^ their hands in tracing an\nimaginary circle. Gradually increase the \\.<^ J length of the phrase until\nit consists of five or six tones.\nToo\n\nmuch\n\nemphasis cannot be given to beautiful enunciation. Every\n\nvowel has more than one quality, a leading with eight. \"The lips are the\nsecret springs of articulation.\"\nIf they are in the right position, the other\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRIMARY\n\nMUSIC\n\nMETHODS\n\narticulating organs will follow. Have a child occasionally give a sentence\ninaudibly, and let the others giiess what he has said. This will secure beautiful and accurate labial form.\nRhythm. — Rhythm is primarily a physiological sense. In the beginning of\nmusic, rhythm found its first expression in the dances of the earliest people —\nthe war-dance, etc. After a rhythm was established it was accompanied by\na sort of drone broken by occasional shouts. From this drone the chant was\nevolved, and last of all came melody.\nRhythm is to music what symmetry is to sculpture. It is true that mathematics enters into each. But primarily one depends on the sense of hearing,\nthe other on the sense of sight.\nFirst we must give the child actual experience of rhythm thru his active\nagent of perception, the ear. In order to form this sense thru the ear, we\nmust use song as the basis of instruction. The child must be led to feel the\nbalance and proportion which rhythm gives to music. In teaching rote songs,\nthe teacher, after singing the whole song to the children, should teach it one\nphrase at a time. Thus the children unconsciously learn to feel the rhythmic\nbalance, as well as to breathe at the end of a phrase. If there is an instrument available, have the children do things to music. We want them to feel\nthe pulse of the rhythm, until the voluntary muscles long to respond to its\nswing. They may march, drum — yes, even draw pictures illustrative of the\nsongs, while they sing them. When the feeling for rhythm is well established,\nwe call attention to the regular recurrence of the weak and strong tones,\ntaking a single phrase of a song or melody to illustrate. The children of the\nfirst grade should by the spring term be able to tell, after hearing any melody,\nwhether it is written in two-part or three-part measure. To the ear all music\nmoves in two's and three's, and all other movements are compounds of these\ntwo forms.\nRhythm cards are a valuable aid to the study of time. The children of\nthe second grade learn the symbols of relative tone-lengths (the notes and\ntheir values), and in the spring term take up staff notation, audition, and\ntone-relationship. A prominent educator said in my hearing that the best\nfirst reader for a child was one that contained the words of his own working\nvocabulary. Every normal child has a speaking vocabulary on entering\nschool; but it is most unusual for him to have a singing vocabulary. Many\nchildren have apparently no musical ear. This leads to the consideration\nof fhe monotone.\nThe sense of touch is most highly developed in the tips of the fingers and\nthe point of the tongue. There the two points of a compass will instantly\nbe detected as two points, even tho close together. The sense is least developed between the shoulders, where the points tipped with cork must be an\ninch apart before the nerves will detect the presence of two points. This\nfact gives the best analogy to the ear of the monotone. He has no perception\nof melody.\nHis ear is so little sensitive to pitch that he cannot distinguish\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": null, "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Mv\n\nbetween one and two of the scale. But let us treat the ear as we did the sense\nof touch in the shoulders — move the tones farther apart. Let the teacher\nsing I and 8. If the pupil's perception of pitch be very dull, he will perhaps\nstrive to imitate by singing the second tone on the same pitch, but louder.\nThis is a distinct gain. Try again. This time he may sing i and 3, or\nI and 5. He now distinguishes between high and low pitch. When he has\ndone his best toward the second tone, change the model. Sing i and 5. He\nwill probably sing i and 4, or 3. Usually he will learn the tonic chord, and\nthe octave, i, 3, 5, and 8, first, and will also learn to sing the descending\nscale before the ascending scale. Sometimes he will learn to sing i, 2, 3, 4, 5,\n8, and then descend the scale. Very seldom will he learn so comphcated a\ncombination of tones as to sing a song during the first year; but if he learns\nthe rhythm of the songs and certain parts of them,^he should be permitted to\nsing often. As he learns thru hearing, he must listen much. Nothing so\nvitiates the ear as to sing constantly out of tune. Care should be taken not\nto embarrass a child until he feels that he is \"different from the others.\" At\nthe same time the teacher should bear in mind that a monotone will \"put\nothers out.\" For this reason change either his seat or that of those nearest\nhim during the singing lesson, lest he, Hke the decayed apple in the barrel,\nsoon corrupt those about him.\nSongs which contain the tonic chord, as various bugle songs, are most\nhelpful to the monotones.\nIn the development of tone-relationship I use the \"tonic sol-fa\" system.\nWe teach first the tonic chord in the following order: i and 8, 5 and \"5 below,\"\nthen 3. The two new tones of the dominant chord are 2 and 7. These tones\nproclaim the key. The rephca of each tone is taught — \"2 above\" and \"7\nbelow;\" lastly, the new tones of the subdominant chord 4 and 6 with the\n\"6 below.\" In developing the tones in this way I believe a feeling for key is\nestabhshed more perfectly than by any other method.\nThis work should be so blended with the rote songs that the children are\nbrought to see that these tones they have been learning are \"the stuff tunes\nare made of.\"\nStaff-notation has been made the bugbear of the schools ; the reason being,\nwe beheve, that the attempt is usually made to teach it before the child has\nanything to notate. This is in direct violation of the FroebeHan principle,\n\"the thing before the sign.\" It reminds one of the nonsense rhyme of Kate\nDouglas Wiggins:\nThe centipede\nWas happy quite\nUntil the frog\nFor fun said: \"Pray\nWhich leg comes after which?'\nWhich wrought him up to such a pitch\nHe lay distracted in a ditch,\nConsidering how to run.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROTE-SINGING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n685\n\nStaff-notation should not be presented before the spring term of the second\nyear. By that time the pupil will have learned the scstle in all its delicate\ninterrelations. It will have become to him a real thing that he can use to\nmake Uttle melodies from. When this period of development is reached,\nstaff notation will be the symbol of something already known.\nIn the third grade the children will take infinite delight in composition\nof little melodies of from four to eight measures. They will, to be sure, for the\nmost part be crude little attempts; but they evidence definite results in the\nchild's musical development.\nFor a child to be able to think in melody is an achievement of great significance; but when he can record his melodic concept in music notation, he has\nhad opened to him a channel of expression which affords him the opportunity\nof any achievement within his musical potentiality.\n\nROTE-SINGING AND ITS PROPER PLACE IN THE\nSCHOOLS— PRACTICE VERSUS THEORY\nW.\n\nA. HODGDON,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF MUSIC,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nMO.^\n\nIntroductory to my paper I could quote, from Shakespeare down, the\nsayings of men of note, men of culture and deep research, anent the value\nand influence of music; but the time now is when this is unnecessary and superfluous. Ishall confine myself to the subject of music in the public schools of\nAmerica. Permit me to say that if you expect my lecture to bristle with farfetched theoritical ideas, I fear you will be disappointed. My aim is to\npresent practical ideas, based mainly upon my own observation and long\nexperience. It is for the supervisors of music not only to discuss means and\nmethods whereby the music in our public schools can be improved, but to\ntake some concerted action as to how this can be done. It is not what we\nhave done in the past, but what we will do in the future. How shall we begin,\nand how proceed from the lowest to the highest grade ? Is it, or is it not, the\nfirst duty of music supervisors to formulate a plan of work, or course of study,\nfor each and every grade, so that rote-singing shall not only take its proper\nplace, but shall, when well taught, become the stepping-stone to staff-notation ?\nI will attempt to point out other important points, closely aUied to it, which\nare now too generally neglected during the first two or more years of the child's\nschool Hfe.\nI believe that the presentation of staff-notation to the child during the first\nand second years of its school life is unnecessary and unpedagogical. Experience has shown me that nothing is gained by beginning staff-notation before\nthe age of eight or nine years. The children beginning' at ten will outstrip\nthose commencing at eight or nine. Let us not be deceived by mere showy,\nmechanical processes arising from a premature introduction of staff-notation.\n'It is worthy of note that Mr. Hodgdon was appointed supervisor of music in St. Louis in 1854. — [Editor.\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": null, "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nAll agree that the first object in view should be to create and cultivate in\nthe child a true love for music; to develop first the imitative and emotional\nfaculties, then the perceptive, all of which precede the development of the\nreasoning faculties; and last, but not least, to stimulate patriotism and a love\nfor our country which will go far toward making our children good and loyal\ncitizens.\nThe precious seeds of patriotism should be sown early.\nThe question now arises: How and thru what channel can this first and\nimportant object be accomplished ? The answer is : By rote-singing. The\nspeaking voice should by no means be neglected; otherwise the singing voice\nwill suffer by the oversight. It is here that vocal music and the general speech\nof the child correlate. No teacher should allow her pupils to speak in a harsh\nand unnafural tone of voice. Should not our principals also realize the value\nof this suggestion ?\nIf enough can be suggested, and that too of far greater importance than\nstaff-notation, then the writer's theory is correct. Permit me to suggest the\ncourse to be pursued. According to logical and pedagogical principles, speech\nfirst, then the signs of speech; tones first, then the signs of tones; songs first,\nthen the signs of songs; the scale first, then the signs of the scale; example,\nthen precept; in other words: ''the thing before the sign of the thing.\" In\naccordance with these principles, teach, in connection with rote-songs, the major\nscale, as a Httle tune, by rote, by ear. Every teacher should use a pitch-pipe.\nTo some persons it may seem a simple thing to teach the scale. What a\nclass may do, or seem to do, is one thing, but what each child can do individually is quite another, leaving out of the question the monotones. It is a\nsurprising fact that, with but few exceptions, the pupils who attend the kindergarten, where song-singing cuts an important figure, are unable to sing the\nscale when they enter the primary school; hence my reason for teaching the\nprimary classes, by divisions, subdivisions, and individually, the simple scale\nin connection with songs.\nTeaching the scale by use of blocks, by figures upon the scale ladder, or\nby notes upon the staff may be very pleasing to the eye, but none of these\ndevices assists the ear. The ear was made for sound, and is soonest awakened\nby song-singing and occasional scale practice. The scale should be thoroly\ntaught before interval practice begins. Every teacher should keep a list of\nthe monotones; also of those who can sing five tones more or less, and of those\nwho can sing the entire scale ; and should furnish the teachers above with such\nlist when promotions are made. This process should continue from class to\nclass thru all the primary grades. As this is done in other branches of study,\nwhy not in music ? We want a host of little singers. We shall not get them\nwithout this careful practice in the primary grades. Voice -first, then quality\nof tone. We know that loud, harsh singing is still permitted, and that many\nof the children's voices are injured by it. Low, rough tones should be avoided,\nand high thin tones — '^head tones\" so called — should prevail. Herein lies\nthe secret of success, now and hereafter.\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROTE-SINGING\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nWe need a whole regiment of supervisors and a grand army of music teachers who will arouse themselves, stamp the dust from off their feet, and go forth\nto their daily work with a determination to raise the standard of music in our\npublic schools to its proper level. If the work of the first three or four years\nbe well done, I venture the assertion that the percentage of good voices and\nsingers in America would increase twentyfold.\nMy plea is not merely for rote-singing, but for childlike tone-quahty. The\ntwo must go hand in hand. There is no lack of songs suitable for all seasons\nand occasions. Indeed, there is no lack of anything except good teachers.\nMusic is an art, and should be so treated. Sing more and talk less about the\nthings pertaining to music. \"Practice makes perfect.\" Do not think for a\nmoment that legitimate voice-culture has a place in the schoolroom. Do not\ntell the children how to breathe. Secure first a good position, insist upon\nlight head tones, and natural breathing will follow. I say again: the voice\nand ear before the eye.\nSimplicity has been, and still is, almost entirely ignored in the selections\nof songs for the children. The poetry especially contains many words not\nonly too difficult to pronounce, but far above their comprehension. In deaUng\nwith children let us not attach too much importance to the word \"classical.\"\nIn so far as \"classical\" means good, I accept the term. Make the work for\nthe children during the first two years as pleasant and enjoyable as possible.\nWhy thrust upon them at once the poems of Longfellow, Whittier, Tennyson,\nScott, Gray, and others, or the music of Beethoven, Bach, Mozart, Mendelssohn, and Wagner ? Why not allow a reasonable length of time in which to\ndraw them up to an appreciation of these great masters ? There is no lack\nof beautiful and childlike poems which they can understand and appreciate.\nDid not our great painters first sketch and daub, and then patiently toil\non, until they reached the higher forms, including lights and shades ? Is\nnot simpHcity at the base of every branch of study taught in our pubHc or private schools ? Is music the exception ? We must accept the lower standards\nbefore the higher can be reached. The teacher who would teach children as\nlittle acorns today, and as tall oaks tomorrow, will fail in every branch of\nstudy.\nWe should not forget that the average school Hfe of the children in the pubHc\nschools of any city is only about five years.\nInterval work, in its simplest form, should follow rote-singing and scale\npractice, all of which should precede staff-notation, The mastery of intervals is of great importance and should not be too long delayed. Thus far the\near has been called into action; now the eye and the ear may assist each other\nin the work by the introduction of the scale ladder. If the scale ladder is\nused, I insist that the intervals taught upon the ladder be reviewed by dictation. The teacher should dictate the numbers and require the children to\nrespond with the corresponding syllables. I do not trust to the ladder alone.\nIn all regular scale practice I insist upon the use of other than the syllable\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": null, "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nnames, viz., \"no,\" \"la,\" \"loo,\" etc., and occasionally the number names in\norder to establish a close relationship between them and the syllabic names.\nChildren can be taught during the first two years to recognize any tone\nof the major scale regardless of the name applied, provided that staff-notation\nbe excluded, as it could be.\nThis assertion is not based upon theory, but upon observation and practice. One of the most interesting phases in the whole gamut of instruction\nis the development of tone-perception in the child — the abihty to think the\ndifferent tones of the scale corresponding to the numbers, and especially so\nwhen the class is able to recognize the tones by other than the syllabic names.\nThinking in tones: In order to think in tones we must know the tones.\nBefore thinking in words we must know the words. How can the child think\nin sentences, unless he knows the words of which they are composed ? How\ncan the child think a little song made from the tones of the major scale, unless\nhe knows the scale ? Do we, can we, reaHze how much it means to the child\nwhen he comes to know the scale; know it as a whole; know each tone in\nrelation to the next; know each tone in relation to every other?\nMelody is the Ufe-blood of music. It suggests accent. It is the steppingstone to rhythm, and sooner or later allies itself with harmony. So it is thru\nrote-singing that we educate the taste, which leads up to a proper expression\nof the sentiment contained in the song. Indeed, the practice which the\nyounger pupils get in rote-singing naturally tends toward a more musical\nrendering of the exercises which come after. Musicians may advance their\ntheories pro and con, but no amount of knowledge can possibly take the place\nof actual experience in the schoolroom with the children. The teacher, who\nknows the children best, knows what they can, and ought to do. Experience\nis the greatest teacher.\nTime and tune lessons, consisting of exercises and simple songs with words\nattached, should now be introduced. The children should sing these, first\nby the different singing names before attaching the words. I write these\nlessons in figures upon the blackboard as, at this early stage of the work, the\nnumbers impress most vividly upon the minds of the children the different\ntones of the scale represented. Furthermore, the^e simple lessons afford\nrelief from the monotony arising from the practice in interval work, and thru\nthem they learn something of accent and expression, which calls into greater\naction the perceptive faculties. It is simply a continuation of interval study\nwritten in rhythmic and melodic form. It is the \"tonic sol-fa \" system employing numbers instead pf the letters D, R, M, F, etc., prior to the introduction\nof regular staff-notation upon chart or blackboard. This last work is the\nfinal preparation for putting songbooks into the hands of the children, and if\nthe work here outHned is thoroly done, securing erect position, soft singing,\ncorrect pronunciation, distinct articulation, a free use of mouth and lips, and\nlast, but not least, the necessary amount of interval practice, success must\nfollow.\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROTE-SINGING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMany, many times have the teachers under my supervision spoken to me\nabout the difference in classes which have, and those which have not, been\nprepared in this work of interval practice. Cannot we see, have I not seen,\nthat if the work of the first two years were better done, there would be no\nplace for staff-notation so early ? Now, I wonder if teachers generally know\nthe reason why, as it has often been truly stated, only about one-third of the\nchildren really read by note, while the other two-thirds follow by rote. I\nwill state why: The children should first be allowed to point at the notes, and,\nsecondly, the teachers should see that every child follows them.\nThe eye needs training as well as the ear, at this stage of the work. Try\nthis experiment: Ask the children where they are singing; and you will find\nthat many of them are pointing in the wrong place — some ahead and some\nbehind, some even on the wrong page. Is it the fault of the child or the\nteacher ?\nBefore closing this first part of my subject, allow me to quote briefly from\nthe School Music Journal of March, 1898.\nMr. Damrosch, director of music, New York city, will give the subject of music a\nthorough interpretation. All instruction is to be based on, and grow out of, song, and\nthe idea of beauty is never to be lost sight of in teaching. The same principle of beauty\nis to be insisted upon in the selection of poems to be used. Great care is to be taken also\nof the voice, that the singing shall be sweet, agreeable, and expressive.\n\nI am glad to find that my position is so strongly and ably indorsed.\nIntroductory to the discussion of the last part of the subject, \"practice\nversus theory,\" I quote a few extracts from a paper read before the Normal\nMusic Teachers' Association at Boston by Superintendent M. L. Hawley, of\nGloucester, Mass.:\nFinding that the progress of the pupils in music-reading did not compare favorably\nwith their progress in other branches, I was anxious to find the cause.\nListening to the catechism of the children in the perplexities and mysteries of the staffnotation as generally taught, I reluctantly came to the conclusion that music could not be\nsuccessfully taught in the schools without encroaching too much on the time required for\nother branches. If it had dawned upon me that it is neither necessary nor wise to teach\nit as a science, that children can learn to sing by singing, just as they learn their mothertongue, I should have come doubtless to another conclusion. If the difficulties which\nperplex even maturer minds are simpHfied or kept out of sight, our children can learn to\nread music as readily as they learn other branches of study.\nConsiderable time was spent by the pupils in learning definitions, which should have\nbeen devoted to practice in singing. It matters little whether children can explain the\ntransposition of the scales, etc., or not, but it is of great importance that they be able to\npass readily from one key to another in singing.\n\nAnd here let me ask: Where is the teacher, in this day of progress, worthy\nof the name, who will defend that ancient and illogical system of teaching our\nchildren their a, b, c's, then the a-b, ab^s, then the more advanced combinations\nof ''baker\" and ''butler,\" etc.; and lastly, when forming sentences (lest by\nchance an idea might creep in), they were put into the strait-jacket of punctuation marks, counting one for the comma, two for the semicolon, and four\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": null, "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nfor the period, practicing upon the rising and falling inflections, accent, and\nemphasis, without one thought of the meaning of all this conglomeration of\nwords and mechanical appliances ?\nIt will readily be seen that the topic now under consideration affords\nample scope for suggestions and discussions. It is my purpose not only to\npoint out, as briefly as possible, things which should be done, in order to hasten\nthe desired results, but to suggest some of the things that should be left undone.\nPractice should precede theory. We cannot afford to waste valuable time\nupon any theory that will not essentially contribute toward making the children\nsingers and, in due time, readers oj music.\nDr. Lowell Mason sounded the keynote when he said: ''The best way to\nlearn to sing is to sing.\" \"Unfortunately, education among us consists too\nmuch in teUing, and not enough in training,\" said Horace Mann.\nLet us avoid all mechanical appliances which do not incite to self -activity.\nThe inductive method of teaching music in our middle and higher grades will\ninsure success in the important work of ready sight-singing. It is the e-duco\nprocess opposed to the telling or cramming process.\nRight here is where I beg leave, to a certain extent, to cut loose from some\nof the old stereot)^ed, but not yet discarded, methods of teaching. I believe\nthat the syllabic names have come to stay, especially for the masses. They\nmay be made the basis of our work, a stepping-stone as far as may seem necessary, but they do not cover the entire ground. Singing by the syllables only\nis not singing at sight, in the true sense of the word. It is, in fact, only a\nplausible attempt to do so. We should employ other names at the start, and\nthus avoid being absolutely tied down to the syllabic names. The time will\ncome in the experience of every singer when names heretofore applied to notes\nmust necessarily give place to words. Here the true test presents itself. The\nbreach between them and the syllabic names is too great.\nNo matter if the process be slow at first, the foundation stones would be\nsure and steadfast; and eventually good sight-singing would be the rule and\nnot the exception, and the task which now seems a difficult one would become\ncomparatively easy. I am sorry to admit that at present the exception overshadows the rule in very many of our schools. Again I ask: Is it the fault\nof the children, or of the teacher ?\nThe question now arises why there are so few readers of music at sight ?\nThe answer is: Too much theory at the expense of practice. I recognize\nfully the value of theory, but am opposed to the way in which it is taught, and\nthe unnecessary prominence given it by many teachers. If the method of\nteaching is correct, the cramming process will soon die out, as it should do,\nand the definitions will die with it. The method of teaching by induction\nshould prevail, and much that is now taught thru the telling process should\ncome to the pupil thru his own observation, practice, and self-activity. The\nkey to future success depends upon the better preparation of supervisors for\nthe work and the grade teachers Hkewise.\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROTE-SINGING\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n691\n\nDr. W. T. Harris says:\nInasmuch as the child is self-active and grows only through the exercise of selfactivity, education consists entirely in leading the child to what develops this power of\ndoing.\nAny help that does not help the pupil to help himself is excessive.\n\nThis maxim is indeed multum in parvo, and should be our motto in every\nbranch of study. The question is not alone what children can do, but how\nwell they can do it.\nIt is when the muscles cease to act that the hmbs begin to wither. It is\nwhen the life-blood circulates lazily that the body pines. Unless our dormant\nenergies are aroused, we grow to look Hke idiots. After labor, rest is good.\nTell the child as little as possible, and draw from him as much as possible.\nTeach the letter-names of the various hues and spaces of the staff, and how to\nfind the keynote, or letter, in the different keys as they occur in practice.\nRequire the pupils to know the different keys by their signatures, and in due\ntime the use of the different time signatures.\nThis is all that is necessary for the children of the third and fourth years.\nDo not waste more time on letters. Read the letters of any exercise once,\ntwice, or ten times, or spend twenty or thirty minutes in writing them, and not\none jot or tittle has been added to the child's ability to sing at sight, but valuable\ntime has been wasted that should have been employed in singing. If the pupil\ncan sing by note correctly, by syllables and otherwise, as before suggested,\nwhat more is needed? Why ask him what letters he sang in the various\nintervals of the exercise or song, if he sang the intervals correctly ? Let well\nenough alone. The inscription upon a certain tombstone in the old country\nstrikes us rather forcibly just here, viz.: ''Was well, wished to be better, took\nmedicine, and here I lie.\"\nIt is quite as important that the teacher should know what not to teach, as\nwhat to teach.\nThe movable ''do\" system takes care of the intervals regardless of how\nfew, or how many, signature sharps or flats there may be. The letter-names\nof the notes are of no value in reading vocal music at sight. I say again that\nit matters not with how many signature sharps or flats a piece of music\nmay bristle, no special attention needs to be given to them, and no mention,\nafter the keynote is found. Immediately attack the piece and sing it at sight\nby the position of the notes upon the staff. Relegate that old fad, the written\ntran position of the scales, to the background, and teach it practically. Let\nus no longer teach that an accidental sharp raises, or that a flat lowers, a note\nor tone (unless we believe that an untruth is better than the truth), but that the\nsharp represents or indicates another tone a half-step higher, and the flat a tone\na half-step lower. Let us say what we mean and mean what we say. Careful\npractice wiU produce the desired results.\nI will venture to assert that the village singing schools of twenty, thirty,\nand forty years ago furnished more and better readers of music than do our\ncity and country public schools.\nI am not alone in this position.\nI know this\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": null, "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nby personal experience and observation. The reason is obvious. Then it\nwas practice versus theory, and all necessary theory came thru persistent\napplication. Each one for himself and herself solved all the necessary rudimental problems, and, strange to say, without written examinations of any\ndescription, which now prevail in many of our public schools. These facts\nfurnish food for thought.\nBut I am reminded that ere many more years come and go I shall put off\nthe harness which I have worn so long, and with so much pleasure. Others\nyounger, and in the prime of life, must take up the noble work, and carry it on\nwith energy and a determination to succeed. I hope to continue the work as\nlong as my health and strenght permit, and I can keep abreast of the times.\nLet us not turn back, nor falter by the wayside, but let us work together harmoniously, with one grand object in view, viz., to raise the standard of teaching\nin our pubHc schools everywhere, and hasten the time when the children of this\nour beloved country will come to know what is good teaching, and we as\nteachers shall not be satisfied until the best instruction and the best class of\nmusic shall everywhere prevail. In what nobler work can we possibly engage ?\nWith the prize ahead, let us press on with vigor.\nSchool life is too short to allow any waste of time. How good one may\nand ought to be was long ago revealed to us, but how much knowledge one may\nacquire yet remains an unsolved problem.\nAs we look onward down thru the vista of time, may we behold only that\nwhich is beautiful and truel Intellectual acquirements alone, without other\nrefining qualities, will be weighed in the balance and found wanting. This\nis true of communities and of nations.\nLet us sing; let the children lift up their voices and sing, all over this grand\nand free country, until music and song, hand in hand, two in one, shall go\nmarching on triumphantly into every schoolroom in this broad land, and there\nbe recognized as one of the important branches of study, and thus accomplish\nthe noble purpose intended by our great Creator.\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS A MEANS\nTHE COMMUNITY\n\nMISS\n\nLUCY\n\nROBINSON,\n\nSUPERVISOR OF MUSIC,\nWHEELING,\nW. VA.\n\nOF CULTURE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\n\"Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast.\" The poet spoke truly,\nand the denizen of the forest has taken the first step in civilization when he\nhas heard a melody that for the time at least displaces all thoughts of pillage\nand murder. Music is not only one of the handmaidens of civiHzation, but\nit is also a powerful, if gentle, ally of refinement. Even martial music is civilizing. While the music that inspires an army to deeds of valor temporarily\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n693\n\nsmothers the peaceful emotions and calls into activity the more strenuous\nelements of man's nature, yet when the strife has ceased and war has become\na mere memory, the old martial songs arouse only a spirit of patriotism, and\nthat is but another name for love, which, the apostle tells us, ''suffereth long\nand is kind.\"\nIf, then, music is a means of refinement and civiHzation, even in its most\ncomprehensive sense, is it to be denied that it assists very greatly in general\nculture ? It is our object today to discuss this wonderful gift to man in its\nrelation to the social state, and to determine, so far as we can, how the public\nschools may be utilized as an agency by which music will exert an influence\non the community that will generously contribute to the highest type of\nculture.\nMusic educates those who hear and those who produce, and educates\nalways to a higher taste. In this it presents many of the same phases as\nliterature. In his early days the youth gloats over fiction of a wild and\nbloody character; the more horrid the scenes and the more flaming the language, the more enjoyable it is to him. But if he fives and reads, he is sure to\nlose his appetite for such food; and if he comes in contact with even a simple\nkind of better literature, a higher taste will by degrees be formed. Indeed, his\nappetite is sure to cloy upon what he reads, until he himself craves something\nhigher. A person may have been a chronic attendant upon the sensational\ndrama all his life, and his mind may have become saturated with unattainable hopes and ambitions, the unreal and oftentimes ridiculous situations\ndescribed and acted, and the unrefined, sensational language employed in the\nrendition of the stuff to which he nightly listens. But bring him for the first\ntime face to face with one of Shakespeare's plays well acted, even if he does\nnot understand it all, and even if he sees and hears much that does not appeal\nto him, he experiences a new feehng of respect, sometimes almost of awe,\ndistinct enough to show him that he has been treading along dangerous and\nunprofitable paths. If after this he hears again the low productions, this\nfeeling will be much stronger; but let him even for a few times hear the better\nplay, and his first pecuhar, and perhaps uncomfortable, sensations will return\nin even stronger form, and gradually his taste for the low and unworthy will\ndisappear, and he will wonder at his former state.\nWhat is true of literature is equally true of music; hence these illustrations\nare indicative of what actually occurs in the metamorphosis of musical tastes.\nThe ordinary popular song does not represent a high order of music. It\nappeals to the popular fancy because it is catchy, and easily remembered\nand reproduced, so that a person most uncultured in music is whistHng or\nsinging it within an hour after it has been heard upon the stage. If a song\ndoes not have movement and melody to attract these whistlers and sing rs,\nthe copies will lie on the shelves, unsold, unhonored, and unsung. If the\npubHc in general enjoys trashy music, it is largely because its taste has never\nbeen cultivated to appreciate the good.\nIt is a great pity that the American\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": null, "text": "694\n\n\"\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk-\n\npeople are so largely ignorant of music, get so little of the possible pleasure\nout of it, and so little of the civilizing and elevating influence of good music.\nIt is not difficult to cultivate some taste in music, if the beginning is made at\nthe right time, and if the efforts are persistently kept up. It is a well-known\nfact that it often requires but a shght shaping of the thoughts and inclinations\nto start the musically bent mind in the right direction. As it begins to meet\nwith music of the better sort, it becomes enchanted with the new realm into\nwhich it has strayed; it analyzes with avidity the surprising combinations of\nsounds into delightful harmony, and looks forward with the most pleasurable\nanticipations to further discoveries of even a higher order. Under such\ncircumstances it is not difficult to forecast the outcome in individual cases.\nBut this cultivation of taste is not Hmited to the musically bent mind. Practically all minds are open to the influence, if the proper beginning is made at\nthe proper time. There are various means of cultivating musical taste in a community. The presentation of good music, notably thru the medium of the\nconcert, the opera, the orchestra, the brass band, may under proper conditions be a powerful influence, and fortunate are those who are so situated that\nthey can be brought under its educating sway. But there are two circumstances that prevent such music from becoming a very potent factor in\ntraining the public mind to a high degree of culture. First, such ventures\nare not always self-supporting — a fact that not only brings their promoters\ninto financial difficulties, but also discourages others from entering the same\nfield. Even in our largest cities, organizations of enthusiastic, musical people\nfind it necessary to create a guarantors' list, the members of which are yearly\ncalled upon to make up somewhat alarming deficits. Second, the public\ncannot be compelled to patronize these renditions of the masters. Even\nwhen free to those who will take only the trouble of attending, they frequently\nhave discouragingly meager audiences. Add to all this the fact that our\npopulation is being continually augmented by hordes of the ignorant and\nvicious, and the case looks almost hopeless for accomplishing a great deal\nby this means.\nThe only remaining agency, then, is the public school; and is not this\nenough ? Do we not rely upon the pubHc school for the general intelligence\nof the community in practically all subjects? I am entirely confident that\nif music is taught during the public-school course in the right way, we may\nhave within a generation a people as musically alert as they are now musically\ndull. The experience which we have already had indicates this; and all the\nconditions are favorable, because, first, all must receive the instruction; and,\nsecond, it is given at a time when the mind of the child is best able to absorb\nit and adopt it into its life and surroundings. Growing up with it, thus, the\nchild assimilates music as he assimilates the healthful food that is daily appHed\nto the nourishment of the physical man. How needful is it, then, that musical\nnourishment should be of the proper quahtyl There is just as little culture\nforce in low-grade music as there is in low-grade literature, and the system\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n695\n\nof schools that permits mediocre music to be taught may be training for\ngreater facilities in reading notes, or a certain faint appreciation of harmony\nand composition, but is giving the children no real musical culture on the\naesthetic or artistic side. What is culture but the very refinement of education ? Its immediate effect is to cause an earnest, an intense desire for further\nadvancement in the same direction. Trashy Kterature or trashy music will\nnever create this desire; hence the impossibility of raising the public taste to\nthe proper standard in either subject without supplying the very basis of that\ntaste. The pupil must be brought into contact with good music and kept\nin contact with it, if he is to be taught to love it. Our text-books must therefore be filled to the cover with the very best music, suited, of course, to the\ncapabilities of the children.\nAnd what are we to say of the teacher? Certainly she must be thoroly\neducated musically if she is to succeed in this work. The absurdity of placing\nmusical instruction in the hands of those who have not the faintest idea of\nharmony or of the well-defined laws that govern good singing should be\npatent to everyone; yet it has been found necessary to do this very thing in\norder to have music taught at all. In this regard the schools of Germany are\nfar superior to ours. There the teacher must be a musician. He must be\nable to play on at least one instrument, and hence he is well qualified to conduct\nthis department of school work. The government demands that he shall be\ncompetent to direct his pupils in music, and in order to secure this proficiency, he is trained in music just as he is trained for expertness in other\ndirections. When the school authorities thruout the United States demand\na Hke standard for all applicants for schools, we shall have the same thoroness\nof instruction that exists in Germany.\nBut we have the right to go even farther. Not only should teachers be\ncapable of giving instruction in the rudiments of this branch, and have sound\nknowledge of harmony and composition, but they should have that vastly\nwider culture which includes proper expression, and the perception of what\nis good or bad in tone-production, as well as the ability to cause the young\nmind to distinguish between the manly, the yielding, the emphatic, the suppHant, with something of the same power of interpretation that he probably\nhas in reading. Will this condition of affairs ever come to pass ? I do not\nhesitate to say that it will when the educational powers say so. At present\nour only course is to go forward as we are doing, placing teachers under the\nvery best supervision it is possible to secure. The leaven will work, is working.\nIndeed, it is astonishing how much can be accomplished thru the medium of\na supervisor who is magnetic, tactful, energetic, watchful; and more have\nthese four quaHties than many of us imagine.\nWhen the happy day comes, our teachers will feel as much at home in\nmusic as in arithmetic; the Httle German band will taboo ragtime melodies,\nbecause they will not be appreciated; and, best of all, the child will grow up a\nlover of good music, because from his youth he has known nothing else.\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n6g6\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMETHODS\nW.\n\nH.\n\nPOMMER,\n\nVERSUS\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nRESULTS\nMUSIC,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\n\"Es ist eine alte Geschichte,\nDoch bleibt sie ewig neu,\nUnd wem sie just passieret,\nDem bricht das Herz entzwei.\"\nIt is an old, old story,\nYet still 'tis always new,\nAnd he to whom it happens,\nHis heart will break in two.\n\nA personal interpretation of these lines, wherein Heine sings of unrequited\nlove, might reflect the emotional state of one who has had temerity enough to\nselect the well-worn theme of ''Methods versus Results\" as a subject for a\npaper at the National Educational Association. While the last line might be\nstrengthened by changing \"heart\" to \"head,\" it were better, on the whole,\nto leave the verses unaltered, for, by the simple process of substituting \"methods and results\" for \"methods versus results,\" the writer could keep his\nhead uninjured, while his heart might remain broken at the prospect of\ndealing with so vast a theme in so limited a time.\nSurely methods and results together must cover the whole ground given to\nmusic as an educational factor in the public schools. If, while honoring the\n\"divine art\" with a place in the curriculum, the desired results be clearly\ndefined, it would seem that the outline of methods to be employed would stand\nrevealed at the same instant. The reverse is not equally true, inasmuch as\nresults are of primary import; methods, of secondary. Rome, as a central\nattraction, had many roads leading to it; in spite of the adage, however, there\nare many roads not leading to Rome.\nThe early explorers in our great country blazed the forest trees as they\ncautiously advanced into unknown regions. This primitive manner of marking their route enabled them to return to their place of departure, in case\nthey wished to do so. In the course of years some well-worn paths were thus\ndeveloped, mostly by the apathetic who, without further parley, trod in the\nfootsteps of those who had gone before. No doubt, much commiseration\nwas wasted by early conventionalists, and many sneering \"I told you so's\"\nuttered when an occasional venturesome spirit went astray in the woods, or\nwillfully refused to return to his starting-place, after having once stumbled\nupon a broader vista at a natural parting of the ways. At the present moment,\neven tho we glory in our many means of rapid transit, with aerial propulsion\nnear at hand, the weary traveler is still often confronted with the old problems\nof choice of direction.\nWhat dull equine instincts may not certain animals in Switzerland possess,\ntrained from youth to take certain difficult steps in perilous places ? [Sings :\ndo, re, mi, fa, sol, la, H, la, sol, fa, mi, re, do.] To use a Hibernianism, these\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nVERSUS\n\nRESULTS\n\nsame horses would be at sea in a beautiful meadow.\nla, sol.]\n\n697\n\n[Sings: mi, re, do, ti,\n\nThe small boy trying to look over a high fence, which even tiptoeing prevents his doing, can suffer no greater soul-torture than is expressed in [sings]\ndo, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, la, sol, fa, mi, re, do.\nThe tourist-rider is requested by his guide to let the bridle of the Swiss\nhorse severely alone; the little boy is instructed by his teacher to tiptoe again\nand again, with the cheering admonition never to despair, inasmuch as his\nlegs are continually growing, and in due time they will be sufficiently long\nto enable him to look over the fence with ease. If given his own choice,\nthe Swiss horse would willingly follow his rider's directions, preferably in the\nmeadow, and the small boy, under the same conditions would hop over\nthe fence.\nOur good little boy has also been told that it is more humane to cut off a\ndog's tail by inches than to cut it off in one fell clip. At least this idea must\nhave been presented to him musically, for we cannot put any other interpretation on such inane proceedings as [sings] do, re; do, re, mi; do, re, mi, fa;\ndo, re, mi, fa, sol; do, re, mi, fa, sol, la; do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti; do, re, mi,\nfa., sol, la, ti, do. There can be no doubt but that every well-regulated dog\nwould prefer [sings] do, do, 8va.\nQuery: Why cut off the dog's tail at all ?\nWe are told by physicians that our daily constitutionals are of but little\nvalue without a goal to add interest to our promenade. Nothing tires so much\nas aimless wandering. The boy, who listlessly carries a scuttle of coal for\nhis aged parent will joyously fill the bin when playing at coal merchant with\nhis fellows. Notice the parent of this boy, who, while having a watchful eye\nupon his son, and ever thinking of the obstacles to be overcome on his journey,\nand the appointed time of his arrival, has still arranged matters so that the\nlad may occasionally loiter by the wayside to pluck an attractive flower or to\ntoss his ball high into the air. It is not much to say that this parent has solved\nthe problem of methods and results in a very easy and effective way. Should\nwe not pity the child of this other parent, on whose stem face is written:\n''I know exactly where I am going, and I know exactly how long it takes to get\nthere ? \" This parent never lets go of the hand of his young hopeful, who is sure\nto feel stiff and awkward in his Sunday-go-to-meeting-best, but drags him along\nwith nothing but a \"hurry up\" by way of encouragement. Here there is a\ngreat discrepancy between methods and results, the relative stride and the\ncrying wants of the child's nature having both been overlooked. Let us make\na plea for greater freedom. Allow the child to do what pleases him, but be\nsure that the thing that pleases him is the thing we want him to do. In the\ngymnasium of the day special muscles are developed for special purposes.\nThe endurance of the Indian, whose physical training has been obtained in\nfree, open-air play, is greater than that of the skilled gymnast.\nEvery supervisor has had strange experiences of the faithfulness with\nwhich his instructions have been carried out by well-meaning teachers who\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": null, "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nfail to catch the central idea. You cannot develop freedom in the child if\nthe teacher does not possess it. True freedom comes from knowledge. The\ninference is that teachers must have a better normal training in music than\nordinarily falls to their lot.\nLet us not overlook personality. Everyone of any consequence has his\nown particular way of going at things. Are we not annoyed, when tying a\nbundle or sharpening a pencil, to have a kind friend say: \"Why don't you\ndo it so?\" Of course, we know that \"do it so\" means the way our kind\nfriend does it, and which to him means the best way. Let it be said that had\nwe tied the bundle or sharpened the pencil in the way the looker-on suggested,\nit is quite likely that the question would have been: \"Why don't you do it the\nother way ? \" Alas ! here we find the germs of so much supervisional tyranny.\nSifted down, it would seem that \"method\" means doing a thing well, and\ndoing it quickly. Difficulties are encountered in getting a number of people\nof different capacities to appreciate what \"doing a thing well, and doing it\nquickly\" means. In all our calculations account must be taken of the personal equation of the teacher — her environment and, above all, her temperament. The latter is an all-important factor in matters musical. It is to be\nhoped that the supervisor is complete master of the situation. If this is not\nso, the matter gets to be still more comphcated. Much valuable time is lost\nby the superconscientious teacher delaying over unessentials. As in regular\nmedical treatment, let the supervisor carefully diagnose the case and give the\nproper remedy. The patent musical methods are no better than the patentmedicine methods. There is some good in each of these, but the glaring\ndeficiency is that they do not cover every case. If we must die musically,\nlet us do so in spite of sane treatment. On the other hand, it is always better\nto get well, even, if in doing so, we prove that certain specifics for dangerous\ncoi^ditions are specifics no longer.\nThe ultimate purpose of music in the pubHc schools must be the same as\nthat of any other study in the curriculum, viz., the awakening of an important\npart of the child's nature. Omitting the few who follow music professionally,\nit might be profitable to study the cases of the many who will drop music as\nthey do many other branches in later Hfe. It is not asking too much to insist\nthat mental discipHne should be a sine qua non of all musical effort. Language, from its constant use as a means of communication, is never forgotten,\nand its mechanism gets to be more and more perfected. Time was when\nsentences such as, \"Is this the green umbrella of your blue-eyed grandmother ?\"\nwere in common use in the teachings of French and German. Small wonder\nthat there was no disposition on the part of the child to continue the study of\nforeign languages after school days were over. Why sear sentences such as\nthe above into the brains of the young ? When a child, by means of choice\nselections, learns to think idiomatically in a foreign language, it will have\nevery incentive for further study; or, faihng in this for lack of opportunity,\nwill still have many quotations from master-minds to recall at will for either\npleasure or solace.\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n699\n\nThe song material in our schools must be the best obtainable. The children must be filled with this. Even if they should forget the keys, the movable doj notes, rests, and everything else relating to the mechanism of music,\nin case the study of music should end with the school days, the essence of the\nmusic will still remain, the souls of the children will have grown thru this\nbeneficent nourishment, a sense of beauty will have been awakened, and, it\nis not too much to say, their moral nature will have been strengthened; for,\nof all things in this world, music is least of the earth, earthy. If all methods\ntend toward this, music in the public schools will have a worthy object, and,\nincidentally, the pupils will learn to read. Page after page of beautiful music,\ngone at in a sensible way, is bound to lead to sight-reading ; whereas page after\npage of sight-reading as an ulterior object will keep the pupil in the \"green\numbrella and blue-eyed grandmother\" stage. Every city, every school, every\nroom, needs somewhat different treatment on the part of the supervisor, the\nonly unchangeable thing being musical hygiene. Above all, let not the personality ofthe teacher in charge of the room be overlooked. If she, as an\nintermediary, can produce the desired results in a somewhat different way\nfrom the generally accepted one, by all means let her do so.\nMethods must fit the results to be obtained. The reverse of this would\nbe fatal.\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nFRANK\n\nSCHOOL\nMUSIC SUPERVISOR IN HIS RELATIONS TO THE PROFESSIONAL MUSICIANS AND\nTHE PROFESSIONAL EDUCATORS\n\nNAGEL,\n\nPIANIST,\n\nHIGHLAND\n\nPARK\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nDES\n\nMOINES,\n\nlA.\n\nThe teaching of music in the public school has been in a state of development for some twenty years, and at present the time only the mountain-tops\nare bathed in the sunlight of its beauty. That some rays are creeping down\ninto the vales below is due to the spirit of progress that permeates the general\nthought of today, and pulses thru every branch of educational work. In this\nwaking up from a state of dense ignorance and indifference there has been\nmuch running to and fro in the land, in search of means and ways and methods\nwhereby the teacher can obtain good results. What are the results most to be\ndesired from our public-school music ? You will all agree with me that sightreading is the one thing needful from this particular line of work, and along\nwith this a general awakening of the child's musical nature.\nIn this period of development there have been no recognized standards;\nchanges in methods have followed each other with such rapidity that only the\n''lightning-change artist\" could accommodate himself to the swift rush of the\n''one and only\" methods which present themselves for consideration. Even\nnow there are advocates of the fixed do; of the theory that the key of C should\nbe thoroly learned before taking another key; of the idea that children should\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": null, "text": "yoo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbe required to mark time in order to become good time-keepers. There are\nadvocates of the theory that children should be taught sight-reading from the\nfirst, and that all their songs should be read at sight and none taught by note.\nOn the other hand, there are advocates of the opposite extreme, that children\nshould be taught entirely by the rote song. Each of these methods has its\nardent supporters, and there are supervisors who tie themselves up, with this\nhobby or that, and become method-ists to such an extent that they are wellnigh useless as educators.\nHobby-ists and method-ists play but a limited role in the broad scheme of\ntwentieth- century education, and we find the horizon of such teachers shrinking\nyearly. Each year, however, an increasing number of reasonable, wellequipped school-music supervisors are added to the ranks of the trained\nleaders who shun all narrowness and work in a broad and scholarly way.\nThe work of the music supervisor is distinctly separate from any other branch\nof instruction, for the supervisor needs more pedagogical training than the.\naverage musician, and far more musical training than the average pedagog.\nOne can see at a glance that our small towns are at a disadvantage, as this\nwork, for lack of available teachers, is put in the hands of someone not properly\nequipped. This could be remedied, if several small towns would unite under\nthe supervision of a trained supervisor with a salary sufficient to procure the\nbest, which is always the cheapest. If the local teachers would support such\na measure, it would be an impetus to its consummation. Such an action\nwould increase the work of village and country music teachers, for there would\nbe more demand for private vocal and instrumental lessons, as a result of good\nwork, done by a competent supervisor, in loosing the shackles of ignorance and\nfreeing the imprisoned sense that sometimes beats hopelessly in darkness.\nThe greatest Teacher that ever trod this planet once said: ''Ye shall know\nthe truth, and truth shall make you free.\" Free from what? Free from\nignorance, and free from darkness. No artist hand can paint a scene where\ndarkness reigns supreme. Consider what it would mean to the children, to the\nmusic teacher, and to the community to have an expert in school music, in\ncharge of several towns and villages.\nThe increasing interest in school music has found the inexperienced teacher\nbeset with difficulties. Working his way among the various fallacies we\nhave mentioned, relying on his own intelligence in making out his course of\nstudy, and in the selection of material to be used, unable to consult any recognized authority, the ambitious supervisor finds himself floundering in a sea\nof difficulties. Under such circumstances one is in danger of grasping at any\nstraw that floats in his direction, and fancy he has found a raft upon which he\ncan stand.\nThis increasing interest in school music has resulted in the professional\neducator giving much more attention to the methods of the supervisor, and the\npedagogical laws'underlying music- teaching. This individual will soon learn\nthat he cannot classify music with reading, spelling, literature, or grammar,\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\n701\n\nnor can he apply his pedagogical laws to music, as he does to other studies.\nHe may believe that, because reading can be taught by reading, music-reading\ncan be taught by singing.\nIt does but little good to believe a thing; you must\nknow it thru your own proving before mere belief becomes demonstrable .\nknowledge.\nWhat experience in teaching music in the grades has the mere theorist had ?\nNone whatever; and sometimes the professional educator may impose his ideas\nupon the supervisor, and prove a source of trouble and annoyance. The\neducator's pedagogy may be correct, but his knowledge of music and the best\nways of presenting it to the masses of children in the grades may be woefully\ndeficient. Because of the ethical — I would almost say, esoteric — elements\nentering into music, no one but the supervisor himself can work out the methods\nand discover the musical pedagogy necessary to meet the needs of the schoolroom; and so the supervisors must hold steadily on their way, accepting the best\nthey can find from each other, taking the best educational theories advanced by\nthe professional educators, and using all the good that will fit into their special\nwork.\nAll educators cannot work in the same way, any more than a ship-builder,\na balloon-maker, or a violin-maker can all work alike in their building. All\nthree are building something, but their methods differ, because of the difference\nin the things to be built. There is a like difference between teaching a child\narithmetic and developing its musical nature. The music supervisor can\naccept from the advocate of the new educational method all that is useful for\nthe happiness and development of the children in connection with the study\nof music. The professional educator should not become a chronic critic, nor\nan avenue for the anarchist tendency that is ready to tear down and sweep\naway all that does not confrom to its idea of what should or what should not be.\nThe professional musician, who is a specialist as a pianist, vocalist, violinist,\nband leader, or theorist, knows, or at least should know, that the supervisor\ndoes not need to be an expert in any of these branches, but that he needs to\nwork from a broader basis. It is necessary for the music supervisor to understand the capabilities of children in each grade of the school, and he should\nbe such a master of the situation that the limited time of ten or fifteen minutes\na day is replete with rich results in each room.\nIt is not the ability to play an instrument or to write a fugue that makes the\nsuccessful supervisor, but rather an intelhgent appreciation of child-development from six to ten years of age; an abiHty to analyze the subject of music,\nand present it to the \"shooting idea, \" so that it comes within the mental horizon\nof each grade, and, like the rounds of a ladder we mount, each round is a support\nwhile we stand on it, and leads up to the next one. Nothing must be omitted\nin the grades that is necessary for proper progress and development, and nothing taught that does not bear upon the end in view, viz., good sight-reading.\nIt is not the great performer on any instrument, nor the great theorist, nor composer, who is sure of success as a supervisor of school music; but rather the one\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": null, "text": "yo2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nwith the characteristics of the natural teacher strongly developed, with a thoro\nknowledge of the fundamental music facts which are needed in the course of\npublic-school music, and with the ability to present these facts to children in\nsuch a way that a mode of music thinking is established. The supervisor\nshould not be judged by a false standard of things not required, and entirely\nat variance with the requirements of his position. Holding a pubHc position,\nand accepting public money as remuneration for his labors, he must indeed\nbe judged; but let that judgment be along the lines indicated. Test your\nsupervisor as a teacher of children in the schoolroom, as an organizer of school\nmusic, as a tactful assistant and adviser of the grade teacher; but do not criticise him because he is not an artist or virtuoso or coniposer. If he is a teacher\nand teaches such parts of the elements of music best adapted to assimilation\nby the children in the several grades of the school, hold up his hands instead\nof criticising him. Applaud and support what you can, rather than attempt\nto put him down because he is unable to do something which is not necessary\nfor him to do in his specialty of public-school music.\nIt need not be added that we are not advocating a narrow education for\nthe supervisor. The broader and deeper the supervisor's musical education,\nthe better his influence with teachers, pupils, and community. He cannot\nknow too much about music, but it must be remembered that he can have a\nhigh standard as a scholar, as a master in different departments of the broad\nsubject of music, and yet be a failure in directing the steps of the little child as\nhe secures his musical education thru the medium of the public schools.\nWe hail with appreciation the general interest in this branch of educational\nwork, and are ready to speed the day of its universal recognition.\n\nREPORT OF THE CONFERENCE OF CO-OPERATIVE COMMITTEES OF\nTHE MUSIC TEACHERS' NATIONAL ASSOCIATION AND OF THE\nDEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON A HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC COURSE\n[Abbreviated from the full Report]\nThe high-school music course, as arranged, provides four hours of music each week\nof the four high-school years, a total (counting thirty -six weeks to the year) of 576 hours.\nPiano, voice, organ, or instrument of the symphonic orchestra is credited as laboratory\nwork. The customary one period of choral work added to the above makes five periods\nper week, with ensemble as an alternative in the fourth year.\nThe conference desires to state, with special reference to music in colleges or schools\nfollowing the high school, that the course arranged may readily be divided into an elementary and an advanced course: the elementary, two years; the advanced, four years,\nbut under special conditions capable of completion in three years. Such possible division\nis pointed out, because some pupils may be somewhat late in taking the music course, and\ntherefore unable to complete it in the high school. In such cases the elementary course\nmay be pursued at the high school, and subsequent music study conducted elsewhere.\nThe conference recognizes the fact that the course outlined is tentative, as is necessarily\nthe case with all specific plans for new courses of study; they must be tested and readjusted\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department] CONFERENCES\n\nON\n\nA HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOURSE\n\n703\n\nby trial and experience. It may, however, be said that much time, discussion, and careful\nthought have been given to the subject herewith treated. The work of the committees and\nconference has been conducted by teachers of long experience in high-school, college, and\nother fields of musical instruction and general education. These considerations, it is hoped,\nmay secure for the report a careful examination by teachers, institutions, and others\nengaged in musical instruction and in the administration of education, as well as by the\npublic interested in the advancement of musical education.\nIt should be added that some differences of view existed among members of the\nconference on certain points in the course of study; as, for example, the time when twopart writing or counterpoint should begin, etc. The conference, however, sends forth the\nreport, as a whole, with its unanimous and hearty approval.\nREPORT\n\nON HIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nELECTIVE\n\nCOURSE\n\nMusic has held an important place in both ancient and modern education. It has\nbeen ranked in the first group of great educational subjects by many writers and thinkers\non education, for various reasons, some of which are stated in this paper. In the development of public education during the last few decades, music has failed to receive the\nrecognition and treatment which justly belong to a subject whose many-sided value is\ngenerally conceded. For this comparative neglect various causes may be assigned, among\nthem: the enlargement of every field of knowledge, the rise of new sciences, the swift and\nextensive changes in the content and administration of pubHc instruction, the frequent\nmodifications of curricula, the broader scope of secondary education, and the university\nmovement. To these may be added the noh -appreciation of the educational value of\nmusic, and the lack of unity among the teachers and friends of the art. Various other\ncauses also have engrossed public attention and delayed the proper consideration and\ntreatment of music as an educational subject.\nWith the growth of a just and comprehensive idea of education, the claim of music\nto an equal place with other leading subjects in the secondary schools is becoming more\ngeneral, and for the same reason on which the introduction and retention of other leading\nsubjects are based.\nThese reasons are (A) Cultural, and (B) Vocational.\nA. Cultural. — Music as a culture study rests on its values: I, mental; II, moral; III,\nphysical.\nI. Mental. — (a) Studies in interpretation. In solving the problems presented by\nmelody, harmony, rhythm, and tempo, and their expression thru voice or instrument, the\nstudy of music involves the excercfse of the.powers of observation (perception), logical\nconception, concentration in carrying and embodying related Hnes of thought simultaneously and accurately, sustained initiative, keen judgment, swift decision, poetic imagination, which entitle it to high rank as a mental discipline. (&) Studies in construction. In\nmusical construction the same intellectual activities, some in greater and some in less degree,\nfind their exercise and development.\nII. Moral. — ^With poetry and the other fine arts, and akin to them in its underlying\nprinciples, music is an instrument in the moral training of man. Thus the masterpieces of\npure (instrumental) music as well as the songs of home, friendship, religion, of national\nand patriotic feeling, give an appropriate voice to human aspiration, sentiment, and\nthought. Music, therefore, is another and great mode of expression, voicing and affecting\nthe higher life of man.\nIn all ages these uses of the art of music are illustrated.\nIII. Physical. — The co-operation of physical and mental faculties is requisite in\nboth vocal and instrumental music as arts. The educative ends which manual training,\nfor example, serves, are found in musical performance; and, perhaps in a more complete\nway, music tends to harmonize and correlate the mechanical faculties with the inner\ninteUigencc.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": null, "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nB. Vocational. — A great number of persons devote themselves to music as a lifework, pursuit, or profession. Every people that has risen to a high civiUzation has its\nteachers, composers, and performers, and recognizes their work as an indispensable factor\nin the development of personal, social, and national Hfe. A recognition of music as an\nintegral part of the educational system on the elective plan would broaden the training of\nthe musical profession.\nAmong general benefits may be enumerated: the' fact that vocal music is an exercise\ncontributory to health, and is to some degree a safeguard against those diseases which\naffect the breathing organs; its favorable influence on the personal and national voice; the\nvalue of music, with or without words, in widening the range of cultivation and social\nenjoyment, and in developing the sense of rhythm and form in literature.\nPopular education, or the training of the people, tends to a recognition of every subject of instruction at due valuation. It moves strongly in democratic lines, both in securing\nopportunities to every member of society, and also adequate treatment of hitherto neglected\nsubjects. The aristocracy of school subjects may thus yield to a more just and democratic\neducational spirit. The elective idea, which is already well established, and which, properly guarded, is evidently destined to expand, has a bearing on the introduction of a subject of this kind into the body of public instruction. These tendencies, implied in the\ndemocratic idea and the elective method, make the present a favorable time for a consideration of the claims of music.\nSome of the disadvantages, not to say evils, of the present neglect of music in public\neducation are well understood.\nAmong them we cite a frequent example :\nA youth reaches the high-school age, desiring to study music with a serious purpose,\nwhich desire is approved by parents and teachers.\nHe is met by these school conditions:\n1. He must add music to his high-school course as an out-of -school study, and thus\nrun the peril of overcrowding — a condition which occasions much parental complaint, and\nmay result in permanent injury to the pupil; or,\n2. He must drop music, which, in the deUberate opinion of his advisors, may be to\nhim one of the most valuable studies of the high-school period; or,\n3. He must leave the high school; for the present school system neither teaches,\ncredits, nor favors the serious study of music. As affirmed by an experienced high-school\nprincipal, most pupils of decided musical talent, who continue the study of music, drop\nout of the high school, and thus lose the advantage of the liberal courses of study there\nfurnished.\nThese conditions aflfect the college and higher education as well as the lower schools,\nand work detriment in various ways. They make it difficult for parents to carry forward\nthe musical education of their children ancf at the same time to secure the general highschool advantages. They curtail the opportunity of the musical element of society for\nUterary and general training. They lessen the efficiency of the teachers and interpreters\nof music. Thus, in a word, they detract from the value of an important social agency.\nThe exclusion of music from the body of instruction is believed also to impair Uterary\ntechnique in prose and verse, and to produce a needless separation of music and literature\nto the detriment of both arts.\nThe\nembraced\nAA.\nBB.\nCC.\nDD.\n\nforegoing suggests certain pedagogical and related questions which may be\nunder these general heads :\nThe content and method of high-school musical instruction.\nTime allotments and correlation to the body of instruction.\nQualification of teachers.\nCost.\n\nIn this connection, the conference begs leave to submit the appended outline of a\nhigh-school music course and subsequent statements.\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nON\n\nA HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOURSE\n\n705\n\nELECTIVE COURSE IN MUSIC FOR HIGH SCHOOLS\nAA, BB.\n\nCONTENT,\n\nMETHOD,\n\nTIME\n\nALLOTMENTS,\n\nCORRELATION\n\nIntroductory. — It is assumed that all who elect the high-school music course wil\nhave acquired, as a result of earlier training, a familiarity with signatures, major and mino\nscales, the various rhythms in common use, the more common terms and signs of expression and movement, and the nomenclature involved in the foregoing.\nIf such elementar}'\nknowledge is lacking, it should be at once supplied by thoro drill.\nFirst Year\n\nA. Introduction to harmony.\n(Two recitations per week.)\nB. One of the following (two recitations per week):\n(i) Piano.\n(2) Voice.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\nA. Harmony. — The aim shall be to develop, thru the co-operation of eye and ear, (i) the\nsense of the three primary chords in major and minor as called for in the harmoniza\ntion of simple melodic phrases, and (2) the perception of the intervals of the major\nand minor scales; writing from vocal or instrumental dictation, and recognition from\nprinted page (inward hearing) ; correct progression of voices not to be insisted upon.\nB. (i) Piano. — Rudiments of music as noted in Introductory, and the study of pieces\nsuch as the easiest of the Jugendalhum of Schumann.\n(2) Voice. — Such control of breath and tone production as is necessary to sing easily\nvocalises of the difficulty of Concone, Opus Q, and simple songs not requiring\ngreat range of voice or much emotional or dynamic force.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra. — The course pursued\nunder Piano and Voice will indicate the scope of the course for the organ or\ninstruments of the symphonic orchestra, which course may be outlined by any\ncompetent master.\nSecond Year\n\nA. Harmony, elementary harmonic analysis, elementary form. (Two recitations per\nweek.)\nB. One of the following (two recitations per week) :\n(i) Piano.\n(2) Voice.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\nA. Harmony. — (Rudimentary knowledge of piano-playing required.) The end in view:\nabiUty to harmonize simple melodies on paper and at the piano with triads (except\nleading-tone triad) and the dominant seventh, with inversions. Modulations to next\nrelated keys included (dominant, sub-dominant, relative minor or major); to be\ndone in all keys, major and minor, ear-training being confined primarily to chords in\nthe fundamental position. Elementary form: the structure of periodic melody, eightand sixteen-measure sentences, and their normal 'subdivisions; cadences as marks of\npunctuation.\nHarmonic analysis: simple hymn and song forms suggested.\nB. (i) Piano. — Pieces of the grade of the Sonatinas of Clementi and the more difficult\nof the Jugendalhum.\n(2) Voice. — Ability to sing vocalises of the grade of Concone, Opus 10, and songs\nrequiring greater range and flexibility of voice, and more emotional power.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\n(See. under First Year.)\nThird Year\n\nA. Harmony, advanced harmonic analysis, elementary counterpoint {part-writing), form.\n(Two recitations per week.)\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": null, "text": "7o6\nB.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nOne of the following (two recitations per week):\n\n(i) Piano.\n(2) Voice.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\nA. Harmony. — End in view: harmonizing of melodies and figured basses, the added\nvoices to be made more interesting; the means suggested are: passing notes, suspensions, chromatic alteration. Two-part writing with special reference to clear melodic\noutline, and natural harmonic basis. Harmonic analysis and form continued by the\nanalytical study of the Sonatinas of Clementi, simple sonatas of Haydn and Mozart,\nselections from the Chorales of Bach.\nB. (i) Piano. — Pieces of the grade of the variations on Nel Cor Piu of Beethoven and\nthe easier of the Opus 72 of Mendelssohn.\n(2) Voice. — ^Mastery of advanced vocalises, and songs of the grade of Mozart's easier\nsongs.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\n(See under First Year.)\nFourth Year\n\nA. Counterpoint, biographic history.\n(One recitation per week.)\nB. One of the following (two recitations per week) :\n(i) Piano.\n(2) Voice.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\nC. Ensemble. — Alternative for choral work.\n(One recitation per week.)\nA. Counterpoint. — The end in view is to develop the power to use in a free and more\nartistic way the material already presented. Biographic history: the end in view is\nthe acquirement of historical knowledge, based upon a study of those masters who\nsince 1700 have specifically influenced musical development. This study should\nembrace a concise historical introduction, an account of the personahty of the great\nmasters, their environment and connection with contemporary epoch-making literary\nand historical activities, and as full an examination of their works as possible. The\nteacher may use a syllabus for this purpose, and may connect these biographical\nstudies by brief historical interludes.\nB. (i) Piano. — At the end of the course pupils should be able to play on examination,\nwith a musicianly regard to tempo, phrasing, and expression, such pieces as the\neasier sonatas of Haydn and Mozart, and the little preludes of Bach, and to\nplay at sight, in the manner indicated above, such pieces as the first five of the\nJugendalbum of Schumann.\n(2) Voice. — The easiest songs of Schumann, Schubert, Franz, and other songs of\nmodern composers, demanding some degree of dynamic force, breadth of style,\nand dramatic power, to be sung with appreciation of their musical content.\n(3) The organ, or an instrument of the symphonic orchestra.\n(See under First Year.)\nC. Ensemble. — Where conditions permit, a choice or combination of the following is\nsuggested: orchestral practice; studies in chamber-music; systematic studies of larger\nworks used in choral practice.\nNote i. — In the record of instrumental study (to be presented at annual examination) only compositions\nof classical excellence should be considered in estimating proficiency. Bach, Haydn, and Mozart should be\namong the subjects on the program for at least a year in the aggregate, and other available classics should have\ndue representation. Aside from these requirements, any approved material and methods may be employed in\nacquiring technique and musical knowledge. The analysis of structure and form prescribed in Course A should\nbe fully tested in all pieces for examination, and inteUigent, faithful, and musicianly reproduction of the given\ntexts is expected.\nNote 2. — To be noted in connection with voice: distinct enunciation in song-singing; cultivation of ensemble-singing, duo, trio, quartet; practice in sight-reading; regular choral practice to be omitted only in a few exceptional cases; care to be exercised as to public appearance of pupils as soloists.\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nON\n\nA HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nMUSIC\n\nCOURSE\n\n707\n\nNote 3. — The general use of automatic instruments capable of rendering symphonic works is recommended,\nas the best means ordinarily attainable, to develop a high degree of familiarity with the content of standard works\nin large form.\nCC.\n\nQUALIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nIn this, as in other leading subjects, a teacher should have thoro knowledge of the\nsubject to be taught; in addition thereto, an academic degree, or its equivalent in teaching\nexperience. It is believed duly quaHfied teachers of music may be obtained as readily as\nin other subjects. A demand for such teachers would be met from existing sources, or\nwould create a supply in the near future. State, city, college, or other educational authority\nmight set a standard which would soon become general, and might take the form of a system\nof certification, a registration of teachers, or the Uke.\nDD.\n\nCOST\n\nThe introduction of a new subject may not involve increased cost to the taxpayer*\nPupils taking the new subject will probably omit some other subject, and a corresponding\nreduction of teaching expense at another point may result. Moreover, it is public economy\nand a wise policy to develop a comprehensive and adaptive educational system; for otherwise the time, talent, and opportunity of many pupils, as well as public-school resources,\nare to a greater or less degree wasted.\nIf, however, the expectation of increased cost be an obstacle to a better recognition\nof music as one of the leading subjects in pubUc education, the conference suggests that,\nin many cases at least, parents are willing to bear the cost of musical education, as they\nnow do at considerable expense and under great educational disadvantages. Private\nschools and private teachers may still conduct such education. The pubhc-school system\nmay, after satisfactory tests, give credit for such study at due valuation. This practice is\nalready estabhshed at a few points in this country. In other connections and subjects\nexaminations are frequently arranged by those who have not given the preliminary instruction, as examinations for civil service, college-entrance, law, medicine, etc. There is no\nvalid objection to the use of such a plan by the public-school system, if public preference\nor necessity so requires.\nThis plan involves no public cost.\nAt a final meeting of the Conference on Music in PubHc Education, held in Boston\non February 20, 1904, the foregoing prefatory statement and report were adopted. The\nCo-operative Committees of the Music Teachers' National Association and of the Music\nvSection of the National Educational Association, concur in the above action.\nH. C. Macdougall, Chairman\nW. Scott, Secretary,\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 1Q04\n\nThe session was opened in the auditorium of the Mines and Metallurgy Building,\nUniversal Exposition, at 2 : 30 p. m., by the president, Cheesman A. Herrick, of Philadelphia,\nwith an address on \"Old Wine in New Bottles.\"\nThis was followed by a description of the commercial exhibits at the Exposition by\nCarl C. Marshall, author and publisher, of Cedar Rapids, la., under the title \"The Work\nof the Private Commercial Schools as Illustrated in the Exhibits at the St. Louis Exposition.\"The topic was discussed by Robert C. Spencer, president of Spencerian Business\nCollege, Milwaukee, Wis, ; George W. Brown, Jacksonville, 111. ; Peleg R. Walker, superintendent ofschools, Rockford, 111.; and President Edmund J. James of the Northwestern\nUniversity, Evanston, 111.\nThe last speaker of the session was Miss Minnie Bronson, superintendent of elementary and secondary education. Department of Education, Louisiana Purchase Exposition,\nwho read a paper on \"The Resources of the United States as Illustrated by the Louisiana\nPurchase Exposition.\"\nThe president then appointed the following Committee on Resolutions:\nWilliam C. Stevenson, of Maryland.\nR. A. Grant, of Illinois.\nEnos Spencer, of Kentucky.\n\nThe department adjourned to Thursday, June 30.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe second meeting of the department was called to order at 2 : 30 P. m. by VicePresident H. B. Brown.\nThe topic for the session, \"The Report of the Committee of Nine,\" was taken up as\nfollows:\n1. \"From the Standpoint of the Independent School of Commerce,\"\nof the New York High School of Commerce, New York city.\n\nby James J. Sheppard, principal\n\n2. \"From the Standpoint of the General High School,\" by Bertrand DeR. Parker, principal of high\nschool, Rockford, 111.\nGeneral discussion, led by J. Remsen Bishop, principal of Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati, O,\n\nDiscussion followed, led by D. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich., chairmaji of the\nCommittee of Nine.\nMr. Springer then presented the following:\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\nYour committee was requested at the last meeting to complete the contemplated monograph so that it\nmight be available for this session. We would respectfully report that during this month the same has been\nissued as a publication by the University of the State of New York, being Bulletin 23 in Series K, the price of\nwhich is 20 cents.\nWe desire to express our thanks to the regents of the university for affording the means of placing the same\nbefore the commercial teachers of this country.\nD. W. Springer, Chairman.\n\nIt was voted that the report be accepted and the committee discharged.\n709\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": null, "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented a report which was adopted.\nThe officers elected for the ensuing year are:\nPresident — W C. Stevenson, Decatur, 111.\nVice-President — H. B. Brovra, Valparaiso, Ind.\nSecretary — John A. White, Moline, 111.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nPRESIDENTS\nCHEESMAN\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS— OLD\n\nA. HERRICK,\n\nThomas H. H. Knight, Secretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nWINE\n\nIN NEW\n\nDIRECTOR OF SCHOOL OF COMMERCE,\nSCHOOL,\nPHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nBOTTLES\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nIt has been the experience of many of those here gathered to be called upon\nto explain just what is meant by the kind of education for which this department stands. I have thought it might prove profitable, and certainly it will\nnot be uninteresting, to attempt a statement of the relations of the new and\nthe old in our system of thought. I have pleasure, therefore, in inviting your\nattention to the theme of the old wine of culture in its relation to this later age\nin which we are called upon to live and work.\nThe Hebrew ''speaker in assemblies\" declared that there is no new thing\nunder the sun, and affirmed of a thing thought to be new that it hath both been\nlong ago in the ages which were before us. At times we talk of new schools of\nart and literature, and new systems of education, as tho they were real things,\nand yet when we begin to examine the old and note comparison, we find that\nthe supposed new is surprisingly like that which has preceded, and that in all\nbranches of modern life we are only living up to the accomplishments and the\npromises of the long ago. But more than this, the development of the later\nage is necesssary that we understand the full meaning of what was earlier\nwritten or done. Of genius it may be said that it expresses eternal truth, but\nin a language often unintelligible to its own time. It is only the unfolding of\nlife in a later age that gives the data from which can be understood the larger\nmeaning of a great truth. Poets were long ago reputed to express wise things\nwhich they did not themselves understand. The supreme achievement of\nliterature is the universalizing of an era — the projection of an age, and the\nbinding of it both to the past and the future. Thus it is that truly great writings are always modern; thus Hfe is unfolding, and each epoch furnishes the\nexperiences that enable us better to understand the universal truth of earlier\ntimes. It is eminently proper that our department, one of the latest and upto-date sections of the National Educational Association, should regard the\nrelation of the present to the past.\nMen of the present talk as tho they were the originators, or creators, of\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n71I\n\nmany things of which they are, after all, only the inheritors and perfectors.\nThe modern loose-leaf ledger, and card-index ledger systems are but an adaptation of the clay-tablet method of keeping accounts, practiced in Babylonia\nmore than four thousand years ago. The Babylonian tablets were superior\nto the modern devices in that they did not require fireproof safes. Seals,\nwitnesses, consideration, security, and many other phases of modem contract\nproceedings are all found in the early dawn of history. As one looks farther,\nhe sees that many so-called modern business customs find their precursors\nand their suggestion in practices of the hoary past.\nIf for a moment we turn our thought to the economic organization of modem society, there is little to excite our admiration by way of newness. Economists talk of trusts as an essentially modern phenomenon, and assure us that\nthey are the consequence of new methods in the production and exchange of\ngoods; but on examination we find that the monopoly privilege has been\nbestowed upon their favorites by rules from time immemorial, and they were\nbestowed for the same reason, and their operations were actuated by the same\nmotives, that lie back of the modern monopoly. The Tudors in England\nkept giving additional privileges until necessities as well as luxuries were in\nthe grasp of those moved by their own greed rather than the public good.\nIron, oil, vinegar, coal, starch, leather, yarn, glass, and many other articles\nwere included. No sovereign bestowed monopolist privileges more freely\nthan did Elizabeth, and no event of her remarkable reign is more striking or\nfraught with larger meaning than was her withdrawal of these privileges on\npetition from the Commons. Legislation for the regulation of monopolies\nwas enacted in the time of James I., but the abuses did not disappear. The\nwhole question was later discussed by Sir John Culpeper in a speech before\nthe Long Parliament. He gave a list of monoplies and particularized as to\ntheir influence, speaking in general terms that present anti-trust agitators\nmight find suited to express their sentiments:\nThey are a nest of wasps — a swarm of vermin that have crept over the land; ....\nthey sup in our cup, dip in our dish, sit by our fire. These are the leeches that have sucked\nthe commonwealth so hard that it is almost hectical.\n\nA case still cited as precedent was brought in the English courts; it was to\ndissolve a monopoly for the sale of playing cards, and, as reported by Coke,\nis still termed \"the case of monopolies.\" Late decisions to dissolve mergers\nand the like are in accord with the reasons for dissolving this monopoly as is\ngiven in the report of Coke: a monopoly in restraint of trade is against both\nthe common law and numerous legislative acts.\nBut provisions for the control of monopolies are older than the rise of the\nEnglish law. The economic conditions from which monopolies grew were\nfound in the ancient world, and monopolies have existed 'from a very early\ntime. Zeno, the prefect of Constantinople, found conditions not unlike those\nof our own period, and in 483 A. D. he issued an edict that, if enforced, would\nlikely have made him the greatest force for the control of trusts of which we\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": null, "text": "712\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nhave any knowledge.\nIn an age of attempted trust control the message from\nZeno cannot fail to interest:\nWe command that no one may presume to exercise a monopoly of any kind of clothing,\nor of fish, or of any other thing serving for food, or for any other use, whatever its nature\nmay be, either of his own authority, or under a rescript of an emperor, already procured,\nor that may hereafter be procured, or under an imperial decree, or under a rescript signed\nby our majesty; nor may any persons combine or agree in unlawful meetings that different\nkinds of merchandise may not be sold at a less price than they may have agreed upon among\nthemselves. Workmen and contractors for buildings, and all who practice other professions, and contractors for baths, are entirely prohibited from agreeing together that no\none may complete a work contracted for by another, or that a person may prevent one\nwho has contracted for a work from finishing it; full liberty is given to anyone to finish a\nwork begun and abandoned by another without apprehension of loss, and to denounce all\nacts of this kind without fear and without costs; and if anyone shall presume to practice a\nmonopoly, let his property be forfeited and himself condemned to perpetual exile. And\nin regard to the principals of other professions, if they shall venture in the future to fix a\nprice upon their merchandise and to bind themselves by agreements not to sell at a lower\nprice, let them be condemned to pay 40 pounds of gold. Your court shall be condemned\nto pay 50 pounds of gold if it shall happen, through avarice, negUgence, or any other misconduct, the provisions of this salutary constitution for the prohibition of monopoHes and\nagreements among the different bodies of merchants shall not be carried into effect.\n\nThus, as our boasted new age is not so new, so our heralded modem\neconomic problems are not so modern.\nNor do the statements ust made detract from the interest or importance\nof the present. Truly great work in Uterature, music, architecture, etc., has\nbeen characterized by a singular lack of originality. The pre-eminent literary\ngenius of the EngHsh race was so wanting in this particular that his authorship has been called into question. Both language and subject-matter of his\nplays follow other writings which had preceded. In addition to the use of\nthe chronicles of Holinshed and Hall, and the North Plutarch which had just\nappeared, Shakespeare drew largely from legends and traditions current at\nthe time he wrote. A modern scholar has found the single eastern tradition\nof the merchant of Tyre which was used by Shakespeare, in at least a dozen\nlanguages and literatures, and in all of them it exists with but slight variation.'\nIn music the facts are not less striking. Wagner did not, as is often thought,\ncreate, his art out of his own personahty; he but put the stamp of his genius\nupon much that preceded him, and his service to the world was in his ability\nto unify, co-ordinate, and re-express the work of other men.\nBut in the midst of a great architectural triumph we can better understand\nthe dependence of modern architecture upon the work of other ages and\nother peoples. We have sometimes felt that architects are too slavishly\nfollowing the tastes and styles of earher times. Greek, Italian, Renaissance,\nGothic, Spanish, and Colonial are terms and styles known even to the uninitiated. Modern buildings are largely cast in the molds of the builders of the\nlong ago.\n>Smyth, Appolonius of Tyre (\"Publications of American Philosophical Society\").\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n713\n\nThis interrelation and interdependence of past and present may become\na unifying principle for the study of history, and, when it is adopted, history\nis a subject of first importance. The practical value of this subject has been\nquestioned, but correct notions of what history is will promptly remove all\nquestion. The past calls forward to the present, and the present calls back\nto the past, in so many ways that history is found to be one, and this organically\nrelated in all its parts. Many of the so-called problems of the present have\nbeen met in the past, and important contributions made toward their solutions.\nThen let us hesitate before dismissing historical studies from schemes of education that are practicable in aim.\nAgain, modem developments make us better able to understand the history of the long ago. The commercial era in which we are living has contributed\nthe data, both in range of experience and interest, to make antiquity real.\nThe writer found a new flood of light thrown on Greek tradition and history\nwhen he came to a study of the industry and commerce of Greece as part of\nthe great world-movements in the evolution of production and trade. Jason\nand his Heroes in quest of the Golden Fleece indicates the early commercial\nspirit of the Greeks and their interest in the rich products of the Euxine and\nthe lands beyond. Either an actual fleece used as a sieve to catch the particles\nof gold held in the water, or priceless fabrics ''woven in the land of sunshine,\"\ngave the basis for the tradition. The legend of Cecrops, his settlement at\nAthens, and the introduction of agriculture embody and symbolize the Egyptian influence in early Greek history; similarly, the legend of Cadmus and\nthe introduction of the alphabet indicate the Phoenician influence. All of us,\nI am sure, have been mystified by the Trojan war stories, but when we see in\nthat war an early illustration of the conflict between the East and the West,\na conflict still going on, the war becomes more real. The rape of Helen\nmeant what were likely frequent forays into the ^Egean, with the plundering\nof property and the carrying away of Greeks as slaves. The Greeks were\nnot safe so long as the powerful Trojan city occupied the outpost of Asia and\nfronted Europe. Troas had a strategic and commercial importance much\ngreater in the ancient world than is the importance of Constantinople in\nmodern times. Present interest in matters economic and commercial make\nus better able to understand the meaning of the war against Troy. All Greece\ndid not go forth to recover one woman of questionable character, and to punish her abductor. Greece was fighting the battle for national existence and\nfor the existence of a western civilization. It was this conception of the\nTrojan war that led a modern writer to say that, when understood, it was\nthe one event of ancient history; but what I wish to emphasize is that it was\nan event of interest to us, and one which our interests enable us to understand.\nLet us remember that these and other traditions were bom in the infancy of\na race and a civilization. At such a time an influence could best be understood\nby impersonating it. In my family are young children to whom wind, rain,\nthunder, sun, and moon are persons, and these are always referred to as ''Mr.\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n714\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nWind,\" ''Mr. Rain,\" ''Mr. Thunder,\" etc. Wind and rain are thus made\nto sing a lullaby, while the thunder's roar and the Hghtning's flash have no\nterrors. I do not believe that these children will continue to personify forces,\nbut at present forces are real persons. Nor do I believe that we should go on\nholding blindly to the childhood traditions of Greeks and other peoples.\nNeither should these traditions be dismissed as foolish. The personality in\nthem embodied tendencies and influences of a period of development. The\ninterests of recent years are enabling us to retain the traditions and discern\ntheir real meaning by resolving the personalities into the forces which lay\nback of them and which they typify.\nWhat has preceded in this paper can but give emphasis to its closing\nstatements: the new in our system of education should include much that\nhas been long established; and the so-called old finds new interest and added\nvalue from having regard for present life. Thus the new education and the\nold education tend to come together. There is much less of difference than\nis supposed between what has been termed \"cultural education\" and the\neducation for which this department stands. We are, after all, dealing with\nthe same fundamental problems, and as it would be lamentable for those\npromoting commercial education to cut themselves off from the influences of\nculture, so those fostering cultural education will find their task easier and\nmore effective by increased regard for the conditions and requirements of\nthe times in which we live. Much of the wine of our historic culture can and\nshould be handed on in the new bottles of economic thought, and life.\n\nTHE\n\nWORK OF THE PRIVATE COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS,\nILLUSTRATED IN THE EXHIBITS AT THE\nST, LOUIS EXPOSITION\nCARL\n\nC. MARSHALL,\n\nAUTHOR\n\nAND\n\nPUBLISHER,\n\nCEDAR\n\nRAPIDS,\n\nAS\n\nlA.\n\nMr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:\nMy opportunities for observing and reporting accurately the exhibits of\nprivate commercial schools have been somewhat restricted, as I reached the\nExposition but a few hours ago. Considering the fact that there are over\nsixteen hundred commercial schools in the United States, besides numerous\ncommercial departments in seminaries, colleges, etc., it is very remarkable,\nand somewhat discouraging, to note that there are but a dozen or so of commercial schools represented in the exhibits of the Educational Building. It\nis gratifying, however, to me to be able to report that these exhibits are, as a\nwhole, of an exceptionally high character. Perhaps I cannot perform a better\nservice to those present than to indicate briefly the location and nature of these\nexhibits.\n\n-Commencing at the southwest corner of the Educational Building, we\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nPRIVATE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n71^\n\nhave the unique and remarkable exhibit of the Brown's Business Colleges.\nThese schools, sixteen in number, and located in various cities of IlHnois,\nIndiana, and Iowa, are represented by an active working school, fully equipped\nwith the most modern appliances for business education; the pupils being\ninstructed daily in public, by a corps of competent teachers. The branches\ninclude shorthand, typewriting, business arithmetic, bookkeeping, and penmanship. This exhibition attracts crowds of interested teachers during\nevery hour of its continuance, and will well repay your careful consideration..\nIn the same part of the building occupied by the Brown Schools are a number of special exhibits of business-school text-book publishers, and some\nprivate schools. Among the latter is a small, but very creditable, exhibit by\nthe Salem Business College, of Salem, Mass., conducted by Mr. George P.\nLord.\nIn Section 6 is a remarkable exhibit by the Jones Commercial College, of\nSt. Louis. Bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting, penmanship, and telegraphy\nare here illustrated, and some exceptionally fine examples of ornamental pendrawing. Among the latter is a reproduction of a well-known painting,\n''The Crucifixion,\" which is said to be the largest drawing of its class in\nthe world. This work was executed by Mr. S. M. Falder, of the Jones\nCommercial College. Another small, but creditable, exhibit is that of the\nSpencerian Business College, of Louisville, Ky., illustrating school work in\ntype-writing, shorthand, penmanship, and bookkeeping. In the Kentucky\nsection is another excellent exhibit by the Bowling Green Business College,\nIn this collection may be seen some very fine ornamental penmanship.\nOther creditable exhibits which may be seen in the respective state sections\nare those of the St. Mary's Academy, Sturgis, S. D. ; Harris Business College,\nJackson, Miss.; the Albany Business College, Albany, N. Y. ; the Henley\nBusiness School, Syracuse, N. Y. ; and the Spencerian Business College,\nCleveland, O. In the exhibit of the Albany Business College are some fine\npen-drawings, the most notable being copies of Rose Bonheur's \"Horse Fair,\"\nand the \"Chariot Race from Ben Hur.\" A very notable exhibit, from the\neducational point of view, is to be found in the Iowa section, organized by\nMr. A. N. Palmer, and representing the penmanship work done in a large\nnumber of the grade schools that are using Mr. Palmer's system of muscular\nwriting. This exhibit appears to be the only one of its class in the Educational\nBuilding, and shows, in a convincing way, what may be accomplished in\nelementary schools by teaching penmanship rationally.\nI wish to call your attention particularly to the extensive use of photography in the business-school exhibits. By this method the work of the classroom may be shown, and a very realistic idea of the actual equipment of the\nschool may be obtained.\nAltho I am not conversant with the work that has been exhibited by business schools in former expositions, I am reliably informed that the exhibits at\nthe present Exposition far exceed, both in quantity and merit, those of any\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": null, "text": "yi5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nprevious one; and that the schools, few in number tho they be, that have\nshown the enterprise to place such exhibits in the Educational Building\ndeserve the highest commendation from all who are interested in the progress\nof business education.\nDISCUSSION\nRobert C. Spencer, president Spencerian Business College, Milwaukee, Wis. — All\nthe interests of life are reciprocal; and whatever is reciprocal and social is commercial.\nWe are approaching a recognition of this broad principle in human Hfe. I congratulate\nthe age on the extension of commercial education into the pubUc schools — a movement\ninstituted by the pioneers and founders of the private schools of America. When an\nanalysis shall be made of educational forces, we shall find that high honors are due these\nmen. Cordial relationship should exist between the private commercial schools and\ncommercial high schools.\nGeorge W. Brown, Jacksonville, 111., expressed himself as both surprised and\ngratified at the interest shown by the general pubHc in his model school exhibit. He has a\nbrief program presented each hour, which takes about twenty minutes. The work is necessarily somewhat superficial, but it is illustrative. At the beginning of each lesson there are\noften but a few people present, but before the end, the paviHon is generally full.\nMr. Brown extended a cordial invitation to those present to inspect the school, and\nclosed by mentioning the several firms whose co-operation had made the exhibition interesting and valuable.\nPeleg R. Walker, superintendent of schools, Rockford, 111. — The interest in commercial work has been steadily gaining. Beginning with the introduction of bookkeeping\nsome five or six years ago, other subjects have been added in the schools under my control,\nuntil now the commercial department is well defined and business men are asking for\ngraduates from that department.\nEdmund J. James, president of Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. — When I\nwas preparing for college I became acquainted with a young man who was very much\ninterested in commercial subjects, and I absorbed some of his ideas; so much so that I took\ncommercial education as the subject of my graduation thesis. The principal expressed\nhimself as very much disappointed that a pupil who had been so carefully prepared in the\nclassics should take such a subject, and as a result of this pressure I gave up the subject\nof my choice and took instead \"The Scholar in PoHtics.\" But later I have drawn some\nof my thunder from that early essay which marked the beginning of my interest in commercial education.\nThis, like many of the valuable things in education, has come to us from the outside.\nThe community at large was making demands which the private schools were trying to\nsupply. The pubHc schools would not consider the matter, and when I first began to appeal\nfor recognition for commercial work, it was with little success. But now all this is changed.\nWe are face to face with a crisis. We have won the public. Everybody says: \"What\nshall we do, and how shall we do it ?\" I am not so ready to answer that question as I was\nten years ago, but there are some things we can agree upon.\nThe work must be practical enough to meet the requirements of business men; it\nshould be disciplinary enough to enable the student to take up the broader training of the\ncollege, for the colleges are beginning to recognize the value of the commercial subjects.\nWe are making text-books, and the first text-books will probably not be successful.\nThose of you who remember such books as Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Physics, and\ncompare it with the splendid text-books we now have, will realize the advancement we have\nmade in the matter of text-books; and yet these were valuable books in their day, and I\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRESOURCES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\n717\n\nimagine that the first text-books in commercial subjects will be as immature as the Fourteen Weeks in Science.\nBut there is no reason why we should not get out of the preliminary stages.\nis assured, if we can solve the problems of the present.\n\nThe future\n\nTHE RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES, AS ILLUSTRATED\nBY THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION\nMISS\n\nMINNIE\n\nBRONSON,\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nAT THE\n\nOF\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nLOUISIANA PURCHASE\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY\n\nEXPOSITION,\n\nIt would be an easy matter, tho perhaps a little tedious, to enumerate all\nthe thousands of resources here presented by the United States, and to show\nyou where they are exhibited; but I cannot insult your intelligence by telling\nyou that our exhibit in cereals, cotton and tobacco will be found in the Agricultural Palace, or that the pomological exhibit contains plums, pears, peaches,\ncherries, and grapes. Neither can I question the efficiency of our bureau of\nexploitation by assuming that you are any more ignorant than I of what is\nhere or where it is to be found.\nThe problem of exhibiting the resources of any country is a difficult one,\nfor the resources of a country are not all natural or industrial; there are also\nsocial and economic resources. The former lend themselves readily to exposition work. In fact, until this time expositions have been chiefly a comparative display of commercial products, significant only of material progress,\nillustrative only of the ways in which money may be earned and spent. Any\nexposition is necessarily something of an advertising medium. It is the outgrowth ofthe old week's end market in the country village, where in a vacant\nlot stalls were erected for a display of the various products of the country\naround. The potatoes and other vegetables of the farm occupied one tier of\nstalls; the chickens and ducks, another. The knitting and needlework of the\nfarm women were displayed for sale or emulation.\nFrom these small beginnings, up thru the county fair and national display,\ndeveloped the great international competition, conceived of fifty odd years ago\nby Prince Albert, which had for its object the bringing together of men and\nthings, whereby it was held that they would reveal the chief industrial and scientific gains made thruout the world, and would enable men of action and\nfriends of progress everywhere to understand one another better than mere\ncorrespondence or the reciprocal notoriety of their achievements could render\npossible. From that time and httle by little the true character of expositions\nhas been modified. The effort has been constantly to give these exhibitions\na form less badly material. Gradually it was deemed inadequate and unreasonable merely to heap together masses of people and things, and it became\nthe aim of exposition organizers to display ideas rather than things. These\ngatherings nevertheless continue to compose their chief display of the natural\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": null, "text": "7i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nresources, and the implements and materials used in the practice and support\nof the industries of the world. The reason is readily found in the difficulty\nof displaying what may be termed the social and economic resources of the\ncountry, and no nation is adequately represented which does not supplement\nits material display by revealing the sources of its progress or the causes of its\nfailures.\nFor example, to the St. Louis Exposition have come the nations of the\nworld, bearing the fruits of their soil and the products of their manufactories.\nThese nations do not differ materially in the character of their exhibits or the\neffectiveness of their displays. If there is a difference, it is due chiefly to the\namount of money appropriated by their various governments. Yet these countries are not equal either in productiveness or effective life, and in so much is\nthe story of the Exposition untrue.\nThe nations of the globe are rich or poor in natural resources. One country\nneeds but a turn of the plow to produce a harvest, while another was won from\nthe sea foot by foot with great toil and fighting. To these soils came a people,\nin one case a lazy, indolent, or inferior race, which was content to take the\nbread that nature so abundantly furnished ; in the other, a sturdy, intelligent,\nenduring man, capable of making the desert to bloom. It is apparent that\nthe richest resources are insufficient to place a nation in the van of progress.\nOn the other hand, a sturdy and independent race hampered by an inhospitable\nclimate and an impoverished soil will likewise fail to achieve the highest\nnational ideals. But there are still other forces which determine the effectiveness of nations and influence production. In my mind is the picture of a\nland of fair delight, its soil the richest in the world, its mountains abounding\nin valuable minerals deposits, and its sparkling streams carrying fertility to\nevery foot of its broad domain. The perpetual sun and equable cLmate make\nthis the garden of the gods. Its people are strong mentally and physically.\nIt has given to the world the best in poetry and song, in art and science. Its\nsculptures adorn our palaces, and its music enchants our ears; but a continual\nwarfare between church and state has stifled the spirit of progress, destroyed\nits ambition, and put it out of the race for supremacy.\nThis, then, is the problem of an exposition : How can it adequately represent\nthose forces which have made nations powerful, or those which have proved\ntheir undoing ? What are the resources of a country natural and social, and\nhow are they made effective ?\nUpon America more than any other country are the eyes of the world\ncentered as to the focus of contemporary life. We are ruling in men's thoughts\nas no other nation of the world. What has won for us our rank and influence ?\nWe are a youthful people; we possess but little art of our own, and but little\nhistory. What is the source of our extraordinary development ? We have\nproved, by the implacable logic of our conceptions and acts, that we possess\na practical spirit. What are our resources, physical and social, which have\nproduced this spirit ? These are the questions which the nations of the world\nare asking, and in the hope that a comparison might be produced which\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n719\n\nwould prove an efifective answer and object-lesson, the St. Louis Exposition\n•was projected.\nThe directors of the Exposition discerned at once that an exhibition of this\nnature could not fully attain the ends sought, if it were so restricted as to appeal\nonly to the eyes of the public; that is, if it were merely to display results to\nvisitors. They therefore arranged side by side with their exhibition of things\nthe exhibition of processes. While they provided a place for the raw materials\nof food, clothing, and habitation, they supplemented these by the processes\nconcerned in the industry of extracting them. They subdivided the vast\nexhibition of products into veritable laboratories corresponding to the most\ncharacteristic branches of industry and commerce.\nBut this was not all. They sought further to show by the agency of data,\nof documents, of striking object-lessons, what is being done everywhere and\nby all peoples to better the lot of man. And they made education the keynote\nof their classification. They sought to demonstrate how the advance of moral\nand physical hygiene must contribute to guide the destiny of nations into\nsmoother channels; to show how the community, quite apart from charity,\ncan, by social measures intelligently ordered, attain to mutual assistance and\nto the most assured provision for the future. And in the logical pursuance\nof this idea they made social economy the resultant of the classification.\nWhether the ideals of the Exposition organizers have been attained can\nbe determined only by a retrospective view. It is too early yet to tell. But\nas the exhibits here presented fall behind us, as the myriad of details robbed\nof their glamour condense themselves into a coherent picture, I believe that\nnot only will the world be impressed with a deep sense of the vigor and vitality\nof our nation, but that it will deepen our reaHzation of the motives and methods\nwhich have proved so efficacious in advancing the United States along paths\nintellectual, political, and humanitarian, and which have fitted us for the part\nwe have to play in guiding the progress of the world. This enterprise will be\nsuccessful only if it brings new faith and energy into our souls, and new belief\ninto the minds of outside doubters.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE OF NINE, CONSIDERED\nTHE STANDPOINT OF THE INDEPENDENT\nSCHOOL\n\nJAMES\n\nJ. SHEPPARD,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nFROM\n\nOF COMMERCE^\n\nOF THE NEV^ YORK\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nAt the outset I would gladly recognize the very great value of the work\nundertaken and accomplished by the committee. It falls to them to do genuinely pioneer work in the field of secondary education, which in the immediate\n'The Report of the Committee of Nine formulating a course of study in business education for the public\nschools was published by the University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y., as Bulletin No. 23 in Series K\nand may be obtained by remitting 20 cents to the secretary of the university. — [Editor.]\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n720\n\nfuture is unquestionably to be marked by great expansion. Other committees\nin times to come will doubtless present programs which diverge not a little\nfrom the one now in hand, but the work of the present committee will always\nbe a starting-point. We shall have modifications of its conclusions, rather\nthan radically new suggestions. It is a more difficult task than it may seem\nat first blush to prepare a commercial program suited for the great variety\nof secondary schools, working as they do under widely varying conditions,\nand the committee very wisely remarks that it does not expect its suggestions\nto be taken in their entirety in any one school.\nI am asked to consider the committee's program from the standpoint of the\nindependent school of commerce. It happens that at the present time there\nare few such schools, and of these scarcely two may be said to be .working\ntoward exactly the same end. Perhaps for just this reason a consideration\nof the committee's work is all the more important. For the present at least\nwe must expect to find the independent commercial school in only large cities.\nPractically all secondary schools in large cities are confronted by the same\ncondition — a large preponderance of pupils in the earlier years of the course.\nIn New York city over 50 per cent, of the pupils are in the first year. The\nmortality in the metropolitan high school, due to a variety of causes, is a striking\nfeature of the secondary-school situation. It means that the first year in the\nhigh school is to be looked at as a finishing period of education, rather than a\nbeginning, and the maker of programs must seriously consider the question\nof selecting and eliminating topics of study. Some things which in the ideal\ncurriculum might best be deferred until the later terms of the course must be\nbrought forward, and yet other things which theoretically should find a place\nin the earlier terms must give way to topics whose importance is more pressing.\nAnother consideration of less weight, yet not altogether to be neglected, is\nthe matter of transfers from one type of school to another. If the programs\nvary considerably, there is a serious loss to the pupil who finds after six months\nor a year that his inclinations lead him along lines best pursued in another\nschool. With the rapidly growing importance of business education, the current sets toward, rather than away from, the commercial school. In New\nYork we are obliged to fit into the program many boys who have spent some\ntime in other institutions, and with us it seems desirable not to deviate too much\nin the general studies from the programs in the non-commercial schools, for\nthe first year at least. Largely for this reason stenography is not introduced\nuntil the second term.\nThere are some general considerations which, to my mind, must have a\ndetermining influence on commercial programs — at least those designed for\nimmediate use. Some subjects which are theoretically very desirable cannot\nbe included until they have been thoroly worked out, and a body of really valuable material got together which can be presented in something like scientific\norder. We cannot in justice to the pupil replace a standard subject with\nsomething else that is not really as good. It is far better for him to spendhis\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n721\n\ntime on something that is definite and exact, even tho it be not strikingly\nvaluable from a commercial point of view, than to acquire a lot of vague information on commercial topics. A proper selection of commercial material,\nand a proper placing of emphasis on the various topics selected, is by no means\nan easy task. There is arduous work for the enthusiastic teacher for some\nyears to come, along just these lines.\nSo much by way of a general statement. The preliminary remarks may\nserve as a sort of guide to the criticisms or suggestions I have to offer on the\ncommittee's program. I am glad that the committee did not think it wise to\nconfine the program to three years. Short courses are always popular, but it\nis difficult to make them successful. There is a stigma of inferiority about\nthem which is not easy to remove. Let us accept the fact that only a small\nproportion of the students will complete a four-year course, but remember\nthat those who do will have a degree of preparation in comparison with the\nthree-year student far greater than the mere excess of time devoted to the work\nwould seem to insure. It is well to put before the student the possibiHty of\nreally adequate preparation for the business career. It is all too easy for him\nto assume that only a little study is necessary.\nAnother point which calls for commendation is the inclusion in the program\nof practically all the standard secondary subjects, with the exception of Latin\nand Greek, which, even in the ordinary high schools, have none too secure a\nposition in these days. In their place we have three important modern languages— German, French, and Spanish. It seems to me that there is more of\nprofit to the commercial high school in the adaptation of the standard secondary\nsubjects to commercial uses, than in the taking up of entirely new subjects.\nPractically all of them admit of apphcation, in greater or less degree, to the\npurposes of a commercial course.\nTo the program itself, and first of all the first-year outline: If the commercial course is to be broadly serviceable, it must meet the needs of the great\nnumbers who leave it after one year's attendance. It is therefore with surprise\nthat I note the postponement of commercial arithmetic to the second year.\nBusiness arithmetic is much more important to the transitory pupil than is\nalgebra. Indeed, both algebra and geometry are less susceptible of commercial\napplication than almost any other subject in the course. When we have said\nthat they afford excellent mental discipline, we have said pretty nearly all that\ncan be said. But business arithmetic is essential, and it will not do to presume\ntoo much on the knowledge the pupil brings from the elementary school. Most\nteachers find their greatest difficulty in teaching bookkeeping to be the inadequate training of the pupils in arithmetic. The latter ought to precede rather\nthan follow the keeping of accounts. Indeed, I question seriously the advisability ofbeginning bookkeeping in the first half-year. There are some reasons\nwhy it might well be postponed to the second year, tho it unquestionably has\nits value in giving the pupil the feeling that he is getting real commercial work,\neven tho it be not the most successful sort.\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n722\n\nI have wondered why the committee omitted all science from the first year.\nBiology is a peculiarly suitable science for the first year. It is largely observational. Itintroduces the pupil to the study of Ufe; and it permits of numerous\ncommercial applications.\nI am at a loss, also, to know why drawing is not given more attention, not\nonly in the first year, but also in succeeding years. Drawing has not only great\ncultural value; it has also great commercial value. We have much to learn\nfrom Europe in the application of art ideas to manufacture. Indeed, so-called\ncommercial art is of great and growing importance. To my mind a continuous course in drawing thruout the four years is very desirable, tho I confess\nits inclusion in an akeady crowded curriculum is by no means an easy thing.\nStill another subject which would seem to deserve a place in the first year\nof a commercial course, if it is to be of use to the greatest number, is commercial\ngeography. The committee has postponed this till the second half of the\nsecond year. I cannot agree with them that this postponement is either\ndesirable or necessary, tho I freely grant that an advanced course in commercial\ngeography can be made extremely serviceable in the late years of the course.\nIt comes nearer to being the vocational study of the commercial school, in my\nestimation, than does the subject so designated by the committee — the history\nof commerce.\nStenography is omitted from the first year of the course, and indeed from\nthe second year also. There may be good reasons for this, but my own experience isthat it works out very well in practice to begin the teaching of shorthand\nthe first year. The early acquaintance made with the subject enables the\npupil to secure much practice during the later years of the course. The popularity ofstenography as a study is unquestioned, and its disciplinary value is of\na very high order. In my own school I should be inclined to give it more\nrather than less time in the first year.\nSo much by way of consideration of the program as laid down by the committee for the first year. I feel very strongly that important modifications\nmust be made in it, if it is to meet the needs of the great numbers whose highschool careers are cut short before the second year's work is taken up. For the\nremainder of the program a consideration of the committee's proposal, as they\ntouch the several important subjects, must be taken up in a general way, if I\nam not to transcend the limits set to this paper.\nFirst as to EngUsh: One finds many excellent things in the recommendations offered, but, on the other hand, there are some other things which, to say\nthe least, require explanation. Why should EngHsh be omitted entirely from\nthe second half of the third year ? Practice in writing, to be effective, must\nbe continuous. Training in the proper use of the mother-tongue is altogether\ntoo important to be neglected, even for a half-year. But more surprising still\nis the suggestion that the history of EngHsh Uterature should be taught in the\nsecond year 1 Has it not been pretty definitely settled, after a half-century of\nEnglish teaching, that a knowledge of Hterature itself is vastly more important\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n723\n\nthan a knowledge of literary history ? As a corollary, it might be added that,\nif literary history is taught, it should be only after a number of typical masterpieces had been studied. To place the history first is to require the student to\ndiscuss movements whose nature he does not comprehend, and to comment on\nthe style of authors whom he has never read. And why go over the history of\nliterature a second time in the fourth year ? Far better to study the thing itself\nthan to study what some text-book writer says about it ! Again, it strikes one\nthat there is an unnecessary disregard of the needs of the occasional student\nwho may wish to go to college. I see no reason why the ordinary course in\nEnghsh in the regular high school may not, with some slight modifications, be\njust as useful in the commercial school. In the written work there may be\nimportant adaptations to be made, but the great masterpieces of literature are\nto be studied for their own sake in one school the same as in the other.\nI have already intimated that the omission of science from the first year of\nthe course is a mistake. But science, as we know it, is omitted also from the\nsecond year. It may be said that the study of commercial products and of\ncommercial geography constitutes a new science. Even granting that contention, Iquestion whether really valuable work can be done without some preliminary knowledge of biology and chemistry. And for the present, at least,\nuntil the material of the new subjects has been thoroly worked out, I much\nprefer to retain the old subjects with their definitely settled educational values,\nand their numerous incidental possibilities of commercial application. A\nstudy of commercial products, following a thoro study of the elements of biology and chemistry, may be made extremely valuable ; but if it is to go before,\nI fear that we must, for the present at least, sacrifice accurate and valuable\nscientific training to the acquisition of rather incoherent details of commercial\ninformation.\nThe important position given history in the committee's program is one of\nits most excellent features. If the proper emphasis is placed on the industrial\nand economic phases of history, it can be made an extremely valuable subject\nin the commercial curriculum. History is just coming to receive the important\nplace it deserves in the secondary course of study, the significant contribution\nmade by the Committee of Seven having secured something like adequate\nconsideration at the hands of the makers of secondary programs. But I confess to disappointment at the arrangement suggested by the Committee of\nNine. I should much prefer to have the study made continuous thruout the\ncourse, instead of having it assigned to half-year periods. The historical sense\nis one of slow growth, and any interruption in the continuity of the study makes\nthe acquisition of the proper historical perspective more difficult. It seems\nto me far better to keep the pupil in the historical atmosphere thruout the\nentire secondary course, rather than to concentrate the work as the committee\nproposes. This would not necessitate a greater total time allotment than is\nsuggested. Few^er periods per week would suffice. I am not sure that I would\ntreat the history of commerce as the committee proposes.\nMy experience is\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": null, "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nthat this thread of history, confessedly of great importance in a commercial\nschool, can very well be followed thruout the entire work in history. If continental, Enghsh, and American history are properly taught in the business\nschool, the student who has completed them ought to have a pretty thoro\nknowledge of the history of commerce. With a curriculum already overcrowded,question\nI\nthe advisabiHty of giving so much time to what ought to be,\nin very large part, only a review of the work previously carefully done, when\nit means the exclusion, perhaps, of the study of some science peculiarly important in the modern industrial world.\nCivil government is treated as a separate subject of study in the last half\nof the fourth year. Whether this plan is commendable depends upon the way\nthe study is carried on. With the hberal allotment of time given it, there is\npossible, not only some comparative study of government, but also due attention to state and municipal administration. But much more than this is\ndesirable. Government, like all human institutions, is a growth, and a proper\nunderstanding of its development requires the historical treatment. For this\nreason many hold that it should be taught in conjunction with, rather than apart\nfrom, history. At best it seems unfortunate that a whole year should elapse\nbetween the study of United States history and the study of civics. If the two\nsubjects are not to be coincident, it would seem highly advantageous to have\none follow the other immediately, so that the numerous and important points\nof connection may be easily made.\nEconomics is very properly made a required study. It is often said that\nthe high-school student is too immature to undertake profitably so difficult a\nstudy. This I think a serious mistake. The subtler aspects of economic\ntheory are, of course, beyond him, but there are certain broad fundamental\ntruths which have great significance. in modern social and industrial conditions,\nwhich he can well grasp, and which are of very great value in guiding and correcting his thinking. If the subject did no more than bring before the student\nclearly the nature of present-day industrial problems, it would be extremely\nserviceable. But it does much more than that. It puts him on the way\ntoward a solution of some of those problems. As a pure intellectual exercise,\nrequiring the pupil to consider facts carefully and draw conclusions logically,\nit would be difficult to find another subject so practically efficient.\nThe program for mathematics is marked by the same lack of continuity\nthat has been noted in the case of Enghsh and history. From the middle of\nthe second year to the middle of the third year no mathematical work is prescribed. Ican only repeat here what I have said in connection with other\nsubjects — there is more of loss than gain in such interruptions. The recommendations for elementary business arithmetic are excellent, especially noteworthy being the ''seven tendencies\" of arithmetic as applied to business today.\n(The more general use of calculating machines might be added as an eighth\ntendency.) The outhne for the advanced work in business arithmetic is very\nstriking, altho it seems somewhat doubtful whether the proposed plan could\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n725\n\nbe carried out in practical school work. It is difficult to see how the meager\npreparation in algebra during one year's work (thru quadratics) could enable\nthe student to study successfully, and at all exhaustively, subjects hke \"annuities,\" \"insurance,\" and \"mathematical problems relating to the installation\nof machinery.\"\nTo sum up, it seems to me that the committee has done a good piece of\nwork in its choice of subjects and its suggestions as to the best methods of\ntreating them, but much remains to be done before a really excellent commercial course can be put before those interested in the making of programs.\nThe Committee of Nine opens the way, and its contribution will aid materially toward the solution of this very important problem of secondary\neducation.\n\nTHE\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF NINE, FROM\nSTANDPOINT OF THE GENERAL HIGH SCHOOL\nBERTRAND\n\nDeR. PARKER, PRINCIPAL\nROCKFORD, ILL.\n\nOF HIGH\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe consideration of the topic assigned me must take into account the\nconditions surrounding the average general high school. Such a school is\ncomposed of both boys and girls, who must be taught in the same classes. In\nthose classes will be many who are not following the full commercial course,\nbut are anxious to supplement their other regular work with some of the commercial studies. The great majority of those taking the regular course will\nnot go to college, but must take their place amid the competition of the business world as soon as they leave the high school. Most of them must begin\nwith subordinate positions, and their chance of ever filling better places depends\nupon their abihty to do well the work that is theirs at the beginning. If the\nyoung man is employed as a bookkeeper, he must be able to keep books; if as a\nstenographer, he must have the ability to do that definite thing well. Business\nmen of today have neither time nor inclination to teach an apprentice, and if\nthe work is not done as required, a week's trial ends the case; hence the importance of that knowledge and skill that give power to do.\nAnother condition in the general high school that must be taken into account\nis the fact that most of the more general subjects must be taught by the regular\nteachers in the regular classes, made up of pupils from all courses in the school.\nIn a few of the very largest schools special teachers and special classes might\nbe provided, but for all schools of less than one thousand pupils it seems to me\nthat such a division is out of the question. The general classes must provide\nthe course in mathematics, EngHsh, history (except the comtnercial), modern\nlanguage, science, drawing, and perhaps in other studies.\nWith the peculiarities of the general high school in mind, I have the following criticisms to offer regarding the proposed course of study: Several of the\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": null, "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ncourses in individual subjects should be much extended and unified, so as to\nmake continuous rather than broken lines of study, and others should be\narranged so as better to suit the pupil's stage of advancement and better to\ncorrelate with the rest of the general course. Where the plan provides for\ntwo or three recitations per week the work should be intensified by providing\nfor five, and, for the general high school, a much more flexible course of study\nshould be offered, if all classes of pupils are to be well provided for.\nFor the average high-school students, I have little faith in the plan that\nprovides for recitations one, two, or three times per week in any study. The\namount of interest and enthusiasm lost by the divided method, the extra time\nand patience to review and get back into the subject — to warm up, as it were —\nafter a day or two's lapse of work in a given line, is just so much lost energy.\nI suggest, therefore, that five periods per week be given to every study, and that\nthe regular course consist of four subjects, thus making twenty recitations per\nweek for the pupil who is doing full work.\nWith the committee's idea as to the importance of English I am in hearty\naccord, but with the time devoted to it and the arrangement of the course I\ncannot agree. The subject should be arranged in one connected course\nextending thruout the full four years, with five recitation periods per week.\nThe extension of time from four to five times per week is about the only suggestion that I have regarding the first year's work in English. The second\nyear I cannot pass so easily. It seems to me that the outline for that year's\nwork is one of the remarkable things of the report of the committee. Secondyear -pupils are asked, in three periods per week for a year, to cover the history\nof English and of American literature, with a text-book in each, familiarize\nthemselves with the political and industrial history of England and America,\nand read a large number of the best works of many of the authors studied.\nPerhaps I do not understand the recommendations, but on the face of it the\nplan looks most impracticable.\nIn the first place, to my mind second-year pupils are not prepared for the\nbeneficial study of the history of English and American literature. The work\nof the second year should be a continuation of the plan outhned for the\nfirst — a study of masterpieces and composition — the object being to give to\nthe pupil an increased power of literary interpretation and expression. Then,\nin the third year, instead of the piece-meal plan of the proposed course, let the\nstudy of the history of American literature run thru the year, much composition\nand rhetoric work being kept up with it, and the works of the authors studied\nas the lives of the men are taken up. In a similar manner the fourth year can\nbe devoted to the history of English literature and the necessary composition\nwork.\nI think that the advantages of this plan are many. A continuous course\nof gradually increasing difficulty is established, the more difficult parts of the\nsubject coming at a time when the pupils are best able to meet them. The\nwork of the history classes will have given the historical settings without taking\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n727\n\nthe time of the EngHsh class to secure them, and the studies in industrial lines\nwill have given an insight into the conditions of the people that will do much\nto aid in the correct understanding of any given Uterary period. It seems\nto me that the English course of the committee has been laid out with too\nlittle thought of what the pupil was doing in other lines, or of his abihty to\nmeet the req^iirements.\n.1 cannot agree with the writer of the paper in the monograph that the subjects for composition should be drawn so exclusively from the English readings.\nThey may well be chosen from incidents of his daily life, and frequently from\nhis other«studies. Why may not an essay or special report in history pass also\nthe eye of the EngHsh teacher ? and thus serve both as an Enghsh and a history\nexercise? Much time could thus be saved that the pupil could employ to\ngood advantage. I heartily commend the recommendations that oral discussions and debates should form a considerable part of the English work. The\nuse of what are called oral themes is another device of value. The business\nman of today and tomorrow must be able to express himself orally, and we are\napt to slight this side of his education.\nThe recommended course in history seems to me to share the general fault\nof the whole plan: a short course followed by a br«eak, another inadequate\ncourse, then another break, etc. The time allowed to each separate course,\nI think, should be doubled, and the history work be continuous thruout the\nfour years, at least thru the first three years and a half. One semester for\nancient history to 800 A. D. is altogether inadequate. The study should run\nthru the full first year of the course. Then, with no break, as in the committee's\nreport, let the full second year be given to the next course in history, which, I\nsuggest, should be mediaeval and modern history, with special stress placed\nupon the history of England. This plan would give a much more complete\nview of the period than if English history is taught as the main topic, with\nreference only to that of other European nations. Instead of separating\nUnited States history and civics with a break of half a year between, let the\ntwo be united and form a continuous course in United States history and\ncivics thru the third year. The history of commerce may follow in the first\nhalf of the fourth year, tho it might be advisable to provide for a year's study\nof the subject. I suppose that the thought of the committee in offering the\nshort courses was that the time was needed for something else, and that the\ncourse as presented would give a sort of general view of the historical field.\nMy experience with such courses has convinced me that the general outline\ncourse of, say, a half year on any of the great periods is much more apt to leave\nin the pupil's mind a confused and useless jumble than any clear general outline. The commercial student, perhaps above all others, needs to catch the\nspirit of the times, to get near to the peoples of whom he is studying ; and I feel\nsure that the short, hurried course in history can never give him the insight\ninto the actual conditions which should be his.\nTurning to the courses of commercial geography and allied subjects, it\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": null, "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nseems to me a mistake to expect second-year pupils, with as little preparation\nas their previous course offers, to get much out of the study of commercial\nproducts and commercial geography. The underlying causes and conditions\nsurrounding the geography and history of commerce cannot be understood\nexcept thru the facts of physiography, and, if not learned before, time must\nbe taken in the commercial geography class to teach them. Let, then, the\nsecond year be devoted to a course in physiography, the study of commercial\nproducts and commercial geography follow in the third year, and the course be\nrounded out in the fourth year by commercial law and political economy.\nThis arrangement would bring the study of political economy into* the last\nhalf of the fourth year, when the students will be prepared for it thru their\ncourses in political and commercial history, and studies in commercial products\nand commercial geography. A course in political economy after such preparation ought to bring good results; without such preparation it is worth Httle,\nand it is a mistake to put it earlier in the course.\nThe courses in advanced commercial arithmetic and in banking and\nfinance, it seems to me, are, as outlined by the committee, so far in advance of\nhigh-school pupils that they should be ^relegated to the college, except such\nportions of studies in finance as might properly come in connection with the\npolitical economy.\nThe half-year of plane geometry would prove as useless as the other scraps\nof work about which we have been talking. Geometry should be studied at\nleast a year, or not at all.\nThe so-called technical work has the common fault. The bookkeeping\nline begins in the first year, runs a while a few times per week, stops half a\nyear, begins again for half a year, then stops, etc. In that connection I should\nadvocate the following: penmanship the first half of the first year, and commercial arithmetic the second half. Let bookkeeping begin in the second year,\nand extend thruout the year, with double or laboratory periods every day.\nIn the third year, with the same double periods, should come ofl&ce practice\nthe first half, and accounting and auditing the second. Such an arrangement\ngives two consecutive years of bo6kkeeping, with an hour and a half's work\neach day. The work is concentrated and continuous, there are a beginning\nand an end, and the pupils ought to know something of the subject in a businesslike way when they have finished the course.\nIt is clear that the changes I have suggested, and other less important ones\nthat will be shown in an outline of the program which follows, must greatly\nmodify the suggested course. I have not been present at any of the former\ndiscussions of the course, and so do not know very well the real reasons that\nhave led up to the adoption of its different parts. The choice of subjects\nseems to me, in the main, admirable, but I cannot account for the many peculiarities oftime and arrangement except upon the theory of compromise. The\ngreater part of the principal courses are too short, scrappy, and disconnected.\nThe special courses in each general subject should be broadened out, connected,\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n729\n\nand arranged so as to make continuous courses whose constituent parts are\nlogically connected, and whose relation to parallel and subsequent courses\nis pedagogical.\nYou ask how the courses can be so extended in an already overcrowded\nprogram, and the answer leads me to another fundamental mistake of the\ncommittee. In this day and age, it has tried to lay down practically a prescribed course. Commercial students who have battled for years against the\nhard-and-fast curriculum of the classical and scientific champions now forget\ntheir arguments and attempt to arrange one fixed course that students preparing for widely different lines shall follow. We ought to remember, I think,\nthat the field designated by the phrase ^'commerce and industry\" is not single\nand limited, like that included under each of the terms \"law,\" ''theology,'\netc., but that the variety of occupations covered is almost limitless. It includes\nmore walks of life than all the professions combined, and to hold all students\npreparing for the commercial activities to the same course of study is no more\nlogical than it would be to provide one single fixed curriculum for the minister,\nthe doctor, and the lawyer, on the ground that they were all to engage in the\nprofessional callings.\nThe members of the committee have seen that a multitude of studies is\nneeded to prepare for the many differences in character and purpose of those\nwho are to take the course. They have cut up the subjects so as to get in\nsomething of each, and then offer the mixture as a good food for all. A much\nbetter plan would be to extend the courses in each subject to what they should\nbe, require a few fundamentals, such as English and some history, and let the\nrest of the program of each student or class of students be filled out to suit\nthe circumstances of the case. Of course, the choice would be of certain lines\nof study rather than of individual subjects. Certain prerequisites are necessary for any one of the studies of each year after the first; as, the penmanship\nand commercial arithmetic for bookkeeping; history, commercial geography,\netc., for political economy. One student may want to work toward the theory\nof commerce, another toward an immediate business position. One may\nwish to become a stenographer, another a bookkeeper; and a good stenographer\nwith little bookkeeping is a much more useful member of society, and is\nmuch more sure of advancement, than a person with a little of both subjects.\nThe business world is today calling for the man who has command of some one\nthing. There is little need of one who has a smattering of everything. And\nthe position of the world is about right. The smatterer is of little account\nwherever you may place him.\nIn the general high school, made up of all classes of boys and girls, fitting\nfor all kinds of life-work, I am sure that the best hard-and-fast course would\nbe a mistake. Especially would that be true if to make such a program the\ncourses in the different subjects must be cut up as they are in that proposed\nby the committee. The longer and more complete courses, with plenty of\noption, is much the better plan for the general school; and it is my opinion that\nit would be equally beneficial for the special commercial high school.\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": null, "text": "\\\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Business\n\n730\n\nThe following outline shows the course modified in accordance with the\nsuggestion that I have tried to make. It is understood that regular work comprises four subjects, with five recitations each per week. Subjects with double\nperiods with no outside preparation are to be considered the equal in time,\ncredit, and importance of prepared subjects with single recitation periods.\nThe studies itahcized are required; all others are optional, except for the\nlogical limitations which have been set forth in the paper.\nFIRST\n\nYEAR\nSECOND\n\nFIRST HALF\n\nEnglish\nAlgebra\nModern language\nAncient history\nPenmanship\n\nEnglish\nAlgebra language\nModern\nAncient history\nCommercial arithmetic\nSECOND\n\nEnglish\nMediaeval and modern history ^ English\ntrend\nModern language\nPhysiography\nPlane geometry\nBookkeeping (double period)\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\nEnglish\nMediaeval and modern history, English\ntrend\nModern language\nPhysiography\nPlane geometry\nBookkeeping (double period)\nStenography and typewriting\nYEAR\n\nAmerican literature and composition\nUnited States history and civics\nModern language\nCommercial products\nPhysics\nOffice practice (double period)\nStenography and typewriting\n\nAmerican literature and composition\nUnited States history and civics\nModern language\nCommercial geography\nPhysics\nAccounting, auditing, etc. \"(double period)\nStenography and typewriting.\nFOURTH\n\nYEAR\n\nEnglish literature and composition\nHistory of commerce\nModern language\nCommercial law\nChemistry\nStenography and typewriting\nFree-hand drawing (double period)\n\nTHE\nJ. REMSEN\n\nHALF\n\nREPORT\n\nEnglish literature and composition\nPoHtical economy\nModern language\nAdvertising, and study of trade journals\nChemistry\nStenography and typewriting\nFree-hand drawing (double period)\n\nOF THE\n\nBISHOP, PRINCIPAL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF WALNUT\n\nHILLS HIGH\n\nOF NINE\nSCHOOL,\n\nCINCINNATI,\n\nO.\n\nIn advance of any criticism or even comment, it is proper to express\nunbounded admiration for the thoroness and breadth of this report. The\nhistorical summary prefixed sufficiently indicates that this report was planned\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF\n\nNINE\n\n731\n\nand completed in the spirit of full and generous inquiry regarding the bearing\nof its subject-matter upon the estabhshed courses of study in the colleges, the\nhigh schools, and the normal schools. An extract from the preHminary report\nof the committee defines its attitude.\nIt is brief and may be quoted in full:\nThe course of study should be four years in length\nThe paramount factor in\nshaping commercial courses in public schools should be the welfare of the student who\ngoes directly from the high school to his life-work. It is expected, however, that such\ncourses will provide a training of such a character as will fit the student completing them\nto enter the college of commerce and industry now being established by many colleges\nand universities, as well as other modern courses in college and universities.\nWe beheve that, when possible, separately organized commercial schools are advisable;\nbut we realize that in the great majority of places the work must be given in the regular\npublic high schools as one of the several courses thereof. Commercial courses will include\nmany subjects now taught in the pubUc high schools, tho the methods of presentation in\nsome cases may not be those best adapted to the needs of the business students. We\nrealize that in most schools it will not be possible to organize separate classes in those\nsubjects with methods specially adapted to meet the wants of commercial students.\n\nNothing could be more generous than this statement. It indicates that\nthe committee fully realizes the practical difficulties in the way of introducing\nan ideal commercial course into an ordinary high school; and yet it strongly\nimplies a belief in the mind of the committee that a satisfactory business course\ncan be formed in such a school partially from existing material and partly from\nadded material. It is in the spirit of this preliminary report that a few suggestions will be offered in this paper toward a practical solution of this\nproblem.\nThe suggestive commercial course for high schools which begins the final\nreport of the committee contains interesting variations from the traditional\nhigh-school course. The first impression made by this scheme upon the\nAmerican schoolman is that it is too heavy, and that the scant time allowance\ngiven some subjects would necessarily result either in lack of thoroness or in\ndisastrously overworking the pupil, to the injury of the pupil and to the prejudice ofother studies. With regard to the number of periods a week of recitations, the committee's explanation that a portion of these periods requires\nno preparation applies more particularly to the first and second years. Moreover, itmay be that we have gone too far in this country in reducing the number\nof recitation periods, and that we would better increase, rather than diminish,\nthe number of recitations. If teachers could be induced to teach instead of\nexamining daily upon work supposed to be prepared, the objection to numerous\nrecitations would disappear. The French program adopted in 1902 shows an\naverage of over twenty- three hours per week; for the ages of from fifteen to\neighteen it gives an average of more than twenty-three periods, without drawing\nor any other unprepared subject. Undoubtedly the German program would\nalso show an average of twenty-three or more recitations per week. We should\nnot, then, without further consideration condemn the suggested course on the\nscore of overweight.\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n732\n\nThe other objection mentioned — namely, that some subjects are granted\nin this scheme too meager a time allowance — is more serious. For instance,\ngeneral history to 800 A. D. is given one half-year of four periods per week.\nWhat could be done in this time is too well known to teachers of history under\nthe happily obsolescent one-year general history plan. The best thought is\ncertainly away from the notion that if you swoop hard enough you can gather\nup all history from the creation' to the Japanese war in one full swoop. Rapid\nskimming of history has been found to produce hardly a ripple on the surface\nof the pupils' minds. Neglecting entirely, except as they may concern the\nGreeks and Romans, Chaldea, Assyria, Media, Phoenicia, Syria, Asia Minor,\nthe Hebrews, the Medo-Persian empire, and the African states and colonies,\nGreek and Roman history alone could not be adequately covered in this time.\nIf Botsford's histories of Greece and Rome, or, in one volume, Wolfson, may\nbe accepted as epitomes fully epitomized, nothing less being of any real value,\na year of four periods per week should certainly be given to the subject of\nhistory to 800 A. D., or two periods for two years. A subject would better\nbe omitted entirely and left to processes outside the formal curriculum, than\nbe destroyed by the \"smattering\" treatment. If a commercial course is formed\nin the ordinary high school, commercial arithmetic might be added as an extra\ncourse in the second half of the first year, history to 800 A. D. be left as a course\nextending thru the second year, and English and continental history be placed\nin the third year, with equal time allowance. United States history would\nthen be put forward into the fourth year. Modern apparatus of reference\nlibraries, with reports in class of outside investigation, and as the means of\nmaking history an assimilated subject, cannot be used without adequate time.\nThe committee simply yielded to the pressure of these subjects but did not want\nhistory squeezed out entirely.\nThe placing of plane geometry in the third year, second half, has this to be\nsaid for it, that the pupils will be then more mature. But this seems an\nentirely insufficient advantage to make up for small-time allowance and for the\nplacing of plane geometry a half-year later than the beginning of physics.\nThe admirable statement on pp. 51, 52 of the treatment of the subject which\nthe committee recommends for the subject is hard to reconcile with the almost\ndisappearing position of plane geometry on the program. It is the opinion of\nmost teachers of physics that the subject as treated in high schools cannot\nprofitably be begun until after the pupil has had a thoro course in plane\ngeometry. Would it not be better, even in the separate commercial course,\nto place plane geometry in the second year for the whole year, and defer to the\nthird year such portion of the suggested second-year work as might be necessary. It may be presumption to suggest this after the thoro consideration the\nquestion must have had, but the main effort on this paper is to induce the\ncommittee to take us into its confidence, give us all its reasons, and persuade\nus, if possible, to its position.\nThe critic has to criticise, and one called upon to discuss must discuss;\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF NINE\n\n733\n\nbut criticism and discussion sink into insignificance when we consider the\nreal contribution to American education that is contained in the report.\nBusiness colleges have done a great work, but the public feel increasingly\nevery year that part of their work belongs to the high school. It seems to be\nthe right of young men and young women to be equipped for immediate\nparticipation in the business life of the community. Hitherto a course in a\nbusiness college has had to be superadded. This is certainly wrong. If the\nhigh-school graduate can enter college, law school, or medical school without\nfurther preparation, why should he not, without further preparation, be\nequipped to start upon his life-work in business? What has hitherto stood\nas the chief barrier against the effort of school boards and school superintendents to remedy this defect in our high schools, has been ignorance of what\nwould constitute an efficient business course. It has been felt that such a\ncourse should in the high school be considerably more extensive and intensive\nthan the rapid course of a business college, but no one has said with authority\nhow this should be brought about. Now we have before us the content of a\ncommercial course set forth by those who know the requirements both of the\nbusiness world and of that greater world of culture from which the business\nman must not be excluded by a too narrow training. At last both those who\nadvocate the separate commercial high school can state with confidence what\nsuch a school should teach, and those who wish to introduce a commercial\ncourse into the ordinary high school can intelligently, and from the practical\nstandpoint of ways and means, devise a working plan. In fact, the inveterate\nprogram-maker cannot resist the temptation to apply this material. No\nexcuse is therefore offered for the following tentative suggestion for the use\nof the committee's material in fashioning a commercial course in the ordinary\nhigh school, with, naturally, an addition to the teaching force. For the English the number of periods suggested by the Associated Academic Principals\nof New York is adopted.\nFIRST\nEnglish\nModern language\nAlgebra\nCommercial arithmetic\nBookkeeping\n. . .\nDrawing\nPenmanship\n\n....\n....\n....\n....\n\n5\n4\n4\n4\n3\n3\n2\n\nSECOND\nEnglish\nModern language\nAncient history\nStudy of commercial products or local\nhistory and industries\nPlane geometry\nBookkeeping\n\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n\nYEAR\nEngUsh\nModern language\nAlgebra\nCommercial geography\nBookkeeping\nPenmanship\n\n5\n4\n-4\n4\n3\n3\n\nYEAR\nEnghsh\nModern language\nAncient history\n. Plane geometry\nBookkeeping and office practice\nTypewriting\n\n...\n\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": null, "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n[Business\n\nTHIRD\nEngUsh\nEnglish and continental history\nPhysics or chemistry\nFirst language\ncontinued, or\nmodern language begun\nShorthand or typewriting\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n...\n\n3\n4\n4\n\nsecond\n4\n4\nFOURTH\n\nEnglish\nHistory of commerce\nCommercial law\nTwelve periods selected from:\nLanguage elected\nShorthand and typewriting\n....\nPhysics or chemistry\nBanking and finance\nSolid geometry\nMechanical drawing\n\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n\nYEAR\nEnglish\nEnghsh and continental history\nPhysics or chemistry\nModern language\nPolitical economy\n\n...\n.\n\n3\n4\n4\n.4\n4\n\nYEAR\nEnglish\nCivil government\nU. S. history\nTwelve periods selected from:\nSame elective continued\nPhysics or chemistry\nAccounting, organization, and auditing\nAdvanced\ncommercial\narithmetic and\napplied arithmetic\nAdvertising, study of trade journals, and\ncommercial English\nOffice-work for stenographers ....\n\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n\nThe modification contained in the outline just given presupposes a choice\nby the high-school pupil at the beginning of the first year. This paper is\ngoing to have the temerity to suggest also a more radical modification that\nleaves the first two years unchanged, except for an option added to the first\nyear, and introduces some of the committee's material into the last two years.\nThe idea is that some schools might accomplish this much but no more, and\nthat the choice of courses would be more intelHgently made after two years\nof general high-school work.\nFIRST\nAlgebra\nEnghsh\nScience\n\nYEAR\nAlgebra\nEnglish\nScience\nLatin or modern language\nPenmanship (elective)\n\nLatin or modern language\nPenmanship (elective)\nSECOND\n\nYEAR\nPlane geometry\nHistory\nEnghsh\n\nTHIRD\n\nYEAR\n\nPlane geometry\nEnglish\nffistory\n\nLatin or modern language\n\nLatin or modern language\n\n(commercial course) .\nEnghsh\n3\nPhysics or chemistry\n4\nModern language\n4\n4\nBookkeeping and office practice\nCommercial geography\nPolitical economy\n4\n4\n\nEnglish\nPhysics or chemistry\nModern language\nBookkeeping\nStudy of commercial products or local\nhistory and industries\nCommercial arithmetic ......\n\n...\n\n3\n4\n4\n4\n4\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nFOURTH\nEnglish\n. . . .\n3\nHistory of Commerce\n4\nSixteen periods from:\nModern language or shorthand and typewriting\n4\nPhysics or chemistry\n4\nBanking and finance\n4\nSolid geometry\n4\nMechanical drawing\n\n4\n\nOF NINE\n\n735\n\nYEAR\nEnglish\n3\nCivil government and U. S. history\n. . 4\nSixteen periods from:\nSame selection continued\n4\nPhysics or chemistry\n4\nAccounting, organization, and auditing 4\nAdvanced\ncommercial\narithmetic and\napplied arithmetic\n4\nAdvertising, study of trade journals, and\ncommercial English\n.4\nOflBce work for stenographers\n....\n4\n\nIn this scheme penmanship as a required subject is omitted, but doubtless\nall having any thought of the commercial course would elect it, and even\nothers might do the same to their profit. The work suggested for the twoyear commercial course added to two years of the ordinary high-school course\nmay seem severe. The remark in the committee's report regarding the relative number of hours a young man would work if he left school and began\nearning his HvHhood is pertinent here. So long as the health were not injured\nnor the mind overwearied the course would not be objectionable on the\nscore of severity. Practical testing could alone determine this, but it may be\nsuggested that the practical value of the work would add zest. A boy could\nand would stand a good deal if he felt that a fair chance to begin at once a\nself-supporting career in business lay at the end of two years of effort.\nIt would not be right to pass over in silence the excellent monographs\nwhich define and defend the aim and content of the suggested course, altho\ntime permits only a brief reference to two of them.\nMr. Crissey, in addition to an admirable summary of modern views of\nwhat the study of our native tongue should aim at, gives us the special needs\nof the business course. Not only business men, but all who write letters, are\ninterested to know the correct punctuation of the address of a letter. Mr.\nCrissey's stand for pure EngHsh as distinct from a jargon that may possibly\nserve a particular purpose is indicated in his caution to teachers that the ''business letters \" of the dictation books should be used only when carefully edited.\nIn Mr. Crissey's view the spoken language must be cultivated along with the\nwritten.\nHe recommends that the school be organized as a club for debate.\nThe article on history and social science is particularly interesting from\nthe standpoint of the ordinary high school. The contention that the basis\nfor the study of the history of commerce should be an acquaintance with the\nfacts of history in general, but that the history of commerce should not be\ntaught merely in connection with the study of general history, is well supported:\n''It should occupy in its special schools the place occupied by the history of\neducation in the schools of education, church history in the theological seminaries, the history of law in law schools, and military and naval history in\nthe academies devoted to the education of soldiers and sailors.\" The quoted\nobservation that history as written from the modern view-point passes from\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": null, "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n''a melancholy record of human crimes and calamities\" to the \"animating\nregister\" of the industry and ingenuity of men, gives us another argument for\nhistory as a required subject in all courses of all kinds of secondary schools.\nThe arguments for and against poUtical economy as a high-school subject\nhave been pretty well thrashed over in the last twelve years. Dr. Herrick is\nconvinced, and convinces us, that courses which he places under the head of\nsocial science are indispensable in the scheme of a commercial course. In\nthe ordinary high school the objection still remains, but it may well be that\nthe inclusion of political economy among the requirements of the commercial\ncourse may lead ultimately to a removal of the difficulties which now exclude\nthe subject in the general high school. If well-equipped teachers are available, and the time arrives when we shall agree as to topics and treatment,\nthe high schools, at least in the cities, will welcome political economy among\nthe electives. Dr. Herrick recognizes civil government, in close alliance with\nUnited States history, as a necessary constituent of the course of every pupil.\nThe report is as full of good pedagogics, catholic educational sympathies,\nand sound common-sense as an egg is of meat.\nThis little paper has merely\nscratched its surface.\nIt opens the right gate into an untilled field so\nfertile in possibiHties of practical good that speculation as to the extent of its\nbeneficent effect upon the American high-school system would seem like idle\ndreams.\nThe committee has dared to be definite; may the educational\nauthorities dare to carry into practical effect this broad scientific scheme\nfor the nurture, not of dumb business tools, but of articulate, cultured, and\nwithal shrewdly trained business men.\nDISCUSSION\nD. W. Springer, of Ann Arbor, Mich., chairmaij of the Committee of Nine. —\nReferring to the contention that arithmetic should appear in the first year, the speaker\nsaid that it was the opinion of the committee that pupils come from the grade school with\na positive distaste for arithmetic, and it was thought best to give them a rest for a short\ntime, substituting meanwhile a new subject (algebra) which would give mathematical\ntraining with the advantage of freshness. The second year the subject of arithmetic can\nbe taken with new zest and greater power.\nThe speaker made frequent and extended reference to the monograph prepared by\nthe Committee of Nine, issued by the University of the State of New York. This publication contains discussions on some of the points raised by the preceding speakers, particularly on the point of the time allowed by the proposed course. In this connection the\nspeaker compared the time allowed in foreign schools with that of the proposed course,\nand showed that they were nearly the same.\nHe called attention to the fact, already referred to by preceding speakers, that the\ncourse had in it some compromises. Personally he regretted that there was not more drawing, but it was necessary to sacrifice personal opinion at times.\nHe said that it appeared surprising that all three of the speakers had objected to the\nprovision for history, which had received more attention than any other single subject,\nand which follows very closely the suggestions made by the Committee of Seven on History\nin the Report of the Committee on College Entrance Requirements.\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD STUDY\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30, 1904\n\nThe meeting of the Department of Child Study was called to order at Convention\nHall in the Administration Building by the president, E. A. Kirkpatrick, at 2 : 30 p. m.\nIn the absence of Secretary Yoder, Miss Jessie Davis was appointed secretary.\nThe following communication from the British Child Study Association was read:\nTo the President of the Child Study Conference of the National Educational Association in Convention at St. Louis,\nDear Sir: — The Council of the British Child Study Association sends heartiest greetings to friends and\nfellow-students in America now assembled in conference at St. Louis.\nThe members of our association regard with the keenest appreciation the constant and extraordinary\nefforts, the high scientific ability, and the successful enterprise employed by the leaders of the child-study movement in America, who are engaged in laying the foundations of true biological and evolutionary conceptions.\nThe work of such men as President G. Stanley Hall, Professor Earl Barnes, Professor W. S. Monroe,\nand others of your great leaders in developing a new philosophy of childhood is most keenly known and honored\namong us here in Great Britain, and forms an additional bond of union, sympathy, and indebtedness between\nus and our American kinsmen.\nAccept our heartiest good wishes for complete success in every department of your conference held in the\nexhibition buildings. Such efforts are certain to conduce to a great and permanent increase in the interest\nand numbers of those consciously and systematically studying child nature in order to ascertain what are\nthe latest possibihties and capacities of the growing child, and how he can be best provided with the means and\nenvironment wherewith and wherein to shape himself.\n(Signed)\n\nJ. C. Hudson,\nGeneral Secretary.\n\nThe following program was then carried out, with the exceptions noted below:\nTopic:\n\"Individual and Practical Child Study.\"\n1. \"The Diagnosis of the Capabilities of Children,\" by D. P. MacMillan, director of child-study department of the Chicago pubUc schools, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"Some Laboratory Investigations of Subnormal Children,\" by Miss Mary R. Campbell, dean of the\nChicago Hospital School for Nervous and Dehcate Children, and educational adviser for the School of Special\nEducation, Chicago, 111.\n3. \"To What Extent May Atypical Children be' Successfully Educated in our Public Schools?\" by\nMaximilian P. E. Groszmann, director of the Groszmann School for Atypical and Nervous Children, Plainfield,\n\nN.J.\n\nThe Child Study Department then divided into two sections for round-table\ndiscussions.\nI.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n(Chairman, Miss Myra M. Winchester, Fort Worth Kindergarten College, Fort Worth, Tex.)\nTopic: \"Comparison of Methods and Results in Child Study.\"\n1. \"Handwork as an Indication of the Mental Condition of Children,\" by Elizabeth Harrison, Chicago\nKindergarten College, Chicago, 111.\n2. \"Method of Child Study in the Kindergarten,\" by Luella Palmer, New York city.\n3. \"Child Study in the Grades,\" by P. W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex.\nII.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nGRAMMAR\n\nAND\n\nSECONDARY. GRADES\n\nTopic:\n\"Waywardness in Children of Ten to Eighteen Years.\"\n1. \"Criminal Tendencies and the Juvenile Court,\" by Charles W. Waddle, fellow in Clark University,\nWorcester, Mass.\n2. \"Relation of the Home and Par'^nts to the Wayward Child,\" by Oscar Chrisman, professor of paidology, Ohio University, Athens, O.\n737\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": null, "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nUnder the order of business the following Committee on Nominations was appointed\nby President Kirkpatrick:\nDr. Oscar Chrisman, of Ohio.\nDr. A. Caswell Ellis, of Texas.\nMiss Elizabeth Harrison, of Illinois.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday, July i\n\nThe department was called to order at 2 : 30 P. m. The Committee on Nominations\nreported the following nominees for oflScers, who were elected:\nFor President. — E. G. Lancaster, Olivet, Mich.\nFor Vice-President — D. P. MacMillan. Chicago, 111.\nFor Secretary — Miss Theodate Smith, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\n\n^\n\nThe following program was presented in full:\nA paper by Will S. Monroe, State Normal School, Westfield, Mass., was distributed,\ndescribing the various types of child study, and indicating where exhibits of the same could\nbe found.\nMinn.\n\nGeneral topic: \"Methods in Scientific Child Study.\"\n1. \"Questionaire Methods of Child Study,\" by Will Grant Chambers, State Normal School, Moorhead,\n\n2. \"Laboratory Tests as a Means of Child Study,\" by Miss Mabel Clarke Williams, department of\nphilosophy, Iowa State University.\n3. \"Contribution of Zoological Psychology to Child Study,\" by Linus W. Kline, State Normal School,\nDuluth, Minn.\n4. \"Unsolved Problems of Child Study and Modes of Attack,\" by G. Stanley Hall, president of Clark\nUniversity, Worcester, Mass.\n5. \"Child Study in Normal Schools,\" by Miss Anna Buckbee, State Normal School, CaUfomia, Pa.\n\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nJessie Davis, Acting Secretary.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\nD.\n\nDIAGNOSIS\n\nP. MACMILLAN,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE CAPABILITIES\nCHILDREN\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF DEPARTMENT\nOF CHILD\nSTUDY AND\nGOGIC INVESTIGATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nPEDA-\n\nWith the growth in complexity of social institutions, and the parallel\ndivergencies in individual tastes, desires, skills, and knowledges, there comes\nthe necessity, in the mind of everyone who deals with human affairs, to have\na correct estimate of the normal mind. For the most of us this is limited by\nour past experiences, and is a scheme of extreme inexactness.\nAltho it is highly important for the man who would upHft his fellow-men,\nor who would profit by their weaknesses, to have an exact estimate of human\nnature, yet such a one is by no means under the same stringent necessity as\nthose whose concern it is to tell the path of direction and to estimate the\nacquired power of the growing minds of children.\nAs the need of such a criterion of capability does not become imperative\nbefore attempts are made to educate children, and, further, as the inexorable\nlaws of society will sift the incompetent from the capable youth in the struggle\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCAPABILITIES\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n739\n\nof life, the years intervening between these extremes indicate for us the period\nof Hfe during which it is desirable to have more exact information of normal\nmental functioning. I therefore limit myself to the period of the school life\nof children.\nChildren classified on any basis whatsoever will fall into the two groups of\nnormal and abnormal, and this latter class may be further subdivided ad\nlibitum. It is axiomatic that psychic tests or measurements appHcable to\nchildren who are subnormal will be more easily applied to the normal, and\nthat tests to be appUcable to all cases must deal with the common avenues of\napproach and the general mode of expression of all the types that deviate from\nthe normal.\nOn account of the limitation of our study to the school life of children, we\nare introduced naturally to the consideration of the school as a measurer of\nmental capability.\nIn the first place, the particular function of the school as a medium where\nchildren develop under forced stimulation necessarily throws the emphasis\nupon development and makes it only indirectly a tester of mental capabihties.\nSecondly, as the ideal which underlies and dominates community Hfe in the\nschool is that of preparation for the future, either in the narrower or in the\nbroader impHcation of that word, the school's value and its significance can\nbe judged from the end consciously or unconsciously aimed at. That is, the\nschool is a transitory stage leading to something beyond itself, and accordingly\nmust be judged by its efficiency as a developer of power for more speciahzed\nschool work, which is its least important mission, and for adult life, with its\nattendant problems and duties, which is its fullest and most significant caUing.\nMoreover, the school, as a social institution, must direct the greater part of\nits energy toward securing such a mastery of the symbols of civiHzation as will\nmake its growing members not only inheritors, but promoters of the skills,\nknowledges, and values of society. It is, however, exceedingly important to\ndistinguish the value of symbols to the person who has had experience at first\nhand, from their place in the mental fife of the person who has not been so\nfortunate. To the former, symbols are the signs placed by him at the nodal\npoints in the stream of consciousness, and so serve as indicators of its focuses\nand fringes — its relatively stable processes and its transitions. In short,\nsymbols are the tags of meaning or identification, the representatives of complete psychical experiences. On the other hand, for the reader or person\ncommunicated with orally, symbols must create or resuscitate the hving thing\ncalled experience from the dead and nonsignificant things termed symbols;\nand this, without the complete psychical process having taken place, requires\nnot only a greater intensity in mental effort, but a different quality of mental\nprocesses, and presupposes not infrequently a maturity which is undeveloped\nor positively lacking. Power in dealing with symbols, then, does not necessarily mean capability in dealing with actual life-situations.\nFinally, the schools, hke the mills of the gods, grind slowly, and their\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 40\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nimpress is often as difficult to efface. In the interests of those who are in this\nstage of transition, it may be said that it is not a very high order of observation\nto determine the path of direction of a process only after its cycle is completed,\nwhen the opportunities to control that process have passed with itself.\nBecause these things are so, one must not consider the school as a positive\nindicator of the quahties we desire to estimate. We need then a method\nwhich not only touches elements more fundamental than those to which the\nschool makes appeal, but also indicates to us, while the mind is yet growing,\nthe vitality or superficiality of that growth.\nThe prominence given in recent literature on this subject to the teacher's\nestimate as an evaluator of mental capabilities makes it advisable to call\nattention to it in this connection.\nAs the schools are supposed to make three natural divisions of the school\npopulation, into those above their grade for their years, those at the proper\nplace for their age, and those below their grade for the time spent at school,\nso it is conceived that the teacher, as a judge of mental capability, classifies\nchildren as brilliant, mediocre, or stupid. That is, in a heterogeneous group\nof children, considered irrespective of age, size, sex, and of course school\ngrading, the teacher as a tester of mental capabiUties classifies this group under\nthe three captions of bright, average, and dull. The good points of this device\nof Usting mental capabilities are shared by the schools as a tester, in so far as\nthe teacher's estimate is a factor in the promotion of children in the grades;\nwhile its sources of error, which are largely attributable to the personal equation of the tester,' remain when it is considered by itself as an evaluator,\nuncontrolled and uncontrollable. At the best it may serve as a rough preliminary test for subsequent scientific procedure, but certainly cannot be taken\nas a positive indication of mental capabihties which may or may not correlate\nwith physical or psycho-physical data.\nAgain, it has been proposed to estabHsh standard unit questions in the\nvarious staple studies of our school curricula for the purposes of exact measurement. This likewise fails where the schools fail, and might more correctly\nbe designated, if it were estabhshed, as a tester of what the children have\nlearned, rather than of what they can learn and do ; that is, tests of different\nschool systems, rather than of the native capabilities of the children of any\nschool whatsoever.\nWhat, then, shall be the criteria for determining the constituents of mental\npower, or the modes of mental functioning, concerning which it is highly desirable to have scientific measurements, and how shall we proceed to secure\nthese? As all genuine reforms in formal or school education are traceable\nto the attempts to institute similar situations and conditions as obtain in\ninformal learning or learning in the free medium of society, so all tests of\nthe mental capabihties of school children must take their cue from the sifting processes and forces that are at work in society, directing a pointed finger\nat those mental quahties that are active in the successful coping with actual\nemergencies.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCAPABILITIES\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n741\n\nNow, the most general of these situations are those in which the wants of\nthe body are appeased, and accordingly the general test of normality in human\nbeings in this free medium is secured by systematically observing the manner\nin which the needs of the body are satisfied, that is, in giving a careful account\nof the ways in which the organism adjusts itself to persons, objects, and events.\nSuccess in adjustment is then the test. This success must be interpreted,\nhowever, in the right way. First, it must not come by chance. This means\nthat there must be voluntary origination and control, presupposing the functioning ofthe highest nerve-centers. Secondly, it must be the getting of those\nthings that are really worth while for the organism, not the securing of everything sought; in a word, there must be selection. Finally, there must be a\nconsciousness that the things aimed at have been secured; there must be a\nreflection of the attained results into the mental status and future action of\nthe organism. This cycle then, or the factors involved in controlling environment (and this control interpreted as an active mental attitude of the individual\nin adjusting himself), is the criterion for measuring normal action.\nThese factors — of originality in action, of selection, and of reflection —\nmay be best studied under the category of means and ends. We judge of a\nman's grade of mentality, first, by the kinds of problems which he sets for\nhimself, and we estimate that complex and remote problems require a higher\ngrade of mentality than simple and immediate ones. Again, we not only\njudge by the character of the problems, but also by the skill and dexterity\nexhibited in solving them, where the ideal is to secure the maximum result\nwith the minimum expenditure. Both combined signify on the mental side\ngood system in thought and executive control. From this three obvious\npropositions may be gathered: first, that the power to receive information is\nessentially different from the ability to use it; secondly, that the attiude of\nactive inquiry is psychologically different from the attitude of mere absorption\nin tracing out the ideas communicated orally or visually; thirdly, the attitude\nof active inquiry is more nearly akin to that of applying information to actual\nconditions or situations than is that of reception or absorption, if indeed in\nmany instances it is not practically identified with it.\nNow, upon close examination, the person who is eminently capable of selfinitiation and self -direction, gives evidence of those mental virtues by what\nmay be termed the inquiring attitude of mind. The essential and primary\nfactors of this inquiring mental attitude may be Hsted under the following\ncaptions: perceptual acuity, in the sense of motivated perception; anticipatory\nor expectant attention; affective and emotional responsiveness; constructive\nimagination ; reliable memory ; persistence ; conceptual discernment of relevant\nand valuable facts ; and balanced judgment. Now, these are the factors that\nought to be estimated. They presuppose, it is true, ideal tests applicable to\nideal conditions, and yet they furnish suggestions that are of immense value in\nrelation to tests that are practicable.\nPractical tests must proceed upon the assumption of a parallelism and\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": null, "text": "NA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\n742\n\ninterrelation between mental and physical powers, and as the factor which\nis the most open to observation and to experiment (which is controlled observation) isthe physical, it seems the part not only of wisdom, but also of expediency, to begin on that side. It is, however, very important to bear in mind\nin devising and executing tests the following considerations: first, the marked\nsuperiority and fruitfulness of tests made upon the active phases of child-life\nover the passive — tests of action and doing over tests of bodily structure and\nanatomy; secondly, that of these activities the expressive furnish a better index\nof capabiHty than the receptive; thirdly, that the motived motor are truer\nindexes of mental power than the bodily reflexes and automatisms; fourthly,\nthat, as the telescope and microscope were devised primarily to assist the human\neye to see, so all instruments of precision used in securing more definite data\nof children's reactions must be employed in strict subservience to tests made\nby expert observation upon children in their most natural media and most\nfamiliar moods; fifthly, the necessity that an experimenter- with children is\nalways under of not only making the instruments of precision adjustable to\ntheir bodily condition, but also, on account of the low Hmits of attention and\nthe extreme liability to fatigue, of seeing to it that the mental processes called\ninto exercise in using these instruments are adapted to each child examined.\nWith this in mind, we turn our attention first to expressions of the body\nas a whole and its parts — expressions other than language. Of these there is\noffered a natural division into, first, expressions preceded by an idea in the\nactor's mind; and, secondly, those in which the expression is not preceded by\nan idea — the so-called involuntary movements. Tests devised to meet these\ntwo conditions should go hand in hand, approaching the subject-matter by\nthe observational method, and by the method of precise measurements. Of\nthe first class the most fruitful opportunities for observational study are furnished in those situations in which the child does something in obedience to,\nor in fulfillment of, some idea of his own; but as the investigator is often necessarily handicapped by lack of time in making observations of the free play of\nthe child's activities when these are self -motived, he must supplement such\nobservations as he can make during the experiments by chance situations.\nThe second class offers to the experimenter varied and valuable opportunities\nfor study. In these the idea is suggested, imposed, enjoined, or commanded\nby the experimenter.\nThe first in order are the anthropometric tests and measurments with a\nview to determining the status and defects of the most prominent characteristics of growth. Under this class of bodily measurements come height,\nheight sitting, weight, size of head, of face and its parts, bodily proportion,\nand the like.\nClosely connected with growth are marked those signs of the body that\nindicate the status and defects of bodily nutrition and bodily movement, some\nof the most valuable of which are lung capacity, strength of grip, strength of\nback, chest, and legs, the various tests of voluntary motor ability, reaction-\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCAPABILITIES\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n743\n\ntime tests, sorting tests, ergographic records, and psychergographic experiments, tests on the reflexes and automatisms of the body, of the iris, of the eyelid, finger twitches, facial jerks, bodily inco-ordinations, postures and attitudes.\nNext in order of convenience in a general program come the sensory tests.\nUnder this heading may be noted tests of visual acuity, marking the character\nof the defects, chiefly astigmatism, muscular in co-ordination, dischromatopsia,\nand the like; tests of aural acuity for noises, for tones, for rhythms; tests of\nolfactory and gustatory sensitivity; and under this division of the sensory may\nbe included tests to ascertain the sensitivity of selected parts of the body to\npressure and to pain.\nAfter these tests of mere sensory acuity come those designed to estimate\nmental functioning in the use of the senses, the tests of perception, such as\nmay be involved in the discrimination and identification of sizes by sight alone,\nby touch alone, by both combined; of weights by active muscular lift or heft;\nof color and brightness differences; of noise and tone differences; of armmovement differences, and the like.\nUnder the rubric o' memory the same scheme of division of tests may be\nfollowed as in the preceding; first, tests of the immediate-sense memories of\nthe various sense activities; secondly, the associational and affective memory;\nand, lastly, the so-called logical memory. Under the heading of imagination,\ntests may be employed to measure the transformation which images have\nundergone in passing from the realm of perception to the domain of memory.\nThese may be listed as, first, the similar in kind, and, secondly, the translated\nor symbolic. Of this latter, certain tests may be used to determine the preferred\ntype of imagery in each instance.\nTo determine directly the functional power of attention, experiments\nshould be carried on with the object of estimating the two primary attributes\nof every mental reaction, viz., the degree of alertness and the intensity of concentration.\nAssociational. tests resolve themselves into the two natural divisions:\nfirst, those designed to test the power to make arbitrary or forced associations,\nboth simple and complex; and, secondly, those associations that are jree,\ndetermining the thing-relations of position in time and location in space; and\nto these may be added tests for the purpose of determining the acquired use\nof the categories, thing and its use, thing and attribute, act and its quality or\nmode, producer and thing produced, and last, both in the order of time and\nimportance, thing or act and its symbol.\nAltho all tests of mental functioning are to a degree tests of judgment,\nnevertheless more specific characterizations of this power can be secured by\nemploying tests which have as their primary object the determination of the\njudging processes, as quick and accurate, deliberate and accurate, quick and\ninaccurate or forming hasty conclusions, deliberate and inaccurate in its\nvarious forms, ranging from marked inability to secure data, to pronounced\nindicision or inability to conclude.\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": null, "text": "744\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nWith a more exact estimate of these various modes of mental functioning\nherein sketched, made upon a large number of children, it will be comparatively easy to determine the so-called average or norm with such qualifications\nas will indicate in each instance the degree of representivity of such indices.\nIn conclusion, it may be said that in arrranging school curricula the\nattempt is always made to adapt them to the average or normal and, be it\nadded, the hypothetical child. On this account the graded school system\nmust perforce place the children into classes roughly estimated, and this\nclassification is based, in the main, on their power to master and use certain\ngroups of symbols. When, however, the attention of educators is directed to\nthe individual child, so that his failures or successes under these conditions\ncan be better understood, it is absolutely imperative to have at command\nsome scheme for critically diagnosing his mental and physical capabilities;\nand to this end I make this contribution.\n\nSOME\nMISS MARY\n\nLABORATORY\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\nCHILDREN\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nR. CAMPBELL, DEAN OF THE CHICAGO HOSPITAL SCHOOL FOR NERVOUS AND DELICATE CHILDREN, AND EDUCATIONAL ADVISOR FOR THE\nCHICAGO SCHOOL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nMy purpose is to discuss very simply, yet from the scientific point of view,\na few problems that have been worked out in the Chicago Hospital School —\nproblems which for the most part were suggested by the peculiar infirmities\nand needs of the children, and in the solution of which some children were so\ngreatly benefited as to justify placing on permanent record the data obtained ^\nAs full account of these investigations will soon be pubHshed, the techincal\naspects of the research will not be presented here. The greatest emphasis,\ntherefore, will be laid upon the results — that phase of the research that will\nbe most helpful and suggestive to those working with nervous and subnormal\nchildren. I will not go into a detailed description of these investigations, but\nwill give rather a general synopsis under the following headings:\nI. The problem.\nII. Methods of procedure in conducting the investigation.\nIII. Results obtained, with some inductive generalizations.\nIV. AppUcations of these generalizations to the care of normal children; for, after all,\nthe great value of the study of the pathological individual lies in the application of\nthe principles educed to the life of the normal individual.\nV. Suggested investigations possible with normal children.\n\nWhile in the mere statement of problem, method, result and applications,\nand suggested investigations I am presenting to you only a cross-section, as\nit were, of these researches, I wish it clearly understood that in all of our\ninvestigations every child was taken in relation to all conditions of his\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nOF\n\nSUBNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n745\n\nparticular case. That is to say, if we were studying the development of the\nnmthematical concept in the child, we made our records and observations on\nhim not only during the period of presenting that particular subject-matter,\nbut these records showed in addition observation as to how and to what extent\nthe child could apply the method of measuring magnitude from one subject to\nanother; for instance, from cooking to manual training, or from music to\ncooking, or from music to chemistry and physics. If the experiment was one\non the restoration of the speech function, our observations were not confined\nto a child's work during the technical lesson, but covered all manifestations of\nthe speech function and other factors that might modify the expressive side\nof his life. Nor did we, in our study of the correlation of the physical and\nmental states in children, confine our observations to one or two phases of\ncoexistent phenomena. As it is, the whole action that asserts the child's\ninterior — the whole child, therefore, not the child in part\" — was studied. The\ndaily sequence of the child's physical and psychical life was recorded in\ndetail. The problems could not be met by an exclusively analytical\nmethod — a method too often employed in the study of children. The analytical had to be supplemented by the experimental and observational. It\nwas by combining these methods that the problem yielded its fruitful results.\nEvery child was constantly under skilled observation from the time of his\nawaking in the morning until his retiring at night. There were three trained\nnurses for the ten children under observation and fourteen teachers, including\nthe special teachers, the tutors, and supplementary teachers.\nThe empirical data gathered by the nurses covered such points as the\nfollowing, which I present in the same sequence as recorded in the nurses'\nday-book :\n1. A report on how the child slept and rested during the night.\n2. The time of his awaking in the morning.\n3. The child's emotional tone on awaking.\n4. The child's temperature, pulse, and respiration on awaking.\n(The object of taking this record before the child arose was to determine his normal pulse before physical\nexertion.)\n5. The kind of bath given the child — whether salt, cold or tepid, or a shower bath.\n6. The time of dressing and length of time consumed in dressing.\n7. The child's attitude toward others.\n8. The quantity of water taken during the morning.\n9. The kind and quantity of food taken for breakfast.\n10. The exact time of the performance of physical functions, with a record of the kind\nand quantity of eliminations.\n1 1 . The pulse record taken immediately before a period of special mental effort.\n12. The pulse record taken immediately after a period of special mental effort.\n(This record was to show the effect of fatigue on the pulse as induced by particular work.)\n13. The general social conduct of the child during his free play period.\n(The children were very carefully observed during their playtime, for the child is most truly himself\nwhen he plays.)\n14. The pulse record at midday to show the effect on it of the morning's physical and\nmental fatigue.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": null, "text": "746\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\n15. The kind and quantity of food taken at luncheon.\n16. The pulse record immediately after eating.\n17. A report on the afternoon nap — duration, the effect on mental efforts for the afternoon.\n(The records of a number of children showed that better work was done from four to six in the afternoon\nthan at any other time during the day. It seemed as tho they were reinforced both physically and\nmentally.)\n\n18. The pulse record of the child immediately after his afternoon nap.\n19. The kind and quantity of food eaten at dinner.\n20. The time during the day when the greatest hunger was manifested.\n(Inasmuch as hunger is one of the strongest and most imperative of the child's feelings, it seemed that\none of the most important points to record was when this feeling most strongly evidenced itself.)\n\n21. The mental condition and social attitude of the child during the children's social\nhour.\n22. The temperature, pulse, and respiration of the child at bedtime.\n23. The kind of evening bath — ^whether hot or tepid.\n24. The kind of massage — whether dry rub or oil massage.\n25. The exact time of going to sleep.\n(A very careful note on the last point, to show accurately the number of hours' sleep per day the child\nhad.)\n\nThe data gathered by the teachers were both observational and experimental. They covered the following points:\n1. A note was made as to the kind of day — ^whether sunny, cloudy, rainy, snowy, warm,\nhot, chilly, or cold; and the apparent effect on the child.\n2. The physical and mental condition of the child on entrance into the class was carefully\nnoted.\n3. * The pulse at the beginning and at the end of mental activity was taken to show the\neffect of the particular lesson.\n(From this group of special data we were enabled to arrange the child's program of work so that the\nlessons producing the greatest fatigue would not come too close together, and so that the hardest lessons\nwould come at the time of the child's period of maximum energy.)\n\n4. The child's emotional tone was very carefully noted, and its relation to the child's\nphysical and mental attitude.\n5. The child's dominant interest (which was sometimes taken as a central subject and\nabout which was grouped his other work).\n6. A report of the lesson — ^its aims, its methods, and its results.\n\nOther observations of both teachers and nurses showed a record of —\na) Any unusual manifestations.\nb) Anything that might deflect or modify a child's emotional tone — such as parents'\nvisit, pecuUar influence of teacher, etc.\nc) Anything that might affect the unit of the child's life.\nd) Anything normally naughty.\ne) The effect of weather on the mental condition of a child for a given day or for a number\nof given days.\n\nIn addition, the weight and height of the children were taken every twentyeight days. Blood counts with the anaemic children were made every seven\ndays, and a monthly digest report of the condition of certain children was\nsent the consulting physicians.\n* (To avoid distractingithe child, the pulse was taken by tactile investigation rather them by the sphygmograph.)\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n747\n\nThe first study I shall present is a preliminary study in the correlation of\nthe physical and mental states of nervous children.\nI. The problem. — In the fall of 1901 I undertook, at the suggestion of\nsome of our physicians, to make a study of the correlation of nutrition and\nfeeding with the mental and, in particular, the emotional states of children;\nthe working out of such a problem having been necessitated by the various\nnervous conditions of the children that had been brought to the Chicago\nHospital School for treatment. Fully 75 per cent, of the children enrolled\nup to that time were sufferers from malnutrition and anaemia, prenatal or\npostnatal. In beginning the treatment that was to rectify the mental deviations of these children, the first step was to overcome the physical deterrent:\ntemporary defective hearing, temporary defective sight, temporary speech\ndefects, and other inco-ordinations, traceable in many cases to lowered vitality,\nwhich were directly due to malnutrition.\nThe primary object, therefore, of this study was to determine to what\nextent nutrition and feeding were directly affecting the mental, and in particular\nthe emotional, states of these particular children; and the secondary object\nof the investigation was to throw light upon the following questions:\n1. To what extent is it possible to establish conditions which will bring positive data\nshowing a close connection between nutrition and the morbid emotional tones or abnormal\nstates of consciousness as such in young children ?\n2. Is it possible by the effects of feeding, if such a relationship does exist, so to modify\nthe diet as to control the emotional tone of the child ?\n3. Is there a demonstrable connection between the deviations and fluctuations of the\npsychical Ufe, as manifested by the erratic conduct of the nervous child, and his digestion —\nany connection between the child's output of physical and mental energy and his defective\nphysiological processes ?\n\nThese are the questions that confront us.\nTo find an answer to the first — that is, the connection between nutrition\nand morbid emotional tones in children — meant the arrest, at least, of an\naggravated condition that was fast hurrying these children, but temporarily\nsubnormal, into chronic abnormals.\nBy the answer to the second — the control of the emotional tone by modifications of the diet — contingent upon the answer to the first, other subnormal\nchildren could be helped.\nThe answer to the third question — the demonstrable relation between\nthe outwardly observable erratic conduct of the child and his physiological\nprocesses, if, indeed, there is a demonstrable relation between the two — means\nthe generalization of such principles as may be extended to all classes of children, both normal and abnoimal.\n11. The method. — Preliminary to the formal investigation, the child was\nstudied to establish, if possible, his individual norm. He was also studied\nto determine, if possible, his pathological norm. While from the child-study\nnotes of the nurses and teachers we had already established, approximately,\nby a system of grade estimates, the child's norm, and while we were conversant\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": null, "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nwith his greatest and least deviations from this norm, and with the conditions\nproducing them, it seemed expedient at this juncture to push still farther this\ninformal study along one or two lines; to ascertain, for instance, {a) the bearing\nof the child's preferences for food on digestion; {h) the relation of the pulse\ndeviation to varying physical, mental, and emotional states.\nThe coexistence of certain phenomena having led us to suppose that a\nconnection between them might be established, therefore, before taking up\nthe technical laboratory phase of the investigations, with its formal experiments\nand analyses, we decided to study still further some of these apparent relationships that had been manifested and observed.\nThe apparent relationships are:\na) between\nh) between\nc) between\nd) between\n\npreferred foods and better digestion.\npulse deviation and non-elimination.\npulse deviation and subnormal and supranormal mental effort.\nsleep and digestion.\n\nAll these apparent relationships — tho seemingly trivial — appeared to have a\nvery great significance as. bearing on the health of the child. Therefore the\nchildren who were to be experimented upon were now studied very particularly as to their feeding, according to the following program :\nI. Diet: {a) a systematic diet was carried, and (&) the children were permitted to eat\nsparingly or freely as they felt disposed.\n\nObservations on the following points were noted :\n1. SoUdfood: (a) the kind and approximate quantity of food eaten, (&) with apparent\nindifference, (c) with apparent relish; {d) that for which positive dislike was shown;\n{e) preferences in particular were noted.\n2. Liquid foods: (a) the kind and approximate quantity of liquids taken, {h) with apparent\nindifference, (c) with apparent rehsh; {d) that for which positive disHke was shown;\n(e) preferences in particular were noted, and the results of this preference on the quantity of kidney elimination.\n3. Excretions: the kind and exact quantity of kidney and intestinal eliminations, and\nthe apparent effect of food preferences.\n4. The digestibihty of certain foods in individual cases.\n5. The relation of non elimination to pulse deviation.\n6. The relation of pulse deviation to emotional tone.\n7. The emotional tone as affecting mental effort and physical activity.\n\nThe tentative results of this informal study, covering approximately a\nperiod of thirty days, showed the following observations:\n1. The greatest hunger was shown at the end of the day.\n2. Preferred foods were better digested.\n3. Meats were better digested by some children.\n4. Starchy foods were better digested by others.\n5. None of the children were satisfied with the amount of sweet food given them.\n6. The majority of the children were indifferent to a food rather than positively disliking\nit.\n7. Heat units averaged 2,200 per day.\n8. The majority of children were averaging three to four glasses of liquid food per day.\n(This included water taken.)\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n749\n\nThe majority of children showed the food to be in a semi-digested condition.\nThe majority of children showed that elimination was very irregular.\nThe majority of children showed kidney elimination to be much too infrequent and\nvery small in quantity — 500-900 c.c. per day, or approximately one-third of what it\nshould be.\nAs to the digestibility of certain foods in individual cases, we observed that the elimination of the meat-eaters showed that the meat foods were tolerably well digested,\nwhereas the starchy foods were in a semi-digested condition.\nThe eliminations of those who preferred the starchy foods showed that the meats were\n14\npoorly digested.\nWe found the relation of non-elimination to pulse deviation did exist, and in some\ncases to a marked degree. In three cases in particular the variation was so great as\nto justify keeping a diagrammatic record.\n15. The relation of pulse deviation to emotional tone was corroborated.\n16. The emotional tone as affecting mental effort and physical activity was not only\ncorroborated, but we also found in addition some other very interesting points substantiating the relationship.\n13\n\nIn addition to these observations, we observed : {a) that the aesthetic appearance of the table affected the older children, but did not seem to affect the\nyounger children; (h) the smell of food, particularly the smell of roast beef,\naffected the older children — in particular two of the boys whose preferred food\nwas meat; (c) we found that music during the mealtime affected all of the\nchildren; {d) the immediate interaction of physical and mental states was\napparently very marked, as was evidenced particularly by those children\nwhose eliminations showed semi-digested food, and whose kidney eliminations\nwere insufficient; {e) while the children were being trained to masticate\nproperly, they were not permitted to converse during this process; silence\nduring the mealtime had a very salutary result on digestion.\nAt the end of three months we began the chemical analyses of the foods\nand eliminations.\nA dietary which averaged 2,200 calories was worked out. This was\nsimply used as a basis, and was not followed arbitrarily.\nThe varying appetites of the children made it difficult to get them to take\neven approximately the same amount of food every day. However, the following represents the general diet:\nSolids\nBreakfast\nLunch\nDinner\nTotal\n\nCocoa\n\nWater\n\n240 c.c.\n\n240\n240 c.c.\n240\n\n200 g.\n140\n800\n1,140 g.\n\n740 c.c. . .\nWater taken during day (off meals) averaging.\n500\n\n720 c.c.\n\n1,420 c.c.\n\nThe above was the actual amount of food supposed to represent an ideal\ndiet producing 2,200 units of heat, sufficient for a child or youth.\nThe\n700\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": null, "text": "750\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nvarying capacities, too, made it impossible for us to follow this dietary closely\nwith the younger children, so the children were studied and a record made\nto show the deviations of the individual child from these given quantities.\nNot until after we had established the quantities necessary to satisfy hunger\nwere we ready to take the next step in the investigation.\nThe experimental data recorded consisted of the following:\nA. Method of analyses.\n1. To determine the balance of foods a chemical analysis of the foods was made\nbefore and after cooking.\n(This was to see the effect upon the food in the way of loss of weight or increase of weight caused\nby heat.)\n\n2. Samples of the various foods were taken at once and dried at 101-103° to constant\nweight, and analyzed for nitrogen and fats. Each loaf of bread was analyzed\nseparately for HjO and N. Fat and carbohydrates of bread were calculated from\nthe table on American food material issued by the United States Agricultural\nDepartment. Rice, oatmeal, wheat, macaroni, and gelatine were bought in bulk,\nand each lot was analyzed for nitrogen.\n3. Meats — cooked; then the adjacent portion of the part served was analyzed.\n4. Milk — analyzed each day for nitrogen and fat.\n(This was necessary because of the great variation each day in amount of fat in milk. Analyses for\nfat in milk were made with the Babcock machine, because this is much more rapid than the Saxhlott\napparatus.)\n(The analyses of fats [meats] were made after the method of J. Nerking, with modifications.\nNerking digests the meat with 2 per cent, hydrochloric acid in water, and then extracts the resultant\nliquid with water and chlorisiden. After extracting the meat was dressed and put into the Saxhlott\napparatus and again extracted with ether.)\n\nB. In order to determine the digestibiHty of certain foods for individuals, the following\nwas done:\n1. All foods were weighed carefully before serving.\n2. All food left over was weighed, and substractions were made.\n3. A chemical analysis was made of the corresponding portion of the food eaten by\neach individual child.\n4. All excretions were chemically analyzed daily.\n(In preparation for the chemical analyses, the children were given their last meal at noon of the day\nprevious to the beginning of this work, and with the breakfast was given a charcoal mixture. The kidney\nand intestinal ehminations were carefully kept separate and collected daily. The twenty-four-hour\namount of each was sharply marked off. The intestinal eliminations were put into a large dish and\nevaporated to dryness with dilute sulphuric acid. In special cases, where the Uttle patients were constant sufferers from constipation and had to be relieved, a water or milk injection was sometimes used\nrectally, which, of course, modified somewhat the results of the analyses at first. Later, as these children improved on this special diet, these measures did not have to be resorted to.)\n\nC. Tests.\n1. The blood was examined every seven days. These blood examinations were very\nvaluable. Two children in particular whose appearance did not at all indicate\na condition of anaemia had their mental fluctuations explained by blood counts\nwhich showed in one case the presence of only 68 per cent, haemoglobin, and in\nanother 65 per cent, of haemoglobin — a percentage so low as to excuse in any\nindividual the worst possible kind of behavior.\n2. The weight of the children was taken every seven days.\n3. The height, standing and sitting, was taken every twenty-eight days.\n\nIn order not to influence those gathering the empirical data, the results\nof different analyses were not made known to them for some time.\nIn nearly\n\n"}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\nevery case, however, the experimental data and observational data were substantiated bythe chemical analyses.\n(During these exjjeriments it was observed that the children were not satisfied with the amount of sweets\nserved them. The chemical analyses of the excretions, curiously enough, showed an insuflScient quantity\nof sugar was being given the children. Their systems demanded more carbohydrates. This was noticed particularly inthree cases. Consequently we decided that we would satisfy the appetite and physiological need 751\nfor sweets by a little experiment. After every meal, every child was given two loaves of the ordinary size cut\nsugar. In about ten days the children began to evidence a satisfaction of this appetite for sweets.)\n\nDuring these experiments none of the children were permitted to eat\nfruits, sweets, or dainties of any kind, excepting that furnished at the table\nand included in the prescribed dietary.\nThe following figures show the comparisons of the urinary eliminations\nper day:\n\nSpecial\nChildren\n\ns. P\n\nT. L\nH.S\nT. T\nT. S\nL G.\n\nAt Beginning of Experiment\n(Abnormal)\n(Av. 500-900 c.c.)\nPer Cent.\nQuantity\nApproximate\n600 c.c.\n\n850\n6co\n\n60092000\n7\n\n33-33\n50.00\n\n33-33\n50.00\n50.00\n40.00\n\nAt Close of Experiment\n(Still Subnormal)\n(Av. 900-1,500 c.c.)\n\nNormal\n(Av. 1,600 c.c.)\n\nQuantity\n\nQuantity\n\n980-1,500 C.C.\n1,500-1,700\n1,050-1,300\n1,420-1,500\n1,100-1,200\n1,320-1,400\n\n1,500 C.C.\n1,700\n1,500\n1,600\n1,700\n1,500\n\nFrom these figures it will be seen that at the close of the experiment the\nchildren had been brought up to very nearly the normal quantity of kidney\neliminations.\nThe following tentative conclusions were formed after the investigation\nhad been under way for some six months:\n1. Nutrition and feeding have a direct bearing on both physical and mental states.\n2. Preference in foods frequently results in the preferred food being better digested.\n3. By regulating the diet as to quantity and quality to suit individual preferences and\nneeds, better digestion is obtained.\n4. A close relation exists between pulse deviation and nonehmination.\n5. A close relation exists between pulse deviation and supranorroal and subnormal\nmental effort.\n6. There is a close relationship between baths and sleep.\n7. Young nervous children require hot baths at least once a day to help reduce the\nnervous condition.\n8. Emotional tone greatly affects mental effort and physical activity; substantiating this\nrelationship, there were found some very interesting points.\n9. The emotional tone is greatly affected by the amount of sleep per day.\nto. Children from five to twelve years of age require from ten to fourteen and fifteen hours\nof sleep per day.\n11. Better digestion, better sleep, producing a better general physical condition, was\nobtained when the heaviest meal of the day was given in the evening.\n12. Children from five to twelve years of age require from six to twelve glasses of water\nper day — two quarts at the very least.\n13. Nervous children require feeding five or six times a day.\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": null, "text": "yp\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\n14. Nervous children, because of their excessive activity, require more carbohydrates.\n15. The so-called abnormal craving of children for candies and sweets is nature's demand\nfor sugar.\n16. Children under nine years of age should be given what would average six loaves of cut\nsugar per day.\n17. Of the children experimented upon, the majority of cases showed that obstruction\ntook place in the large intestine.\n18. The cases of chronic malnutrition showed indigestion in the stomach and middle\nintestine.\n\nIn addition, the investigation brought to light a few points which were\nvery interesting and possibly valuable in tracing the mental deviations back\nto physical causes. As no data were to be obtained elsewhere on the following points, and as we work with so few cases, we find it impossible to state\nconclusions on these points dogmatically.\n19. Stomach indigestion produced acerbity of disposition — oversensitiveness, fretfulness,\nirritabihty.\n20. Obstruction of the small intestine produced variability, erratic conduct, and similar\nmanifestations.\n21. Obstruction of the large intestine produced stupidity, languor, accompanied by heavy\nheadaches, particularly over the eyes. Melancholia, moodiness, and moroseness were\nalso an accompaniment.\n\nIt was the opinion of Dr. John Dewey, under whom I worked out a portion\nof this investigation, that these three points worked out on a larger number\nof individuals might throw light on the causes of some forms of insanity.\nAlso as a result of some of our investigation, the following questions have\nbeen raised, c Uing for further investigations:\n1. To what extent is the general nervous condition of children at the age of nine to\neleven due to insuflScient quantity of water, and of sugars, rather than to that particular\nperiod of growth as it is generally conceded ?\n2. Are not lack of sufficient sleep and unwise distribution and insufl&cient number of\nmeals influential, though ignored, factors in causing the physical and nervous breakdown\nof children at that age ?\n\nThe second report to be presented is on an investigation that has been\nconducted at the Chicago Hospital School on the relation of imperfect speech\nto arrest in mental development.\nThis study consists of three parts:\n1. The first deals with the restoration of the speech function in young children who\nthru illness have lost the power of speech.\n2. The second report treats of the development of spontaneous speech in hearing\nmutes.\n3. The third deals with the relation of speech defects to other orthopedic conditions.\n\nIn presenting the method which has been worked out in conducting these\ninvestigations, great emphasis is laid upon the value of music as an aid in\nthis speech development, and also upon the necessity of giving much technique\nin developing speech for the sake of freeing the child from technique.\nWe have had several interesting cases where children of retarded speech\nand hearing mutes have developed speech.\nTwo of the most interesting of\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINVESTIGATIONS\n\nOF SUBNORMAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n753\n\nthese cases are of young children who, thru injury at birth had orthopedic\nconditions coexistent with speech defect. Owing to instrumental birth the\ncortical layers and speech areas of the brains of these children had been\ninjured, and while mentation was perfectly normal in every way, yet, owing to\nthe muscular inco-ordinations due to these injuries at birth, motor expression\nof all kinds — leg, arm, as well as the speech-organs — was defective, and it\nwas not until after triple operations had been performed on them, thus relieving the spastic condition in the legs, that speech began to develop gradually\nand more ease of expression was obtained.\nA point emphasized is this, that technique in speech produced better\narticulations, better enunciation; and, if children physically defective could\nbe so much improved thru this technical speech work, and if this training for\nincisive speech assisted them to have clearer ideas, such training would be\ngreatly beneficial to children who have no marked defect in speech.\nHalf an hour, at least, each day should be given to drill on the physiological\nalphabet.\nDrill on the phonics should be given from the fourth to the ninth year.\nInasmuch as speech is the most important function in human life, next\nto the vital processes, it is as necessary for teachers to know the physiology of\nspeech as it is for them to know words and their meaning.\nIn developing speech or in correcting speech defect, a series of progressive\nbody movements were given in order to establish the larger co-ordinations.\nThese movements began with the legs, the arms, and in sequence progressed\nto the finer adjustments — all accompanied by music.\nThe third study covers a resume of investigations on the musical appreciation ofabnormal children, conducted for a period of some nine years. As a\nresult of this research, the point is maintained that the so-called ** abnormal\"\nlove for music, which all abnormal individuals seem to have, should be used\nas the center of interest around which other subject-matter may be grouped.\nWe have several cases on record in which music has been the basis of\ndeveloping the mathematical concept in these children. This dominant interest of such children is usually ignored, whereas it is of the greatest educational\nvalue.\nPossibly one of the greatest errors in handling backward children is in\ntrying to put them into the eye stage before they are thru the ear stage. A\ngreat many so-called idiotic and feeble-minded children will give keen attention, and will show great interest in music, whereas they give no heed to verbal\nsounds and speech ; words to them have apparently no meaning ; they carry\nno content. This would seem to indicate that, inasmuch as language and\nspeech are essentially a socio-historical function, and inasmuch as language\nwas developed by attention being directed to the external world, and as\nlanguage was first the result of a mental complex, made up of the identification of certain sounds and certain objects present in space, if, then, we wish\nin order to develop in the child the attitude of interest toward words and their\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": null, "text": "754\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nmeaning, we must first begin at his stage of development, at his stage of\nmental sequence — sounds.\nAt the Chicago Hospital School technical lessons in speech, for instance,\nwere given a new interest, particularly to speechless children, by working\nmusic and speech together, and it was thus much easier to set up the ear and\nspeech co-ordinations than by trying to get the child simply to repeat verbal\nsounds. The physiological alphabet, when supplemented by musical accompaniment, was much more easy to evoke from the child than when the\nteacher's voice alone was used. In combining the work in speech and music,\nbefore trying to develop the accessory muscles of the speech organs or of the\nhand, finger exercises on the piano were given, as well as dancing lessons,\nin order to assist the child in obtaining bodily adjustments and poise.\nDancing and rhythmic movements, accompanied by music, were given as\na sedative to reduce the nervous conditions of the children. In many instances\nthe normal pulse was re-established by these rhythmic exercises.\nIn applying some of these generalizations to the care of normal children,\nthe suggestion is ventured that if normal children of from four to eight years of\nage were given more dancing, more music, and more ear-work, certain nervous conditions would not develop. Dancing and music have much greater\neducational value the first few years of the life of young children than is provided for in the general course of work ordinarily outlined in kindergarten.\nIt appears, therefore :\n1. That music as a factor in the educational development of all young children, both\nnormal and abnormal, should be given greater emphasis.\n2. That technical drill on speech — the physiological alphabet should be given young\nchildren, in order to free them from technique.\n3. That young children, both normal and abnormal, should be given more dancing.\nDancing movements are a prerequisite in developing other motor co-ordination — speech in\nparticular.\n\nTO WHAT\n\nEXTENT MAY ATYPICAL CHILDREN BE SUCCESSFULLY EDUCATED IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS}\n\nMAXIMILIAN P. E, GROSZMANN, DIRECTOR OF THE GROSZMANN SCHOOL\nNERVOUS\nAND ATYPICAL\nCHILDREN,\nPLAINFIELD,\nN. J.\n\nFOR\n\nIt is gratifying to note that from year to year greater attention is being\ngiven by educational and medical experts to the training of what I have called\nthe atypical child. A few years ago not only was the term, in its technical\nsense, entirely unknown, but the class of children designated by it was not\nconsidered in need of any specialized instruction and education. There were\nschools 'or feeble-minded, epilept c, and defective children of various kinds;\nand much scientific effort had been made in the direction of helping these\nunfortunate classes, largely along the lines pointed out originally by the\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nATYPICAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n755\n\nFrench psychologist Edouard Seguin, who had been the first to prove the\neducabihty of even idiot children. Then there had been established, for\nsome time past, a few private institutions for the avowed purpose of educating\nthe backward and nervous child. But nowhere had an attempt been made\nat a careful classification of these different types of children, and little or\nnothing had been done toward a scientific understanding of the conditions\nand needs of the cases of minor abnormality. It is only in very recent times\nthat efforts are being made to formulate in scientific terms the problem of the\n''atypical child\" as distinct from the feeble-minded and defective child, on\nthe one hand, and from the normal, or typical, child, on the other. And now\nthe term ''atypical\" has become used somewhat generally, altho with little\ndiscretion as to its specific meaning. Following the example of some European cities, there have even been established in some of our public schools\nspecial classes for backward children, or for other children of a kind that render their remaining in the ordinary school classes unprofitable. And we are\nnow confronted with the question as to how far atypical children can be, and\nshould be, educated in the public schools.\nIn order to arrive at a clear understanding of the subject, it is imperatively necessary to make a careful classification of those children who deviate\nin any way from the normal type of humanity, so as to be enabled to designate with some degree of certainty those who can and those who cannot be\nadvantageously handled in public schools. The following is a tentative\ngrouping, such as may serve as a basis for future and more exact classification.\nWe may distinguish the following four groups:\nFirst, abnormal children; that is to say, {a) idiots, the feeble-minded, the\ninsane, the criminals, the moral perverts; and {h) those who have been called\ndefective children, namely, he blind, the deaf, the dumb, the epileptics.\nA second group is formed by children of arrested development. These\nconstitute the primitive layer of society — a layer presenting peculiar and\nharassing problems of its own. To this class belong, in the first place, the\nsubmerged classes — that is, the children of those who for ages have been\npractically excluded from the advance of civilization, the drudges of society,\nthose who still manifest types of bygone times in their mental, moral, and\neven physical attitudes and characteristics. A second class is formed by\npathological cases — being represented by children who started out right in\ninfancy, but were permanently checked in their healthful development by\nsome pathological cause so that they had to remain forever in a primitive\ncondition of mind and body. Members of either of these classes may drift\ninto genuine abnormality, that is to say, into mental and moral perversity.\nIn view of the fact that a large number of children belonging to either of\nthese classes are actually found in public schools, not - receiving the very\nspecialized training of which they are so much in need, it should be emphatically stated that they have no place in the public schools and that they should\nbe cared for in special institutions.\nThe existing ones are not half sufficient\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": null, "text": "756\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nto accommodate all of them, and are already so overcrowded in most cases\nthat scant justice can be done even to those who have already found entrance\nthere. How disastrous it is if children of these two classes are allowed to\nshift for themselves is shown in the experience of penologists. Our penal\ninstitutions are filled in a large measure by mental and moral perverts. It\nis not many months since I had opportunity of studying at the state reformatory at Elmira, N. Y., a number of cases of inmates who were so plainly\nfeeble-minded and epileptic that it is astonishing how they could ever have\nbeen considered ordinary criminals.\nThe third and fourth groups to be distinguished are constituted of those\nchildren who are really or seemingly atypical. Atypical children proper —\nthat is to say, children who do not represent arrest of development in any\nway, but merely an impairment of physical and mental strength — are the\nvery class that has been referred to in the beginning of this paper, and whose\ncases form a new problem, to be studied with the greatest care and discretion.\nOn the one hand, these children are neurotics and neurasthenics, with their\nendless variety of mental, volitional, emotional, and physical difficulties; on\nthe other, there is a large number of slight variations from the normal, from\nthe established type of humanity. These variations, or deviations, interfere\nwith the normal rate of growth and development, so that the children are\neither slightly backward, queer, or difficult to handle and teach; or, on the\ncontrary, show exceptional powers and a too rapid rate of advancement, and\nare nervously overstrung, excitable, and precocious. All classes of atypical\nchildren present an unstable equilibrium in their general make-up, and\n\\vhile some may develop genius when they mature, the majority will tend\ntoward shiftlessness and inefficiency, irrationality, irresponsibility, and\neccentricity.\nIt has been my experience that none of these classes of atypical children\nproper can be profitably handled in the pubHc schools, but that all require a\nvery special training in special schools and institutions; for the main factor\nin redeeming these children — that is to say, in re-estabUshing a normal\nequiHbrium in them, or at least in mitigating their condition — is a wellregulated environment, and moral, intellectual, and physical regimen. In\nother words, it is not so much the instructional factor as the educational\nelement which is to be considered paramount in these cases, and it has been\nfound that the home is rarely the best place for these children.\nThere is another class of children whom we may call pseudo-atypical;\nmeaning by this that they are not in reaHty atypical, but only present the\nappearance of being exceptional or backward, and whose defects are of such\na nature that they do not interfere in a great measure with their capacities.\nMost of these children — and their number is very great — can be successfully\nhandled in special or ungraded classes in the public schools.\nThere are, in the first place, those who are mentally backward for reasons\nwhich do not imply an actual defect.\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nATYPICAL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n757\n\nThe first group of these is formed by those who are backward on account\nof illness that has kept them out of school and retarded their periods of development. Secondly, those who, owing to frequent removals from place to\nplace, have been subjected to changes of schools, of teachers, of methods; or\nwho have been variously graded and re-graded, and who were the victims of\nthe great variety of courses of study of which the schools of this country can\nboast. Obviously their having been obliged to readjust themselves several\ntimes, outwardly and inwardly, interfered with the continuity of their progress,\nand they present sometimes the semblance of dullness and slowness.\nA third class of mentally backward children contains those whose rate of\ndevelopment is slower than the average, and who yet often possess great\nmental power. If they are allowed some individual freedom, they will oftentimes give evidence of considerable capacity.\nThen there is that large class of children with more or less chronic physical difficulties, either curable or incurable, such as have retarded them in\ntheir mental growth without materially impairing their mental faculties\nAmong these may be mentioned the cripples; those whose vision and hearing\nare very slightly impaired, or who have chronic catarrh, and the like. The\nfitting of glasses, proper seating in the schoolroom, an operation for adenoids,\nnasal obstructions, and the like, may go a great way to their relief. I will\nlater speak of some exceptions in this class.\nA second class of pseudo-atypical children is formed by those who are\nmentally forward — that is to say, whose progress is especially quick without\ngiving evidence of actual precocity. It is well to understand that the quick\nchild deserves special consideration and should not be subjected to the slower\nmeasure of the average child. True precocity, such as would make the child\ngenuinely atypical, is really a nervous disease and must be treated with special\ncare.\nA third class of pseudo-atypical children is formed by those who are\nmorally affected, at least seemingly so, simply because they lack the proper\ns imulus and a proper appreciation of their individual requirements. In the\nordinary classes they are the unruly, troublesome, willful, lazy children, who\ncan often be easily redeemed by proper instructional handling. They require\nindividualized efforts on the part of wise teachers who will recognize the\ndifferent temperaments in children, and who will understand that the artistic\nchild cannot be handled in the same way as can the manual child, and that\nthe dreamy or the morose child needs a different stimulus from the active\nand cheerful one, etc. To this class belong the spoiled children, whose home\nand school influences have developed moral and mental characteristics which\ndo not represent the true character of the child. Wise teaching can here do\nwonders.\nBut even among pseudo-atypical children there are many that cannot be\ntaught advantageously in public-school classes, at least not during certain\nperiods of their development.\nThe establishment of truant schools shows\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": null, "text": "758\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthat school authorities have already taken cognizance of this fact; for truancy\nis a moral symptom caused by influences and conditions which require patient\nstudy and fair treatment, and which have produced a diseased condition that\nneeds more thoro measures than even an ungraded class in a public school\nwill allow of.\nIt is in many cases an improper home environment which creates temporary\natypical conditions whose cure can be effected only by more drastic measures.\nSuch children may have to be removed from their home environment, altho\nit may sometimes be sufficient that they live in a home institution from where\nthey may attend the pubHc schools. But then, there are cases of malnutrition,\nof general anaemia, which make it necessary to subject the child to a rational,\nhygienic regimen which can restore its physical vigor as far as possible. Again,\nchildren suffering from certain curable difficulties, including even adenoids,\nnasal obstructions, should, at least during the time they are so aft'ected, be\nremoved from the pubhc schools and be given the benefit of treatment in\nspecial iijstitutions where the effects and after effects, mental, moral, and\nphysical, can be treated. But of course these cases can be afterward restored\nto their home and the public school.\nThere are children afflicted with certain incurable difficulties, such as\npronounced defective vision and hearing, shading down to complete blindness, deafness, and real abnormality — children who, altho not greatly impaired\nin their mental and moral condition by these defects, yet need much specialized\ncare and instruction — whom it would be disadvantageous, from the standpoint of the child as well as of the school, to retain in pubHc-school classes.\nIt will be seen from these statements that I do not favor the education of\nthe truly atypical child, and even of certain classes of pseudo-atypical children, in ordinary pubhc schools. They seem to me to demand a much more\ncomprehensive treatment than can be given in an ordinary school class, even\nwere it a special class. If it were feasible to establish a perfect harmony with\nthe home environment of these children, and even a controlling influence over\nthe home many could be granted a fair measure of success in public-school\nclasses. But such harmony and control are practically impossible, and the\nchild, pendulating from one set of environmental influences to the other,\nnever gains an equilibrium of habits and attitude. Here hes the great difficulty. The atypical child is least understood and least skillfully handled in\nits own home.\nBut even pseudo-atypical children who can be profitably educated in publicschool classes require certain conditions under which alone the work can be\ndone with some degree of success. There must be, in the first place, very\nsmall and elastic groups where individual attention can be afforded. Large\nnumbers in a class are entirely objectionable. And the grouping must be\nelastic; as I have said, there must be the opportunity of regrouping within\nthe groups to meet promptly every individual requirement. Individual\nattention and group-teaching should alternate so as to give the child, on the\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTYPICAL\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nMETHODS\n\n^\n\n759\n\none hand, the benefit of individual instruction, and, on the other hand, the\nstimulus of competition in a group. The work with these children must be\nbased upon scientific child study, and the teacher of an ungraded class should\nbe in constant touch with the consulting psychologist and the school physician,\nso that the child and its conditions can be thoroly understood in its component elements and factors. There should be a co-operation estabUshed\nbetween the home and the school, so that there can be unity of educational\nmethod. Then, in the matter of scholastic aims, individual differences, aptitudes, and tastes, must be recognized. There must be elastic courses of study\nand a most thoro ehmination of \"lock-step\" programs and methods. Each\nchild must be taken on its own terms. And, finally, there must be teachers\nwell trained for this important and responsible work. Unless these requirements are fulfilled, truly or seemingly atypical minds will suffer in an ordinary\npublic school, as they have naturally less power of resistance to unfavorable\nconditions and influences than the normal and typical minds.\n\nTYPICAL\nWILL\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nS. MONROE,\n\nDEPARTMENT\nNORMAL\n\nMETHODS\nEXHIBIT\n\nAT THE\n\nOF PSYCHOLOGY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nVi^ESTFIELD,\n\nAND\n\nST. LOUIS\n\nPEDAGOGY,\n\nSTATE\n\nMASS.\n\nThe child-study movement in the United States is less than twenty-five\nyears old. It has passed thru various phases and has employed a diversity\nof methods. From the first the movement appealed to normal schools, colleges, and other institutions engaged in the training of teachers. These childstudy advocates have aimed to place the prospective teachers en rapport with\nchild-life, and at the same time to give their student-teachers some scientific\nknowledge of the natural history of the child and the factors conditioning its\nphysical and psychical development.\nMethods of child study have accordingly been developed to meet the needs\nof these various workers. President G. Stanley Hall, who initiated the childstudy movement in America, has made extensive use of the questionnaire\nmethod; and many of the normal schools and some of the colleges and universities have followed to a considerable extent the same general plan. Advocates\nof the questionnaire method have rightly claimed that it gives widely prevalent\nconditions of the mental activities of children; that it indicates certain persistent laws which must serve as a background in educational practice ; and that\nfor the prospective teacher it must have, in consequence, greater value than\nany other method. On the other hand, it has been affirmed that the method\nmust be applied by persons but slightly trained in psychology; and that the\nreturns, even when secured by experts, are of an incidental and accidental\ncharacter, and probably in few instances do they give typical and persistent\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": null, "text": "m5o\n\nnational\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Child Study\n\ntendencies of children's ways of thinking and feehng and acting. Professor\nEarl Barnes, who has worked over many thousands of returns secured by the\nquestionnaire method in England and America, maintains that whenever the\ntest is simple and well executed the results are as steady and law-abiding as\nthose obtained by the study of any other data dealing with the phenomena of\nhuman life.\nA type of child study, which has to some extent employed the method of the\nlaboratory, has been applied to certain specific problems touching the physical\nnature of children. The tests have been in the nature of measurements, and\nthe investigations for the most part have been under the direction of trained\npsychologists. The laws conditioning growth; motor ability of children; eye,\near, and other sense defects; factors inducing fatigue — these are some of the\nproblems more definitely studied by means of physical tests and measurements.\nProfessor Edward L. Thorndike has lately urged that the same method must\nbe applied to the measurement of the mental traits of children.\nHe says:\nIf we could make such adequate measurements exhaustively, we could describe a\nman's mind as so many units of that emotional tendency, so many of this sense power,\nand so on through a well-nigh interminable list of possible mental traits. We should then\nbe able to state exactly the difference between any two human beings, between the conditions of any one before and after any course of study or other educational influence;\nwe could compare the results of different systems of education, describe the changes due\nto maturity, or calculate the personal efficiency of different teachers.\n\nFor the present at least extensive measurements call for degrees of exact\npsychological scholarship not possessed by the rank and file of teachers. The\n''consulting psychologist\" recommended by Professor Royce at the Washington meeting of the National Educational Association would in a measure meet\nthis difficulty. Such laboratories for the experimental study of children are\nalready in force at Chicago and Antwerp (Belgium).\nThe child of retarded mental development has appealed to students of\nchildhood both in our own country and in Europe; and various methods have\nbeen devised for the study of defective children. ''Abnormality,\" as pointed\nout by Professor Edwin A. Kirkpatrick in his recent Fundamentals of Child\nStudy, \"may be regarded as that form of individuality which is destructive;\"\nand, as such, the prospective teacher must be introduced to certain phases of\njuvenile mental pathology. Childre^i with minor psychical abnormalities —\nslight power of attention, weak memory, ill co-ordinated motor functioning, as\nwell as sense defects — have been selected for special observation. Use has\nalso been made of the institutions for the deaf, the blind, the feeble-minded,\nand the juvenile delinquent as schools of observation for child-study students.\nColleges and normal schools have made extensive use of reminiscences in\nchild-study work. A well-known student of childhood says that, in their work\nwith children, teachers probably draw more upon the memories of their own\nchildhood for an interpretation of the acts of the children under their care,\nthan upon the knowledge they may have acquired in the study of psychology\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTYPICAL\n\nCHILD-STUDY\n\nMETHODS\n\n761\n\nand education; and he urges the need of clarifying and sharpening the childhood concepts of prospective teachers.\nNumerous methods of *' general observation\" have developed in connection with normal and training schools; and extensive literary use has been\nmade of the numerous experimental studies of children published during the\npast twenty-five years. The value of this type of child study has been called\ninto question, and it is doubtless open to the objection to be urged against the\nstudy of results in any department of human thought. There is now a large\nbody of reasonably scientific data concerning children, and the careful study\nand reflection of such studies must have unquestioned value to prospective\nteachers in the formation of pedagogic judgments.\nThese and other typical child-study methods will be illustrated in the\nschool exhibits at St. Louis. I am permitted to use the returns secured by\nProfessor Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, the president of the Child-Study Department,\nin making a forecast of the character and range of such exhibits. To the question, \"Do you engage in any investigations for the purpose of reaching general\ntruths?\" twelve out of sixteen collegiate institutions replied in the affirmative;\nand six of these institutions stated that exhibits illustrating the child-study\ninvestigations would be sent to St. Louis. The University of Texas will send\noutlines of the courses in child study, reports of students on the study of\nchildren, and methods of experimenting on fatigue. Exhibits will also be\nsent by the University of California, the University of Washington, Yale\nUniversity, Upper Iowa University, and Teachers College of Columbia\nUniversity.\nForty-four American normal schools sent replies concerning child study.\nFive reported that they engaged in investigations for the purpose of reaching\ngeneral truths, and thirty replied that child study was used as a means of\ntraining teachers. Nine of these will send child-study exhibits to St. Louis.\nThe San Jose (Cal.) Normal School will send pictures illustrating the work;\nthe Indiana (Pa.), the Btoomsburg (Pa.), the New Orleans (La.), and the\nSt. Cloud (Minn.) Normal Schools will send blanks used and students' notebooks; the Lowell (Mass.) Training School will send child-study outlines used;\nthe Chicago Kindergarten College will illustrate studies made in the first, second, and third grades; the Cheney (Wash.) and the Duluth (Minn.) Normal\nSchools express the hope that they may be able to send exhibits; the Fitchburg\n(Mass.) Normal School will send a complete exhibit illustrating what is done\nin the way of observation, questioning, testing, and measuring children,\ntogether with theses, reports, etc., of the students of the school; and the Westfield (Mass.) Normal School will illustrate what it does in the study of individual children, the range of studies on defective children, and the result of\nstudies and discussions (from students' notebooks) on the physical and mental\ndevelopment of school children. The Worcester (Mass.) Normal School shows\nblanks for report of observations by students.\nOf twenty-one cities and towns replying to the circular letter of the presi-\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": null, "text": "762\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\ndent of the Child-Study Department, nine replied that systematic studies of\nchildren were carried on by the teachers, and three that such work would be\nexhibited at St. Louis. Passaic and Bloomfield, N. J., and New Haven, Conn.,\nwill illustrate the lines of child study carried on by teachers in the public\nschools. The child-study department of the Chicago public schools has prepared avery valuable exhibit. Exhibits in child study will also be sent by two\nprivate schools — the Chicago Hospital School for Nervous and Delicate Children,\nand the Groszmann School in Plainfield, N. J.; and it seems altogether likely\nthat other institutions, not included in the returns received sufficiently early\nfor use in this paper, will make exhibits of work more or less closely connected\nwith child study.\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\nWILL GRANT\n\nCHAMBERS,\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nDEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY\nMOORHEAD,\nMINN.\n\nSTATE\n\nSTUDY\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLike a newcomer in a New England community, every new method of\nscience must demonstrate its respectability before it can be received into the\nfellowship of the staid old brethren. In spite of repeated experiences, the\nconservative old world has not yet learned that no revolution of life or thought,\nno discovery or invention of permanent significance, has ever been accomplished byan old method. New fields require new approaches. Socrates,\nColumbus, GaHleo, Copernicus, Bacon, Darwin, Luther — every pioneer in\nevery hne of human progress has lived in professional isolation, and has died\nunder popular scorn, because his methods and his results did not bear the\nstamp of hoary respectabihty.\nLittle wonder, then, that the new science of child study, its methods, its\nresults, its devotees, should be received on every hand with suspicion. Perhaps the least conventional of the methods of this Yiew science is that of the\nquestionnaire. From the beginning this method has been severely condemned\nand its conclusions rejected by psychologists of the old school. If anyone\ndoubts the necessity of a defense of this method today, let him send a thousand questionnaires on any subject whatsoever to the scientists of the country,\nand when the returns are in — if he should be so fortunate as to get any\nreturns — he will probably have to revise his ideas of professional courtesy.\nI have in my possession, from the returns of a questionnaire investigation\nundertaken last year, expressions ranging all the way from enthusiastic\napproval at the one extreme, to personal insult at the other. If anyone is\nambitious to realize what it means to be a martyr to science, from an inside\nview, by all means let him undertake a questionnaire study.\nIn this brief defense of the method under consideration, I shall^make no\nattempt to describe the different kinds of questionnaires, nor to explain their\nrespective uses.\nThese are matters of detail which can have no significance\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n763\n\nin determining the soundness or unsoundness of the principles underlying\ntheir use. By the questionnaire method let us understand any use of written\nor printed questions or suggestions for the collection of data from those with\nwhom the investigator does not come into personal contact.\nThere are two classes of objections commonly urged against the questionnaire method: (i) those which assail the quality of the data collected; and\n(2) those which attack the interpretations of the meaning of these data\nindependently of their quahty.\nI. Criticisms of the quahty of the material collected may be summarized\nas follows:\n1. Compositions or answers to questions written by school children are\nworthless for scientific purposes because untrained or unscrupulous teachers,\nwho are more anxious to make a good showing for their pupils than to serve the\ncause of truth, drop hints or make suggestions, or even, in some cases, coach\nthe children in the proper answers to the questions in advance of the exercise. ■\nThe answers do not, therefore, represent the children's own attitude so much\nas the teacher's.\nThat this objection is valid in some cases I have not the slightest doubt.\nBut that such material forms any considerable proportion of that collected by\ncompetent investigators I seriously question. In all my own studies I have\nfound it necessary to reject the papers of but a single school on such grounds.\nTo one accustomed to examine and evaluate data of this kind, any irregularity\non the part of a teacher is very apparent, showing itself in the sameness of\nthe answers, or perhaps in the recurrence of a single phrase or word or illustration. To be sure, an untrained student might not detect the deception,\nbut it is hardly fair to judge the value of any method by its results in the hands\nof incompetents. This first objection might more properly be considered an\nattack on the morality of our teachers than on the validity of a particular\nmethod of child study.\n2. Papers of school children give no clue to their real thoughts and feelings because they are prepared in an atmosphere of repression. The stamp\nof officialdom, of artificiality, is upon them. Being constantly invoked to be\ncareful of their writing, their spelling, their punctuation, and all the rest,\nthese little ones hand us compositions which are formal, insipid, lifeless, which\nno more represent the reaction of the normal child in his natural environment\nthan they do the philosophy of Plato. ^\nThere are several obvious replies to this objection:\na) That the truth of the statement is doubted is shown in the fact that\none of the severest critics of many of the generaHzations of child study, one\nof the most conservative of genetic psychologists, has made use, in some of\nhis statistical computations, of percentage derived from school examinations,\nproduced under precisely the same conditions as the condemned papers.^\nIf formalism invahdates in one case, it must in all.\n' Earl Barnes, Studies in Education, Vol. II, pp. 117, 118.\n* Edward\n\nL. THOR^rDIKE, Educational Psychology, chap. vii.\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 64\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nh) If school conditions are as bad as this objection indicates, all the\nenergy now being expended to condemn a method of study which uses but an\ninfinitesimal fraction of the unnatural product of school activity should be at\nonce turned to use in revolutionizing these blighting conditions, in dethroning\nartificiality and officialdom.\nc) If these conditions are inevitable, then, since the generalizations of\nchild study find their most immediate applications in the schoolroom, it is\nimperative that some of these generahzations, at least, be drawn from the\nreactions of the child-mind when in the schoolroom, however unnatural that\nenvironment may be.\n3. Even admitting that teachers are competent and honest, and that\nschool conditions are not repressive, many of the children's papers will be\nworthless because they have been copied from other children's answers, and\ndo not, therefore, represent the writer's own point of view.\nWhy not apply the same argument to our examination system ? If such\na condition exists, it is a reproach to the teacher rather than to the method\nunder discussion, and is easily remedied.\n4. Many children treat the exercise as a joke, and give us nonsensical\nanswers.^\nFew teachers will agree that children are disposed to look upon any school\nexercise as a joke. Is it not rather true that most school exercises are regarded\ntoo seriously ? I have never found more than about three children in a\nthousand who gave any evidence of joking or of any intention to deceive. I\nbeheve that our school children, with rare exceptions, intend to be honest\nand give us the best they have on every occasion.\n5. Suggestion is another source of error. Questions often suggest answers\nto children which represent nothing in their actual experience. Such answers\nare worthless.\nNot always. But a small proportion of syllabus questions ask for facts.\nThey generally aim at ideas or interpretations. In many cases what a child\nimagines is a truer index to his real nature than what he remembers. An\nimaginary experience described in accordance with the suggestion, \"Describe\nan unjust punishment you have received, and tell why it was unjust,\" may\nshow the child's idea of injustice better than a statement of fact. But such\nanswers are rare. Imagination is oftener dwarfed than overstimulated in\nschool. Most repHes are painfully prosaic. I believe that the error in any\nstudy, due to this cause, may be safely ignored, without doing violence to\nfundamental generalizations.\n6. Answers which children write, especially the younger ones, do not\nrepresent anything permanent or fundamental; they are determined by transitory interests and unusual or temporary occurrences in their social world.\nThey would have answered you differently yesterday; they would give you a\nstill different answer, perhaps, tomorrow. ^\n» Earl Barnes, loc. cit.\n\n' Earl Barnes, loc. cit., p. 117.\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n765\n\nLike most other criticisms, this one probably contains some truth. We\nexpect children to change from day to day, and we expect them to reflect\ntheir environment in their answers. The same is true of adults. But it can\nbe demonstrated that if a question has anything fundamental in it,the answer\nwill bring out something of permanent significance. Details may vary from\nday to day, but the underlying generic principle will be found fairly constant.\nIn a recent study of children's ideals, a careful enumeration of all the characters whose choice could in any probabihty have been determined by temporary conditions showed that the selection of 4.4 per cent, of the girls and\n2.3 per cent, of the boys could be so construed. But the most surprising\nfeature was that for each year between the ages of twelve and sixteen the\npercentage of such random choices was from two to five times as great as it\nwas for any earlier age up to twelve, and for both sexes. Adolescents and\nnot children are most susceptible to environmental conditions. While it is\nnot safe to generaHze on the basis of a single study, we may nevertheless be\nput on our guard thereby against dogmatic assertions condemning any methods\nwhich have not demonstrated their validity. We must admit that the child,\nto a large extent, echoes his social environment. But it is the social child\nwhom we haVe to educate, and the very thing that we desire to know is how\na child reacts in his natural environment. No one cares to know how a child\nwould think and feel in isolation, because no child lives in isolation.\n7. In the case of reminiscent answers given by adults, error is often\nintroduced thru suggestion in the questions and thru inaccurate memories.\nThis, while often true, is certainly the exception. The more uncultured\nthe individual, the more completely would we expect his answer to be determined by suggestion. The remedy is to address the questions to persons of\nrecognized intelHgence.\nBut even here memory may play one false.\nAs to details, this is probably true, but in typical general experiences it\nmay certainly be questioned. I challenge any hearer to say that he does\nnot remember whether or not, as a child, he was ever afraid in the dark, or\nran away from home, or had a punishment that enraged him, or fell in love\nwith a playmate. Details may be dim, but there is no doubt as to the presence or absence of the experience in one's career. Let your own introspection\ndetermine your attitude toward this criticism.\n8. Finally, the child is such a complex creature, with his various elements\nof race, sex, heredity, religion, natural and social environment, that no one\nstrand of his life can be unraveled without doing violence to this isolated\nelement and to the whole.'\nThis is a source of difficulty in the study of any hving creature, by any\nmethod. The criticism may therefore be dismissed without further discussion,\non the ground that it is common to all methods of biological study.\nIs it not fair, then, to dismiss all criticisms against the quality of the data\n• Earl Barnes, loc. cii., p. 118.\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": null, "text": "766\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\ncollected by the questionnaire method on the ground that the points criticised\nare either —\na) Characteristic of other methods of investigation as well as this; or\nh) Insignificant in extent; or\nc) Due to abuses of the method which are easily remedied when attention\nis called to them ?\nII. Criticisms frequently directed against the generalizations of questionnaire studies, independently of the quality of the data, are based on such\narguments as the following:\n1. Many of the investigators are untrained in scientific method, uncritical,\noverenthusiastic, and ambitious to discover something new. They are prone,\ntherefore, to jump at conclusions that cannot be verified.\nThis is evidently true, but not more so of the user of this method than any\nother. Much that has been produced under the name of child study by all\nmethods is of this kind, and must be frankly and openly repudiated.\n2. Professor Thorndike offers the following opinion:\nThe use of replies to questions, or of school compositions, involves the exercise of much\npersonal opinion as to the meaning of the report. Different individuals differ somewhat\neven in the measurements of a line, will differ markedly in their estimate of the intelligence\nshown in any test\nThe statements finally used to inspire conclusions are thus a\ncompound of the actual reports and the sybjective bias of the compiler.^\n\nIs there any method of child study of which this would not be true ? Would\nnot the direct observation of a child, for example, involve infinitely greater\ncomplexity ? Does anyone ever reach any conclusion that is not a resultant\nof his \"personal bias\" acting on ambiguous data? Professor Baldwin\nmaintains that it is desirable to approach a problem with a preconceived\ntheory.\nHe says:\nOnly the psychologist can observe the child, and he must be so saturated with his\ninformation and his theories that the conduct of the child becomes instinct with meaning\nfor his theories of mind and body. 2\n\nProfessor Thorndike, on the other hand, insists that the data from the questionnaire should be worked over and collated by clerks who are ignorant of\nthe investigator's theories, and that from these bare statistics the psychologist\nshould draw his generalizations. While leading psychologists are so divided\non this question, it seems the part of wisdom for us to suspend judgment also.\n3. Statistics based on quantitative questionnaire studies give us only\naverages, and as there is no average child, perhaps the tendencies discovered\nwill not exactly fit any one child in a thousand.^\nNo one makes such a claim. What such a study aims to accompHsh is\nsimply the determination of certain typical or standard curves of tendency,\nand the limits within which individuals may safely vary from these average\n' Educational Psychology, p. 160.\n3 E. L. Thorndike,\n\n' Mental Development, Methods and Processes, p. 37.\n\nColumbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology and Education, Vol.\n\nVIII, Nos. 3 and 4, p. 14-, also Theodate\nSeminary, Vol. X, No. 3, p. 407.\n\nL. Smith, \"The Questionnaire Method in Psychology,\" Pedagogical\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n767\n\ncourses.\nIt is not expected that any individual will exactly conform to these\nlines in his development.\n4. Lines of tendency derived from papers of school children in successive\ngrades do not represent the normal development of even an average child,\nfor the children of each grade have been selected from the grade below, and\nare therefore a select class. No account is given of those who drop out\nbetween grades, who should be included if the curves are to represent normal\naverage development.^\nThis is certainly true. The only way to determine such a curve would be\nto start in with, say, a thousand children just entering school Hfe, and follow\neach one personally, whether he remain in school or not, making the desired\ntests each year. But the curves for school children determined by the questionnaire method are typical for all children who remain to complete the\nschool course, and for each child up to the time of his leaving school. For\nevery child in a grade beyond the first has been selected successively from\nall the grades below. Therefore these curves fairly represent the development of children who remain in school; and as our generalizations have\ntheir commonest appHcation in school work, the method may be said to\naccompHsh its chief j)urpose. Furthermore, it is very probable that tendencies\nthus discovered are as representative of children in general as are those derived\nfrom the continuous observation of one child or a small group of selected\nchildren.\n5. Many of the generalizations of the questionnaire method ignore the\nfallacy of arguing from a part of the group to the group as a whole. It is\nnecessary to compute by mathematical formulae the probability that the conclusion reached for the part answering the questions will be true of the part\nnot heard from.^* .\nThis criticism is sound within limits: one should not generalize for the\ngroup as a whole unless his data are fairly representative of the entire group.\nBut what constitutes a safe proportion? That, I beheve, depends entirely\nupon the kind of material under consideration, and therefore varies with the\nparticular problems studied. I do not believe it is desirable or necessary, in\nevery case, under present conditions, to work out mathematically the degree\nof probabiHty that a given conclusion is universally true. Agreements in the\nresults of similar studies, conducted by different investigators in widely separate regions, constitute a sufficient probability for present purposes. No\nlaw of science has ever yet been derived from a study of all the individual\ncases; by the very nature of the case, we must reason from a part of a class\nto the class as a whole, if we would have any laws at all. But it is necessary\nto use caution lest the part of the class contributing to the study be too small\na proportion to establish principles for the whole. Carelessness in this respect\ndeserves the censure it receives.\n• E. L. Thorndike,\n\nEducational Psychology, pp. 103, 104.\n\n' Ibid.; see also criticisms of the measuring mania in Miss Smith's review of this book, Pedagogical\nSeminary, Vol. II, No. i (March, 1904), pp. 99-101.\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 68\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nIII. Turning now from the negative aspect of our subject, from the\nanswering of objections, let us consider some of the pecuHar advantages of\nthe questionnaire method.\nI shall mention but five:\n1. Perhaps the most obvious advantage is the simplification of the problems which it investigates by the ehmination from its data of the personaHties\nof the contributors. One who studies children by direct observation has a\nvery complex situation to analyze. In addition to the particular material\nwhich he desires to use, there are manifest in the child a thousand and one\nother elements of thought, feeling, and action which constitute his personahty,\nand which combine to obscure the desired data and to render its disentanglement from the mass next to impossible. The situation becomes still further\ninvolved by personal interest in, or affection for, the child studied. In spite\nof all he can do, the observers' attention will be attracted to these extraneous\nactivities, and his mental vision obscured for the thing he seeks. In the\nanswers to the questionnaire, however, we have the very material desired,\nextracted from the complex by the contributor himself, and uncolored and\nunclouded by a present personahty.\n2. A second obvious advantage is the elimination of space and reduction\nof expense. By means of the syllabus, material for examination may be\ngathered from all parts of the world — material which would otherwise be\nwholly inaccessible, or accessible only with a great expenditure of time and\nmoney. By means of a questionnaire one may bring together the testimony\nof thousands from regions widely separated, where by other methods he could\nexamine but scores and within a limited area. It must be admitted, to be\nsure, that one cannot be so certain of the absolute accuracy of data gathered\nin such quantities and from such diverse sources; but we must admit, on the\nother hand, that any shortcomings in this direction are more than compensated for by the wider field covered by the investigation. Besides, where\nreturns from hundreds or thousands are involved, individual errors obliterate\neach other. For these reasons, the results are likely to be more generally\napphcable than those of a more careful study of a more limited area.\n3. A third advantage is one which is characteristic of all statistical methods.\nIt is the fact that children of all ages can be studied at the same time, and,\nwithin a few weeks at most, tendencies discovered which show the course of\ndevelopment in the feature studied from childhood to maturity; while it\nwould require at least twenty years to trace out a similar course by direct\nobservation of one child or a few selected children. The common objection\nthat tendencies thus discovered are misleading because characteristic of only\na selected class has been considered (under II, 4).\n4. Of equal importance is the fourth characteristic; quite often in working\nup syllabus returns, side issues are developed, principles not thought of show\nthemselves quite incidentally, and generalizations are thus reached which are\nsometimes of greater value than those which were the direct aim of the study.\nThere can be no question as to the genuineness of the tendencies thus inci-\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nQUESTIONNAIRE\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n769\n\ndentally discovered, for they are unconsciously injected into the answers\nwhile the mind of the writer is intent on some other idea. They represent\nthe most fundamental reactions of the child. As representing such conclusions Imay mention the various discoveries from studies of children's drawings; the expansion of the social consciousness as shown in remoter ideals\nchosen by older children; the types of geographical interests revealed in the\nthings remembered from a journey described; the growth of the consciousness of cause and effect, as revealed in the reasons given for various statements;\nnumerous sex and age differences, and the Hke. It is no exaggeration to say\nthat some of the most important generalizations of child study have been discovered inthis incidental way. Most of these things would escape one in the\ndirect observation of the children, because his attention is on other things.\nBut when they are embodied in permanent written statements which may be\nviewed in the aggregate and with deliberation, they reveal themselves with\nemphatic distinctness.\n5. By no means the least of the merits of the questionnaire method is the\nexcellent approach from a distant to a more intimate relationship with children\nwhich it furnishes to young teachers or to those preparing to teach. I have\nfound the use of the syllabus in attacking problems of child-mind a most\nexcellent discipline, as well as a source of inspiration, to those preparing to\nteach. I have for several years required my students, after having carefully\nstudied the method and the conclusions of a number of the most important\nquestionnaire studies, to work out one complete study from the formulation\nof the questions to the drawing of the generalizations; and, in spite of the\ndrudgery involved, they have never failed to grow enthusiastic as the conclusions began to emerge from the tabulated data. Such studies have invariably resulted in a closer and more sympathetic observation of children thru\ndirect contact. Attention has been called to the fact that the questionnaire\nmethod simplifies its problems by attacking them from a distance (III, i).\nLike long-range guns, it picks off the enemy's leaders at a distance, and thereby\ninsures an easy victory at close range. It is just this feature which makes the\nmethod a good introduction to the study of children. By it so many of the\nnative reactions of the child can be studied at long range that the really complex personaHty is rendered comparatively simple, and offers much simpler\nproblems than it otherwise would, when one comes into direct contact with\nhim.\nIV. It would be sheer folly to claim that the method under discussion is\nthe only method, or the best method, for studying children. Like all instruments of science, it has its limitations as well as its excellencies. There are\nmany types of problems to which it cannot be applied. All investigations of\nphysical growth, reaction time, sense discrimination, relation of physical and\nmental development, correlation of mental traits, fatigue, abnormal conditions,\nheredity, general and special training, and numerous others, are proper fields\nfor the use of direct observation, laboratory tests, and other methods.\nOn\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 70\n\nNA TIONA L ED UCATIONA L ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe other hand, numerous contributions have been made to the psychology\nof race and sex, thru the use of the questionnaire. There are limitations of\nother kinds also. It is evident that our method is not applicable to those\ntoo young or too illiterate to express themselves easily in writing. Hence all\nstudies of children below the age of seven or eight must be conducted along\nother lines, except in the case of questions requiring very simple answers.\nRare or exceptional experiences or conditions — those not easily verified by\ncomparison — are best studied in other ways. All questions seeking only a\nstatement of facts observed, or of personal opinion, may well be investigated\nthru a syllabus; but those asking for expert testimony, or involving careful\nintrospection, or susceptible to distortion thru personal bias, must be confined\nto data gathered, by syllabus or otherwise, from those alone whose ability is\nbeyond question.\nBut, in spite of criticisms or commendation, it remains true that we must\njudge an/ instrument or process by its results. Judged by its results, whether\nin the high character of many of its users, in the variety of its topics, in the\nrange of its application, in the soundness of its chief generalizations and in the\neffects of their application to pedagogical practice, or in the inspiration which\nit has given to scores of earnest workers in the field of genetic psychology, the\nquestionnaire method of child study stands second to none.\n\nLABORATORY\nMISS MABEL\n\nCLARE\n\nTESTS AS A MEANS\n\nWILLL\\MS, INSTRUCTOR\nOF IOWA, IOWA\n\nOF CHILD\n\nIN PSYCHOLOGY,\nCITY, lA.\n\nSTUDY\n\nSTATE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOur knowledge of the mind of the child may be advanced by several\nstandard methods. Among them are: the method of simple observation of the\nindividual child, followed by Preyer, Miss Shinn, and others; the statistical\nmethod, including anthropometry and the use of syllabi; the method of reminiscence, where the adult reviews the experiences of his childhood; the study\nof childrens' productions as an expression of the mental processes underlying\nthem; the method of unclassified observations followed by Russell; and the\ndirect experimental method.\nOf all of these methods, the last-named is perhaps of the greatest value,\nnot only scientifically, but practically. It may be employed alone, or it may\nbe supplemented by, or used in connection with, some of the other standard\nmethods of child study, the advantages of such combination being reciprocal.\nIt is the purpose of this paper to outline some of the characteristics and advantages of this experimental method, some of the fields of application open to it,\nand a brief consideration of some of the requirements which the use of this\nmethod places upon the laboratory equipment and the experimenter.\nA psychological experiment resembles an experiment in any other branch\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLABORATORY\n\nTESTS\n\nAS A MEANS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n771\n\nof science in that it is an observation made under standard or controllable\nconditions. It differs from experiments in other fields, however, in that, as\na rule, the processes experimented upon are not measured directly. Mental\nprocesses are conditioned by brain-processes; and by varying the stimulus to\nneural action, the brain-process is varied in a definite manner. Thus, a\npsychological experiment is an investigation of the mind thru '' stimulation\nof the nervous system\" (Baldwin). While it is true that a mental process cannot be measured, yet psychological measurement can be employed. The\nobjection to the use of psychological measurement because the processes\nunder investigation are too complex, is usually made thru ignorance of the\nconditions present. The experimental method discovers these conditions\nand reduces the complex process into its constituent elements.\nOne advantage of the experimental method is that it secures reliability\nof results. A record is kept of all the conditions which might influence the\nresult, and they are many; of the exact method of procedure; and of the results\nsecured. In a carefully planned experiment, what can be known is known\nand provided for beforehand, and every source of error is ehminated in so\nfar as that is possible.\nA second advantage of the experimental method is that it may be repeated\nby any number of independent investigators. It is possible also to compare\nresults of independent researches.\nThe experimental method permits of the changing of one condition at a\ntime, in order that its effect and importance may be determined. In this\nmanner relevant factors may be separated from irrelevant factors and the\ncomplexity of the problem reduced greatly.\nThe experimental method is of special value in testing the validity of\ntheories; in fact, it is the only rigid method of proving or disproving an hypothesis. A disputed point in a discussion may be settled once for all by means of\na crucial test.\nNew problems are being discovered constantly by means of the experimental method. In the evolution of an experimental research new factors\ncontinually present themselves, and what seemed at the beginning a single\nspecific problem is shown to be a complex series of problems, all perhaps\nawaiting solution by the experimental method.\nSo much for the experimental method in general. What are the possibihties of this method when appUed to the study of the mind of the child ?\nThere are many fields open to it. Among the most fertile of these are anthropometry, and developmental and educational psychology, in both their normal\nand abnormal aspects.\nAnthropometrical measurements may be of three types— physical, psychophysical, and psychological. Experiments in any one 6i these directions\nlead to a more thoro understanding of the individual child.\nThe study of the physical condition of the child is necessary for a proper\nestimate of his mental condition.\nNormal and abnormal states of nutrition.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": null, "text": "y72\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\ngeneral nervous tone, balance, etc., should be observed; but more direct\nattention should be directed toward a determination of the condition of the\norgans of special sense. The child depends upon these for knowledge of his\nenvironment. Frequently defects are present which, if neglected, may mean\npermanent injury. The statements of parents, teacher, or even of the child\nhimself, as to his physical well-being, do not have the significance of laboratory tests. The reliable means of determining the actual physical status of\nthe child is the experimental method.\nOr the tests may be psychophysical in character. In fact, by far the\ngreater amount of psychological research is upon psychophysical problems.\nUnder this head come tests of sensations of all kinds; voluntary motor ability,\nreaction times, perception of space. An example of a psychophysical test\nmay be cited as a type of many others. The problem is to measure the child's\npower to discriminate the pitch of tones, this being one factor of his musical\nabiUty. The experiment is made with a series of specially tuned tuningforks. These range from i to 30 v. d. above a given standard pitch of 435 v. d.\nWith them the smallest pitch difference that the child can detect is determined. A pair of forks is selected, the standard always being one of the\npair, and these are set in vibration and held to his ear at an interval of about\nthree seconds. Each fork is sounded about three seconds. The child is\nrequired to judge whether or not the second fork is higher or lower in pitch\nthan the first. The test begins by sounding the standard and 30, the standard\nand 23, the standard and 17, etc., until a mistake is made. At this point ten\ntrials are made on the same pair of forks, and ten trials on either side, until\na place is reached in which, say, 80 per cent, of the trials are correct. This\nis regarded as the threshold. The value of this test is evident. It affords a\ndefinite and reliable measure of the musical ability of the child. It enables\nthe experimenter to advise his parents or teacher whether or not he will be\nable to profit by musical instruction. When the threshold is low, the study\nof music may be strongly urged. When the threshold is high, it is often\nunjust to require the study of music. The results of this test are not superficial findings; the experiment goes into details and has a distinct bearing\nupon the theory of hearing.\nFinally, observations yielding valuable results may be made upon more\nstrictly mental processes, such as discrimination and choice in complex\nreaction experiments, the affective processes, and other modes of mental\nactivity.\nThe great emphasis which anthropometrical measurements are receiving\nat the present time has aided in estabHshing the fact of individual differences.\nEvery person differs from every other one in both physical and mental traits.\nThis fact is an illustration of the wide biological law of variation. Variability,\nthe tendency to be unlike, is one of the fundamental properties of living matter.\nThe study of individual variations in mental traits forms a department of\nanthropological research known as individual psychology, and the experi-\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\n•\n\nLABORATORY\n\nTESTS\n\nAS A MEANS\n\nOF CHILD\n\n•\n\nSTUDY\n\n773\n\nmental method is employed in determining the individual differences in\nmental traits. For instance, laboratory tests reveal the presence of individual\ntypes of action, imagery, feeling, etc. From a practical standpoint the individual psychology of the child is more important than that of the adult, for\nit is frequently necessary to modify his treatment or instruction with reference\nto his personal traits. It is possible to distinguish those children who vary\nwithin normal limits about a definite standard or mode from the more extreme\ncases of variability, and then, if necessary, to subject the latter to a special\ncourse of instruction. The consideration of these more or less abnormal\ncases is not only important in itself, but frequently the normal is best understood by comparing it with the abnormal.\nAnother problem in this study of individual mental traits is to discover\ntheir interrelations or correlations. That is, we have what is called correlational psychology. For instance, what relation does one mental trait bear\nto another mental trait, or what is the relation of a mental and a physical\ntrait ? Does training in manual dexterity facihtate the study of mathematics ?\nOr does skill in reading Latin avail in meeting practical everyday problems ?\nThe presence of correlations is for the most part revealed by the application\nto the experimental data of mathematical formulae borrowed from the field\nof apphed mathematics in biology. So far as the work of discovering correlations ofmental traits has progressed, the main trend of the results is rather\nnegative than otherwise. Many mental processes which have hitherto been\nsupposed to be functionally related may bear no functional relation to each\nother. For instance, practice in memorizing one set of facts may not make\nit any easier to memorize a different set of facts. We are still grossly ignorant of this whole subject of correlations and await with interest the results of\nexperimental research along this line.\nAnother field, in addition to the general one of anthropometrical investigations, isthe application of the experimental method to developmental\nproblems. What characteristic resemblances and differences does experiment reveal in the several developmental periods or stages of growth — the\nperiods of infancy, childhood, boyhood, puberty, adolescence, maturity, and\nsenescence ? This problem can be approached in a thousand different ways,\naild it is useless to specify experiments in detail. Nearly all the anthropological and standard psychological tests lend themselves for the study of\ndevelopmental changes. This field has scarcely been touched upon as yet,\nand, as is the case in all new fields, the problems inherent in it are not fully\nrecognized. The study of the development of mind as manifested in the child\nis obviously important as an end in itself, apart from any reference to problems in pedagogy and adult psychology, but such study serves the triple purpose of furthering our knowledge of the mind of the child, of the adult mind,\nand aids in solving educational problems. Each stage of development has\nits own physical and mental characteristics, its crises, its seasons of rapid and\nof slow growth, its instincts, its predominance now of one trait, now of another.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 74\n\n^A TIONA\n\n*—\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nThese may be passed thru in a relatively normal way, or there may be a\ndeparture from the normal course of events, as frequently occurs in the period\nof adolescence. Indeed, the problems presented by the normal adolescent\nfor experimental investigation are abundant.\nThe third field — that of the apphcation of the experimental method to\npedagogy or educational psychology — ^has already been touched upon in a\nmeasure. Education profits by all the work done along anthropological and\ndevelopmental lines; yet the field of experiment in education is still distinct\nfrom these. One of the most important functions of the psychological laboratory isto further the cause of education. Pedagogy to be valid must be based\nupon the fundamental laws of psychology. It is for the most part the province of experimental psychology to prove and establish these laws, and they\nmust be recognized by pedagogy before successful progress is assured. The\nestablishment of psycho-pedagogical laboratories in some institutions, and of\nchild-study departments in others, is a great step in advance in education.\nHere such problems can be determined as the best time to introduce each\ntopic for study, the fatiguing efifect of a school period and its remedy, the\nsignificance of children's interests; in fact, many puzzling questions may be\nanswered and referred to a scientific basis. Such a procedure requires time;\nfor weighty questions are not settled in a day. But, to have a real beginning,\nit is necessary that pedagogy begin right, and this is a step in the right direction. Some good work has already been accomplished, but much experimental evidence is still needed before the school curricula are placed upona sound psychological basis; and until such experimental evidence is obtained\nand its significance realized, not much improvement need be anticipated.\nAt this time particular reference might be made to the study of mental economy,\nthe end in view being to accomplish the greatest amount of work with the\nleast energy and friction. Pedagogy can gain much, and itself secure greater\neconomy and reliabihty, by the use of the experimental method in the study\nof this problem.\nA class of children who have more right, perhaps, than any other to claim\naid from the psychological laboratory, are the mentally backward or tardy\nchildren, and those who from developmental defects, or what not, are unable\nto profit by the regular instruction of the school. These children form a far\nlarger class than is usually reahzed, and to them the psychological laboratory\nowes a debt. Each individual child should be studied by experimental\nmethods, his actual needs should be thoroly determined, and suggestions\nshould be given for his better instruction and welfare.\nThere remains to be considered finally the requirements that are imposed\nupon the laboratory and its director by the experimental method. In order\nthat successful work may be accompUshed in any of the fields mentioned\nabove, certain conditions must be met. In the first place, a psychological\nlaboratory is necessary, and this should preferably be part of the publicschool system.\nA psychological laboratory is not a curiosity in itself; it is\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": null, "text": "k\n\nDepartment] LABORATORY\n\nTESTS\n\nAS A MEANS\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n775\n\nsimply a room, or series of rooms, fitted up with apparatus suitable for conducting investigations upon mental phenomena, a means of faciHtating\nobservation upon mental processes. For the most part the apparatus is such\nas may be found in a physical laboratory, but it is applied to strictly psychological purposes. For some experiments only very simple apparatus is necessary, but frequently an elaborate equipment is required, or at any rate is\nadvantageous. However, needlessly complex apparatus should never be\nused. The laboratory is the place for establishing general psychological\nlaws in a scientific manner. These laws may often be applied to the mind\nof the child without making any actual tests upon him. The better way,\nhowever, is to experiment directly upon the child, but this need not always\nbe done in the laboratory. To do so is frequently impracticable, if not impossible. The tests may be made in the schoolroom, or even in the home. The\nconditions of the individual problem should determine where the experiment\nis conducted. But in every case the essential thing is to employ laboratory\nmethods; otherwise the results are of minor value.\nA question arises as to the amount of preparation necessary successfully\nto plan, conduct, and interpret the results of psychological experiments. It\nmay be said that the preparation can scarcely be too elaborate. The planning\nand organizing of the experiments devolves primarily upon the director of\nthe laboratory. He must have a thoro knowledge of the various branches of\npsychology, but should also be more or less famiHar with the main problems\nand facts of related fields, such as physics, mathematics, physiology, medicine,\neducation. This is truly a formidable equipment, but a necessary one.\nSo extensive preparation as this is not required of the actual workers\nin the field — not required for the more routine work of collecting data. This\nmay be done by the laboratory assistants or students. Their training should\nbe more along the line of the tactful handling of children, the manipulation\nof apparatus, and the recording of results. A short course of instruction\nwould prepare many teachers or school principals for this more mechanical\nwork. In fact, a very vital and far-reaching function of a psychological\nlaboratory is to train teachers, particularly principals of schools, in conducting\ntests upon children who may come under their charge. A course has been\ngiven several times at the Iowa laboratory with this end in view. The tests\nusually emphasized in the course were for the most part either physical or\npsychophysical. The principals or teachers were thoroly familiarized, by\nactual work in the public schools, with the meaning and purpose of the tests,\nand with the more technical phases of experimenting and recording the data\nin a scientific manner. It was then possible for these persons to introduce\ninto their schools, often without much expense, tests which aided materially\nin the proper education and inteUigent handling of the children.\nNow, altho the experimental method does require well-equipped laboratories and adequately trained experimenters, the advantages of this method\nhave been seen to be many.\nThe fields open to it are extensive and fertile.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": null, "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nOnly those have been mentioned which relate primarily to the study of children. There is no problem other than child study to which laboratory tests\ncan be applied more profitably; for *'of all created things the loveliest and most\ndivine are children.\"\nTHE\n\nCONTRIBUTIONS\n\nLINUS\n\nW.\n\nKLINE,\n\nOF ZOOLOGICAL\nCHILD STUDY\n\nTEACHER\nOF PSYCHOLOGY\nAND\nTENDENT OF TRAINING\nSCHOOL,\nSTATE\nDULUTH,\nMINN.\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nTO\n\nPEDAGOGY,\nAND\nSUPERINNORMAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe history of any science reveals the rate and character of its progress.\nThe progress made in child study and in its great benefactor, zoological\npsychology, is set forth by the history of science and thought of the past\nthree centuries. The scientific mind, during the greater portion of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was dominated by idealistic rationalism.\nThat spirit said to science: Study nature, not as she grows and develops, but\nas she eternally is. Growth, development, and differentiation found no\nplace in a system of philosophy like Descartes'. He was preoccupied with\neternal substances, eternal verities and mechanisms. Accordingly he made\nshort work of zoological psychology. Animals, he declared, are void of\nmental life, and their activities are to be explained by the laws of mechanics.\nProfessor Royce points out that events had little concern to a doctrine like\nSpinoza's.\n\nOld-fashioned science used to go about classifying things. There were live things\nand dead things; of Hve things there were classes, orders, famiUes, genera, species — all\npermanent facts of nature. As for man, he had one characteristic type of inner life, that\nwas in all ages and stations essentially the same.\n\nChildren were literally Httle men and women. Human nature was aUke in\nboth the child and the adult. The child became an adult, not thru nourishment, not thru the marvelous processes of growth and development, but\nsimply by adding to the already existing qualities. Growth and decay were\nsimply processes of addition and subtraction. The world and man were\nstudied and analyzed as things and not as processes.\nTo recite the history of the changes of thought from this absolutely rigid\nand unvitahzing conception of the realms of nature to that of the modem\nspirit, which interests itself in the flow, the change, the growth, the development of earth and man, would lead too far from the present problems. Attention is briefly called, however, to the fact that at about the beginning of the\nnineteenth century science forsook the unprofitable task of classifying and\ndescribing permanent entities, and instead undertook the stupendous problem of accounting for the endless variety of objects and occurrences in nature\nby the processes of growth and differentiation controlled by the law of natural\nselection. Science sought to explain phenomena in terms of their genesis\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n777\n\nand causal relations. The historical and comparative methods of investigation were ushered in. One of the first gigantic results of these methods as\napplied to life was the discovery of the facts of organic evolution and the\nframing of a theory adequate to their interpretation. The theory and evergrowing store-house of facts assert the kinship and continuity of all forms of life;\nthat the manifold living forms of the present are descendants of a common\nprimitive Hfe-substance. This conception of biological evolution carries with\nit as a corollary the doctrine of the evolution of mind; and around this corollary\nis being marshaled such a multitude of facts that it now easily ranks as an\nindependent theory and confers additional strength on the doctrine of biological evolution. The reciprocal relations existing between these two forms of\nevolution impress upon us that the mental life of man and animals has a\ncommon root or origin, that there is kinship running thru all mental life, and\nthat man is but the final link in a long chain binding the whole animal creation\ntogether.\nThus it comes about that zoological psychology and child study form\ntwo separate chapters in the great book of mental evolution. Their relations\ntoward each other are reciprocal, with perhaps the balance of trade to the\ncredit of zoological psychology. \"The appearance of Darwin's name among\nthose who have deemed the child worthy of study\" suggests that the two\nsubjects are closely connected.\nA comparison of human infancy with that of lower forms of life sets forth\ncertain important human characteristics hitherto unnoticed. The first is its\nhelplessness. Sully points out that the most striking characteristic of the\nnewborn offspring of man is its unpreparedness for life. The second is the\nprolongation of this helplessness. ''Long before he reaches manhood most\nof the brute contemporaries and playmates of his infant years will have had\ntheir day, and declined into decrepitude or died of old age.\" The third is\nthe relatively large plasticity, and consequent wide range of adaptiveness.\nAnd the fourth is the large stock of growth-energy both in body and mind.\nIt is a remarkable fact that the significance of these striking characteristics\nwas not appreciated before the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and\nit is still more remarkable that the key of interpretation was furnished by the\nobservation and study of lower fife, and particularly of the Hfe of an infant\nsimian monkey. The facts were mainly gathered by Alfred R. Wallace, and\ntheir true significance indicated by Professor John Fiske in 1874. Wallace\nnoticed that the young monkey had a different kind of infancy, which was a\ngreat deal longer than that of the young of domestic animals. He was longer\nin beginning to walk than the young of mammals lower in the scale of intelligence. He went thru a period of creeping, of staring at his hands, of standing up and laying hold of objects for support, of pushing them around; and\nfinally of walking alone. He was altogether much longer than his humbler\nkin in getting complete control of himself. These and other Hke facts came\nto the notice of Professor Fiske, who, with remarkable insight, set forth the\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": null, "text": "yyg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nmeaning of these distinguishing features — helplessness, plasticity, and growthenergy — and thereby planted the first bit of seed for a philosophy of education\nbased on the doctrine of evolution.\nHe says:\nFor every action of life, every adjustment which a creature makes in Hfe, whether a\ntnuscular adjustment or an intelUgent adjustment, there has got to be some registration\neffected in the nervous system, some Hne of transit worn for nervous force to flow; there\nhas got to be a connection between certain nerve-centers before the thing can be done —\nand of course it is obvious that if the creature has not many things to register in his nervous\nsystem, that animal becomes almost automatic in his whole hfe; and all the nervous connections that need to be made to enable him to carry on life get made during the foetal\nperiod or during the egg period, and when he comes to be born he comes all ready to go\nto work. As one result of this he does not learn from individual experience, but one\ngeneration is like the preceding generation. But when you get the creature that has\narrived at the point where his experience has become varied, he has got to do a good many\nthings, and there is more or less individuaUty about them — the capacity for progress begins\nto come in, and you begin to get at one of the great points in which man is distinguished\nfrom the lower animals.\n\nA wide range of delicate relations consequent upon greater needs implies\nplasticity and variations in adjustment, and herein Kes one of the conditions\nfor human progress. A long dependent infancy is necessary for man to come\ninto full possession of his physical and spiritual dower. As Groos points out,\nwe do not play because we are young, but we are kept young in order that\nwe may play and thereby receive the portion of our inheritance that arises thru\nthat channel. Zoological psychology, then, has given a point of view, and\nequipped the investigator with principles and theories with which to attack\nthe problems of child growth and development.\nI now turn to a consideration of the more special problems of child study\nthat are beneficiaries of zoological psychology.\nInstincts are a sphinx to the introspective psychologist. No problem of\npsychology has created such a Babel of tongues and been tr a ed with more\nmeager results; surely he would be a bold man who should even now\nattempt to write the last word on the subject. But a beginning has been\nmade. We are able to ask intelligent questions and to recognize the facts\nwhich answer them. Three leading questions have been asked about instincts :\nWhat is their origin, what is their nature, and what is their purpose ?\nRespecting their origin three answers have been given, two of which were\nformulated before the advent of comparative psychology. Of these two, the\nfirst rests wholly on theological and metaphysical conceptions, with which\nwe are not here concerned. The second answer ascribes the origin of instincts\nto experience and reflection. It is claimed that the initial action is caused by\nreflexes, and that the instinct is built upon these by means of experience.\nThis view was urged by Bain. It identifies instincts with intelligence, which\nis equivalent to denying the existence of instincts; and this was actually\ndone later by Schneider and Buchner, and a few others, notably A. R. Wallace,\nfor a time. The third answer is a child of evolutionary thought, it is the\nDarwinian solution.\nInstincts originate by means of the transmission of both\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n779\n\nacquired and congenital characters. An instinct, like any other mental\nprocess, is regarded as the product of differentiation, growth, and development from an undifferentiated homogeneous psychosis. ''Instincts comprise\nall those faculties of mind which are concerned with conscious and adaptive\naction antecedent to individual experience.\" This, in the main, is the conception of the zoological psychologist based on the observation of animal\nactivities.\nConcerning the nature of instincts our knowledge is more definite and\nless speculative. Here there are two general problems. The first deals with\nthe relations of instincts to other mental processes, and even to consciousness\nitself; and the second, with the manner and the conditions under which they\noccur. The facts which have furnished the basis for the discussion of these\ntwo problems have been gathered largely from observations made on lower\nanimals. In fact, the problems themselves were never clearly stated and\noutlined until systematic observation of animals was well under way.\nThe relation of instincts to other mental problems and the like has given\nrise to a number of questions, among which may be mentioned: (i) the relation of instinct to consciousness; (2) the relation of instinct to impulse; (3) the\nrelation of instinct to inteUigence and habit; (4) the relation of instinct to the\nemotions; (5) the conditions attending the expression of instinct. Space\nprevents a discussion of all these questions. A few are treated briefly, simply\nto show our indebtedness to zoological psychology.\nThe fifth question inquires into the conditions attending the expression\nof an instinct. This problem resolves itself into two questions. The first is:\nWill instinctive acts occur as soon as bodily structures attain functional\nmaturity, and in the absence of appropriate stimuli ? Will the bird perform\nscratching and wallowing movements, or attempt nest-building, or the pup\nattempt to hide and bury articles, or the child to play dolls, in the absence of\nappropriate external conditions? Is external stimulus essential to touch off\nthe perfected neuromuscular mechanism for instinctive acts? Experiments\nand observations show that some instincts do assert themselves in the absence\nof appropriate stimuli, while others do not. I have observed young chicks\nscratch and wallow for the first time on a clean, smooth pane of glass. At\nthe season of nidification caged birds attempt nest-building out of any sort of\nmaterial that happens to be within their reach. Caged migratory birds grow\nmore restless and beat their wings against their prison bars at the approach of\nthe migrating season. Professor James records a pup trying to bury a glove on\nthe bare carpet of his study. In the first case, that of the chick, the stimulus\nwas wholly absent; in the other cases it would seem that the stimulus was\nonly partially adequate; while in the anger and fear instincts it is evident that\nexternal stimulus must always be present. x\\long with these observations have\ngone others to the effect that the instinctive act fades out altogether if the\nappropriate stimulus is never present. For example, the play instinct of the\nchild may be almost, if not entirely, suppressed if its playtime be filled with\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": null, "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nwork. The pedagogical implication of this phenomenon is considered\nimportant to the teacher.\nThe second part of the problem of instinctive expression involves the\nmodification and suppression of instincts. The evidence showing the effect\nof the lack of stimulus upon the expression of instincts also shows that they\nmay be modified or suppressed altogether. The question of modification is\nfurther answered by the facts which indicate the relation between instinct and\nintelligence. The observations and experiments made upon animals by\nMills, Spalding, Morgan, and others furnish abundant evidence to the proposition that instincts are not only modifiable, but they are the foundations of\nour intellectual structure. The evidence goes to show that instincts are undifferentiated consciousness accompanying co-ordinated motor responses. By\nmeans of the co-ordinated motor responses the undifferentiated consciousness\nbecomes differentiated into inteUigence — the beginning of our intellectual life.\nInstinctive activities then afford to consciousness data upon which the' psychical\nstructure of inteUigence may be reared; they keep the animal machinery going\nand active until sufficient sense-experience has been accumulated to control\nand guide the creature's actions. It is evident that we have here another\nagency for the suppression of instincts, and, furthermore, a clearer conception\nof the function of instincts.\nThe phenomena which I have termed the ''mode of occurrence\" of instincts\nwere observed first in animals and then gradually supplemented by observation\non the human child.\nThree groups can be made out. First there are those that occur during\nthe infancy of the organism, of which there are two classes — one that\ngradually fades out, giving way to habits and intelligence, and one which\npersists thruout life. Of the first class may be mentioned that of following\nany moving object, sucking, biting, chewing, and grinding the teeth, clasping\nan object which touches the fingers and toes, etc. ; of the latter, the snapping\nand biting of newborn alHgators, young snakes burring with their tails, chicks\npecking, creening, and stretching. The second group are those which occur\nperiodically during adult life and are intimately associated with the procreative functions, nest-building, and migration. The third are those which\ncrop out at a certain age or period in the individual life, approach an intensity\nof expression, then enter a waning period, and finally fade away. Collecting,\nhoarding, and hiding articles regardless of their value, and playing with dolls,\nare examples of this group. The nature of the instincts of this third group\nsuggest and fortify the principle of nascent periods in the human child.\nThe last quarter of the nineteenth century witnessed the psychology of\nthe emotions placed on a scientific basis, the foundation of which was laid by\nCharles Darwin in his work on the Expression of the Emotions in Man and\nAnimals, pubhshed in 1872: by Signor Mantegazza, in his work on the Physiognomy and Expression 0) the Emotions, pubhshed in 1885; and by Dr. Lange,\nin a small pamphlet published in 1885.\nThese works present facts showing\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nZOOLOGICAL\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nAND\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n781\n\nthat the cause of the emotions is physiological, and this by impHcation showed\nthe utter futility of trying to account for them on the grounds of rational\npsychology. They also foreshadowed the benefit to be gained by the study of\nthe emotional life of animals.\nOn this point Darwin says:\nI have attended as closely as I could to the expression of the several passions in some\nof the common animals; and this I believe to be of paramount importance. In observing\nanimals, we are not so likely to be biased by our imagination, and we may feel safe that\ntheir expressions are not conventional.\n\nI find by actual count that he devoted one-third of the pages of his classical\nwork on the emotions to a study of that phenomenon in animals. He says,\nin setting forth his three general principles of expression: \"Facts observed\nboth with man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter\nfacts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us.\" Ribot points out, in his\nrecent work on the emotions, that the materials for the investigation of the\nprimitive emotions can be sought in the psychology of animals and that of\nchildren, for here their expression is unconventionalized. Classifying the emotions has always proved as attractive as profitless, and prior to the advent of\ngenetic psychology always led to an inextricable tangle. Just as the classification in old-fashioned zoology put the cetacea among the order of fishes, so\nthe earlier writers on the emotions confounded the derived with the fundamental; for example, astonishment, respect, and contempt were classified\nwith anger, love, and fear. Spencer was the first to point out the futility of\nsuch empirical and superficial classification, and called attention to the necessity of observing animals, primitive peoples, and children in preparing a\nfundamental scheme of the emotions.\nHe says:\nThus we may, in the first place, study the evolution of the emotions up through the\nvarious grades of the animal kingdom ; observing which of them are earliest and exist with\nthe lowest organization and intelligence; in what order the others accompany higher\nendowments; and how they are severally related to the conditions of life.\n\nThe first to act upon Spencer's suggestion was Mercier, in his work on The\nNervous System and the Mind. He has been followed by Sutherland, Ribot,\nand others.\nThe study of animals has contributed to the problems of heredity a large\nshare of the evidence underlying its laws, as witness the works of Darwin,\nRibot, Mercier, Mills, Galton, and others. The comparative shortness of\nanimal life, the fact that several generations of the same species may appear\nand pass away before the eye of the same observer, and the fact that the laws\nof heredity are expressed by generational life rather than by individual life,\nincrease the value of the study of animals in this unsettled field of knowledge.\nTo the problems of instinct and emotions zoological psychology has made its\nlargest contribution, and it should be remembered that it is in these two fields\nof mental life that the principles of mental heredity come nearest to the surface.\nHeredity suggests by contrast the important school problem of individuality.\nThe study of animals is driving home the doctrine of all-pervasive individuahty.\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": null, "text": "782\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nIn a general way we know that the range of individual variation varies with\nthe complexity of its organism. Special studies show that the members of\nthe same litter vary in bodily and mental traits far more than formerly suspected. Even the same forms in unicellular life are stamped with a degree of\nindividuality. When studying an animal, the comparative psychologist asks\nhimself these three leading questions: What are its strongest instincts; what\nis the range of its customary activities; what is the comparative strength of the\nanimal's individual traits ? The answers to these questions have long since\nconvinced scientists that there are chicks and chicks, dogs and dogs, apes and\napes, even from the same parentage.\nNot long since much of our teaching proceeded on the hypothesis that\nchildren were alike for the most part. An unlettered workman once said to\nProfessor James : ' ' There is very Uttle difference between one man and an other,\nwhen you get to the bottom of it. But what little there is is very important.\"\nThese slight differences not only form the contents of individuality, but are\noftentimes the buds of genius. The highest art of the teacher is to discover\nthese buds and to nurture them.\nTo summarize briefly:\n1. Zoological psychology has given the key to a full appreciation of the\ndistinguishing traits of the human infant, and has thereby contributed to a\nphilosophy of education based on the doctrine of evolution.\n2. It has brought instincts from the realms of mysticism to the ground\nplan of empirical observation, and shows that intelligence and habit have\ntheir beginnings in instinctive activities; and it thereby declares the functions\nof instinct to be the furnishing of experience, and thereby laying the foundations of intelligence.\n3. It broadens our generalizations concerning the origin and composition\nof the emotions, and urges the value of studying the genesis of emotions in\nvoung life.\n4. The study of animals has increased the means for a more accurate\ndetermination of the relative values of heredity and environment on the\nhuman infant.\n5. It exalts the individuaUty of childhood, and indicates that progress is\npossible only by nurturing this individuality.\n\nUNSOLVED\n\nG. STANLEY\n\nPROBLEMS OF CHILD STUDY\nOF THEIR ATTACK\nHALL,\n\nPRESIDENT\"\n\nOF CLARK\n\nAND\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nTHE METHOD\n\nV^ORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nFirst of all I must congratulate this section on the progress within its field\nalmost unprecedented in the history of science, and still more so in the history\nof education.\nThe child is no longer a manikin or larval man, but an epitome\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNSOLVED\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n783\n\nof vertebrate and human life past and present, from whom we teachers can\neasily learn indefinitely more than we can teach him. It would take long to\nenumerate the academic chairs, the journals, and the important books all\nnew in this field, where so little was so lately definitely known.\nAnthropometry has measured and weighed the growth of many parts and\norgans, and seems destined eventually to become a specialty by itself, so\nintricate have become the biometric and mathematical modes of treatment.\nWe have also many studies upon the growth of strength, skill, rapidity of\nmovement, both individual and collective. In the growth field, however,\nthere are still some great gaps. We still know comparatively very little of\nthe growth of the finer structure of the human brain from the time it attains\nits adult weight at six or eight years of age on thru puberty, maturity, and old\nage. Of the senile and the infant brain we know something, but barely half\na dozen studies now exist of the finer changes of the cortex that are believed\nto, be most closely connected with the rapid period of mental growth during\nadolescence. Material for comparison can rarely be gathered in sufficient\nquantity, and of course the most refined histological technique is necessary.\nAgain, I know of but two studies of any significance upon the effects of exercise on growth in height, weight, or special girths. This is a far simpler\nmatter, and could be undertaken in almost any university by methods that\nwould isolate normal growth from the increase due to exercise. We also\nneed data more recent than Vierodt's tables upon the rate of growth of different\norgans and parts. There is room here for indefinite and far more speciaKzed\nstudy, altho just now work in this field languishes.\nAdult diseases have long been known. Those of children have been more\nrecently defined; but those of adolescence, which is liable to the ailments of\nboth childhood and maturity, altho each with less intensity, have only lately\nbegun to be studied with care and success. Dementia praecox is probably a\ngeneric term for many forms of both arrest and perversion. Troubles of the\neye, ear, skin, speech, or nerves; chorea, curvatures, chlorosis, and nutritive\ntroubles, and the very suggestive phases of fatigue, have already a rich literature. The school doctor, his training and his duties, a life-and-health book\nfor each student, school hygiene which has extended its domain into almost\nevery department of education, and to which a magnificent European congress was devoted last spring — all this shows that health studies are fast becoming a specialty by themselves.\nHere too, however, there is much to be done. As some of the unsolved\nproblems here I would mention special studies of the teeth at different ages,\nand better provision for their care. This could be done by simple and\nrather obvious methods. Another line of work much wanted is a study of\nthe health of teachers and the effect of their imperfect health upon their\npupils. Again, a simple and somewhat detailed questionnaire, honestly and\nwidely answered, as to just how schoolrooms and buildings are kept clean,\nand the provision, if any is made, for emergencies, whether fire, fainting, fits.\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": null, "text": "y 84\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL ASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Child Study\n\naccidents, etc. Again, someone should collect data upon children who ought\nnot to go to school at all, or but for a few hours or a single season ; or conditions\nwhere education should be sacrificed to health. Once more, it is often rightly\nurged that the training of teachers should include some knowledge of sHght\nand common, and also of the earlier stages of graver, diseases, including\nnosebleed, adenoid growths, wrong breathing, eye and ear imperfections with\na method of tests, rickets, chorea, nervousness, etc. That woman has special\naptitudes in caring for the sick, which are now uncultivated, is coming to be\ngenerally recognized. The tragedy of confusing sHght deafness with idiocy,\nand means for the detection of the often considerable percentage of subnormal,\nif not dullard, children in our schools, with special provision by which they\nshall receive such education as they can, and brighter children shall not be\nheld back by them, should be made clear to the teacher. A more comprehensive book than we yet have on school hygiene, embracing all its departments, and also the introduction of special courses in this subject into all\npedagogic departments, is an obvious need. The special pedagogy of the\ndeaf, bhnd, and especially the children suffering from arrested development,\nneeds further study. Here belong studies of reform typography, foods, school\nlunches, home dietaries, and fatigue in its myriad forms; the consensus of\nanswers on ''How do I keep well?\" on signs of mental invalidism and old\nage in teachers, male and female. Health, let me repeat, means wholeness\nor hoUness; and what shall it profit a child to gain the world of knowledge and\nlose his own health ?\nIn the field of juvenile morals we have studies of a few of the minor faults\nof children, but need far more. Cruelty, lying, theft, truancy, profanity,\ngross disobedience, the tobacco habit, and, above all, sexual errors, are in\ngreat need of further investigation. At the age of sex Sclaircissement vice often\nsaps the life of youth, and both teachers and parents can only look on ignorant and helpless. No topic is more difficult, and perhaps more dangerous,\nowing to the pruriency of public opinion, but the grave need here must eventually bring a knowledge of facts that will suggest some subtle principles of\ntreatment in place of the chaos of counsels which now prevails. We know\ntoo little of the embryology of crime, on which I have long felt that some\npsychologist ought to speciaHze, and five in reformatories.\nIn the realm of feelings we know a httle of fear, anger, pity; less of love,\nstill less of jealousy, grief (and crying), regret, shame, and many other sentiments. These are now coming to be recognized as deep and all-controlling.\nClosely connected with them is what some have prematurely called ethology,\nor the science of character, of which psychologists for two generations, down\nto and including Wundt, have given us schematizations and abstractions, but\nof which we really know very little indeed. The only promising method\nof approaching this subject appears to me to be an amplification of the faint\nbeginnings made years ago by Bohannon — the study of pecuHar children.\nWe could certainly have special detailed studies each upon the nervous and\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nUNSOLVED\n\n.PROBLEMS\n\nOF\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n785\n\nthe phlegmatic, the precocious and the retarded, the sullen and the ever happy,\nthe careless and the over-orderly, the deformed or ugly and the beautiful, the\nclumsy and the deft and agile, the selfish and the altruistic, the imaginative\nand the prosaic, the ill-tempered and the good-natured, the conceited and the\nhumble, the spoiled and the neglected child; and also the eye-, ear-, and motorminded types. We need to know more of the development of altruism; also\nof the growth and abortions of affection to parents, brothers and sisters,\nnurses, servants; and we need an international study of interests, and also of\nthe moral sentiment.\nMiscellaneous topics in which the questionnaire method may at least help,\ntho in very different degrees, are the following: the differences between the\ncity and the country child, and the advantages and disadvantages of these\nenvironments; further studies in the rich field which Hancock has opened in\nthe development of children's reason; how the children in large communities\nand in different classes actually spend the hours before school, after it, and\ntheir evenings; the good points in the ungraded system; the effects of the\nprogressive feminization of high-school classes and of the work of teaching;\nthe methods of lesson-setting and home study versus passive instruction; the\ndevelopment of the higher and secondary sex quahties in boys and girls; the\ncommercial and also the trading spirit; moral education in ways that can\nbe curricularized ; a study of the effects of what children read upon their minds\nand conduct, and of imagination; further studies of the contents of children's\nminds in entering different schools; symbolism as understood by kindergartners,\nand the theory and practice of the kindergarten generally; reverie and daydreaming; the hygienic, aesthetic, and moral effects of dress upon children of\ndifferent ages; Sunday-school methods and religious training generally; the\npedagogy of mission work; the educational lessons of biography, and the need\nof fuller records of the youth of great men. This Hst might be greatly extended,\nfor even the surface mining in this field is only well begun.\nAs to methods, the detailed study of a single child has certain advantages\nall its own, especially as providing data for a future science of character. This\nmethod can never be very special, because a child is too large and complex\nan object, altho, especially for defectives and infants and peculiar children,\nthis method will always be helpful. Special work by selecting a single trait\nand massing observations from many children is related to the method of\nstudying one child somewhat as microscopic or comparative is to gross\nanatomy. Some form of morbid fear, a fit of anger, a type of automatism,\netc., by this method of conflation stands out in high rehef and reveals its relations. Again, few things in the whole repertory of educational methods give\na more wholesome self-knowledge, or cultivate the powers of literary expression and develop originality, like a well-devised, personal questionnaire that\ncalls for the description of internal states and experiences. For this work\ngirls in the later ''teens\" and early twenties have often a veritable genius,\nand excel all others in these intimate and sometimes confessional statements.\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": null, "text": "^85\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nI believe nothing can compare as a theme for composition-writing with a\ngood curriculum of answering a well-devised questionnaire.\nWhen the data are gathered, the psychologist who works them up finds\nhimself at once in the closest contact with Ufe at first hand, and his duty is\nnot only to scrutinize them to bring out the distinctions of age, sex, environment, etc., but he must often ransack literature and biography to attain\na broader view. Or, again, he must turn to more pronounced diseases or\ninsanities to see how traits look when writ large. Perhaps he must compare\nthe instincts of children with animals, or study heredity. Perhaps, most\noften for scientific study, he must ransack folk-lore and the Hfe of primitive\nman in order to find possible correlations between the child and the earlier\nhistory of the race. This may be the most difficult, yet the most scientific\nand also the most important, practical problem in the whole field. Often\npetty and insignificant themes, Uke yawning, stretching, hiccoughing, certain\nautomatisms, special fears of cats, etc., have almost no educational, but a\nvery high scientific, significance, while of other themes the converse is true.\nA large number, perhaps most, of the themes proposed are ill chosen and\nfail. It is hard to evolve good themes. They spring up incidentally in class,\nin observing children, in reading, etc.\nFor one, I have felt that we should go very slow in applying the results of\nchild study to school work. We have before us awful warnings in the way\nof premature applications of brilliant half-knowledge of children in Froebel\nand Herbart. The former loved and understood the child as no one before\nhis day had ever done. Despite his abstract and now obsolete philosophy\nwhich made the child's a mystic, symbolic, Wordsworthian soul, he was a\npioneer; but unfortunately his schematizations and appHcations were not only\npremature, but overdone, so that his followers show all the pathos of early\npromise blighted in the bud, as they flounder in a maze of methods and distinctions which do violence to the instincts that gave them birth in the founder's\nmind and the interest that sustains them in that of the modem kindergartners.\nIt is thus a strange anomaly that the years from three to five are least known,\nbecause the kindergartner has actually been ordered to beware of the paidologist. The older cult of the morning star resists that of the rising sun. That\nthe American kindergartner, once freed of the baleful authority that now\ndominates her, will make up arrears and tell us of this age, now unknown\nto science save in the terminology of a cruder age of philosophic thought,\nthere can be no doubt.\nThe second enemy of child study, Herbartism, represents a pioneer observer of older children who sought to tabulate their interests and to schematize\nculture-values in a crude way, just as we now try to do by far more developed\nmethods. But Herbart, too, unfortunately appHed and formulated too soon,\nand the pedagog cannot resist subjection to anything formal and methodic.\nHence, because Herbart went to seed too soon in applications, he has followers devoted to form and without sense of content, who ring the changes\non the master's phrases and excellent, but few and crude, ideas.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n787\n\nThe third and last enemy of child study, the epistemologist, who introspects and speculates thru his study window, and who will not even study\nhis own college students, illustrates the very apotheosis of a formuHsm almost\nutterly contentless. He has given us a psychology without a soul, a philosophy\nwithout an external world; a system that ostentatiously expels the muse of\ncommon-sense and fears contact with life; that represents a paUid, refined,\nand in its way interesting type of mental invahdism for want of blood and iron.\nWith these warnings before us, it seems to me we do well to go slow in\ntrying to develop two things which must come and which, when they do, will\nbe both imposing and constraining. The first of these is a scheme of education essentially based upon child study. The longer we wait for this, the\nbetter it will be when it comes. If we had a complete philosophy and a\nfinished pedagogy based upon what is today accompHshed, while it would\nbe indefinitely better than the system of Froebel and Herbart, it, too, would\nstill be premature, and, while it would give a temporary stimulus, would be\nsure to be followed by the same arrest that we see in these systems. Again,\nthe methods of genetic psychology are slowly unfolding a new logic all their\nown. The technique of procedure, the ehmination of sources of error, the\nconstruction of curves and percentile grades, the correlation of child and race,\nthe modes of making observations and protocols, the schemes of work in all the\ndifferent fields — each of these has distinctive features of its own, and in all\nof these together there lies impUcit an imposing genetic logic which must be\ncorrelated with that of the work in the other evolutionary fields. But the\ntime for development of this logic has not yet come. Just as in the Homeric\nage jurisprudence, theology, economics, and Uterature, were all impUcit in\nthe daily life of every man, making it rich before they had developed into\ndifferent departments, so all the philosophical and educational cultures are\nimpHcit in child study. Just as in the Renaissance man remembered again\nhis golden age and a new light came into the world, so we live in an age of\nthe renaissance of child-life, and all teachers who carefully answer a good\nquestionnaire help on the dawning of a new day, whether or not they have\never heard of paidology or ephebics.\n\nMETHODS\nMISS\n\nANNA\n\nOF TEACHING CHILD\nSCHOOLS\n\nBUCKBEE,\n\nSTUDY\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF PEDAGOGY,\nCALIEORNM,\nPA.\n\nSTATE\n\nIN NORMAL\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nI have taken the liberty to include in my discussion, rather more than\nthe formal wording of the subject warrants, for I shall speak of the aims or\npurposes, and of the results, of child study in normal schools, as well as of the\nmethod of teaching it. I have made no attempt to summarize what is done\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": null, "text": "ygg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nin schools other than the one in which I teach, because the hmits of my\npaper would not permit my doing so.\nFirst, then, as to how the work is carried on. Roughly speaking, it is\ndone in three ways, two of which are largely concrete ; that is, we teach child\nstudy by studying children.\nWe begin with the single question asked of a large number of children.\nYou are all familiar with the plan, so no time need be Used in describing it.\nThis is the simplest method of child study, and therefore the best one to use\nin case of the immature students with whom we deal mostly in the normal\nschools of my state. Among the questions we have used are the following.\nIn a study of geographic interests, with a view to finding the best method of\napproach to the study of geography, the question asked was: \"If you might\ngo anywhere in the world you wanted to, where would you go?\" \"Give\nreasons for your choice.\" The results of this question have been collated,\nand the conclusions drawn by at least three writers have been published.\nAnother question which we have used extensively is: \"Tell how you think\nthis school could be changed so that all of the children would like to come\nevery day.\" Another question which never fails to reveal something worth\nknowing of the child's inner life is: \"What do you expect to be doing by the\ntime you are twenty-five ?\" The students first collate the answers to these or\nsimilar questions, which have been asked of our model-school pupils. The\ninterest aroused is such that we next obtain a good many sets of papers from\nother 'schools answering the same question. Pupil-teachers who have gone\nto the trouble of getting these answers and of working them up are fairly\nstarted on the way to an intelligent appreciation of the work of experts who\nstudy children in this manner. The students are encouraged to think of\nsuitable questions to be used and to do independent work. This often gives\nrise to fruitful discussions.\nInvestigators from other schools sometimes send to us asking that we gather\nmaterial for them upon questions which they have selected; and if we are\nable to do so, we feel that we are coming to be a little part of the world of\nprofessional students of education.\nOccasionally, we work out one of the long and difficult syllabi sent out by\nClark University. Sometimes several of us can work at the same one, while\nother studies are so arranged that all of the answers must be given by the\nsame person. A young woman who has written to Dr. Hall about one of\nthese studies, and received a personal answer, as is his invariable custom,\nfeels that she has in a way been received into the fraternity of original investigators; and while her contribution has been exceedingly small, its recognition isencouraging, and contributes in no small degree to her growth.\nMoreover, it is Hkely to give her a permanent interest in child study.\nThe second way in which child study may be taught is by having each\nstudent fill out one of the Uttle books which we have placed on exhibition.\nThese were planned by Dr. T. B. Noss, of the State Normal School, CaH-\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nTEACHING\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n789\n\nfornia, Pa. They provide for a simple but careful record of the activities\nand characteristics of one child.\nNaturally the physical life is observed first, beginning with the general\nappearance. Then follow complexion, health, diseases which the child has\nhad, and the effects remaining, if any. Other points in the Hst are: measurements, facts as to sight and hearing, hygienic habits, bad physical habits,\nsleep, eating, and breathing. The general movements are observed, and\nthe skill and interest the child has in work and play.\nThen follows an outline for the study of mental life. The child's power of\nattention, sense-perception, memory, imagination, and reasoning are studied.\nA more careful investigation of his interests is made than the outline calls for;\nand nowhere is the student's ingenuity taxed more than in the matter of discovering these interests. A considerable study of the simple emotions of\nfear and anger is undertaken, because these emotions play so important a\npart in the life of young children.\nThe child's ideas of right and wrong, the good or bad habits already formed,\nand how they were acquired, and his attitude toward parents, teachers, playmates, strangers, and animals, make up the next division.\nBesides the points named above, much more is made of what and how\nmuch the child imitates others, than the outline in the book would indicate.\nThe dramatic instincts and tendencies receive a good deal of attention, as\nwell as the development of self-consciousness. Signs of oversensitiveness are\nlooked for, since morbidly sensitive children need special treatment in school.\nIn describing the plan further, it should be said that each student selects\na child from one of the primary grades in our model school, and tries to make\na friend of him. He is very careful not to let the child know that any especial\nstudy is being made of him. The observations recorded in the books extend\nover a period of several months, during which the students report progress\nfrom time to time. So it comes about that nearly all of the important points\nin the outline are brought up for discussion in class in connection with a\nconcrete illustration. This in itself is a great gain. For instance, probably\nall teachers of methods in normal schools caution the prospective teachers\nabout eye-strain and overtimid children. When these suggestions are given\nin a merely didactic way, they are likely to be forgotten or ignored. But\nwhen a student actually makes the test of the eyes of a child in whom she is\ninterested, both the manner and the importance of doing so make a lasting\nimpression.\nThe third way of teaching child study is by reading of the work of others,\nas described in books, periodicals, and reports. This is very important, and\nshould have much more time allowed for it than is at all practicable under\nour present organization. About all that can be done is to examine the\nextensive bibliography of the subject, to call attention to how widespread\nthe movement is, and to notice the professional standing of the leaders. Each\nstudent is also required to read one book upon child study and report it to\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": null, "text": "y go\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Study\n\nthe class, and to read selected chapters from certain other books. He must\nalso examine and report upon various addresses and short articles from time\nto time. In short, the result of this work in reading is to impress the student\nwith what is meant by child study, who is working at it, where and how, and\nwhat the workers have found out.\nThe first and most important result of all this work is that the pupilteachers come to take much more hve and personal interest in little children\nthan they are Hkely to do without it. The professional studies pursued in the\ntraining schools, and even the work in pedagogy, necessarily deal largely with\nchildren as classes or grades, or in a more or less general way. But in this\nwork the child is a living and very active entity, and stands out in strong\ncontrast to theories, outHnes, and notes upon teaching, which occupy so much of\nthe student's time. I recall frequent remarks like these: \"I should not have\nthought a boy of six would notice so much. I took him to my room today,\nand he just saw every little thing.\" Another: ''I brought Maggie to the diningroom [in the school boarding-hall] today. She asked about everything. I did\nnot think she would see so much.\" Still another student said: ''Minnie is\nafraid of darkness and of being left alone. I had forgotten that I used to be\nafraid to be alone.\" One young lady who studied her own sister told me that\nshe found out a great many queer things about her, and would be much more\ncareful of her in the future. From scores of similar expressions I cannot but be\nconvinced that the work is one of the best ways of helping a young teacher\ninto the right sympathetic attitude toward the children.\nIn the second place, a teacher, and more especially a young teacher, often\nfinds it difficult to make occasions for meeting the mothers of her pupils;\nthis work gives just the needed opportunity for coming into friendly relations\nwith the parents.\nI have already pointed out that it adds to the professional spirit of a teacher\nto know that he is taking part in a great educational movement; and it is\nquite unnecessary to enlarge upon the need of all the encouragement and\ninspiration that come from working with others for the common good.\nFinally, it is not to be expected that the conclusions reached by students\nat the age of those in our normal schools will have much value in themselves,\nany more than in other branches of study. But classes in botany, zoology,\nand the like do laboratory work for the effect upon themselves, not because\nthey expect to discover new facts at present which will add to the sum total\nof the knowledge of their subject. So with the work in child study— it should\nbe taught in all our normal schools, so that our young teachers will be intelligently interested in the discoveries or conclusions reached by more competent\nobservers. On the other hand, let it be frankly admitted that a scientific\nstudy of children, which shall give results so reliable that we may accept them\nand abide by them, must be carried on by expert investigators, whose scholarship, training, high aims, and faciHties for the w^ork shall command our acceptance of the results of their investigations.\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nTABLE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nCONFERENCES\n\nCONFERENCE ON CHILD STUDY\nDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY GRADES\n\nCHAIRMAN — MISS MYRA\nH. WINCHESTER, PRINCIPAL FORT\nKINDERGARTEx^\nCOLLEGE,\nFORT WORTH, TEX.\n\nTOPIC:\n\nCOMPARISON\n\nOF METHODS\nINTRODUCTION\n\n791\n\nAND\n\nRESULTS\n\nBY THE\n\nCHAIRMAN\n\nIN KINWORTH\n\nIN CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nWhen one contemplates the forty-third annual meeting of this vast organization, and\nconsiders the many departments and subdepartments into which it divides itself, and then\npauses to think of the moving force or cause of it all, one penetrates to the heart, the core,\nand finds it to be the child with its full range of possibilities.\nIt is from this center, hke the center of a vast sphere, that there radiate living force\nand strength which hold together all the various interests of educators, and which operate\nas a sort of spiritual law of gravity, in matters educational. Here are we, gathered from\nall quarters of the country: Kindergartners, primary teachers, grammar grade teachers,\nhigh-school teachers, all approaching thru different radii of special subjects, but all\napproaching the same center — the child.\nIn this Child Study Department much valuable work has been done, and we elementary teachers are now to have an opportunity of comparing some of the methods and results\nof this particular Hne of investigation, thereby gaining for ourselves fresh suggestions and\ninspiration to make our daily practical work with children of greater efficiency.\nBy the many methods which have been employed to obtain an expression of children's\ninner natures — the questionnaires with their revelations and testimonies, the records\nfaithfully kept by parents and others, the observations, the measurements, the tests\nboth physical and mental — we have profited exceedingly, and our gratitude is ever due to\nthose who have patiently blazed the way and have improved conditions for normal as well\nas subnormal and abnormal children.\nAnd now there presents itself to the child-student a less explored region of investigation, which is particularly inviting to us who are elementary teachers. During recent\nyears, the immense scope and importance of industrial training as a factor in education\nare being recognized as never before. The children of this and succeeding generations\nare the beneficiaries of the widespread and increasing adoption of manual work into the\nschool systems of our land, and it is this labor of the hands that beckons us to make further\nresearch, that we may gain greater insight. Earl Barnes, David Starr Jordan, and Cohn\nScott have given us the beginnings of this hne of investigation in the studies which they\nhave made of children's drawings. To one who has seeing eyes and an understanding\nheart, to behold the work of a person's hands is to behold the inner nature of that person;\nfor into a piece of work there go the heart, the brain, the vitaUty, and all the forces that make\nup a human being. What he is appears in what he does. And so in the discussions this\nafternoon, it is small wonder if the subject of determining the condition of children by\nmeans of their hand-work occupies an important place. Equally interesting is the study\nof children thru their spontaneous remarks — answers to questions — and their responsiveness in various forms of expression. This, then, indicates the outhne of the conference\nthis afternoon.\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": null, "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nMISS ELIZABETH\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\nHARRISON,\n\nOF THE\n\nBY MEANS\nCHICAGO\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THEIR\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n[Child Study\n\nHAND-WORK\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe highest argument for hand-work that has ever been given is probably to be found\nin the impassioned plea of Froebel in his almost inexhaustible book The Education of Man.\nHere he says: \"religion without industry is hable to be lost in empty dreams; industry\nwithout religion degrades man into a machine; work and reUgion must be simultaneous,\nfor God the Eternal has been creating from all eternity. Were this fully recognized, were\nall thoroly impressed with this truth, what a height could mankind soon attain!\"\nIt is concerning this deep inner religious necessity of work that I would speak today,\nrather than of the more self-evident practical value of teaching children to use their hands.\nThe difference between industrial training and self-expression by means of handwork, which is so insisted upon by all advocates of the manual-training side of education,\nis no more distinct than the study of the intellectual concepts of the child revealed by his\nhand-work, is different from the evidence of temperamental traits as shown by the same\nhand-work.\nWe have for the past ten or fifteen years been collecting data concerning the contents\nof children's minds, all of which have been useful and suggestive, and have led to great\nchanges in the subject-matters taught to children, as well as in the methods of teaching\nthe same. But both the subject-matter taught and the methods of teaching deal with\nthe outer world and its effect upon the inner world of the child. There Hes, however,\nanother vast field of investigation thru the hand-work of children, namely, the revelation\nwhich such hand-work gives to us of the temperamental differences of children. In other\nwords, we are still studying the intellectual side of education and still neglecting the\nemotional side. The one is to the other as color is to form. There is no complete beauty\nin the outer world which has not both color and form: so, too, the understanding and\ntraining of the emotional nature are as much needed as is the development of the child's\nintellectual power. In fact, the emotions lie deeper than the activities of the intellect;\nthey precede the latter, and they outlive them.\nHistory teaches us that primitive races were stirred into action thru their emotions.\nEven today we know politically and socially what a tremenduous power lies in the hands\nof the demagogue as well as the social reformer who can reach the hearts of his hearers.\nRecognition of this fact is even more important in our deaUng with children than with\nthe child-race. The emotions are fleeting, and oftentimes intangible and difficult to be\nperceived; and the hand-work necessarily partakes of this, reveals those inherited emotions\nwhich we call temperamental charactersistics.\nIt is to this subtle, but fascinating, study that I would call your attention this afternoon, rather than to the revelation of the clearness or confusion of the child's mental concept of the subject which he is attempting to express thru materials.\nLet us for a moment look back over the art expression of the child(which each piece\nof hand-work should be, if it is given aright), as an expression of the emotions which were\ndominant at the time of its execution, and also as a key to the understanding of his temperament. Anyone who is at all acquainted with architecture knows that the fixed, stolid,\ndown-bearing pyramids, obehsks, and sitting coUossi of Egypt tell of the melancholy temperament ofthe race ruled by the Pharaohs. It is equally true of the art of the graceful\nand joy-producing temples and statues of Greece which show to the world the charm of the\nGreek civilization. The proudly rounding dome and florid capitols and grand triumphant arches of the Romans bring to the thinking mind the proud imperious nature of those\nall-conquering masters of the world. The beautiful aspiring mystery of the Gothic\ncathedrals voices for us the yearning, brooding religious temperament of the Middle Ages.\nLet us now turn to individual feeling, perhaps this reading of the race is too vast to\nbe compared to the reading of the child's heart.\n\nThe traveler who has^looked upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n793\n\nangels and Madonnas of Fra Angelica knows without reading history that the painter ol\nsuch pictures was loving, gentle, and kind; and he who has been stirred by the mighty\nprophets and sibyls of Michael Angelo needs not to be told of his strong and powerful\ntemperament; it has already been revealed by his unconscious stroke of line and use of\ncolor. So, too, the degeneracy and voluptuousness of the later Itahan masters speak for\nthemselves in their beautiful, but not ennobling, productions. One needs but to study the\nstatuary of the Louvre, and then pass over to the modern French sculptors as shown in\nthe Luxembourg, to feel the difference between the purity of the early sculptors as contrasted with these later men as they each model and chisel the nude human form. Or if\nwe turn to music, we have but to study Beethoven's music to feel the passionate struggles\nand inherent purity of the great master, whereas Liszt, who was equal in technique to\nBeethoven, tells in his music of a heart that was different. Illustrations might be multiplied without end, but no one who really studies art would hesitate for a moment to say\nthat its greatest results are the expression of the spiritual nature of the artist, rather than\nof some thought or idea outside of himself. It is his spirit speaking thru his art to our\nspirits.\nThe real value of such great expositions as the one by which we are now surrounded\nlies, not in their bringing together the products of the material progress of the world, but\nrather that each expresses in great and beautiful language the stage of spiritual consciousness of its makers and builders.\nIt would be a study of no small significance to show the progress made toward higher\nthings, as revealed to us since the great centennial celebration of American independence\nin Philadelphia in 1876. It was the glad shout of a nation, young in its national Ufe, but\nfree enough not only to express itself, but to call all other nations to come and join in its\nsong of freedom. Individualism was rampant; no two buildings attempted to regard\neach other as to harmony or proportion, or to respect the effect of one upon the other. It\nwas hke a great, clumsy schoolboy expressing himself for the first time before the pubUc.\nIt was an enormous effort of the nation awakening to the knowledge of its own distinct\nindividuality; but, taken as a whole, flamboyant, self-assertive, and crude.\nWhen we come to the study of the Chicago Exposition, which was supposed to commemorate the discovery by Columbus of the New World, we found that, instead of this,\nit was in reality an expression of the adjustment of this great new nation to the other\nworld-powers; the quiet and dignified assumption, as it were, of its place upon the platform\nof the world's arena — serene, calmly poised, and fully conscious of its own excellence,\nwithout any extravagant assertion of the same; a great world-symphony, of the binding\ntogether in peace and harmony of the nations of the earth. This was the spiritual impulse\nwhich stirred the hearts of the American people and caused them to produce a vision of\nbeauty and serenity never seen before.\nSo, too, here in St. Louis we see and feel the joy of a great nation rejoicing over the\nacquisition of a vast empire by peaceful means, and a glad expression of satisfaction over\nthe wealth and progress which have been added to America by means of this acquisition .\nOne can scarcely stand at the entrance of Festival Hall and look down over the marvelous\npanorama without feeling that all the buildings and statues, and even the hills and skies,\nare calling forth: \"Rejoice ye, rejoice ye, and be exceeding glad.\"\nIf we can thus see the emotional nature of the great art-expression of the world, we\nmust acknowledge that it is to be found also in the art-expression of the child, for the\nmotive power which leads to expression thru hand- work, if it is true creative expression must always be the same.\nAlmost any kindergarten training teacher can tell whose hand-work she is examining,\neven if the name is not with the work. At least she can tell what to expect in other things\nfrom the student who has done this or that hand-work. I recall the examination of some\nclay-modeling which has been done under the direction of \"each of you make some object\nbased upon the cubical form.\"\nOne piece of work represents a house with a triangular\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": null, "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Study\n\nroof. To the front of the house had been attached a porch with pillars carefully made,\nand the suggestion of vines climbing around the window of the house. The rear of the\nhouse, however, was carelessly made and disproportioned. The training teacher surprised the class by saying: \"This girl is one who cares for what she thinks the public will\nsee, but slights the private things of life. She is the kind who will dress up for company,\nand look slouchy when guests are not expected; will have her children well drilled for\nexhibition days, but will not be careful concerning their efforts with work which is not\nto be examined; who, if she ever becomes a housewife, will know how to make layer cake,\nbut will not understand the simple but dehcate matter of broiling a steak correctly.\"\nThen follows the exhibition of a number of pieces of hand-work done by the children, each\none of which was examined and commented upon as its revelation of the internal condition of its little maker.\n\nMETHOD\nMISS LUELLA\n\nOF CHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\nA. PALMER, TEACHER\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nIN PUBLIC SCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\n94, NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nThis paper will be limited to the consideration of one method of child study in the\nkindergarten; namely, the subject method. This term is used in preference to questionnaire method, when describing the means of collecting data from small children. Direct\nand indirect questions calling for written or verbal responses may be employed in making\ntests with children over seven years of age. In infancy expression is more thru action\nthan words, and altho simple questions requiring simple answers may be used with some\nsubjects, generally the studies must be made by observing the motor responses to everyday stimuh.\nFor the past two years in the public-school kindergartens of New York city we have\ntaken up definite topics for child study. We limit ourselves to two studies a year, that the\nwork may be thoro and yet not burdensome. It is entirely voluntary on the part of the\nteacher.\nThe subjects have been \"Children's Ideals,\" \"Humor,\" and \"Impressions of a\nPicture.\" The first two were suggested by Professor Earl Barnes, and the last by Miss\nMary A. Wells, president of the New York Public School Kindergarten Association.\nFor the study on ideals cards four inches square were distributed to the teachers, one\nfor each child. They contained these words with blank space for answers : \" Sex. Age.\nNationality. Whom would you wish to be like ? Why?\" Over seven hundred and fifty\ncards were filled out and returned. They were worked over by Professor Earl Barnes,\nand also by myself, as chairman of the Child Study Committee. The results were pubHshed in an article by Mr. Barnes in the Kindergarten Magazine of October, 10O3.\nFor investigating the children's attitude toward humor, a paper was given to each\nkindergarten on which were printed three questions:\n1. Name three stories during the telling of which the children laugh heartily, mentioning, if possible,\nthe particular phrase or, point which is amusing, and whether it is accompanied by gesture or change of voice.\n2. Observe during one day what is the incident or occasion which causes the most boisterous laughter.\nDescribe it.\n3. Ask five girls and five boys what is the funniest thing they ever saw or heard.\n\nThirty papers were received with answers to these questions, and as each contained\nseveral clues as to the sources of childish mirth, there was material for an attempt at\nclassification. The results have been embodied in an article which is now awaiting\npublication.\nThe basis for the picture study was one of the Perry reproductions, \"Two Mothers\nand Their Children,\" by Gardner. One picture was given to each teacher with the following directions:\nHave a sheet of paper similar to this for answer of each child. Give (i) length of time in any kindergarten; (2) answer of child. Show the picture for one-half minute to a child who is out of the hearing of the\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\nothers.\nsee ? \"\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n795\n\nTake it away and ask simply: \"What did you see?\"\nWhen he pauses ask: \"What else did you\nGive no third opportunity. Do not let the picture be seen until just before the questions are asked.\n\nThis study was eagerly undertaken, and the answers of about one thousand children\nwere written down.\nWe hope soon to collate this material and draw conclusions from it.\nWhat did we hope to accompHsh by these studies ? What did we accomplish ? Let\nus answer the latter, the more practical, question first.\nTo each teacher who made the investigation in ideals came a deep realization of the\nimportance of immediate environment to a little child. Ninety-two per cent, of those\nwho gave definite answers to the question, \"Whom would you wish to be like?\" chose\nrelations, teachers, and schoolmates. Home and school fill a five-year-old's universe;\nnot the culture material used in the school, but the hving persons there. In the elementary\nschool only about 13 per cent, would have chosen the same class of ideals. This gives\nadditional evidence to the fact, with which we are familiar, that the kindergarten deals\nwith a different stage of development from that of the school.\nOf the impressions left by large heroic ideals there was but a slight trace. Washington, Roosevelt, and the like were chosen by i per cent, of the children, and then because\nthey rode a horse or could shoot lions. Historic personages are better adapted to the\nschool age than the kindergarten, if they are to be valued at their true worth. They are\nculture material which kindergartners have borrowed — and dare I say belittled ?— and\nshould be returned to their proper place.\nLife itself, the immediate environment, the known, is the only available means of\neducating little children. Whatever is done to make the school beautiful has a great\ninfluence. This knowledge gained new emphasis from our study and gave fresh courage\nto the kindergartners, especially in the poorer districts, where they strove with added\nearnestness to make up for the deficiencies of the home by the attractiveness of the school.\nThe reasons which were given for the choices of the ideals were mainly that they\nbrought occasions for some desirable activity. It is not what others have or are that is\nalluring, but what they can do. Possessions and moral quaUties are of little account.\nStories containing a moral to be effective must keep the morals in the concrete — and active.\nTo sum up the results of this one study: there was gained an appreciation, first, of the\ninfluence of home and school upon a five-year-old child; second, of the futility of holding\nup for admiration characters far removed from the child's experience, or those which have\nonly moral qualities to make them attractive; and, third, of the truth that activity is the\nlaw of childhood.\nFrom the study on humor it was found that most of a little child's amusement was\ncaused by some unusual happening; sometimes a mishap, as a man falHng on ice; sometimes the gesture or change of voice in a story. The more adult form of humor, play on\nwords, is mentioned in only i per cent, of the papers. This test proved that it was natural\nand normal for the child to laugh at the misfortunes of others. It is not a high type of\nfun, but is evidently the necessary stage which must be accepted, and efforts put forth to\ndraw the child a little higher. It might be as possible to blunt a child's sensibility to humor\nby pointing out too soon or too keenly the suffering caused by discomfort, as to dwarf him\nby allowing him to enjoy it too long. Let me quote from the reports of two kindergartners.\nOne writes:\nI am sorry to say that my childern laugh more at the misfortunes of others — a chair tipping over or something of that kind — than at anything else. I try to discourage it, but that makes no difference.\n\nAnother writes:\nWhen a chair tips over, the room is perfectly quiet for an instant, until the child who has fallen says\n\"didn't hurt;\" then there is a great shout of laughter.\n\nThe second teacher seems to have found a way to allow expression to the child's idea of\nthe ludicrous, and yet to shadow forth the possibihty of higher things.\nNearly one-half of the stories were amusing because of gesture or change of voice.\nThis is harmless glee, and should be indulged. In too many schools a laugh is considered\na sign of disorder.\nA kindergartner should consider it a part of her daily program.\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": null, "text": "796\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nActivity as childhood's law was emphasized in these papers, too. A number of\nincidents mentioned as causing most boisterous laughter were due to some lively action\non the part of the children.\nOf course, dehght in companionship augmented the pleasure.\nFrom a hasty glance over the papers on picture study it would seem that a child saw\nvery Httle in a picture until his observation had been trained; he points out familiar and\nanimate objects first, and then interprets the rest by things in his own surroundings.\nEach object is isolated; it does not have any direct relation to other objects. The child\ndoes not see the picture-whole. A single object will be the basis for an imaginative tale\nin the child's mind, which does not of necessity include any of the other objects in the\npicture.\nIt is a later development to read a story into a picture.\nAbove are the practical everyday problems which have been solved or increased by\nthese studies. As regards the children, the tests have not harmed them, for they have\nbeen given in such a way that no self-consciousness has been aroused. As regards the\nteachers, we feel that these results have well paid us for our trouble. They have not only\nopened our eyes on particular subjects, and helped us to understand our children better,\nbut they have made us more prone to question generalizations which have the sanction\nof time. In other words, these studies have given us the scientific attitude toward our\nwork, a desire to find truth, and an open-mindedness to receive it.\nThe tests have not taken the place of the study of the individual child, but have\nmerely supplemented it. Each individual must be known as himself, and also in his\nrelation to other individuals and to the norm. The purpose of these studies was to aid\nin establishing a standard, that nonexistent phantom type-form by which to gauge the\nliving personalities.\nA mass of material which contained all the particulars about many children might\ninclude several facts bearing upon one subject, and it would be possible to average these for\na standard; but when all impressions have been indiscriminately noted, the tendency is to\nrecord the more unusual and startling. The normal is often overlooked, unless the\nattention is drawn toward gaining truth in a certain direction. The result is that many\ngeneralizations which have been made are founded upon the vivid impressions left by\nunusual children.\nA corrective must be the estabUshment of a standard, the average child.\nIt is more reliable, and certainly easier, to gather a number of related points for a\ndefinite purpose than to take them from previously gathered data. There is a smaller\nquantity of material, but it is all available.\nThere are several reasons why the subject method has not been extensively used in\ngathering data from Httle children. One is that the individual study has been considered\nmore applicable to their age. They are thought by some people to be too variable and\nundeveloped. Yet the few statistics which have been gathered determine that generally\nthe tendencies shown are those which develop proportionately in later years. The study\nis most fascinating when it approaches the beginning of things.\nThe many difficulties in the way of obtaining rehable data from small children is\nanother reason why they have been so little studied in a scientific way. These difficulties\nhave been considered almost insurmountable.\nA child's verbal expression of vague feehngs is doubly difficult from lack of power to\nexpress and indefiniteness of feehng. Yet this very vagueness is part of the child's attitude which we are seeking to understand.\nThen the child is shy about telHng what he knows he does mean. That little wild\nheart needs to be treated so gently to be drawn up out of the dark. The person who makes\na test needs to be sympathetic, and yet capable of so eliminating self and personal bias\nthat not the slightest intonation or gesture will influence the susceptible ones.\nAll of these reasons for not getting the exact truth are slightly applicable where older\npersons are concerned. The one difficulty which belongs pecularily to litde children is\nthat the record can never be at first hand; it must be set down by another. That other\nmay sympathize with, but connot enter completely into, the state of mind of the child-\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n797\n\nStage of development, past influence, heredity, individual force, all have a bearing upon\nthe attitude of the moment, and their proportion cannot be determined by an outsider.\nThe investigator must be extremely careful if the record, when elaborate, does not receive\nunintentional emphasis or transposition from individual bias. A perfectly open attitude\nof mind must be maintained.\nLast, but not least, extra work and the sacrifice of time are required on the part of\nany one making a study. That it pays a high rate of interest those of us who have tried\nit can affirm.\nSeeking for truth is its own reward; it is fascinatingly elusive, just when we imagine\nit is in our grasp; we find it inviting us to take another step forward. Sometimes we\ndiscover that we have been following a will-o'-the-wisp; but since the world learns by the\nmistakes of its individuals, if we strive we can add thru truth or error something to the\nworld's advance.\nCHILD STUDY IN THE GRADES\nP. W. HORN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nHOUSTON,\n\nTEX.\n\n[summary]\n\nSome difficulties in child study lie in the fact that the child has little control over his\nphysical nature. He can exercise more cpntrol over his mental nature, and still more over\nhis moral.\nIn profiting by experiments made, it is necessary that inferences should not be drawn\nby the young teacher. Students may produce much that is valuable; yet only one skilled\nin the work should formulate it; otherwise we cast discredit upon the study.\nUndue confidence in reaching conclusions is unfortunate. The chief duty of the\nteacher to the child, after he passes the kindergarten age, is not to dull his interests as he\npasses thru school. It is a mistake to suppose that all his knowledge comes from the\nteacher.\nWe should find out what he is learning, what touches him at every point.\nReading for the first three years becomes a new study when we take this for granted\nand watch the child's growth, finding out what he is learning outside of, and inside, school.\nWe must distinguish between natural and hothouse growth. We do not get at the\nreal child when we study him under forced conditions. The child should not receive\nundue stimulus.\nNo system is valuable which does not take into consideration the child as he has been,\nis, and VN^ill be; for he does not reveal his whole self in the present. Also we must study\nmany children to reach general results.\nThe study must also extend over many years.\n\nROUND\n\nTOPIC:\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE ON CHILD STUDY\nMAR AND SECONDARY GRADES\n\nWAYWARDNESS\n\nI. CRIMINAL\nCHARLES\n\nW. WADDLE,\n\nIN CHILDREN\nYEARS\nTENDENCIES\nFELLOW\n\nAND\n\nIN CLARK\n\nOF FROM\n\nTEN TO EIGHTEEN\n\nTHE JUVENILE\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIN GRAM-\n\nCOURT\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nYesterday natural depravity was the popular belief. Retribution was the end of\ncriminal law. Today conceptions of crime are changing. The teachable criminal is\nmore important than his changeless crime. Love is the motive, and direction, prevention, and reformation, the purpose, of legislative and judicial action.\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": null, "text": "798\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nDelinquency and crime are not synonyms. The actions of the child are no longer\njudged by adult standards. The child is not Hke the adult, either physically, mentally, or\nmorally. He hves in a different world. The child's world is that of the senses; the adult's\nis the world of thought. The actions of the one are governed largely by uncontrollable\ninstincts and impulses; the other is expected to act as reason directs. For centuries our\nlaws made no adequate distinction. Both lawmakers and law-executors had mistaken\ntheories as to the real nature and origin of crime. Many theories have been advanced,\nsuch as heredity, atavism, pcfverty, ignorance, abnormality, alcohoUsm, and environment.\nNone of these theories are broad enough, none reach back far enough, to include all cases.\nNo satisfactory explanation of the fact of crime was ever given until the theory of recapitulation and arrested development gave a new basis for its conception. According to this\ntheory, criminal acts are acts or modifications of acts which, in the history of the race,\nwere necessary for the preservation of Hfe. Ferrianni somewhere says that \"from eight to\nfourteen years of age the child is almost always a thief.\" We may add that this period\ncorresponds to the age of savagery when individual property was unknown. In the case\nof any other specific crime a similar analogy can be traced.\nThe court of every city testifies. that youth is the seedtime of crime. Rarely, indeed,\nis the first criminal act committed after the age of twenty. The fact that during the\nperiod from ten to eighteen almost every child is guilty of antisocial acts of less or more\nseriousness is not necessarily any reflection on the child.' An act that is crime for an\nadult may lack its essential feature as such if it be the act of a child. Social and moral\nstandards are an evolution. The child must learn the world in which he is to live. Much\nthat is termed juvenile crime is the result of excusable ignorance. The boy who put the\niron bolt on the railroad track had no thought of wrecking the train, damaging property,\nand endangering life. He was not a bad boy. He simply did not understand the seriousness of his act. The little girl of eight who set fire to the house just \"to see the fire burn\nand the engines run\" was in no sense a \"prodigy of crime,\" as the newspapers styled her.\nShe was only a homeless orphan whom no one cared to provide with the childish pleasures\nher nature craved. Her misdemeanor was an innocent, tho injurious, effort to satisfy a\nnormal desire.\nThe child is not a criminal. He has tendencies which are antagonistic to modern\nsocial standards. By misunderstanding and mistreating him we can make him a criminal.\nTell a child he is a criminal, treat him as such, confine him with those hardened in crime, and\nhis teachable mind begins to believe it. But given wholesome food, sanitary environments\nsympathetic encouragement, and patient direction, few children will continue to transgress .\nPunishment has been tried long enough to prove th'at as a remedy for crime it is\nentirely ineffectual. In spite of retributive justice, crime is on the increase. The one\nencouraging feature of the subject is that our courts, our schools, our homes, are beginning\nto understand the problem before them and to grapple with it. The sentiment — originating, Ibeheve, with Mr. Bodine, of Chicago — that \"it is wiser and less expensive to\nsave children than to punish criminals,\" has won enthusiastic approval everywhere. Many\nof our states have passed laws which make provision for the vrise and just treatment of\nthe child. Others are hastening to follow their example. Attention is given to the physical, mental, and moral welfare of the child that was unthought of a generation ago. The\nboy in whom one touch of the surgeon's knife wrought a transformation of character that\nrepeated whippings had failed to make; the habitual truant who became a faithful attendant at school when fitted with a pair of glasses; the unmanageable boy whose trouble was\nin his defective hearing and not in his bad heart — all testify that the part taken by the\ncourt medical examiner in the reformation of juvenile delinquents is invaluable. The\nprobation system is the embodiment of corrective, preventive, and directive measures.\nJuvenile offenders yield most readily to its helpful influences. With intelHgent and\ndevoted probation officers to carry out the will of the court, no one should presume to set\na limit to the good that may be accomplished.\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n799\n\nSome concrete cases may best illustrate the working of the Juvenile Court and probation system. H. F., fourteen years of age, broke into a store and took some goods. He\nis proceeded against as a \"juvenile disorderly person.\" He admits his guilt. The seriousness of his act and its consequences are brought forcibly before him by the judge. He can\nbe sent to the industrial school till his majority. He is made to reahze that he has no right\nto expect anything else. Sentence is pronounced. Like every other boy, he has a dread\nof the institution. The judge asks him if he would like to stay at home. With tears in his\neyes he is ready to promise anything. After explaining to him the nature and sacredness\nof a promise, its value to him if kept, and the consequences of failure, the judge accepts\nhis word of honor to obey the requirements of the court. His sentence is suspended\nduring good behavior, and he is released on probation under the care of the officer and the\nparents, who, the judge is assured, are well-meaning people ready to co-operate with him.\nThat is not all. The child is required to report statedly to the court, and may be called\nto account at any time for any breach of its rules. If his conduct is good, he is encouraged\nand commended, his pride is aroused, his self-respect appealed to, his manhood praised.\nIf a bad report is made, the judge talks to him privately as one who understands his troubles,\nsympathizes with him, and wishes to help him as a friend. His confidence won, he begins\nto take pride in proving himself worthy such a friend.\nBefore the days of the Juvenile Court a boy eleven years old who, thru the natural\ndesire to make a kite, stole a razor from a barber shop because his father angrily told him\nto get a knife the best way he could, was sentenced to jail and served his time, coming out\nto begin a career as thief and burglar. A completed sentence in the industrial school\nwrought no transformation. Once more he is hunted as a desperate burglar of sixteen.\nThis time he is brought to the Juvenile Court. In spite of all the mistreatment this boy\nhad undergone, he yielded to kindness and sympathy, and for nine months had a satisfactory record on probation, after which he was placed in a miHtary school.\nSome cases are less hopeful from the beginning. Little J. F., who, at eight years and\nseven months of age, had to his credit, or rather discredit, habitual truancy, the theft of a\nbicycle, a velocipede, and various other small articles, who in one week burglarized two\nstores, and was found on the street at one o'clock at night with his pockets full of money\nand a box of candy under each arm, was, in the estimation of the court, a doubtful subject\nfor probation; especially as his father was a drunkard and had deserted the mother and\nfamily of seven children, of whom he was the eldest. The hopeless lack of home surroundings make successful reformation in such cases next to impossible outside the\ninstitution.\nFortunately such cases are rare. In from 85 to 95 per cent, of the homes of juvenile\ndehnquents sufficient co-operation can be had from the parents to justify placing them\non probation. When we learn that in several of our large cities not over 5 per cent, of\nthose placed on probation have to be returned for breaking their parole, we are forced to\nadmit the superiority of the new method. The reason is not far to seek. It is the method\nof love, not vengeance; the method of helpfulness, not condemnation. The fact that in\none city one hundred and fifty boys, voluntarily or thru the influence of other boys, have\ncome to the judge, made a clean breast of all their misdeeds, asked to be taken under the\ncare of the court, and helped out of their difficulties, speaks volumes for the boys' appreciation of the fairness and squareness of their treatment by that court. The delinquent\nboy's sense of fairness and justice can be far more readily appealed to than that of the\ncriminal adult. Once aroused, he can be depended on. He can do more in one week to\nconvict men guilty of violation of liquor and cigarette laws than a police force can in a\nyear. He can break up the criminal tendencies of his gang when all other methods fail.\nHe can do more to make a good citizen of himself, when properly directed, than all the\npowers of harsh authority. Help the child to the best chance possible, and he will make a\nman of himself. Reformation is better than punishment. Formation is better than\nreformation.\nDirection is better than correction.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": null, "text": "8oo\n\nII.\nOSCAR\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRELATION\n\nHOME\n\nCHRISMAN,\n\nOF THE\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTO THE\n\nOF PAIDOLOGY,\n\nOHIO\n\nWAYWARD\n\n[Child Study\n\nCHILD\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nATHENS,\n\nO.\n\nI have been wondering how to define a wayward child. When we read Swift's\n'Criminal Tendencies of Boyhood,\" ^ and recall our own boyhood, the question is not,\n\"Why do we have so many wayward children?\" but rather, \"How did any of us escape\nfrom being wayward children ?\" I did not do everything that was bad when I was a boy,\nnor did I do everything that was good. The only reason I can see why we did not all grow\nup to be among the wayward children is not that we were not wayward, but rather that\nwe were not wayward most of the time, and the waywardness kept growing less until we\ngot far enough away from waywardness to keep away. Yet everyone here today has at\nleast some one thing in his nature against which he must wage an everyday fight to keep\nit down, and which he fears may some day get the supremacy. Our growing away from\nwaywardness was by our doing more good things than bad things, and thus we became\ngradually habituated to incline toward the better things; and as these better things came\nour way, we naturally took them up rather than the worse things.\nOn the contrary, the wayward child becomes habituated to doing the worse things\nrather than the better things, so that when good things come his way, he passes them by\nand takes the bad things. That is to say, the mind exercised in a certain direction, modes\nof habit are formed in that direction.\nBut the above does not tell just why one child falls habitually to choosing the good\nmost of the time, and another child falls to choosing the bad most of the time. This can\nbe answered only by the same old questions of heredity and environment. This paper\nhas to do with such questions herein only as far as the home is concerned.\nThere are two forces at work in the family to produce degenerate children, and the\neffects of which we cannot know fully, which are alcohoUsm and prenatal influence. There\nis one phase of alcoholism which seems to be on the increase, and to which much attention\nis being attracted now; this is the use of patent medicines by the mother. In the 1902\nReports of Food and Drug Inspection by the Massachusetts State Board of Health I counted\neighteen patent medicines which are set down as containing over 25 per cent, of alcohol,\nreaching as high as 47.5 per cent, of alcohol, and \"the dose recommended upon the labels\nof the foregoing preparations varied from a teaspoonful to a wineglassful, and the frequency also varied from one to four times a day, 'increased as needed.' \" Surely women\nwho use these to excess must bear degenerate children, if it is true at all that the use of\nalcohol degenerates the race. Since it is true in nature that there is a tendency to degenerate where conditions favor such, we can see that alcoholic parents place the children\nborn to them in condition for a descent from normal.\nOur knowledge is so meager of the second element mentioned above — prenatal\ninfluence — and so much is in dispute, that it is difficult to decide in reference to it. Just\nhow far the condition of the mother affects the unborn child there is no definite way to\ndetermine. We know that the physical condition of the mother greatly affects the physical\ncondition of the child, and hence it seems as if the mental condition of the mother must\naffect the mental condition of the child. As degeneracy is very greatly a physical condition, and as the mental condition reacts on the physical, both the physical and mental\ncondition of the mother may affect the child, and prenatal influence may be one great cause\nof degenerate children.\nOne cause for degeneracy is the amount and kind of food of children. Experiments\nmade upon animals show how greatly food conditions affect them ; so food conditions must\nmore greatly affect the young of man. It is a noted fact that children admitted to reform\nschools show very greatly the lack of proper food, and about the first thing to be done for\nthem is to build them up thru proper feeding.\nThus the tendency of the young to degen' Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. VIII, p. 65.\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nON\n\nCHILD\n\nSTUDY\n\n8oi\n\nerate is aggravated by lack of proper food. Not only does this concern the food itself, but\nalso the preparation of it as well.\nOne of the greatest influences on the child is the incomplete home, where one or other\nof the parents is missing all of the time or a great part of the time, and which shows how\nimportant to the child are both the father and the mother, and that monogamy is the best\nform for the rearing of children. This brings up, too, the effect that will come upon\nchildren of the future if there continues an increase of those things that are taking the\nmothers and the fathers away from the homes both day and night. With all that may\nbe said against the stepmother, I believe that in the far greatest number of cases the child\nthat has a stepmother is in much better condition than the child who is entirely without\nwoman's influence in the home.\nWith all the home influences, however good, that may be brought about the child,\nthere is one instinct that can never be eradicated, and in the boy is so strong as to cause\nhim to be impelled toward a wayward life. I mean the migratory instinct. This is a\nrace-instinct, and often cannot be overcome till a migration takes place; and even then it\nmay be continued. In the large majority of cases the boy tries it but once; but if the\ninstinct is very strong or the home surroundings are very unpleasant, and especially if\nboth these happen together, the boy remains away, or tries it a second or more times, till\nhe is given up by the parents.\nThe school must reecognize the need of helping these wayward children by helping\nto make good homes for them. After an address I gave not long since before a parents*\nand teachers' club I asked of the mothers present if they found that their daughters gave\nless time to learn to do housekeeping than when they, the mothers, were girls; and the\nanswers were that such is the case, that the school duties are more burdensome, and that\nthe social and church duties require much more time. Such being true, the education of\nthe school should be made, more than it is at present, a preparation for the hom'e. Especially isthis needed where the mother is taken from the home to work, and also for those\nhomes where the mothers rarely understand home-keeping and home-making. In this\nway the school should better prepare the girl for home life, and thru her elevate the home.\nThus the school could do much more for the wayward child than it is doing; for the child\nof the future could thus have a much better home, and would want to remain in it. If\neducation still continues to take more of the girl's time, and yet fails to prepare her for\nhome-making, the home of the wayward child will still grow to be less and less helpful to\nhim, and he will be driven from it even more than now.\n\nDISCUSSION\nLinus W. Kline, State Normal School, Duluth, Minn. — In opening the discussion\nof the topic of this morning I wish to direct attention to its timeliness. American Hfe and\nliving are pitched at such a high scale that the fundamental powers and virtues of our\npeople are put to a severe test. Evidence of this is on every hand. It is seen in the early\naging of our people, in the precociousness of our children, in the increasing growth of\nnervous diseases, in the lack of self-control in many unexpected quarters, and in the\nfrequent outbursts of the mob psychosis. And there is every reason to suppose that these\nconditions will become more acute, and therefore ways and means fdr their cure and prevention more urgent, in the immediate future. Furthermore, I am persuaded that advance\nin this exceedingly difficult field must be made by speciaHsts in psychology, in insanity, and\nin sociology. In the meantime, while waiting for definite knowledge, principles, and\nrules for guidance from the hands of experts, lay members of the teaching profession will\nmore Hkely sustain a wholesome attitude toward the child by adhering to a cheerful optimistic philosophy.\nWe can yet a while afford to have our work-a-day philosophy beclouded by a bit of\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": null, "text": "802\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Study\n\nj\n\nmysticism and nourished by sentiment, to the end that we may believe that the child is\nnature's best effort to begin the human species aright.\nTo those of us who are observing and investigating I would suggest that we have a\nvery special care not to confuse normal growth-processes with abnormalities; not to confound instincts with mental diseases; not to mix up unconscious cruelties, lying, and the\nlike with chronic moral perversions.\nThe lack of attention and concentration on the part\n\nj\nj\nj\nJ\n-,\n\nof the child is too often labeled a fauJt by parent and teacher, whereas the probable truth '\nis undevelopment.\nThe fault is not in the child, but in the teacher who expects a faultless\nattention from immature minds.\n\n;(\n\nMy own studies on truancy indicate that it is at bottom an instinct performing a\nuseful function, but may be perverted by incompetent parents, a deficient home, and an\nover-bookish schoolroom.\nTruancy is an evil, but the instinct which lies back of it is a\nwholesome force in civilization, when wisely directed.\n\n{\n^\n\nM. P. E. Groszmann, director of the Groszmann School of Atypical and Nervous\nChildren, Plainfield, N. J.— Some of the children born with some of the following signs\nto an abnormal degree are likely to develop criminal tendencies later in Hfe: (i) lack of\njudgment and lack of self-control; (2) inability to see the wrong in untruthfulness; (3)\nprolonged uncleanliness; uncleanliness should be changed to unusual cleanliness about\nseventeen to eighteen years of age; (4) lack of purity; (5) an uncontrolable temper which\nwill lead to erratic action. Physical characteristics, such as large ears or a high palate,\nare often held by experts to be signs of waywardness, but this does not generally hold true.\nE. G. Dexter, Department of Pedagogy, University of IlUnois, Champaign, 111. —\nIn my opinion, truancy is nothing more or less than a natural corrective for some ailment\nof nature. The child goes on a truant expedition in order that nature may correct some\nnatural Umitation, which under our present school system cannot be corrected in the schoolroom. If the child who is habitually truant and wayward is naturally, physically limited,\nas shown by Dr. KHne, such as being small in stature or undeveloped in one line or another,\nit is necessary for him to get a natural development by outdoor exercises which outdoor\nlife will give him.\nTruancy, then, is but a natural corrective for natural limitations.\nMiss Mary R. Campbell, of the Chicago Hospital Schools for Nervous Children. —\nExternal signs of degeneracy cannot be depended on as indicative of criminal tendencies,\nas shown by expert judgment of educators and physicians.\n\n1\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 1904\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Physical Culture Hall of Washington University at\n2:30 p. M., by E. Hermann Arnold, of New Haven, Conn., president of the department.\nAfter words of welcome to those present, the president read a paper on \"The Importance\nof Walking in Physical Training.\"\nThe next topic was announced as \"The Objects and Methods of Physical Training\nin Primary and Grammar Schools: (a) from the Standpoint of the General Teacher; (b)\nfrom the Standpoint of the Physical Training Teacher.\" The first speaker was W. W.\nChalmers, superintendent of schools, Toledo, O. He was followed by WiUiam A. Stecher,\ndirector of physical training, public schools, Indianapolis, Ind. These papers were discussed byC. C. Miller, superintendent of schools, Lima, O.\nMrs. Mary H. Ludlum, instructor in physical training, Central High School, St. Louis,\nMo., next read a paper on \" The Objects and Methods of Physical Training in High Schools\nfrom the Standpoint of the Speciahst.\"\nShe was followed by Miss Elsa Pohl, physical director of the Girls' Gymnasium,\nMcKinley High School, St. Louis, on \"Physical Training Exhibits in the Physical Training\nDepartment of the Exposition.\"\nThe meeting then adjourned until Wednesday at 2:30 p. m,, at the same place, to\nattend an exhibition of gymnastics to be given under the direction of A. E, Kindervater,\nsupervisor of physical training in the pubUc schools and director of gymnastics in the St.\nLouis Turnverein.\nILLUSTRATIVE\nunder\n\nPROGRAMS\n\nthe direction of a. e. kindervater\nWednesday,\n\nJune 29, 2:30 p. m.\n\nIn the World's Fair Gymnasium at the Stadium, by classes of the local gymnastic societies and the Central\nY. M. C. A.\n1. Dumb-bell and marching exercises, by boys of the North St. Louis Turnverein; Otto M. Koenig,\ninstructor.\n2. Bar-bells exercises and dancing steps, by girls of Concordia Turnverein; Karl H. Heckrich, instructor.\n3. Class work on parallel bars, by juniors of South St. Louis Turnverein; Louis M. Kitthaus, instructor.\n4. Dancing steps and posing, by ladies of Concordia Turnverein; Karl H. Heckrich, instructor.\n5. Marching drill by juniors of Central Y. M. C. A.; Dr. Kennedy instructor.\n6. Marching exercises with flags and fancy steps, by ladies of St. Louis Turnverein; A. E. Kindervater,\ninstructor.\n7. Individual work on apparatus, by juniors of Concordia Turnverein; Karl H. Heckrich, instructor,\nThursday,\n\nJune 30, 10 a. m.\n\nIn the World's Fair Gymnasium at the Stadium, by classes of the public primary, grammar, and high\nschools of St. Louis, showing physical culture as it is practiced\n803 daily.\n1. Cahsthenics and Gymnastic games for first and second grades, by pupils of the CUnton School; Miss\nMartha Courte, teacher.\n2. Cahsthenics for third and fourth grades. Lessons i and 11 showing the progression in the year's work ^\nby pupils of the Charless School; Miss Ella Ryan teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n3. Calisthenics and wand exercises for fifth and sixth grades, by pupils of the Blair School; Miss Bertha\nL. Zollner teacher.\n4. Wand and Indian club exercises for seventh and eighth grades, by pupils of the Irving School; Miss\nKate A. Jones, teacher.\n5. Class work of a daily program, by twenty-four girls of the McKinley High School; Miss Elsa Pohl,\ni nstructor.\n6. Running and class work on apparatus, by boys of the McKinley High School; Karl H. Heckrich,\ninstructor.\n7. Class work and dumb-bell drill, by girls of the Central High School; Mrs. H. Ludlum, instructor.\n8. Wand exercises, by twenty-four boys of the Central High School; Louis M. Kittlaus, instructor.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 30 p. m. by President Arnold.\nA paper on the \" Objects and Methods of Physical Training in Normal Schools, from\nthe Standpoint of the Special Teacher,\" was read by G. B. Affleck, director of physical\ntraining, Iowa State Normal School, Cedar Falls, la.\n\"Objects and Methods of Physical Training in Colleges and Universities, from the\nStandpoint of the General Teacher,\" was presented by R. H. Jesse, president of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n\"Physical Training Exhibits in the Educational Building of the Exf)osition,\" by Miss\nMary Ida Mann, director of the Women's Gymnasium, University of Missouri, Coumbia,\nMo., was next presented.\nOn motion by Dr. Guhck, of New York, a resolution was passed thanking those who\ntook part in the illustrative programs, especially as the drill was given after the schools had\nbeen closed for some time, when it was especially difficult to keep pupils together for such\nexercises.\nThe election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows:\nFor President — E. Hermann Arnold New Haven, Conn.\nFor Vice-President — Miss Rebecca Stoneroad, Washington, D. C.\nFor Secretary—G. B. Affleck, Cedar Falls, la.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nMary H. Ludlum,\nSecretary pro tempore.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nE. HERMANN\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF WALKING\n\nARNOLD,\nDIRECTOR\nOF\nGYMNASTICS,\nNEW\n\nAS A SCHOOL\n\nNEW\nHAVEN\nNORMAL\nHAVEN,\nCONN.\n\nEXERCISE\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nIn selecting the exercise material for physical training in general, but\nespecially that for the use in public schools, there are numerous points of view\nfrom which to make the selection. We may choose an exercise for its general\nor special hygienic effect or its educational value, but the utiHty of an exercise should also be considered. If we look at walking as an exercise, from\nthese view-points it would seem as if its special hygienic value would be\nlow.\nIn common walking, on level ground, next to no muscular effort is made.\nIt is simply a supported falling; this being the case, the activity of the circula-\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nOF WALKING\n\nAS A SCHOOL\n\nEXERCISE\n\n805\n\ntory and respiratory apparatus is but little increased. Muscular efforts being\nfew and of low grade, muscular development is not furthered to an appreciable\ndegree by walking. To conclude from this that, unless the walking were done\nin open air — when we should get the general benefit of inhaling better air than\nindoors — it would not have even a general hygienic value, would be greatly\nto underestimate walking as a health-furthering exercise. Even if walking\nis done in a leisurely manner on level ground, and we get no pronounced\nbenefit on circulation and respiration, there remains the decided influence of\nwalking on the digestive functions. This influence depends on the jar caused\nby the impact of the foot which is advanced to catch the forward faUing body\nand prevent its striking the ground. This leg meets the ground without being\nable to act much as a spring, owing to its extended position, and therefore\ntransmits a considerable shock to the body. This shock would have a disastrous effect on the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain), were\nit there not reduced by the pecuHar construction of the spine.\nI do not intend here to enlarge on the mechanism by which this is effected.\nIt may suffice to state that the shock in common walking is not much felt by\nthe central nervous system, and has therefore no unw^holesome effect on it.\nIt is felt in much greater measure by the abdominal organs. These facts\nare so obvious, and can be demonstrated so readily to everyone's satisfaction,\nthat it is quite unnecessary to spend time on its explanation. The shock\nreceived by the abdominal organs — namely, the several glands and the intestines— acts as a mechanical stimulus on the sensory nerve-endings situated\nin these organs. As a reflex consequence of such stimulation we may get in\nthese glands and the intestines greater blood supply and greater secretory\nactivity. A necessary outcome must be, on the one hand, better digestion;\non the other hand, exgestion. In our times, which tend, by the prolongation\nand intensity of school life, and by the greater transportation facilities, to the\nsedentary habit, there is the ever-increasing evil of constipation, which were\nit the only one, would be sufficient reason to urge the necessity for walking as an\nexercise. It we consider that by changing the rhythm of walking so as no\nlonger to permit the use of the leg in the manner of a pendulum, which means\neither a slower or a faster movement of the leg swing than its ordinary pendulum swing, we transform the leg movement into a very pronouncedly muscular one, we see how easy it is to add to the hygienic value of walking; for\nthe slow, as well as the fast, walk, necessitating muscular effort, must have a\nbeneficial influence on circulation and respiration. In passing, I may draw\nattention to the great convenience of this exercise. This recommends it\nespecially as an exercise for pupils the condition of whose hearts and lungs is\nnot well known, and for whom therefore mild and easily graded exercise is\nalways preferable with which to begin physical training. -I will also merely\nmention the advisability of using the slow step as an indoor, the fast walking\nas an outdoor, exercise. Ascending and descending hills changes walking\nfrom an unmuscular exercise to one in which the muscular effort ranges from\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physica\n\nvery little to the degree of utmost muscular exertion, depending upon the\ngrade of the hill and the velocity of ascent or descent.\nWe have then in walking a general exercise with pronounced effect on\nrespiration, circulation, and general muscular development, in which exercise the above-cited effect on digestion and exgestion is of course increased\nmany fold.\nFor all these reasons I plead for walking — extensive walking, fast walking,\nwalking up and down hill — as a most beneficial form of exercise. As a part\nof a scheme of physical training v/alking has decided advantages. It needs\nno apparatus, no special suit. It can be done indoors and outdoors. It is\na safe exercise. It needs not the guidance of a special teacher. It is therefore within the reach of all individuals and of all school organizations. Moreover, itcan be directly connected with the other forms of school exercises,\nthus doing away with the oft-heard outcry that physical training takes too\nmuch time which is needed for other branches. It is not only perfectly feasible\nto combine this exercise with such branches as botany, zoology, mineralogy,\ngeology, geography, and history, but it is very desirable to teach these branches\nin an objective manner by demonstration, occasions for which are abundantly\noffered by long walks. I enter therefore a strong plea for the school excursion— the walking one, be it understood. This must not be deferred till the\nchild reaches the secondary school or college, but should be begun in the\nlowest primary grade.\nThere is one more consideration which lends importance to walking as\na school exercise. Walking is a universal form of movement. It is performed\nwith much more frequency than any other movement. It makes, therefore,\na great deal of difference whether it be performed aright or not. If a person walk\non an average of five thousand steps daily, and should take these steps in such\na bad mechanical manner that he had to overcome with each step only two\nfoot-pounds more resistance, he would require for the performance of such\nwalking ten thousand foot-pounds more energy than a person whose mechanics\nof walking were correct. Such greater exertion in performing an exercise\nwhich in itself is non-productive deducts from the working capacity of the\nindividual in a most decided way. Walking becomes thereby a most important\nfactor in industrial and commercial Hfe. It has a high economical value for\neach individual, and of course for the community. As it is the purpose of the\nschool to fit for life, the school cannot neglect such an important matter as\nthe ability of the children to walk correctly. It owes it to them as a part of\ntheir armament for the strife of life. The teaching of correct walking belongs\nto the special teachers of physical training; to them, therefore, I wish to\nemphasize the importance of walking as a school exercise.\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nW.\n\nTRAINING\n\n807\n\nOBJECTS AND METHODS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING\nPRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOLS— FROM THE\nSTANDPOINT OF THE GENERAL TEACHER\n\nIN\n\nW.\n\nOBJECTS\n\nCHALMERS,\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nTOLEDO,\n\nO.\n\nI shall treat this subject in the following order: (i) a general discussion of\nthe necessity of the department of physical training in the public-school\ncourse; (2) the objects to be kept in view in planning this work; (3) some\ngood methods of securing satisfactory results in executing these plans.\nI speak today from the standpoint of the general teacher. The subject\nof the hour is how best to fit the child to enjoy the fullness of life. It is not\nhow to train the child-mind, but how to educate the whole child. I feel honored in my assignment upon this program. I leave the place of the director,\nand today represent the general teacher, the workman, the producer, the\nsoldier upon the firing fine.\nTo educate a child means to draw out and develop all his mental, moral,\nand physical possibilities. In the early history of this country the physical\neducation of the child was so well provided for by his rural opportunities and\nsocial necessities that it was not taken into consideration in arranging his\npublic-school education. The past few decades have brought about many\nchanges in the educational necessities of the child. This is especially true\nin the cities. The center of population has moved from the country to the\ncity. How the city-bred child misses the vigorous training of the rural environment, the close touch with nature, and the discipline of the regular needs\nof the family life I For the city boy there is no longer wood to split, water\nto carry, nor milking to do. There is no longer even a cradle to rock. The\ndisciplinary value of doing the chores must be provided for the city boys and\ngirls, or we shall raise up a lot of non-combative characters that will be utterly\nlacking in leadership, in initiative, in sterling manhood and womanhood.\nIt is my opinion that the performance of physical skill, requiring vigorous\nmental and volitional activity, is the best preparation for the proper development of the ability to solve successfully the problems of fife. This is the\nopportunity physical training gives. If the city school does not meet these\nrequirements in the education of her children, it will be weighed in the balance\nand found wanting.\nThe day of judgment is at hand.\nThere is no accident about the fact that a large percentage of successful men\nwere reared and educated in rural communities. Contrast the rural education, the physical largely dominant, with the loosely united octagraded city\nschool where the training is almost wholly intellectual. If the boys and girls\nwho have been educated under the \"lock-step\" system of an octagraded city\nschool organization, where all the pupils in a schoolroom' are held together\nfor recitation and study purposes, do not suffer from educational dyspepsia\nand volitional apathy, it will be because of one of the provisions of the divine\neconomy of nature to which she resorts in case of accident or misuse of the\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": null, "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nnatural plan of mental and physical development. Especially is this true\nif the curriculum gives attention to intellectual training only, and omits the\nphysical and general culture phases of educating for Hfe.\nGod created the human being with physical possibiHties and intellectual,\nsocial, and voHtional powers interwoven and interdependent. This complex\nhuman organism must be provided for in our plan of school organization.\nThe whole boy must be sent to school. If you neglect three-fourths of the\nchild to bring about certain abnormal intellectual results, you do this at the\nexpense of the child and incur the risk of mental collapse. I believe that the\ntraditional intellectual curriculum of the past must be leavened with physical\ntraining, manual culture, general culture, and industrial ideals. If it is preserved to serve future generations, it must be spiritualized by meeting also the\nsocial and industrial side of human life.\nSpeaking, therefore, from the standpoint of the general teacher, I beUeve\nthat a course in physical training is desirable and positively essential to the\nproper education of the children. It is also my belief that this course should\nnot be left to the caprice or pleasure of the general teacher, but should be given\na fundamental, and not an incidental, position upon the school program.\nI beheve also that the general plans should be made by one who has- had\nspecial training for the work, and who is fitted both by education and by\nnature to direct and supervise the department. Many states have recognized\nthe importance of this subject by making instruction in physical training\ncompulsory.\nThe state of Ohio has the following law upon its statute books:\nPhysical culture, which shall include calisthenics, shall be included in the branches\nto be regularly taught in common schools in cities of the first and second class, and in all\neducational institutions supported wholly or in part by money received from the state; and\nit shall be the duty of boards of education of cities of the first and second class, and boards\nof such educational institutions, to make provision in the schools and institutions under\ntheir jurisdiction for the teaching of physical culture and calisthenics, and to adopt such\nmethods as shall adapt the same to the capacity of the pupils in the various grades therein.\n\nThe object of physical training is to educate the whole child; that is, to\ntrain him so that he will be able to live up to his greatest possibilities. We\ndesire to educate the child so that he will be able to get the most out of Hfe.\nThis cannot be done without mental training; it cannot be done without moral\ntraining; it cannot be done without physical training. Proper physical\ndevelopment cannot be secured without systematic training in a series of\nexercises having a physiological purpose and bringing into activity all the\nmuscles of the body.\nEvery exercise should be directed by a system of commands which suggests\nthe movements to the pupil. In this way the training of the intellect and will\ngoes hand in hand with the physical development. Corrective exercises\nshould also be provided. In this way children who are afiiicted with natural\nor acquired deformities will be helped at a time when their bones are soft and\nyielding.\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n809\n\nWith these facts in mind, the following exercises are suggested :\n1. Careful attention to correct standing, sitting, walking. Corrective exercises given\nto commands, where every part of the body is exercised in every lesson; the lesson to be\ngiven twice every day.\n2. The mind must be engaged, but not strained, during physical exercises. The\nlesson, therefore, should be short, and followed by a game or some means of relaxation.\n\nAs a general plan of distributing the above suggestions over the years of\nthe elementary-school course, I would suggest the following:\nFirst and second grades: Gymnastic stories and plays, together with simple free-hand\nexercises and motion songs.\nThird and fourth grades: Free-hand exercises, including the simple forms of Swedish\ngymnastics, with motion songs and games.\nFifth and sixth grades : Swedish exercises of more advanced character, military drill,\ndumb-bells, and bean-bag games.\nSeventh and eighth grades: Advanced Swedish gymnastics, military drill, silent drills,\nfancy steps and dumb-bells, wands and Indian clubs, with music.\n\nWhile the child is \"having fun,\" as he calls it, he is getting the best possible\nrelaxation. For this reason the exercises for the first two years should be playful in character, but leading directly on to the more difficult ones of the following years. Some few commands should be given. If the will does not\nwork at all, the movements are listless and the circulation of the blood so slow\nthat weariness, instead of vigor, follows.\nAfter the stories and plays of the first two years, the children should begin\nthe real Swedish work. The lessons should be from eight to ten minutes in\nlength, usually finished with a game or motion song. The exercises or tables\nshould be given in a schoolroom or gymnasium filled with plenty of fresh air,\nand with a temperature of from 65° to 68° F. Following the drill, the school\nshould be sent to a playroom or a playground for about ten minutes of free\nplay. This should be followed both morning and afternoon thruout the\nelementary school life of the pupil.\nThe gymnasium or schoolroom gymnastics — for disciplining or training;\nfor pleasure, health, and skill — should include, first, head exercises, to secure\ncorrect poise of the head and chest, and a development of the muscle.s of the\nneck; second, arm exercises, to secure a development of chest, shoulder blades,\nand arms; third, trunk exercises, including lateral trunk movements, to\nstrengthen the spine and flatten the shoulder blades, to strengthen the waist\nmuscles, to increase the activity of the Uver, and to improve circulation;\nfourth, balance movements, to strengthen the ankles, bringing the blood into\nthe extremities; fifth, breathing exercises, to expand the chest and develop\nlung power, to improve circulation, and to restore the heart to normal action\nand prevent colds. If these directions are followed, the teacher will find that\nthe children are better fitted, at the close of the physical-training period, to\nmaster their studies; and if the course be carefully followed, the result for the\npupils, as time goes on, will be: better standing and sitting positions; correct\nwalking; correct breathing; better circulation; freedom of joints and flexibility\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": null, "text": "gio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nof muscles.; healthful action of skin, therefore better complexion; greater\nnerve-power; self-possession in place of self-consciousness; better assimilation\nof food; more intellectuality, including clearer thinking and concentration.\nIt is my opinion that there should be provided separate playgrounds for\nboys and girls adjacent to every school building. There should be both organized and free play. The organized play may be under the control and direction\nof the grade teacher or the physical-training specialist. Some inexpensive\napparatus should be furnished for both outdoor and indoor training.\nBut it is with- physical training as with teaching in all departments: the\nsuccess of the work depends more upon personaHty and individuality than\nupon objects and methods and courses and tables and games. Fortunate\nindeed is the city whose supervisor can inspire with the best ideals. In our\nown city the physical-training department does not consist of catalogs and\ncirculars and courses and apparatus. It consists of life and love and sympathy,\ndispensed by our supervisior of physical training. With us physical training\nforms a large part of the real life of the school. Our supervisor, who was for\nseveral years secretary of this department, is a perfect inspiration. She\nenters the schoolroom as a ray of sunshine. She has the confidence, esteem,\nand support of pupils, teachers, and patrons. I make these personal remarks\nabout Miss Pray and her work to emphasize, at this point, the old maxim\nthat the teacher makes the school, and that there is more in the spirit than in\nthe letter. If a teacher or supervisor can fill the room with an atmosphere of\nhelpfulness and good-will and interest, there will be good, healthy growth\nboth of body and mind. Childhood responds to such an environment, even\nas the bud developes its inherent symmetry and beauty under the sunlight\nand dews of heaven.\n\nTHE OBJECTS AND METHODS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN\nPRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOLS— FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE PHYSICAL TRAINING TEACHER\nWILLIAM\n\nA.\n\nSTECHER,\n\nDIRECTOR\nOF PHYSICAL\nTRAINING,\nINDIANAPOLIS,\nIND.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNot many years ago the subject of most papers on physical training was\n''The Necessity of Physical Training in Our Schools.\" The mere fact that\nthe necessity is no longer questioned, but that now we seek to find the methods\nwhich give the best results, speaks volumes. It shows that we have passed\nfrom the theoretical to the practical stage of our subject; that it now behooves\nus to study the needs of the pubHc schools of today and to fit our art to the\nconditions we find. Clearly to understand what is expected of physical training in the primary and grammar schools, and how we can best accomplish it,\nwe will first ask: What are the objects of this training ?\n. Here we immediately find a great diversity of opinion.\nThose asking the\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n8il\n\nleast say that school gymnastics ought to consist simply of games and work\nof a recreative character. Those asking most may be represented by the\nrenowned physiologist, Professor Virchow, who says: \"It is my belief that\nonly one-half of the school hours should be devoted to study, and the rest to\nphysical training and games.\" Last of all come those who, with Dr. Hartung,\ndemand\nthat first of all it is necessary to lift all physical training, or whatever goes by that name at\npresent in many of our school systems, from that inferior position as a remedial or therapeutic agent, as a repair department for sins committed by faulty and obnoxious school\nmethods and ways of living, to a higher level, and place it on a sound foundation as a truly\neducational department.\n\nThey claim that the first and foremost requirement of any system of physical\ntraining for the public schools is that it has for its aim and object the harmonious development of the child's body according to well-defined physiological, psychological, and pedagogical laws. They demand that a system of\ntraining for the public schools should have for its objects :\n1. A stimulation for growth of the body in general, and development of the vital\norgans in particular.\n2. The development of strength, quickness, and agility.\n3. The removal of bodily defects or conditions brought about by school life.\n4. The increasing of vitality, so as to give the body that resistance against sickness\nwhich is needed to live well.\n5. A general basic training of those psychic powers which are necessary for the growth\nof the will-power, and which are recognized as obedience, submission to rules and order,\nperseverance, courage, self-reliance, and self-control.\n\nTo sum up, this last class of educators claim that the objects of a rational\nsystem of physical training must be (a) to train and develop the child's body\nin accordance with its physiological demands, and (b) to counteract the evil\neffects of school habits caused by prolonged sitting or by unhygienic conditions.\nTo arrive at a correct solution of the problem, what the objects of school\ngymnastics must be, it becomes necessary to inquire, first, What are the conditions of modern school Hfe which must be taken into consideration when\nchoosing exercises ? and, second. What are the physiological demands of a\nchild between the ages of six and fourteen as to its growth and development ?\nUp to its entrance into school a child has led a comparatively free life.\nIn general, it moved about wherever it pleased — sang, played and ran. It\nwas out of doors, in the sunshine and fresh air, most of the time. With its\nentrance into the school all these conditions immediately changed. It now\nmust remain in a closed room five hours a day. Crowded yards at recess\noffer httle chance for play. The school requires that it be quiet. The demands\nof writing, drawing, sewing, etc., keep the child in unnatural positions for\nhours. Its time for play is greatly restricted, and the lungs, instead of developing and expanding, suffer because of the child's long sitting. Heart and circulation also suffer from loss of action. Then the air in nearly all schoolrooms\nis impure.\nThe eyes often suffer from poor Hght, too much work, or incor-\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": null, "text": "8i2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nrect seating. The desks and benches are often ill fitted. In short, we find\nthat school Hfe gives the child conditions which are radically opposed to those\nneeded for its bodily development.\nModem physiology tells us that the necessity for muscular exercise becomes\ngreater the more the demands for mental development grow, and the more\nartiftcial the lives of city children become. But the modern school does not\nrecognize this. Children also now go to school more years than formerly.\nThe school work itself is of a more intense character — all leading away from\nmuscular work.\nThe life of a normally developed child is one of continual activity during\nall of its waking hours. It seldom is still for any length of time, and many\na teacher has found one of her hardest problems a boy, or girl, so full of vitality\nthat he cannot be still for a minute. Yet our school life asks that this child\nremain quiet for hours. We are not only supposed to suppress that activity\nwhich is an integral part of the Hfe of every normally developed child, but\nwe are also asking the child to pay close attention to processes which develop\nits mind. As Dr. GuUck so aptly expresses it: ''The demands of our schools\nbring a coincident decrease in muscular work and an increase in lines that are\npurely neural.\"\nWhat does physiology teach us is going on in the bodies of our pupils\nduring these first eight school years ? Children enter the first grade at about\nsix years, and leave the grammar schools at about fourteen years of age.\nAccording to the child's physical development, the noted physiologist, Dr. F.\nA. Schmidt, divides these years into two periods; the first into three years,\nfrom six to nine years, and the last into five, from nine to fourteen years.\nDuring the first period the child accustoms itself to the physical conditions of\nschool life. In this time a great development of the bones, especially of the\nhead, takes place. It is also, usually, the end of dentition. The second period —\nthat is, up to the beginning of puberty — brings about a strengthening of the\nskeletal frame, and the muscles continue to grow more enduring.\nDuring these years of childhood we find the heart comparatively small\nand the arteries large. Children of this age will run until breathless, but on\naccount of the larger arteries, even when the heart beats rapidly, the blood\npressure is not very great and is soon equalized. Dr. F. W. Beneke in his\nresearches found that from birth to the end of the fourteenth year the volume\nof a child's heart increases on an average 8.21 c.c. per year; from the fourteenth to the eighteenth year it increases on an average 37.5 c.c. per year.\nThe circumference of the aorta above the heart after birth is 20 m.m., and\nat the end of the fourteenth year 50 m.m. ; that is, a yearly average increase\nof 2.14 m.m. The average increase during the following four years is nearly\n3 m.m. This shows that from the first to the fourteenth year the heart has\nincreased five and three-fifths times, while the arteries have increased only\ntwo and one-half times. In the following four years the volume of the heart\nis doubled, while the arteries increase only a little more than one-fifth.\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n813\n\nAt the end of the period of growth in adults we find that the volume of\nthe heart has increased only 20 c.c. more than it was at eighteen years of\nage, and the circumference of the aorta is only 6.5 m.m. more, showing that\nthe growth of the heart is very small after the eighteenth year.\nIf we now remember that function makes or modifies structure,* and that\nevery organ will reach its highest development, if it receives its proper exercise\nat the time of its greatest growth, these investigations have given us a guide\nto lead us in the selection of exercises that are of the greatest value at certain\nperiods of a child's life.\nThey show us that during childhood the heart is comparatively small, and\nthe arteries wide; that a rapidly working heart finds Httle resistance and can\nsend the blood quickly thru the body; that the molecular changes naturally\nare more speedy; and that growth and an increase in strength will result more\nquickly in children than in adults. In adults a comparatively large heart and\nsmall arteries increase blood pressure, and consequently the heart must work\nslower and with more strength. Concluding his researches. Professor Beneke\nsays: ''If practical hygiene is to become a truth, than the development of a\nstrong heart must be our chief aim.\"\nThe normal development of the heart during the period of its greatest\ngrowth is of prime importance for the maintenance of health, as well as for\ngaining and preserving the greatest bodily power and resistance. To choose\nexercises that promote heart-growth must, at this period of a child's life, be our\nprincipal aim.\nWe will now consider the development of the lungs. Experiments have\nproved that only about one-sixth of the air in our lungs is changed during\nordinary breathing. When greatest inhalation and exhalation take place, this\namount is increased five to six fold.\nInvestigations have shown that children from six to fourteen years of age\naverage twenty-four respirations per minute. The number and depth of\nrespirations are increased by musc^lar exercise, when there is an increase of\ncarbon dioxide to be got rid of, caused by the molecular changes in the working\nmuscles. According to the researches of Edward Smith, the exchange of\ngases in our lungs is as follows : Taking the exchange going on when lying on\nour backs, the increase when sitting will be to 1.18, standing to 1.33, slow\nwalking to 1.90, ordinary walking, to 2.76, fast walking to 7, running to 9,\nfoot-racing to 13, and rowing in a race to 20. This goes to show that increased\nrespiration goes hand in hand with increased muscular exercise, which causes\na great quantity of carbon dioxide to be Kberated by the working muscles,\nwhich in turn must be expelled by the lungs.\nKnowing that school children during their daily work have Httle incentive\nto breathe deeply-r-yes, that in most of their occupations in the benches they\ngenerally assume positions that limit the exchange of air — it develops that\nanother of the main objects of educational gymnastics for our schools must be\nthe proper and full development of the respiratory organs.\nWhat is neglected\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": null, "text": "814\n\n^A TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Physical\n\nin the first eight school years can never wholly be regained later in life. The\nrelations which deep breathing and the proper oxygenation of the blood bear\nto its enrichment and to the vigor of the circulatory system show the importance\nwhich correct and deep breathing have for our physical well-being. Even if\nwe use only about one-sixth of our lung capacity for the needs of every-day\nlife, and if a slightly increased capacity will be enough to let us walk about\nwithout becoming breathless after a few minutes, this is not our ideal of a\nhealthy person. We expect everyone to have enough reserve capacity to be\nprepared for the emergencies of modem life, and in order to meet these, the\nunused portions of our lungs, which degenerate from non-use, must be developed and kept healthy thru proper exercise.\nAxel Key, in his hygienic investigations among the school children of\nStockholm, found that after attending school one year every thirteenth boy\nwas anemic, after two years every seventh, and after three years every fifth\nboy. In the private schools of the same city he found that 18.8 per- cent, of\nthe girls of seven years of age were chlorotic, while at thirteen years of age\n39.7 per cent, were so. \"The school conditions,\" says Key, \"which bring\nabout such pernicious results are undoubtedly the long hours of sitting, in\nconnection with a minimum of bodily exercise.\"\nAltho but Httle is known of the functions of the different portions of the\nbrain, we do know that it is necessary to develop certain groups of muscles if\nthe corresponding nerve-center is to be developed. Dr. Wey, in his experiments with the dullest pupils at the New York State Reformatory at Elmira,\nyears ago proved that with a vigorous bodily training there came to the unfortunates under his control a mental improvement which was marked. He also\nproved that this mental awakening was not only for a short time, but that the\npupils with whom he had experimented continued to improve mentally as\nwell as physically. Modern science has taught us that man is an organic unit,\nand that a mutual relationship and interdependence exist between mind and\nbody. It is just as true that the mind exerts an influence upon the body, as\nthat physical activities produce either good or bad effects upon the mind. In\nthe words of a renowned educator, the late Colonel Francis Parker :\nIt may never be known scientifically what a tremendous influence the body and all\nits organs, every nerve and muscle, vein and artery, exert upon the brain, and consequently\nupon the intellect. The more I see of physical training in the schools, the more I believe\nin it; the more I study psychology, especially physiological psychology, the stronger my\nbelief becomes in physical training.\n\nWhen we now ask which exercises are best suited to bring about the bodily\ndevelopment desired, we find that the interest a child shows in special forms\nof bodily activity is a safe guide as to what it needs to develop its body. In\npreparing gymnastic movements for the school life we must choose such exercises that develop a strong heart and an effective respiratory system; that\nstimulate the digestive organs so that they may keep the blood rich in tissueforming and energy-expending elements, so that a strong foundation may be\nlaid upon which can be built a healthy mental activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": null, "text": "Departmertl\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n815\n\nOur investigations have shown us that a normally developed child demands\nbodily activity; that exercise is as necessary for a child's growth as is nutrition;\nthat during the first eighteen years of a child's life the vital organs grow most;\nthat if they are not given the proper exercise then, this neglect can never later\nin life be fully remedied. Having all this in mind, we find that a system of\nphysical training for the primary and grammar grades must be arranged from\nthe following standpoint:\nIn the first period, from six to nine years, the child needs exercises that\nconform as much as possible to those forms of activity to which it has been\naccustomed in its pre-school years. These are largely movements which\nstimulate the circulation, respiration, and nutritive functions — movements\nwhich engage large groups of muscles and which demand little expenditure\nof nerve-force. Localized or complicated exercises, which take all the strength\nof a child and draw from the reserve materials stored in the muscles, must\nnever be taken. The growing child needs this stored up reserve for its growth\nand development. Strong muscular exercise in these years does not increase\nthe capacity and volume of the muscles as with adults, but it results in stunted\ngrowth and a serious disturbance of nutrition. We find, therefore, that for\nthe first school year movements which give much exercise to the largest muscle\ngroups, and which stimulate heart and lungs, are needed. These are mainly\nthe so-called exercises of quickness found principally in the play-form of gymnastics and games. When the facilities are at hand, easy exercises on the\nhanging and swinging apparatus may also begin with the lowest grade; also\nthe simpler forms of jumping. We find further that, on account of the difficulty\nof sufficiently ventilating the rooms, and in order to do most good, these movements should not be taken in the schoolroom. If possible, they should be\ntaken out of doors, or in corridors or halls.\nIn the second period of school Hfe — that is, from nine to fourteen years —\nthe inducement to growth and development, and counteracting the detrimental\ninfluences of sitting and an indoor life, are still the main demands to be met by\neducational gymnastic work. Progressing from the forms of exercises taken\nin the first period, the movements of quickness must be increased and diversified\nand also made more complicated; they must now begin to take the form of\nskill. Running for a few minutes, and other exercises requiring endurance,\nmust also be given recognition. To make the work more interesting for the\nupper grades, and also to keep up a steady progression, free movements\ndemanding greater co-ordination, and also exercises with wands, dumb-bells,\nand clubs, should be introduced. Easy exercises upon apparatus, especially\nsuch demanding skill — but no movements requiring strength or endurance —\nmust be continued. After the twelfth year, when the bones and muscles have\nbecome stronger, the simpler forms of apparatus exercises developing strength,\nendurance, and courage demand recognition, and should be introduced.\nGames, especially the more intricate forms of ball games, are a dehght to children of this age. Swimming and skating, moderate bicycle-riding, and walking long distances must be encouraged.\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": null, "text": "816\n\nNA TIONA\n\nL ED UCA TIONA\n\nL A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe question now arises: How much time should be devoted to gymnastics\ndaily ? It may be some time before our school boards will subscribe to the\ndemand ''that the time needed daily for physical training must first be set\naside, and the remainder apportioned to the mental studies,\" or that they\nallow Professor Virchow's claim of ''one-half of each day for physical work;\"\nbut when by the foregoing we have shown how necessary this training is,\nand when in our daily rounds among the schools we see how much time is\nwasted on mental studies, because the children are physically unable to concentrate their attention upon the subjects before them, the matter appears in\na different Hght. The standpoint we must take is that no school has a right\nto impair the health of a child in order to teach it any mental art. Health\nfirst, then culture, must be the motto of every rightly conducted school system.\nBut how much time is necessary for this ? Taking the experience of schools\nthat have had physical training for years, it is safe to say that the least time\nrequired for physical work, including recesses, is one hour per day. This\ntime is best divided as follows: first, two recesses per day, thirty minutes;\nsecond, one gymnastic lesson, twenty minutes (or in the lower grades two\nperiods of ten minutes each) ; third, compensatory exercises (to be taken four\nor five times per day, after each period demanding sitting), ten minutes;\nmaking sixty minutes in all. The recesses shall be devoted to games of all\nsorts suitable for the ages of the children; the school to furnish the necessary\napparatus, balls, jumping stands, etc., for these out-of-door exercises. Sectional recesses should be arranged, the smaller children to play first, to be\nfollowed by the larger, so as to give a maximum of yard space for these games.\nIn rainy or inclement weather the games are to be held in the halls or basements.\nDuring the winter time arrangements should be made to flood parts of the\nschool yards so that pupils may practice skating. In schools having a gymnasium or assembly hall fitted up with gymnastic apparatus I would recommend\nthree gymnasium periods of at least thirty to thirty-five minutes each per week,\none-half of which to be devoted to free exercises, and the other half to apparatus\nwork and games. An arrangement of this kind, however, is not to interfere\nwith the recesses or to do away with the compensatory exercises. (By \"compensatory exercises \" I mean the two or three minutes of vigorous exercises for\nthe trunk which are to follow every period devoted exclusively to mental work.)\nTo get the best results, gymnastic activity requires adequate room and\ntime, as much air and light as is possible, and a variety of apparatus. One\nof the most urgent requirements, to which attention must continually be called,\nis that every school building should be provided with an adequate place for\ngymnastics, with a complete equipment of gymnastic apparatus; if possible,\na closed hall, assembly room, or gymnasium for winter and rainy days, and\nan open, adequately equipped playground for good weather.\nThe increased cost of a school building with such facilities will not be very\nlarge, and the resultant benefits to children and teachers will be so great that\nthe increased expenditure will prove to be a good investment in its returns in\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n817\n\nbodily and mental vigor of all occupants. May the time soon come when the\nwords spoken by Rousseau more than a century ago will be recognized by all\nschool authorities, namely that\nThe weaker a body, the more it commands,\nThe stronger it is, the more it obeys.\n\nOBJECT\nG. B. AFFLECK,\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS OF PHYSICAL\nNORMAL SCHOOLS\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCEDAR\n\nIN\nFALLS, lA.\n\nThere has never been formulated a definite and widely accepted statement of the purposes and methods of education. This is necessarily so\nbecause of the marked differences in capability, circumstances, and aims of\nstudents, as well as the different view-points and purposes of educators themselves. In the field of physical training, which is now regarded as an essential\npart of every complete education, the individual differences of students must\nreceive special attention, for the teacher is here dealing not with the presentation of an abstract subject, nor with the arrangement of a certain series of\nfacts, but with a human being — a personahty — a soul. Thus it is that any\nstatement of the purposes of physical training, other than a general one, would\nbut express a personal opinion, and invite unprofitable discussion, such as\nhas too frequently been engaged in to an extent altogether unwarranted by\nthe results reached.\nLet it be granted, then, that the purpose of physical training as a factor\nin education is to promote the well-being of students; the director is then\ndignified by the responsibility of interpreting this general principle and deciding upon the details of its appHcation to the needs of the individual. Physical\ntraining seeks to enable students to \"live at their best,\" so that during their\nschool course they may make a profitable preparation for Hfe, and that in\ntheir career subsequent to school days they may render to the world the most\nefficient service of which they are capable. This does not mean that they\nbecome good animals merely, but comprehends the mental, social, and spiritual,\nas well as the physical, nature, altho it is true that the physical is regarded\nas the foundation, and as the means thru which the others may be influenced.\nA body beautiful, strong, and healthy, under the control of a trained and\nbalanced mind, with both dominated by a high social and moral consciousness,\nis the ideal which physical training seeks to realize.\nBut the foregoing may apply to all grades from the kindergarten to the\nuniversity. That which is distinctive of normal-school students is that they\nare preparing for the vocation of teaching, and so it becomes incumbent upon\nthe physical department to provide instruction in those subjects upon which\nrational physical training is based, and to afford opportunity for practical\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": null, "text": "818\n\nA^^ TIONA L ED UCA TIONA L A SSOCIA TION\n\n[Physical\n\ndemonstration in the pedagogic phases of the science. This means that every\ngraduate should know the reasons for everything done in physical work, and\nhave experience, under -the supervision and criticism of the director, in the\nactual organization and conduct of such kinds of work as he may have\nopportunity to use.\nThe considerations connected with the methods and conditions calculated\nto realize the foregoing aims may be roughly grouped under the following\nheads :\n1. The personnel of the department. — The time is past when ex-pugiHsts,\nbroken-down circus performers, and retired or prominent athletes can claim\nthe rank of physical directors; for faculties and boards have come to realize,\nto a degree at least, the importance of the office. Today directors must be\neducationally the equals of the other members of the faculty, that their opinions\nmay have weight; they must be true and staunch in morals and character,\nthat they may win and merit respect ; they must be thoroly trained and efficient\nin their special line, that they may wisely caution, advise, and prescribe; they\nmust be consecrated to their work, that they may spend long hours and render\nunselfish service to those with whom they are privileged to deal; and they\nmust have a firm belief in the nobility of their profession, that they may carry\nthemselves with fitting dignity. The writer would make bold to say that\nthere is no other department which offers equal opportunities for influencing\nthe lives of the students, and hence the importance of insisting upon such a\nhigh standard of personal excellence in the directors themselves. In addition to this, there must be unison and harmony among those in the department, for without hearty co-operation there will result a diversity, if not in\naims, at least in means adopted.\n2. The equipment oj the department. — A department, in order that it may\ndo scientific and complete work, must be suppHed with reasonable facilities.\nIn general, these consist of lecture- and^ experiment-rooms, examining-rooms\nand outfit, plenty of free floor space, Hght and heavy apparatus, special appUances for corrective or orthopedic treatment, lockers and baths, playgrounds,\ntrack, athletic equipment, etc. It would seem the part of wisdom to equip\ngradually rather than to invest at one time a large appropriation. There\nare so many pieces of apparatus, and so many models of each by different\nmanufacturers, that the greatest caution must be used in selecting. The\ndirector must do this on the basis of the needs of the school and his experience\nwith the different makes. Space forbids a delineation of a sample equipment,\nbut a gymnasium of ordinary size, and which will accommodate five hundred students daily, may be well suppHed at a cost of from $1,500 to $2,000.\nIt must never be forgotten, however, that the director is the heart and\ncenter of all physical work, and that incomparably better results may come\nfrom a Hmited floor space and equipment, and a few available acres of campus\nin charge of a competent director, than from a large, conveniently planned,\nand thoroly equipped modern gymnasium with an inefficient executive.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n819\n\n3. The relationships oj the department. — {a) To the president and governing board: Scientific physical training is as yet in its infancy, not more\nthan 25 per cent, of the public normal schools in the United States having\nregularly organized departments with trained directors in charge ; and in many\ncases the profession is inadequately or wrongly represented, so that a false\nnotion prevails as to the place and need of such a department in a system.\nIn too many cases the work is regarded as a side line, and is placed in charge\nof the teacher of another subject, or as a necessary evil which has crept in\nand must be tolerated because of the prejudice on the part of the students.\nIt is therefore the part of the department to demonstrate a satisfactory reason\nfor its existence, and to prove itself an essential part of the curriculum of the\ninstitution. The board should be kept in close touch with the hygienic needs\nof the students as indicated by examinations, and should know the means\nemployed to remedy such. This may be done by means of reports, personal\nvisitation of classes, explanation of exercises, photographs of cases, exhibitions, etc.\n{h) To the student body: It is the duty as well as the privilege of every\nteacher to have an intimate knowledge of his pupils. This is pre-eminently\ntrue of the physical director, who by means of the examining-room, playground, etc., has an exceptional opportunity. The physical examination\nshould be scientific and complete, and the results should be accurately recorded\nand filed in such a way as to be convenient for reference. In selecting measurements and tests it would seem best to use those which relate to vitality,\nand discard many of the long lists, frequently included, which have little if\nany significance in view of the purpose of this department in the normal\nschool. The extra time may then be used to better advantage in interesting\neach student in the improvement of his condition, and in estabHshing a friendly\nand sympathetic relationship as the basis for future deahngs. When a student\nknows that the director is a friend and will do everything possible to assist,\nthere will be an opportunity for the best results, for then the student will feel\nfree to consult, and will be more likely to follow advice or prescription. By\nall means let the examination be conducted as quickly as is consistent with\naccuracy, but no director should be satisfied with fifing a record, as the conditions are most favorable for proving of help to a student who has some difficulty or problem about which he wishes to talk. At least half an hour should\nbe devoted to every examination, and some require even more time. The\nphysical examination is too often merely a formal regulation, objectionable\nto students, so that a strong plea is here made for the elevation of the private\nroom from a place of dread to one of veritable blessing.\nStudents should be graded, not upon their classification in other subjects,\nbut upon the basis of their needs or ability as indicated by the examination,\nor the amount of work previously done. It is thus probable that those who\nrecite together in other classes may be separated in gymnasium work and be\nassigned to different squads or prescribed individual exercises.\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": null, "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nA close and logical classification of exercises upon the basis of their effects\nis impossible, since the same exercise may be corrective, hygienic, educational,\nor recreative, depending upon how taken. Still there are types which contribute so strongly to one or other of these as to be specially useful for that purpose and less so for others, and hence are used when a specific result is desired.\nGenerally speaking, all of the foregoing types should be employed in normal\nschools, and the group upon which emphasis should be laid must be determined by individual needs. The corrective is employed for the effect upon\ncarriage and posture; the hygienic is concerned chiefly with nutritive stimulation and functional activity; the educational aims at psychological results\nor the control of the body by the mind; and the recreative, thru a minimum\nof voluntary attention and concentration, seeks to refresh and rejuvenate.\nPhysical exercises are usually grouped into gymnastic and athletic, of\nwhich the former offers the greater variety of conscious movements, and so\nis employed for corrective or other definite results, as an aid to the obtaining\nof which many appliances and machines have been invented and are in use.\nThere is a general agreement that, while each of the systerns of gymnastics\ncontains much that is good, no one incorporates every desirable feature. The\ndirector must then select and arrange scientifically such exercises as meet the\nneeds of his particular school or of an individual student. In arrangement,\nthe exercises should be graded in an order not too rigid, and no student should\nbe allowed to attempt a type of work more advanced than will best contribute\nto his well-being. It may thus happen that a weak student, A B, may spend\na term or year upon a type of work which a stronger man, X Y, may complete\nin half that time.\nIt is a matter for regret that athletics have been so much abused in the\nundue importance attached to the winning of competitive games between\nrepresentative teams. When physical work is introduced without direction,\nit generally takes the form of athletics, because such may be conducted with\na measure of success without the close supervision of a director, and the\nresults, not necessarily the benefits, are more patent than are positive results\nfrom gymnastics. Too frequently athletic sports are confined to the few.\nIt is seldom that more than the first two teams do regular work, because\nwhere the winning of games is the measure of success men will not practice\nunless there is some chance of distinction on a team ; and so it is that in schools\nwhere only athletics are engaged in not more than 25 per cent, of the men\nderive any benefit from physical work, and the most needy, the weakly, are\ndebarred. There are many other objections offered to this plan. The Hkelihood of personal injury, the loss of time, and other evils consequent upon team\ntrips; the problem of the coach, and all that it involves; the question of finance,\nprofessionaHsm, etc., are all aggravated when the winning of games or meets\nis over emphasized.\nBut athletics are too valuable to be omitted because in some cases they\nhave been abused, for they may be so organized and controlled as to contrib-\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n821\n\nute directly and materially toward the best interests of the students. If\ndeemed wise, let the popular sports be continued by those who by their examination are known to be fitted for such, but assign everyone to the kind of work\nbest suited for him, and have all report on time, answer roll-call and be dismissed as systematically as in any other scheduled class. Introduce other\nforms of sport — e. g., field hockey, basket-ball, lawn tennis, golf, cross-country\nwalks or runs, swimming, handball, etc. — and make the attainment of proficiency the object sought. Competitions are dear to the Anglo-Saxon, so\nhave them between squads of the same class or between different classes,\nhaving the basis of marking, such that everyone contributes something toward\nthe grand total of points for his squad. This plan of marking has proved\nsuccessful, and creates surprising enthusiasm and encourages faithful practice\nfor the sake of the success of the gang or group. During the fine weather\nof spring and fall it is a genuine satisfaction to see the happy faces after an\nhour's exercise in the fresh air and bright sun, while the few disagreeable\ndays may be profitably employed in considering the rules of the games, in\ninculcating the principle of fairness and courtesy in contest, or in discussing\nthe theory of the work being carried on.\nBut the occasional days unfit for outdoor work are nt)t sufficient to give\nthe students an adequate knowledge of the scientific basis of physical education; so it seems profitable to spend but four days per week in practice and\none day — e. g., Wednesday — in class recitation upon such theoretical subjects\nas seem best calculated to give the students an intelligent idea of the rationale\nof the work, without which graduates cannot be expected to organize or carry\non physical work with any degree of success. The day is not far distant when\nmany normal schools will offer a course intended to qualify graduates for the\nspecial office of physical directors. The demands for such teachers are\nbecoming so frequent, and those in preparation are so few comparatively that\neach state must soon prepare in its normal schools the majority of the physical\ndirectors for its public and high-school positions.\nThe foregoing may appear to be an unduly elaborate or cumbersome\norganization, but it seems well adapted to normal schools which, as will be\nremembered, propose a broader work than is done in colleges and universities,\nand attempt to give each student a practical training in organizing and conducting physical work. The class leaders or captains may be chosen from\nthose personally interested and proficient, or whose personality marks them as\nnatural leaders; others may be appointed over smaller sections, sb that, at\nsome time during their course, each student becomes responsible, under the\nsupervision and guidance of the director, for the work of some group of fellowstudents, or pupils from the training or model department.\nIn the average normal school there are more women than men, but the\nsame general plan may be successfully applied to either sex.\nThis plan of grouping renders possible the promotion of the individual\nstudent in accordance with his needs or abiUty in both practical work and\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": null, "text": "g2 2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nleadership, and may be applied with equal appropriateness to both indoor\nand outdoor work. Usually the seniority of leadership is reached by those\nwho are approaching the completion of their work in the department. The\nprescribed costume should be worn during all exercise periods, as this contributes to class spirit and to the dignifying of the work. It is a good plan\nalso to have the rank in leadership indicated by some distinguishing mark,\nsuch as the wearing of letters, stripes, monograms, or other suitable emblems.\nThe matter of control presents no difficulty to the thoroly trained director\nwho is absolutely fair and sincere in his dealings with students. The work\nshould be so conducted as to give the future teachers a disciplinary training,\nbut the discipline must not be so rigid as to drive out all spontaneity. As\nfar as possible, self-government should be encouraged and employed, but\nin all cases the director must be the final authority on all matters relating to\nhis department.\nSome work in physical training should be compulsory on every student,\nbut it is the director's place so to interest the student in his own welfare, and\nso to select and conduct the work, as to relegate the obligatory feature to\nthe background.\nPhysical training in normal schools presents an attractive and growing\nfield, and the above suggestions — a result of three years' experience — are offered\nin the hope that they will assist some fellow-director to a more complete and\nefficient service, or at least call forth a discussion that will do so.\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND METHODS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING\nCOLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES\n\nR. H. JESSE, PRESIDENT OF THE\nCOLUMBIA,\n\nUNIVERSITY\nMO.\n\nIN\n\nOF MISSOURI,\n\nNothing induced me to write a paper on this subject except the assurance\nof Dr. E. H. Arnold that he wished one paper from a layman. Experience\nin this matter I surely have had, but it has been the experience of a college\npresident, solicitous about the results of physical training as shown in morals,\ncollege spirit, and health. Of the objects and methods of physical training,\nexcept as they manifest themselves in these three things, I know little.\nAll discussion of whether a college or a university should or should not\nconcern itself officially about athletics may be avoided by saying that students\nof higher learning are in athletics to stay. No good institution known to me\ncould possibly get its students out. Athletics, with tremendous power to affect\nhealth, morals, and college spirit, are unavoidable. If the institution controls\nathletics wisely, the result is most beneficial; whereas they generally become a\nsource of moral degradation where they are left mainly to students or to alumni.\nSome institutions allow the students to manage athletics, holding that this is\ngood education.\nWhy might it not be good education to allow them to manage\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n823\n\nthe whole institution ? It is for their good that athletics should be managed\nin the best way, and the best management can never be secured so long as it\nis mainly in the hands of students. I have tried both systems of control, with\ndisastrous consequences in the one case, and in the other with admirable\nresults. Will you allow me to give some personal experience, not out of desire\nto talk about myself or my own university, but because in this way I can set\nforth my views best ?\nIn former days my own university employed a director of the gymnasium,\nwho had nothing to do with football, baseball, track athletics, tennis, basketball, or golf, except as a friend. Football particularly was managed by the\nstudents, the alumni, and the devotees of the town. The chief object was to\nhave a winning team — fairly if possible, but at all hazards a winning team.\nWhen certain men pleaded for honesty, some of the promoters broke into\nassurances that our methods were clean, and others, pricked by conscience,\ndeclared that we were as honest as our antagonists were, and that it was stupid\nto send out immaculate teams against those that were maculate. \"We must\nfight the devil with fire,\" was the end of all argument. It was idle to say that\nthe cross was a better instrument of fight against the evil one. What was the\nPresident doing ? He and many of his colleagues were doing all that could\nbe done under the circumstances in behalf of clean sport. Many devices were\nused to keep the President in the dark about the true character of the players.\nThe following spring many things would leak out when there was no chance\nfor remedy. Let one instance suffice. A giant, greater of stature than Goliath\nof Gath, was brought into my university early one fall. Suspecting something\nevil, I sent for him. ''Are you coming here,\" said I, ''to play football or to be\na student ? ' ' With a pained expression he said : \"I am coming, Mr. President,\nto be a student, but incidentally I hope to play some football.\" \"Do you\nexpect to remain during the entire session ?\" said I. \"Yes, sir,\" said he, \"if\nGod wills and my means hold out. I have been selling books for the Y. M.\nC. A. as a means of KveHhood and in the hope of doing good. Unless money\nfails me, I expect to stay during the entire session.\" \" Do you expect,\" said I,\n\"to attend lectures regularly and to study diHgently ? \" \" I do most assuredly,\"\nhe replied. With some mortification I apologized for asking these questions\nand welcomed him to the university. He played until the Thanksgiving game,\nbut after that he never appeared again on the campus. The following spring\nit leaked out that he agreed to play football during the fall if the men about\ntown would buy as many copies of the religious book which he was selling as\nhe could dispose of were he to continue to work as colporteur. What the book\nwas I forget, but let us name it Baxter^s Call to the Unconverted. The number\nof copies to be purchased was finally settled at one hundred and forty. This\npious transaction closed, he played football grandly and' at the same time\ndisreputably.\nWhat became of the books I do not know.\nThe adventitious coach, employed by the students and the devotees of the\ntown, would sail in upon us in early September, the university having had\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": null, "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nnothing to do with the naming of him. He exercised an influence greater\nthan that of any other man on the campus. No adequate inquiry as to his\ncharacter had been made. His power to train for victory alone had been\nconsidered. Sometimes he made the field sulphurous with swearing. Sometimes, while restraining the players during practice, he would himself frequent\nbar-rooms. Facing no responsibility, he would encourage the men sometimes\nto violate faculty rules pertaining to absence and other things. Then the plea\nwould be made that the boys had violated rules under the direction of the coach,\nwhom they were bound to obey, and that the coach only should be responsible.\nThere were no means by which he could face responsibiUty before the President\nand faculty. One or two coaches were reputable gentlemen, but most of them\nwere in one way or another disreputable. When the last game was over, the\nplayers and the coach generally went ofif skylarking together to celebrate\nvictory or to get comfort under defeat. Moreover, the teams went thousands\nof dollars into debt, and complaints would often come from hotels and railroads of disorderly conduct and a tendency to take \"souvenirs.\" Debt\nwithout prospect of payment, disorderly conduct as the teams traveled, professionaHsm, lying about the players, athletics for victory only, formed elements\nof debauchery that made university education seem to honorable men a failure.\nHow could honesty be secured on daily recitations and in examinations when\ndishonesty was practiced in every match game? How could thieving be\nsuppressed when our athletes took as ''souvenirs\" whatever they pleased\nfrom hotel or railroad car or visiting team ? How could students be compelled\nto pay their honest obligations when the football association was plunging\nhopelessly into debt ? How could swearing, lechery, and drinking be discountenanced when the all-powerful coach was sometimes setting an example in\nthese directions ? To suppress athletics, even if we had been willing to do it,\nwas impossible. In no state will the statutes allow the authorities of a college\nor university to rob students of their rights as citizens without sufficient reason.\nIt could not be shown that these lapses from good morals were inseparable\nfrom athletics. The courts would have held that it was the business of the\nuniversity to suppress immoraUty, leaving the students free in their exercises.\nThe only way was to put athletics under the control of the university, even if\nit involved expense. The question was not what athletics were worth in\nmoney, but what it was worth to suppress debauchery of students. You see\nthat I came to a conclusion Uke a layman and not like an athlete.\nDismissing for good cause the director of the gymnasium, we put all forms\nof physical exercise, from croquet and tennis up thru football, baseball, track\nwork, and finally thru the gymnasium, under the direction of one man, who\nwas responsible for his acts to the President and the trustees. We tried hard\nto get a man who had not only some knowledge of athletics in all forms, but\nwho had the character, intellect, and education of a gentleman and a scholar.\nAn athlete without university education or without the highest ethical standards\nshould not be considered for a moment in a university.\nWe were fortunate\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n825\n\nin securing Professor C. W. Hetherington. The coaches now are appointed\nby him. They come as assistants to him. They are liable to discharge at\nhis hands in the heighth of the season. They walk the straight and narrow\nway while they are training our teams. The large debt overhanging the\nathletic association was discharged honorably in the course of three or four\nyears. Professionalism, soon banished, has remained in banishment. A\nspirit of fairness, honor, courtesy, uprightness, moderation in victory, constancy\nunder defeat, politeness to visiting players, propriety when traveUng, has\ntaken possession of the teams and the students who foster them. Out of\nenthusiasm for athletics the best form of college spirit is coming. In proportion toits size and its means, the University of Missouri is paying more\nmoney for athletics than any other university in the Mississippi Valley. We\nare not paying more than is necessary. As President, I am not called upon to\nask whether athletics are worth the outlay. They are inevitable. If not\nproperly regulated, they become a source of degradation ; but if properly regulated, they become a means of grace. How much is it worth to turn a source\nof debauchery into a nursery of devotion to the institution, of college spirit\nand college pride, fortitude under defeat, generosity to the vanquished, chastity\namong men, self-restraint in food and drink, bodily cleanliness, dignified\npropriety abroad, and self-control under provoking circumstances? In my\nopinion it is worth all that it is costing us — and it is costing a large sum.\nThe interest of the students is necessary to the maintenance of athletics.\nThis interest cannot be engendered if they do not have something to say about\nthe management. Our students are consulted individually and en masse\nabout many questions. They are allowed to control things that they can\ncontrol without too great danger. The director is not dictator except in things\nthat cannot safely be released from his grasp, and even in these things he often\nfollows wisely the policy of the Roman Augustus.\nNo reason appears to me why a college or university should not have one\nman in charge of all forms of athletics and all gymnasium exercises. If the\ninstitution be small, he must be sustained with such assistance as the treasury\npermits ; but in the case of large institutions he ought to have a second in command who is expert in athletic sports, and another second in command, so to\nspeak, who is expert in gymnasium work. I am advocating first a director,\nthen under him a first assistant in charge of athletics, and another first assistant\nin charge of the gymnasium, these assistants to be co-ordinate in rank and both\nresponsible to the director. This much expense, at least, any large institution\nought to be willing to pay out of its own treasury. The adventitious coach,\neven if, as with us, he comes as assistant to the director and acts under his\ncontrol, ought to be got rid of. It is better to let the athletic association bear\nthe expense of a large number of alumni coaches who accept nothing more\nthan railroad expenses, board, and a modest honorarium for incidentals. I\nam supposing, of course, that the director is supplied with a stenographer at\nthe expense .of the institution. Where the enrolment is large he must have\nmore than one assistant in the gymnasium.\nBut this is a detail.\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": null, "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nShould the director be expert primarily in gymnasium work or in athletics ?\nI should look for the right man first regardless of these considerations, but,\nother things being equal, I should get an expert in gymnasium work. On\nno account should I employ him, however, if he did not take an interest keen\nand inteUigent in all forms of physical exercise.\nEven when regulated as described above, athletics may become a source\nof extravagance. It is bad education to allow students to waste money, even\ntho it be in things that in themselves are innocent. The director ought to have,\ndirectly or thru his influence, power to regulate expenditures. The enormous\nsums of money that come to athletic teams should be wisely administered and\nthe surplus invested in good securities. When it reaches a certain sum, it might\nbe used for a building, or for additional fields, or for the endowment of a chair.\nTo waste it is iniquitous.\nNo college or university known to me is adequately equipped with athletic\nfields and provisions for outdoor exercises. The gymnasium, however sumptuous, isa place for exercise when the weather does not permit of training out\nof doors. It is a sin to let a man take his exercise in a gymnasium when the\nweather permits him to take it out of doors. Near the building should be an\noutdoor gymnasium equipped with all forms of apparatus which can be safely\nexposed to the weather. Some things can be transferred from the indoor to\nthe outdoor gymnasium and back again. It would not take much mechanical\nskill so to modify many pieces of apparatus that they could be easily transferred\nfrom place to place. Many institutions boast of immense sums invested in a\ngymnasium without letting you know how much ground there is for outdoor\nexercises, nor how convenient that ground is to the building. Each of the four\nclasses in the college or university should have a field of its own for baseball,\nfootball, and track athletics. If there is a graduate school, that should have a\nfifth field. Then there should be the \" 'varsity field,\" on which interclass and\nintercollegiate contests should be held and on which the 'varsity team should\npractice. Five fields seem to me a minimum ; and if there is a graduate school,\nthere should be six. Ample space should be reserved for hockey, handball,\ntennis, and golf. Thus in football, baseball, basket-ball, tennis, and so on,\nthere should be the first and second 'varsity, the first and second graduate\nteams, and a first and second team for each of the classes. Allowing in football\ntwenty-eight men, including substitutes for each team, there ought to be about\n170 playing football seriously, and between 140 and 150 men playing baseball.\nThe numbers will be increased if you remember that many will try for places\non the class teams and fail. So also for track teams, tennis, basket-ball,\nhockey, boating, and so on. In some universities, fraternities in combination\nmight put up a team or two. These interclass contests add greatly to college\nspirit. Every student of respectable strength ought to have a chance to win a\nplace on some reputable team.\n\nTo a layman it seems queer that a large college or university should put all\nforms of gymnasium and athletic exercises in a single building.\nWhy not\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n827\n\nrather erect a quadrangle of smaller buildings, communicating thru colonnades\nor covered passages, and inclosing an outdoor gymnasium, shaded and sheltered\nfrom the wind ? Athletic courts might surround the quadrangle outside the\nbuildings, and then might come a series of half a dozen fields — the tennis courts,\nthe outdoor courts for handball, the golf grounds, and so on. To attempt to\nput all forms of indoor athletic and gymnasium work into a single building is\nas difficult and as unreasonable as to put all forms of science under a single\nroof.\nWriting from the point of view of the layman and the administrator, I have\npurposely abstained from pleading for athletics from many points of view\nfrom which admirable pleas might be made. I feel some hesitation in giving\nso much of personal experience in the University of Missouri, but solely for\nthe purpose of setting forth better the views to which they have led me have\nthese experiences been described.\n\nOBJECTS AND METHODS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN HIGH\nSCHOOLS— FROM\nTHE\nSTANDPOINT\nOF\nTHE\nSPECIALIST\nMRS.\n\nMARY\n\nH.\n\nLUDLUM,\n\nINSTRUCTOR IN PHYSICAL\nSCHOOL,\nST. LOUIS,\nMO.\n\nCULTURE,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nWe are asked to speak of physical training from the standpoint of the\nspecialist. We have never thought of ourselves as a speciaHst but only as\nthe teacher who loved this special work, hoping that we might impart to the\npupils under our charge the spirit that would wake them up to the needs of\nthe body, to perfect it, both in its outward contour and in its ability to resist\nthe wear and tear which come to it— to fit our young people for the work of\nlife.\nWe will speak for the girls of our high school, as we have nothing to do\nwith the boys' work.\nWhen the young girl enters the high school, she has taken a long step,\nnot only in her school relations, but also in her girlhood. We begin to look\nupon her now as a young woman in the broadest sense of the word, and we are\nafraid, with the putting on of the title, many of us expect too much. Would\nthat we could still keep them as children in some things! The young girl\ncomes from the school, where she entered as a little child, at the age of twelve\nor fourteen years. What a great change! For each year in the grammar\nschool she has had, in many cases, but one teacher — has had time and opportunity to know the teacher to whom she is to go during the next year. She\nhas had the same associates nearly all the time, has had her morning recess,\nher ten- or fifteen-minute physical exercises every day, her noon hour when\nshe walks briskly home to her lunch and back again for the afternoon work.\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": null, "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nSo far she is used to exercise. She plays with her brothers and the neighbor's boys. The speaker well remembers when she made one of the \"nine\"\nhaving four brothers and four boy cousins to play with.\nBut now comes a great change, both in herself and in her school life. The\ngirl must stay indoors. Her daily exercise, the walk to and from school,\nperhaps, in this day of luxury, that is often omitted because the electric car\nbrings her almost to the school door. The music lesson must be taken, and\nhours of practice given to it. Parties — at the beginning they are only\nevery two or three weeks, but as the acquaintance grows they come more\nfrequently — the Saturday matinee, and many other diversions with which\nwe are all familiar consume much time and strength.\nIn the large building, where now she is under the guidance of some five\nor six different teachers during the day — the members of her class, strangers\nto her — what a nervous tension she is under until she adjusts herself to the new\nenvironment! When she enters the building in the morning she goes to her\nstudy-room, gets the books needed for the morning hours, carries them upon\nthe hip (I playfully say: ''If the left hip is the bookshelf today, please change\nto the right tomorrow ! \"), and does not return until twelve o'clock, lunch hour,\nwhen she sits at her desk and eats the lunch brought from home, or goes to\nthe lunchroom where she gets good wholesome food. (How we all rejoice\nat the fact that nearly every high school has its dining-hall and is under the\nsupervision of one who knows what to give!) Then, a stroll, in the corridor\non the same floor as her home-room, for about ten minutes; and at the ringing\nof the bell she returns to the room, and the routine of the morning is repeated —\nfive times a week, forty weeks in the school year. No playground as in the\ngrammar school; no daily systematic exercise. Is there any good reason why\nthe girl should give up exercise ? The boy does not at that age, even if,\nunfortunately, he has to become a bread-winner. Do we not see him in the\nstreet or in the adjoining lot, if there is such a blessing near him, playing handball with his companions ? Are there not great changes in the lungs, heart,\ncirculation, etc., at that age, and do we not know that these changes are stimulated byexercise ?\nLet me quote from Dr. E. M. Hartwell. In a paper on ''Physical Training, Its Place in Education,\" he divides the time from babyhood to the twentyfifth year into three periods, saying that growth and development proceed during each period, but growth predominates in the first and second, and development in the third, period:\n^ First period: from birth till the close of the eighth year. The whole body grows\nrapidly in the first two years of Ufe, but in this period the growth of .the brain, which attains\nits full weight within a few ounces in the eighth, is most marked.\nSecond period: from the beginning of the ninth to the end of the sixteenth year.\nThis is distinctively the period of most rapid growth in height and weight. In increase of\nweight the muscles play the leading part.\nThird period: from the beginning of the seventeenth to the close of the twenty-fourth\nyear. This, the period of established adolescence, is distinctively a period of development of\ncharacter as well as of bodily and mental faculty.\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n829\n\nIn the second period the individual diverges from the mental condition of childhood\nand takes on the distinctive characteristics of youth and maiden. The changes in body,\nmind, and character are profound and lasting. Self-consciousness is awakened, selfconfidence is quickened, and new impulses, appetencies, and ambitions arise, which\nprompt the adolescent to try all things and everybody.\nThe child yields to authority and accepts dicta with comparatively good grace; but\nthe youth demands reasons and must be convinced, or at least persuaded, by his teachers\nand governors. He may be led, but he resists being driven. Educational methods, therefore, particularly during the second half of this period, should savor more of incitement\nthan compulsion. The formal education of the great majority of public-school pupils\nterminates in this period, since so soon as they are fairly well grown their services become\nmarketable. Those who are destined to the ruder forms of labor or the humbler crafts\nand*occupations enter the lowest ranks of wage-earners, while as yet the privileged youth\nselected by their parents or by circumstances to engage in pursiiits which demand special\naptitudes or tech;iical training are too undeveloped, in many instances, to make rational\nchoice of a vocation, and much less to engage in professional pursuits or the higher crafts.\nOn the whole, since the period of most active growth appears to be followed by one of\ncomparative exhaustion, when the organism is pecuHarly susceptible to disturbing and\ndeterrent influences, the second may be considered, from the hygienic standpoint, as the\nmost critical of our three periods. Exhausting constitutional disease, excessive mental\nor bodily exertion, underfeeding, ill-judged deprivation of muscular exercise, may readily\nlead to irremediable stunting or enfeeblement, especially in those who are city-born and\ncity-bred. If physical education be neglected or misdirected during this period, if.it be\ndeferred to a more convenient season, it cannot accomplish its perfect work, either as\nregards the promotion of health or the development of the motor powers of the brain.\nThe main general departments of physical education should be systematically availed\nof; i. e., both gymnastic training and athletic pastimes should be given a prominent place in\nthe school curriculum, and the forms of exercise selected should be more varied, complicated\nand difficult than those employed in the previous period. But the time for engaging in\nfeats or contests that demand extraordinary strength, endurance, or skill, is not yet.\n\nSurely we have shown good reasons for the need of a gymnasium in every\nhigh school. Would that every school could have one, or a special room\nfor this special work, where the pupils ought to go for a lesson every day, say\nfifteen or sixteen minutes, and certainly not less than three times a week and\nno less than a thirty-minute lesson! If the work is done in the grammar\nschool ten minutes a day by the teacher of the room under the guidance of the\nsupervisor, from the first grade thru the eighth, are not the pupils ready to go\ninto the gymnasium and show an advance in the work ? To do the greatest\ngood, the work must begin early and continue regularly thru each year, thus\ngiving a continuity to what has gone before, and at the same time adding\nbeneficial effects for both mind and body. The work must be both educative\nand recreative. Each pupil should have a thoro examination by a physician —\nnot the family physician, who can be easily coaxed iitto writing an excuse from\nthe work.\nTests and measurements should be taken twice a year and the record kept;\nthe first time to show the standing at the beginning of the term; the second\ntime to show improvement made by the work. If there is no improvement,\nthe reason should be sought. In this way we can get the pupils interested in\nself and so in the work.\nThe healthy ones should go on in the general classes ;\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": null, "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthe weak ones, or rather the ones not up to the average, should be given\nspecial attention, even if that were to be done outside of school hours.\nWe would have the classes, if possible, of uniform size, so that all might\nbe able to do work during the period, and that the teacher might give to each\npupil the attention necessary.\nThe classes should be graded as in the other work. Personally we would\nprefer to keep the pupils of the same grade together, as we beUeve in encouraging class pride. The pupils should be marked in this work as in other studies.\nWhen thus brought to the same plane with the other work in the curriculum,\nwe shall find an interest awakened, a dehght in the work by the majority;\nand the hour of exercise will be hailed with greater joy than it now is. The\npupil must be taught that it is not for fun, but for the lasting good, that the\ntraining is given.\nWe would have the costume suitable for the work, for we find the exercises\nthat may have no attractions in the class-room become interesting in a special\nroom, and still more so in a special dress. It is unnecessary to mention, to\nthe body of educators before me, the kinds of exercises given in the gymnasium: the free movements, the different drills, dumb-bells, bar-bell, club,\nwands, fencing, the apparatus work, the figure marching and running, the\nhandball, the many games, etc., and dancing.\nI have talked thus far on gymnasium work — to the speaker an ideal — hoping\nand praying the time is not far distant when it will be real. At the beginning\nof the paper we said we would speak of the work with the girls as we have had\nthem in the Central High School for some time. Before we moved from our\nformer building to the present one, a Httle over ten years ago, we were promised\na gyrrinasium, but alas, it is still a dream. We had the seniors and the normalschool pupils under our charge. Then we asked for the third-year pupils, and\nthey were given to us; but not until January, 1903, after much importuning,\nwere all the girls given to us. We kept asking the question constantly: ''Why\nare the girls who need the work most deprived of it ?\" At the very age when\nthey needed the constant watching they were without the physical training\nfor two years or more. They forgot the work that was done in the grammar\nschool, and it was hard for both pupil and teacher to begin all over again.\nBut now they come direct to us from the teacher who has given them the tenminute exercise daily; and what a marked difference there is in the pupils\nof today, as far as position, alertness, attention, etc., are concerned, from\nthe ones who had forgotten these exercises — thus proving, as we said before,\nthat there should be continuity in the work.\nWe have a four-year course in our school — juniors and advanced juniors,\nseconds and advanced seconds, with the same in the third and senior years,\nthus making eight grades of work. We have between twelve and fourteen\nhundred girls — thirty- three lesson periods a week. We make a great effort\nto keep pupils of the same grade together. Our classes range from seventyfive to twenty-five, altho during the last term we had one or two very small\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nOBJECTS\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\n831\n\nclasses. We exercise in the largest room in the building on the ground floor,\na room fifty-three by thirty-eight feet, with double rows of desks and a seating\ncapacity of one hundred and seventy-five. Our aisles are thirty-two inches\nwide. In one corner of the room we have a box for our dumb-bells and\nanother for wands. Thus you see our limitations as far as room and apparatus are concerned. Our lesson periods are about forty-three minutes. We give\nabout fifteen minutes' work in free movements — arms, feet, head, and trunk;\nthen several minutes to walking; then dumb-bells or wand-work. We pay\nstrict attention to the proper carriage of the body and breathing; we tell them\nnow and then the reasons for the work; we talk on hygiene, ventilation, etc.\nAt the close of the lesson I let them have a talking recess — the \"let go\" of the\nhour; and truly it is such. We have but one lesson a week for each class.\nDo you wonder why we want a gymnasium ?\nWe have some girls who do not care for the work, and the question we ask\nourselves is: How can we wake them up to the needs of better health and\nbetter living ? We do not give many drills, especially in the first and second\nyears. We give most of the work by dictation, and some by imitation. We\nfind that in drill work they give a higher degree of attention, thus tiring quicker;\nand until it becomes almost automatic by constant repetition, we find that,\nby giving such strict attention to the order of exercise, they lose on the detail.\nWe must ever keep in mind that we are working for the harmonious\ndevelopment of the body; and the connection between the body and the mind\nis so close that the working of every muscle of the body must leave some trace\non the mind.\nEach lesson in physical training should demand quick response — not any\ntime, but now — grace of movement, and uniformity. There must be enthusiasm with a definite purpose.\nAll women should be taught the value, use, and abuse of physical work.\nGrowing children need and must have constant change. Nature demands\nit for them, and we know that nature is controlled by being obeyed. We\nhear of women failing in health when undergoing great mental strain — not\nbecause mentally incapable, but because too much pressure has been put\nupon them during their growing years.\nLet the girls of our day know that mental education can be successfully\ncarried on only with a thoro physical education ; and as the number of women\nbread-winners is growing, let them learn that they need more muscle, and\nwith muscular power they will gain steadier nerves and greater brain-power.\nWe hail with joy the fact that the colleges and universities are demanding\nphysical examinations, as well as intellectual ones, from those who are applying for admissions.\nIn closing, I wish to say a word in favor of basket-ball and other sports\nfor the girls. Basket-ball is a game that requires hardihood, alertness, quickperception, and volition. I would advise no girl to join a team until she has\nhad an examination by a physician.\nThe organ that seems to be most affected\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n8^2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nis the heart. There is no game that demands more varied and constant\nmuscular exertion. The muscles of the back, the arms, and the legs are in\nconstant motion. There is a great deal of nervous tension expended. It\nnot merely trains in fearlessness, fortitude, and endurance, but in ''fair play\"\nand in generous approbation for anothers' success; for it is not the success of\nself, but of the team. And by such games and sports we are raising the moral\nforces as well as the physical and mental.\n\nPHYSICAL TRAINING EXHIBITS IN THE PHYSICAL\nTRAINING DEPARTMENT OF THE EXPOSITION\nMISS\n\nELSA\n\nPOHL,\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nDIRECTOR,\nSCHOOL,\nST.\n\nGIRLS\nLOUIS,\n\nGYMNASIUM,\nMO.\n\nMCKINLEY\n\nHIGH\n\nIn viewing this grand exposition of arts, crafts, and manufacture, we are\nhappy to note the giant strides education has made in the nineteenth century,\nand especially in physical training, which has received widespread recognition\nfrom educators all over the world.\nHere we are shown the appHcation of gymnastics to the normal child, the\nfeeble-minded, the insane, and the incorrigible, and are famiUarized with the\nnew inventions and devices which stand for progress.\nThese exhibits are found in three different departments of the exposition,\nviz., Physical Culture Hall, and The Model Playground and the Educational\nBuilding; with the former of which this paper will deal.\nPhysical Culture Hall is situated at the extreme west of the exposition\ngrounds, fronting east. This beautiful granite structure is the gift of the\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition Company to Washington University as a\ncompensation for the use of the buildings of the university during the World's\nFair period. The first floor of this building contains the office, gymnasium,\nlocker-rooms, and shower baths. The two upper floors are at present devoted\nto exhibits, the trophy-room being situated above the main hall. The exhibits\nhere found relate to physical training as taught in the schools, colleges, universities, normal schools, athletic clubs, Young Men's Christian Associations,\nand turner societies of this country.\nWe will now endeavor to locate these exhibits separately. On the second\nfloor in the hall will be found the exhibits of Chicago's high and normal\nschools. In this exhibit interesting and instructive charts are found showing\nthe course of individual power during the day, according to which the daily\nlessons should be gauged, in order to tax the child from hour to hour in proportion tohis or her power only; others showing extremes of strength, of endurance, growth in height, etc. We find all the high schools equipped with\ngymnasiums varying from sixty-four to one hundred feet in length, from\nthirty-two to seventy-three feet in breadth, and from twenty-one to thirty-fiive\nfeet in height. Students of the normal school receive part of their practical\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n833\n\ntraining by teaching in the grade schools. Here we have a valuable suggestion in the introduction of portable apparatus in the schoolroom and corridor ;\nfor example, one room has the free space next to the teacher's desk fitted out\nwith a vaulting bench, two oblique and one horizontal ladders, while a corridor\nshows two perpendicular ladders fastened to opposite walls and supporting\na weighted horizontal ladder, showing the growing appreciation for apparatus\nwork in the grade schools.\nTurning to the right, we enter a room devoted to the Michigan State Normal\nCollege, the Young Men's Christian Association Institute and Training School\nat Lake Geneva and Chicago, Philadelphia Normal School of Physical Training, New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, OberUn Teacher's College\nfor Physical Training, and the Posse Normal School of Gymnastics.\nThe first of these, the Michigan State Normal College, makes a very interesting exhibit of the pantograph, an instrument used for tracing the outline\nof the body and at the sa\"me time recording it upon a chart. These measurements are taken of the pupils at the beginning of the year, and again after\nnine months of physical training. The results are remarkable, showing\ngreat improvement in protruding shoulder blades and in the depth of chest.\nNext to this is located the Young Men's Christian Association Training\nSchool at Lake Geneva and Chicago, which shows many photographs and\nprospectuses of the work done.\nFollowing this exhibit is that of the Philadelphia Normal School of Physical ,\nTraining, having its home in Temple College.\nThis shows the exterior of\nthe college and a portrait of President Conwell, synopses of instruction, and\na fac-simile of a diploma awarded for successfully completing a course in\nphysical training.\nNear is found the exhibit of the New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics,\nwhich is very comprehensive. There are two portfolios illustrating by photograph and manuscript the work of the students. Among the outdoor exercises may be mentioned: field hockey, golf, tennis, and cross-country walks.\nThere will also be found books on gymnastic subjects — the work of members\nof the faculty; theses and reports on school visiting by the pupils.\nSince we are in the midst of a campaign against the present-day shoe and\nits evil tendencies, Oberlin's exhibit will be of special interest. Here are\ncompared by photograph the shoe-wearing and non-shoe-wearing races. A\ngroup of Gilbert Islanders shows the straight inner line and wide space between\nthe great and second toes, while the others show an outward angle of the great\ntoe and tendency to flat-foot.\nThe next wall is devoted to the Posse Normal School of Gymnastics.\nA portrait of the late Baron Nils Posse occupies the center space, while around\nit are arranged photographs of office, library, lecture-, and massage-rooms.\nClasses in club-swinging and aesthetic dancing are also shown, as well as\nbeautiful drawings of the brain and circulation — the work of the students.\nOn the immediate right, as we leave this room, will be found the exhibit of\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": null, "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthe Cincinnati public schools. Types of calisthenics in each grade are shown\nin the schoolroom and out of doors, when weather permits, thus illustrating\nthe greater freedom attained with plenty of space. Other photographs show\nthe eighth grades of the Norwood, O., grammar schools equipped with\ngymnasiums.\nFrom this hall we enter the gallery of the university gymnasium. The\nfirst exhibit on the right is that of Amherst College, Mass. Their first gymnasium, called Barrett Gymnasium, was built in 1859, and has since been\nreplaced by a very much larger and more elaborate one, the gift of a Mr.\nPratt, in 1884. From an interesting table we learn that as far back as i860\ngymnastics were made compulsory; eighteen years later Blake Field was\npurchased for athletics; in 1900 pupils were given credit on their diplomas\nfor work in this branch; and in 1903 the Hitchcock post-graduate fellowship\nwas established.\nInstructive charts relative to the health of the students are shown. Quoting these, the average time lost per student thru sickness, as shown by statistics of twenty-five years is 84.4 per cent.; the gain of health during college\ncourse: seniors, 94.4; juniors, 93; sophomores, 89.2; and freshmen, 87.2 per\ncent. This health record furnishes one of the strongest pleas for physical\ntraining in our schools and colleges.\nNext comes the University of Wisconsin, showing the women's gymnasium,\nthe basket-ball team, the swimming class and crew; also men in Uke work.\nThe most instructive part of this exhibit will be found in two charts illustrating\ncurvatures.\nIn the extreme corner we find a depressing, tho interesting, exhibit of the\nanthropometric screen and the deformities it brings to light. The work is\nthat of Mrs. Anna Barr Clapp, of the University of Nebraska, and is completed\nby a table showing the relative measurements of the eastern and western\ncollege girl.\nPassing on, the exhibits of Bowdoin College are reached. Photographs of\nthe present and proposed gymnasiums, locker-room, and classes in clubswinging, boxing, and fencing are shown.\nIn the windows are hung transparencies of Rutgers College and the\nUniversity of Pennsylvania.\nJust beyond the window. New Mexico exhibits outdoor basket-ball for\nwomen and football for men.\nThe entrance to the exhibit of McGill University of Canada is marked\nby two bronze statues, one representing an athlete, the other a sprinter. On\nthe left side of the screen devoted to this exhibit will be found Dr. R. Tait\nMcKenzie's interesting and novel plaster masks illustrating the facial expression\nof effort, breathlessness, fatigue, and exhaustion.\nFrom this exhibit we approach the University of Minnesota. A ground\nplan of the gymnasium shows three rooms devoted to this purpose, a women's\napparatus room, a similar room for men, and a large general drill-room.\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": null, "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n835\n\nSmith College comes next with an extensive and beautiful exhibit. The\ngymnasium is large, well Hghted, and devoted entirely to Swedish gymnastics,\nwhich is compulsory. Fencing and aesthetic work are given prominent places\nin the curriculum, which also embraces outdoor sports, such as basket-ball\nand hockey, for which the environs are admirably suited.\nImmediately next Wellesley College has her exhibit, which is also Swedish\nin character.\nHere crew work is included in the course.\nThe last exhibit in this room is devoted to the men's department of Oberlin.\nCrossing the hall, we enter the room devoted to the North American\nTurners' Association. The first object that meets the eye is a model gymnasium in miniature, exhibited by the North American Gymnastic Union. On\nthe walls of the room are arranged artistic groupings representative of the\nwork done by these societies. To the turners and a few equally well-trained\nand enthusiastic Swedes is due the introduction and spread of gymnastics in\nthis country, and we must look upon them as the pioneers in this work.\nIn a small room opening off this one is found the Brazihan exhibit. The\nfavorite form of physical exercise with the BraziHans is bicycling, and the\nwalls are covered with pictures of champions of this art and parties about to\nstart on tours. There is shown a model bicycle track, built much Hke a racetrack. Even in this far-away country the turners have made their way and\nhave established many rowing clubs.\nRecrossing the former room and entering the hall on the right, we find\nsuccessively Missouri University; Indian Industrial School, Carlisle, Pa.;\nPhillips Exeter Academy, and Culver Military Academy.\nIn the exhibit of Phillips Exeter Academy we see a gymnasium appropriately decorated with statues typifying athletic victories.\nCulver MiHtary Academy has an artistic exhibit illustrating field gymnastics, setting up drills, wall-scaling, and hurdling on horseback.\nOn the third floor we enter the realm of the Young Men's Christian Association. The first exhibit on the left is devoted to the Buffalo Central Association, which gives over one-third of its entire building to the gymnasium\nand the swimming-pool.\nCincinnati follows this, and Dayton, O., shows a plan of its athletic park\ncovering six acres. Besides the usual groups are found outdoor fencing, and\ntub-racing in the natatorium.\nThe last display in this room is that of Seattle, Wash.\nThe trophy-room contains two bronzes deserving of mention; one, the\nDodge trophy, representing three runners, awarded the basket-ball championship inthe New York high schools; the other, ''The Wrestlers,\" presented\nby Mr. Pratt to the elementary school holding similar championship.\nOn one wall are hung two very old banners, won by an Amherst crew in\n1872.\n\nIn conclusion, we hope this paper has been of sufficient interest to insure\na closer inspection of the exhibits and a greater appreciation of their value in\neducation,\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n836\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nMISS MARY\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nTRAINING EXHIBITS IN THE EDUCATION\nBUILDING OF THE EXPOSITION\n\nIDA MANN,\n\nGYMNASIUM,\nINSTRUCTOR IN WOMEN'S\nMISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nWhen the principles of Ling and Father Jahn were first brought across\nthe water, their most optimistic advocates failed to anticipate results which\nless than half a century has produced.\nEvidences of these results form a considerable portion of the display in the\nEducation Building of the Universal Exposition. They consist largely of\nphotographs, and are found among the exhibits in the following sections:\nElementary and Secondary Schools ; American Universities ; American Colleges ;\nForeign Countries; Hygiene; Social Economy; Charities and Corrections; and\nSchool PubHcations.\nThese displays suggest the geographic direction of growth of our gymnastic\nactivity. This growth has been, with the exception of lines from a few Middle\nWest cities which have acted as radiating centers, from the east westward.\nIt is then no surprise that cabinets from eastern states indicate that their\nnormal schools, private schools, and public schools are, as a rule, as well or\nbetter provided with gymnasia, instructors, and athletic facilities as many of\nthe highest institutions of learning in the West.\nThirty-one states send exhibits. Some provide special cabinets for physical\ntraining, while others place the athletic and gymnastic displays in the cabinets\nof individual schools. From the mass of material thus provided for inspection\nthe endless array of basket-ball and football exhibits first impress the observer.\nHe will also be interested in views of baseball and track work, cross-country\nruns, skating, walking, tennis, boxing, fencing, and military drill; by classes\nin gymnasia, corridors, schoolrooms, and the open; and by such accessories\nas fine gymnasia, bleachers, athletic fields, pools, baths, and trophies.\nOn account of the short time allotted for this paper, and of this similarity\nof all exhibits, it is advisable to mention only those features which are pecuHarly\nsuggestive.\nFrom New England, the Massachusetts exhibit is especially valuable to\nthose interested in Swedish gymnastics. Boston shows fine high-school gymnasia, with girls and boys in regulation costume, and chapels, corridors, and\n• schoolrooms utiHzed where a gymnasium is not provided. The gymnasia\nshow the correct arrangement of Swedish apparatus, and the schoolrooms\nsuggest the use of desks and seats in its absence. The students of the normal\nschool at Hyannis are given a course in first aid to the wounded, with practicing in bandaging, etc.\nNew York's most comprehensive exhibit is from New York city. Among\nthe photographs of classes is one of class wrestling, and among those of equipment are swimming-tanks and shower baths.\nCharts outline the work in\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n837\n\nphysical training, the organization of the athletic league, and the care given to\natypical children. The outline states that the principle of selection is with\nreference to the effect upon the correction of posture and the stimulation of\nmain physical functions. A two-minute setting-up drill is added twice in the\nmorning and once in the afternoon. Heavy equipment is used only after\nschool hours. The Athletic League, officially independent of the board of\neducation, confines its activities to out-of-school hours. The care of atypical\nchildren includes two physical examinations a year, much exercise in the sun,\ndaily baths, plain lunch at school, and frequent rests.\nPennsylvania sends a most interesting exhibit of rules and models for a\ngame called ''Snow Snake,\" from the Corn Planter Indians of the Indian\nSchool at Warren. The Bloomsburg Normal School proves the success of\nthe plan of including contesting individuals, teams, and classes in the program\nof the annual exhibition.\nCleveland's exhibit shows the Swedish system with seats and desks used\nfor support, vaulting, and resistance.\nFrom Illinois, Chicago outlines the results of investigations in growth,\nmotor defects, etc. In addition, there are views of class fencing and preliminary\nindoor lessons in hockey. No gymnasium is less than sixty-four feet in length,\nthirty-two feet in breadth, and twenty-one feet in height. For schoolroom\nwork a piece of portable apparatus has been invented by means of which a\nsingle piece of apparatus on rollers, by various attachments becomes a sort of\nmultiple horse (called ''handle horse\"), changeable into parallel bars, one or\nmore of the several horizontal bars, and ladders both horizontal and oblique.\nViews from Peoria suggest methods of disposing of hand apparatus in\ncorridors. In the yard of an eighth-grade school a class of boys and girls\ndo exercises of balancing and vaulting over a large supported log. This\nexhibit closes with a mass drill of all public-school children in a gymnastic\nfield exhibition.\nIn Indianapolis the grade buildings are being fitted as fast as possible with\ngymnasia. The neighboring city of Crawfordsville, which is without a gymnasium, sends her high-school girls, chaperoned by the lady principal, to a hall\nfitted for the purpose, where they are instructed by the Y. M. C. A. director,\nwhile the boys are sent to the Y. M. C. A. gymnasium.\nWisconsin, as well as the previously mentioned states, indicates widespread interest in physical training. River Falls shows the girls in suits with\npointed belts. This is the only exhibit showing any variation from the\nround belt. From the State School for the BKnd a class is shown just starting\non an outdoor run, the fine connected and guided by a rope.\nAll new buildings in Minneapolis are now being built with wide halls for\nthe accommodation of classes in physical training. Views of these corridors\nshow what an inspiration they are.\nSeven biogens (or mutoscopes) in the Missouri exhibit represent, as photographs could not, the life, activity, and grace displayed by classes in free-hand\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": null, "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\ngymnastics from the elementary schools, a high-school basket-ball team and\nfencing bout, and a gymnastic dancing class from the Kirksville Normal\nSchool. From the Manual Training High School of Kansas City the visitor\nsees a variety of astonishing pyramids posed for by the boys of the gymnasium.\nIn the extreme west a feature worthy of note is the splendid athletic field\nprovided for the Ogden High School.\nThe exhibit of the EvangeHcal Lutherans is most satisfactory, because it\nindicates a system of compulsory gymnastics which extends through the parochial, college, and training schools, and ends only at the theological seminary\nElaborate displays from the women's colleges represent an expenditure for\ngymnasia and equipment, and for hockey, boating, golf, tennis, snow-shoeing,\nbasket-ball, and track work which a few years ago would have been deemed\nmost extravagant. Smith College displays views of positions taken by a basketball team at various points in the game, and also a picture of the throng\nawaiting admission to the great inter-class basket-bair game. Six elective\nand six required courses in gymnastics are announced.\nAmong American universities Columbia sends statistics proving an almost\nuniversal use of the gymnasium.\nCharts from Wisconsin make anthropometric comparisons with data from\nYale and Cornell. The position of the university on Lake Mendota, as shown\nby a model of the campus, accounts for our only western boating crew. A\ncomplete file of the Badger furnishes data concerning Wisconsin meets and\nrecords.\nIllinois girls play basket-ball, in gymnasium costume, on an outdoor court.\nIn an album from Missouri is discovered the only exhibit attempting to\nshow in detail the regulation gymnasium suit of an institution.\nMichigan's exhibit sets forth the system of class contests and games which\narouse such enthusiasm among her students.\nTennis is evidently the most popular sport for both men and women at\nTennessee.\nThe German exhibit is easily understood because of its system and of the\noutlines, in English, posted for the convenience of the visitor. A model of a\ncombination gymnasium and public library at Charlottenburg, and another\nof a pubhc-school gymnasium, are exhibited. The latter accommodates\nabout five hundred children who work in sections of between twenty and fifty.\nAmong devices not commonly seen in America are a combination of swinging\nropes with a chair at the top of a vertical ladder, leather mats, a truck for\ncarrying mats about the gymnasium, and panels in the side walls which open\ninto receptacles for the hand apparatus, wraps, and the details of the heating\nand ventilating systems. The work at QuedHnburg is entirely out of doors\nand, in combination with military maneuvers, consists of cHmbing in the Hartz\nmountains. In all schools much attention is given to rowing and swimming.\nPreparatory swimming movements are practiced by the boys lying face downward on a device similar to a camp stool. All pubHc baths are typified by\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n839\n\nthose shown from Frankfort. Charts by F. A. Schmidt, of Bonn, outhne the\ninfluence and results of physical exercise in youth. Other charts give the\nsystem of measurements used in determining whether children are ready for\nhigher mental work. The distribution of playgrounds in the main industrial\ndistrict of Germany is indicated by maps, and a painting reproduces the wellshaded playground at Konigsberg. Outdoor gymnasia, baths, military work,\ncamping, and outhnes of physical examinations suggest the nature of the work\nin Eberfeld and other schools of hke rank.\nThe exhibit from the primary schools of England is especially complete.\nIn London each school has an instructor under whom the younger children\nwork in the schoolroom or on the playground, and the older children in a\ngymnasium. Each district has its pool, and swimming is a part of the curriculum. The preliminary exercises are taught standing and l)dng on the floor.\nThe course of instruction also includes life-saving drills, and certificates are\ngiven to those who can swim twenty yards. Photographs of some of the\nchampions, and a full explanation of the system, make a study of this\nexhibit most helpful. Outlines of the gymnastic work show that it is based\non the Swedish system. Similar work is shown for Leeds and Liverpool.\nLeeds has ten baths with eleven instructors, and lessons are given from April\n20 to September 21. Physical work in Liverpool includes Saturday-afternoon\nrambles. At present each city outlines its own course, but a committee recently\nappointed for the purpose of suggesting a uniform course has just completed\nits report.^ Among secondary schools for boys, Eton and Rugby show military\nwork, tests in swimming, a meet and games, and suggest the great amount of\nattention given rowing by schools situated on a river. Secondary schools\nfor girls show lacrosse, cricket in gloves and shin guards, hockey in gymnasium\ncostume, rowing, and gymnasium work. At the universities gymnastic and\nathletic work is not compulsory, each man being so ''keen\" for this training\nthat restraint instead is necessary. A Durham football costume differs\nmaterially from the padded American armor. Thick boots, short knickerbockers, golf hose, and bicolored shirts with the sleeves rolled up complete the\noutfit. A woman in the affiliated colleges at Oxford has as recreations hockey,\ntennis, and rowing.\nPhotographs from the Royal Institute at Stockholm illustrate the pure\nSwedish positions, and the use of Swedish apparatus so typically that the\npictures themselves could be used as standards for imitation in teaching the\nsystem. In addition, there are models of Swedish ''playing tools\" designed,\nin size, for children from eight to fifteen years of age. These comprise equipment for a game similar to our basket-ball, altho the ball is smaller; and for\nanother similar to baseball (the bat being wider) ; and further skees, bowling\nand other wooden balls, and poles and standards for vaulting.\nIn fascinating wistaria-hung arbors Japanese children and normal-school\ngirls seem to be happy at gymnastic games.\n\nIn a girls' high school some are\n\n' Eyre & Spottiswoode, E. Harding St., Fleet St., London, E. C.\n\nPrice, 12 cents and postage.\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": null, "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nbusy with a lesson in etiquette, and others, with the sleeves of their native\ncostumes tied behind their backs, go thru with exercises which would surely\nhave drawn approval from Delsarte. But progress is evident, for in an up-todate gymnasium girls in bloomers take their lesson from a teacher from the\nBoston Normal School of Gymnastics. In several exhibits men are engaged\nin European gymnastics.\nAll Chinese classes, including girls in mission schools and men in the outdoor\ngymnastic work of the military schools, are in native costume.\nBrazil sends pictures of military and gymnastic work in tropical yards by\nmen in cool white costumes.\nModels of longer clubs and shorter bar-bells than our manufacturers ofifer\nfind place in the exhibit from Argentine; also children's classes with hand\napparatus.\nCuba's exhibit evidences the influence of the teachers trained at the New\nPaltz (N. Y.) Normal School. In the public schools, work in gymnastics is\ncompulsory from the little thatched country school to the highest school supported bythe government, and is general in private schools. Havana, Pinar\ndel Rio, Matanzas, and Santiago show games, light apparatus, croquet, and\nbasket-ball.\nInstitutions for the deaf and dumb make use of the concentration developed\nby physical training as an aid in auditory work. American and British prisons\nand reformatories show compulsory baths, indoor work, and outdoor games\nas a means of uplifting and reclaiming.\nHospitals and institutions for the insane show field sports and gymnastic\nclasses. Johns Hopkins Hospital exhibits an orthopedic shoe for the correction\nof flat feet. The Battle Creek (Mich.) Sanitarium shows gymnasium and\nnatatorium, and Swedish mechanical movements. Boards of health exhibit\ngymnasia and public baths. The Muskoka Lake region shows a camp with a\ngymnasium for the treatment of pulmonary affections.\nWith regard to physical training, the Women's Christian Temperance\nUnion has compiled statistics grouping states with compulsory laws. The\nhome economics exhibit indicates, as one line of work of the Association of\nCollegiate Alumnae, the study of physical education for girls.\nThe National Cash Register Manufacturing Co., of Dayton, O., finds it\nadvantageous to maintain an instructor and classes for its employees and their\nfamilies. Dancing classes for the children are considered as important as\ngymnastics for the men of the office force.\nOf the publishing houses. Silver, Burdett & Co., the American Book Co.,\nand the Milton Bradley Co. offer books upon the subject under discussion.\nFrom this display of physical training several conclusions may be drawn.\nPhysical training is in general use in the United States, from universities and\ncolleges to, and including, primary schools. In institutions of all ranks and\nfor either sex, basket-ball takes the place of systematic training until the equipment for regular work is procured.\nThe uniform presence of football exhibits\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n841\n\nwould indicate that it is here to stay. The ugly and bungling bloomer costume\nworn by the strong-minded woman of the past decade has given place to an\nappropriate and attractive suit, whose general use extends even to outdoor\ngames and contests. Physical training has come to be an essential, not only\nfor the normal, but for the abnormal; not only for development, but for\nphysical, mental, and moral correction.\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday,\n\nJune 28, 1904\n\nThe department met in the reading-room, Ea. t Gallery, Transportation Building,\nand was called to order at 2 : 30 P. m., by president Wilbur A. Fiske.\nA report of the committee appointed at the 1903 meeting, \"to request the National\nCouncil to consider the advisability of appointing a committee to discuss the subject of\nphysics teaching in high schools which prepare few pupils for college, and to formulate a\ncourse of physics for such schools,\" was made, in the absence of the chairman, by Frank M.\nGilley, of Chelsea, Mass. He reported progress, and was instructed by the president to\npresent the matter of the necessary appropriation to the National Council then in session,\nand to report at the meeting tomorrow.\nThe following program was then presented:\nTopic: \"Discussion of Louisiana Purchase Exhibits.\"\n1. \"A Comparative Study of the Methods of Science Instruction of the Various Countries as Shown by\nTheir Exhibits,\" by William J. S. Bryan, principal of Central High School, St. Louis, Mo.\n2. \"The Nature and Educational Value of the Scientific Exhibits of High Schools and Colleges of the\nUnited States,\" by George Piatt Knox, principal of Garfield School, St. Louis, Mo.\n3. \"Applied Geography, Illustrated from the Louisiana Purchase,\" by Arthur G. Clement University of\nthe State of New York, Albany, N. Y.\nThe discussion of these papers was opened by Chester B. Curtis, Central High School,\nSt. Louis, Mo., and was followed by a number of questions which were answered by the\nspeakers.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the president:\nE. R. Whitney, of New York.\nHubert J. Schmitz, of New York.\nChester B. Curtis, of Missouri.\nThe department adjourned at 4: 15 p. m. to meet Wednesday, June 29, 1904, at 2 p. m.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday,\n\nJune 29\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2 : 20 p. m. by President Fiske, and the following\npapers on biological and physical science were presented:\n1. \"The Microscope in the Biological Laboratory of the High School,\" by John F. Thompson, instructor\nin botany. High School, Richmond, Ind.\nDiscussion led by S. M. Coulter, professor of botany, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo.\n2. \"The Subject-Matter of High-School Physics,\" by Arthur L. Foley, professor of physics. State University, Bloomington, Ind.\n3. \"The Value of Chemistry in Secondary Education,\" by W. M. Blanchard, professor of chemistry.\nDe Pauw University Greencastle, Ind.\nDiscussion was led by August F. Foerste,843instructor in physics, Steele High School,\nDayton, O., and H. A. Senter, head of Chemical Department, Omaha High School, Omaha,\nNeb., who were followed by E. R. von Nordroff, head of Science Department, Erasmus\nHall High School, Brooklyn, N. Y., and several others.\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": null, "text": "^44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe following papers on science-teaching in general were then read:\n1. \"The Teaching of the Scientific Method,\" by S. A. Forbes, dean of University of lUinois, Urbana, 111.\n2. \"Nature Study as an Aid to Advanced Work in Science,\" by E. R. Whitney, instructor in science, High\nSchool, Binghampton, New York.\nThese papers were discussed by Otis Caldwell, professor of biology, Eastern Illinois\nState Normal School, Charleston, 111.\nThe president then called for the report of the Committee on a Physics Course, after\nwhich the following motion was made by E. R. von Nordroff that a committee be appointed\nto investigate the courses in physics, and to report upon any desirable changes in the elementary course, and to suggest a second-year course. The motion was carried, and the\npresident appointed the following committee:\nFrank M. Gilley of Massachusetts.\nWillis E. Tovk^er of Illinois.\nE. R. von Nordroff, of New York.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was read and adopted, and the following\nofficers were elected for the ensuing year:\nFor President— Frziok M. Gilley, Chelsea, Mass.\nFor Vice-President — Arthiu\" G. Clement, Albany, N. Y.\nFor Secretary — H. A. Senter, Omaha Neb.\nThe department adjourned at 5 : 15 P. m.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nH. A. Senter, Secretary.\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nA COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE METHODS OF SCIENCE\nINSTRUCTION OF THE VARIOUS COUNTRIES, AS\nSHOWN BY THEIR EXHIBITS\nW.\n\nJ. S. BRYAN,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nPresumably the thought of those who requested me to prepare a f)aper on\nthis very extensive topic was to secure a digest, as it were, of the several foreign\nexhibits in the Educational Building, in so far as they are related to science\ninstruction. At best, it will be possible to do but little more than this in the\nbrief space and with the Hmited material at my command. The exhibits\nof the different foreign countries were not prepared with the same object in\nview, and emphasis is not laid upon the same features. The methods of instruction can be determined only by inference from the work of pupils presented,\nfrom the pubHshed catalogs, programs, and courses of study of institutions\nrepresented, and from the collections of apparatus and illustrative material\nshown.\nScience instruction in actual daily practice affords the most attractive\nfeatures for the eye of the beholder, but it is the laboratory equipment and the\nexperimental work of the pupil or the skillful demonstration of the teacher that\nlends especial interest and charm.\nThe distinctive thought of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition is the display\nof processes rather than products.\nIf it had been possible for the several coun-\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n845\n\ntries to send typical classes of pupils for the exhibition of laboratory science\nin model laboratories, it would have afforded unprecedented opportunity\nfor observation of methods of instruction which would have been of the greatest\ninterest and value. The interest that would have been aroused by such pre-,\nsentation of actual work in the laboratories of science is shown by the throngs\nof spectators that surround such displays of processes wherever they are\nmade in the exposition grounds, whether in the Educational Building or elsewhere. Itwould have been expensive to send classes of pupils, but the outlay\nwould have been returned in the education of pupils sent, and in the stimulus and suggestion afforded the student of educational methods. Moreover,\nwhere so much has been expended, evidently not the cost, but the effectiveness ofdisplay, was the dominant thought. As it is, however, the photograph isthe most effective representation of actual conditions of science work,\nand is supplemented by the written exercises or examination papers of students, by the programs of daily work and the courses of study pursued, or\nby the apparatus and illustrative material used. It is to be regretted that the\ndifferent countries have not all shown all these elements of science instruction, which would have been full of suggestion to the educator. In some of\nthe exhibits one feature is shown ; in others, another.\nSo much by way of suggestion for future educational exhibits and of\nexplanation of conditions that obtain in the present exhibit.\n*\nI shall now speak of the exhibit of science instruction made by four of the\nnations of Europe in the Educational Building. If another nation makes\nsuch an exhibit, I have failed to locate it.\nThe Swedish exhibit is most complete along the lines of drawing, manual\ntraining, and domestic science. Of pupils' work in science there are only a\nfew examination papers in bound volumes and a large collection of herbarium\nspecimens prepared by pupils in the course of their study of botany. These\ncollections show the extent of the study of plants, and are evidence of excellence of training and skill in preparation. The photographs exhibited show\nexcellence of equipment in botany, physics, and chemistry, both as to laboratories and apparatus. The practice of going on botanizing expeditions is\nillustrated by photographs. Some of these journeys occupy from eight to\nfourteen days. Provision is made by governmental and private railroad\nlines for greatly reduced rates of travel. Not only botany, but other subjects, such as mining, lumbering, and manufacturing, are studied. Illustrative material for the study of botany, physiology, physics, and chemistry is\nshown. From the pamphlet prepared for distribution it appears that in the\npublic secondary schools natural history — e. g., zoology, botany, physics,\nastronomy, chemistry, geology — is taught five years, and is followed by\nphysics and chemistry, four .years each. Technical education is highly\nesteemed in Sweden. Higher scientific instruction in technical subjects is\ngiven at the Technical High School of Stockholm and the Chalmers' Polytechnical College in Gothenburg.\nThe sciences taught in these schools are\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": null, "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ngeodesy, topography, mechanics, physics, electrotechnics, and chemistry. In\nthe technical colleges, five in number, there are taught the sciences of mechanics,\nphysics, chemistry, mineralogy, and geognosy. The subjects taught in the\nlower technical schools vary with the prevalent form of industry of the district in which the school is located. The proportionate number of students\nof science has rapidly increased since 1875. Then out of every hundred\npupils forty-one took the classical course ; now sixty-nine out of every hundred\ntake the modern-language course, in which more of science is taught.\nFrance has a very extensive and artistic exhibit of the work done in her\nschools and higher institutions of learning. It consists of photographs, textbooks, catalogs, charts showing courses of study and classification of schools,\npupils' written work collected from a large number of schools and evidently\nnot prepared especially for display, written tests, monographs, and treatises.\nIn the boys' schools and colleges the sciences are taught in each of the\neleven years of the prescribed courses, with one exception: in the eighth year\npupils who take Greek do not study science. In each of the two preparatory\nyears one hour a week is given to nature study. In each of the two elementary\nyears one hour a week is given to nature study. In the succeeding four years,\nwhich constitute the first cycle, one hour each week for three years is given\nto the natural sciences by the pupils who study Latin, and by the modernlanguage division two hours a week, for two years. In the fourth year of the\nLatin course natural science is omitted. In the third and fourth years of the\nmodern-language course two hours a week are given to physics and chemistry,\nand in the fourth year an additional hour is given to the natural sciences.\nIn the first and second years of the succeeding cycle of three years, physics\nand chemistry are given one hour a week in the Greek and Latin course, and\nalso in the Latin and modern-language course, while in the Latin-science\ncourse and the science-modem-language course three hours a week are given\nto physics and chemistry, and two to practical science and laboratory work.\nIn the last year in the philosophic courses three hours a week are given to\nphysics and chemistry, and two hours to laboratory work, and in the mathematics courses five hours a week are given to physics and chemistry, and two\nhours to laboratory work. The place of science in these courses of study may\nbe stated as follows :\nFirst year, all pupils, nature study, one hour.\nSecond year, all pupils, nature study, one hour.\nThird year, all pupils, nature study, one hour.\nFourth year, all pupils, nature study, one hour.\nFifth year, Latin-course pupils : natural sciences — zoology, one hour.\nFifth year, modern-language pupils : natural sciences — zoology, two hours.\nSixth year, Latin-course pupils: natural sciences — botany, one hour.\nSixth year, modern-language pupils: natural sciences — botany and geology, two hours.\nSeventh year, Latin pupils : natural sciences^geology, one hour.\nSeventh year, modern-language pupils : physics and chemistry, two hours.\nEighth year, Latin pupils: no science.\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nMETHODS\n\nOF\n\nSCIENCE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n847\n\nEighth year, modern -language pupils: natural sciences — zoology, one hour, and physics\nand chemistry, two hours.\nNinth year, Greek and Latin, or Latin and modern-language pupils: physics, one hour;\ngeology, twelve conferences.\nNinth year, science-course pupils: physics and chemistry, three hours; laboratory work,\ntwo hours; geology, twelve conferences.\nTenth year, Greek and Latin, or Latin and modern-language pupils : physics, one hour.\nTenth year, science-course pupils: physics and chemistry, three hours; laboratory\nwork, two hours.\nEleventh year, philosophy students: physics and chemistry, three hours; natural\nsciences — animal and vegetable anatomy and physiology, two hours; twelve conferences\non hygiene.\nEleventh year, mathematics students: physics and chemistry, five hours; laboratory\nwork, two hours; natural sciences — animal and vegetable anatomy and physiology, two\nhours; twelve conferences on hygiene.\n\nFrom these courses of study it is evident that relatively little time is given\nto the sciences below the college grade — in no case more than one-eighth or\none-twelfth of the whole time; and yet the schools cited are for boys, who are\ntaught more science than the girls.\nIn the course of study for secondary schools for girls (from twelve to sixteen years of age) there is the following assignment of studies:\nFirst year : natural history — zoology, botany, one hour, each one semester.\nSecond year: natural history — geology, botany, one hour, each one semester.\nThird year: physics and chemistry, two hours.\nFourth year: physics and chemistry, one and one-half hours; anatomy and physiology of animals and plants, one hour.\nFifth year: physics and chemistry, two hours; anatomy and physiology of animals\nand plants, one hour.\n\nIn all there are ten hours work in science, covering a period of five years,\nor two hours a year.\nThe illustrations found in the papers on physics and chemistry are carefully drawn, but seem to be copied from printed illustrations rather than\ntaken from apparatus actually used. They therefore lack originaUty and\nfreshness. The individuality of observation which laboratory work is thought\nto cultivate is not apparent. Practical experiments by pupils are deferred\nto the college age, and this is probably the reason for defects of illustration.\nThe work of pupils of the lowest grade seems drawn from various schools,\none or two exercises from each. This plan of selection would seem to preclude unity of presentation and affords little ground of judgment as to excellence of work. It were difficult to form an opinion of the work of any school\nin any line, if only two or three exercises of a kind were to be seen.\nThe best display of science work seen in the French exhibit is to be found\nin the papers from the normal school of Douai, Nord. Here is shown thoro\nwork covering a period of three years in the sciences of physics and chemistry,\nincluding two years of laboratory practice. This is the more noteworthy,\nbecause teachers who receive such training will be prepared to take up with\npupils under them the common illustrations of science, which occur on every\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": null, "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nhand, not as isolated cases, but as illustrations of principles of far-reaching\napplication. Only teachers thoroly trained in science can have such a conception of the relation of parts to the whole, such a conscious recognition of\nthe illustrations of fundamental laws afforded by phenomena observed, as\nwill enable them to lead their pupils directly, if unknowingly, toward a comprehension ofthese laws whose discovery has made possible the scientific\nachievements of the present day.\nThe scientific work of the great universities of France is represented in\nthe exhibit by printed pamphlets, monographs, treatises, and reports, and by\ncollections of photographs showing laboratories and equipment. Time will\nnot permit a statement of the scheme of study they present. The catalogs\nare submitted for examination in the French exhibit.\nIn the British educational exhibit excellent, and very interesting and\ninstructive, collections of pupils' work in science are to be seen. The subjects\nrepresented are botany, zoology, physics, and chemistry. The plan pursued\nis the presentation of the work of classes of typical schools of different sections,\nfrom which the character and quahty of the work generally done may be\ninferred. The illustrative drawings are remarkably well executed. Scientific accuracy and artistic taste and skill are shown. In botany especially is\nthis apparent. The drawings in many instances have the appearance of\nengravings for scientific illustration, tho they are evidently taken from actual\nspecimens of groupings of apparatus used in demonstration. This excellence\nwas the more noteworthy because attained by pupils whose age was from one\nto two years less than pupils of this country engaged in the same work.\nAnother impressive fact, which was also apparent in the French exhibit,\nwas the practice of studying the several sciences taught in our high schools simultaneously rather than successively, so that before completing the study of a\ngiven science the pupils pass thru several years of development, in this way\nmaking in each succeeding year a more intensive study of each of the subjects. Such study of a subject \"may well be likened to a broadening spiral\ncurve, which at each complete turn reaches a higher point and includes a\nbroader area. The accuracy and definiteness of drawing were equaled by\nclearness and intelligence of statement of principles and by correctness of\ninferences drawn from phenomena observed. The results obtained by the\nprocess employed suggested the inquiry whether it is not more in harmony\nwith the laws of development to keep the same subject before the mind of the\ngrowing pupil for several years, thus allowing time for the assimilation of the\nideas presented and for the gradual growth of the apperceptive mass, than to\nchange the subject each year or each semester. May it not be true that the\nbest results in education are to be obtained only when the rate of progress is\nnormal, and also that, within a certain interval of time, too many thoughts of\none kind may be presented for their ready and complete digestion ?\nThe exhibit of Germany in the educational department is admirable in its\ncompleteness and arrangement.\nHere in profusion are shown the tools of\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n849\n\neducation and the material aids to instruction. The display of illustrative\nmaterial and apparatus for use in scientific instruction challenges the attention\nof everyone and commands the careful examination of the teacher. The\nmost perfect instruments devised for scientific research may here be inspected\nwith the assistance of thoroly informed and studiously courteous experts, and\nevery grade of scientific teaching is furnished with suitable apparatus for\ndemonstration purposes. The collection of scientific apparatus is not presented as an advertisement of the manufacturer, but each piece has been\nselected for the exhibit by competent professors and teachers because of its\nmechanical excellence and its adaptation to the use for which it was designed.\nComplete lists of apparatus and illustrative material used in the schools\nof different grades have been carefully prepared for the inspection of those\ninterested.\nEspecially noticeable and suggestive is the display of apparatus for use in\nthe common schools of Berlin. In this city each of 183 schools is suppHed\nwith scientific apparatus for use in teaching physics and chemistry, more\nabundant and of higher grade than most high schools possess. Botany and\nzoology find abundant illustration in models and preserved specimens and\ncharts. The skill of the taxidermist and model-maker, and the art of the\ncolorist, have been engaged to represent to the eye the object to be studied\nscientifically.\nThe exhibit of text-books used is very extensive. The dominant characteristic seems to be scientific severity of illustration. Ornamentation is not\nthe object, audits absence is noticeable. The exceptions are books designed\nto show in actual colors the flowers to be considered in the work in botany.\nTo attempt to speak in detail of the apparatus exhibited would be vain.\nIf it was the purpose of those who prepared the German exhibit to emphasize\nthe great importance of the object and of the experimental side in scientific\ninstruction, a more effective display could not have been conceived.\nTo the teacher of science who is open-minded and hospitable to truth\nwherever presented the exhibits of the nations in the Educational Building\nfurnish fruitful fields of investigation, which should yield abundant harvests\nof improved methods of scientific instruction.\n\nTHE\n\nNATURE AND EDUCATIONAL VALUE\nTIFIC EXHIBITS OF HIGH SCHOOLS\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\nGEORGE\n\nPLATT\n\nKNOX,\n\nPRINCIPAL\n\nOF\n\nGARFIELD\n\nOF THE SCIENAND COLLEGES\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nWe are met within the gates of the universal exposition which commemorates the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. This meeting-place was chosen\nboth to do honor to the wisdom of the purchase and as well that we might\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": null, "text": "850\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nderive some of the immediate benefits of this wonderful exhibition. The\nnations of the worid have joined with us in showing the achievements in the\nproducts and processes of man's industry and thought during the last one hundred years. The exposition is to a large degree educational, and it is preeminently fitting then that we proceed to study the exhibit which is here\nspread before us. And if I am able by a preHminary study to give you some\nsuggestions as to the nature and scope of the display along the lines in which\nwe are more immediately interested — that of science instruction — my privilege will be great indeed.\nThe very able paper to which we have just listened has presented matters\nof interest in the exhibits of foreign countries. My topic follows well upon\nthis, being a study of the nature and educational value of the scientific exhibits\nof high schools and colleges of the United States. The feast of good things\nspread before us for our view and inspection is a delight. The mass of detail\nis well-nigh bewildering, if we attempt to encompass all that is offered by the\nexhibitors. Days are not enough; weeks alone would suffice, of patient,\ncareful study, before one could feel that the exhibit were mastered even within\nthe comparatively narrow limits of our scientific exhibits of high schools and\ncolleges of the United States. But even a cursory view will yield good returns,\nand to whatever extent we may make it possible to go deeper into the study,\nwe shall surely feel amply repaid.\nAs the name would imply, the Palace of Education and Social Economy contains, with but slight exception, this exhibit which most concerns us. The\ndomain of appHed sciences extends, of course, largely over the whole contents\nof all the buildings ; but the educational value of the work in pure science may\nbe largely viewed in the Educational Building. The universities have individual booths which are located in the northwest quadrant of the central\ncourt portion of this building. The remainder of this central court is devoted\nto the foreign educational work. Technical and engineering schools are\nfound in the west corridors of the main building. In the north end of the\nwest corridors are located the excellent exhibits of the agricultural colleges\nshown collectively under the direction of a committee of the Association of\nAmerican Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. The north corridqr is given up to the state exhibits of elementary and secondary education.\nHere will be found the display of high-school work, and that of colleges and\nuniversities which are not installed in the separate booths.\nTaking up first the work shown from the high schools, it is excellent both\nin quantity and quaHty. The display consists of photographs of laboratories,\noutlines of courses, written work of the pupils, and samples of products made\n•by them. In all of these fines evidence is shown of excellent work done.\nThere is, of course, a considerable similarity evident, but this is to be expected\nin view of the constant interchange of ideas of method and processes and the\nmeans of working- them out. Uniformity in our secondary-school work is\nan end toward which we are striving, and a considerable similarity of exhibit\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nEXHIBITS\n\n851\n\nis a natural consequence. Close study, however, will be rewarded by many\ninstances of special proficiency along certain lines, and the similarity thus\ngives way to a general uniformity in the main bulk of the work done, with\nspecial excellencies observable in many points. All thru the exhibit are large\nevidences of the advance in the so-called laboratory method; in most cases to\na laudable and healthful degree, in a few instances more emphasis is desirable,\nand in one or two cases I must say I think it has gone a bit too far. But\nit is not my purpose in this paper to criticise or to laud unduly in these matters,\nbut rather to stimulate, and if possible, to aid you in making your own observations. hail\nI\nwith highest commendation the many evidences of the pursuit\nof the highest form of science-teaching — the training of the pupil toward\ngreater abiHty to do and think for himself. Every means and every method\nof teaching which increases the pupil's power to observe phenomena accurately,\nto make deductions directly and correctly therefrom by the application of\nknown laws and accepted hypotheses, is admirable and desirable. And the\nevidences of a gain toward this end in our teaching are numerous and gratifying. The photographs of laboratories show that in many high schools\nfacilities are provided to pupils which are fully equal to the best average of\ncollege and university equipment, and in a great many cases are superior to\nwhat the pupil will find when he goes to the general science laboratories of the\nhigher institutions. In their desire to further their research work the universities are prone to equip to their best extent the laboratory facilities for the\nmore advanced or graduate students, and then of necessity provide less adequately for the first- and second-year students. And, on the other hand,\nthere has been a remarkable advance in the last few years in the equipment\nof high-school science laboratories, so that now these latter very considerably\noverlap in their lines of work the higher institutions, and quite often provide\nbetter laboratory accommodations to their pupils for advancement in scientific\npursuits.\nA careful examination of the courses of study shown will be well worth\nwhile. As to the written work of pupils, many specimen sheets are in the wall\ncabinets, while beneath in bound form may be found the work of whole classes.\nThis comprises examination papers, laboratory notebooks, both first draft\nand copied (and beware the difference), and more or less elaborate compositions and theses. I dare not here, for lack of time, enter at all into the discussion of the enticing questions of the form and method of making these\nlaboratory notes and of the form of the written examinations in these subjects.\nWhatever our view on these mooted questions, a delving into these masses of\nliterature at first hand will doubtless render us only the more strongly\nintrenched in our own pet opinions, for all kinds of work is shown, on the basis\nof which almost any proposition may be proved. I must, 'however, in passing,\npay a word of tribute to the value to us science-teachers of the work given\nto pupils in drawing in their elementary- and secondary-school training.\nMost excellent abihty is shown by the many samples of sketching done by\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nScience\n\nthe pupils in biology, physiography, physics, and chemistry; without this\ntraining of our pupils in drawing our own science-teaching would suffer\ngreatly.\nUnder products of work I would mention the extensive and excellent\nexhibits of prepared substances in chemistry ; the very interesting and valuable\ncollections of minerals and rocks obtained by field work in mineralogy, physics,\ngeography, and geology; the efficient apparatus and instruments constructed\nby the pupils in physics; the admirable collections mounted by pupils in their\nbotanical, zoological, and physiological studies, also in the drawings in color;\nall these demand especial mention and consideration, were the time not so\nlimited. An examination of these exhibits will prove the force of my suggestion that in many cases the work, not only in extent, but in quality, is overlapping that of the colleges and universities in their first and even second\nyear's work.\nI do not enter upon the field of appHed sciences, manual training, and\nengineering. As displayed before us, it is extremely interesting and gratifying— a study in itself.\nWithin the scope of exhibits of agricultural colleges you will find much\nthat is of great value. It partakes of the nature of photographs, a large amount\nof apparatus set up, extensive displays of natural products and laboratory\nprepared substances, interesting expositions of processes, graphic representations ofindustrial and commercial values. Of all these the least that can be\nsaid is that the progress in the sciences is very evident. Not only is it keeping\npace with the foremost researches of the universities, but in very many points\nit is just here that the investigations are conceived and carried on, and the\nimportant results given the widest interest and application. Too much praise\ncan hardly be given to the workers in these lines for their valuable uphft in\nhuman Hfe and activities. They make it possible, both Hterally and figuratively, for many blades of grass to grow where none grew before.\nPassing finally to the exhibits of universities, we find the same general\nnature of display. Photographs largely predominate here, and are very\nvaluable in showing actual conditions in which the work is carried on. Many\nmodels are set up of campus and buildings. The work is shown by instruments, prepared products, drawings, sketches, plaster models, hterary output,\nand all the multitudinous manifestations of our American university activities. Asummary which would be brief and at the same time adequate or\nlogical is quite impossible. Each university has its own individuality, its own\npreferred fields, its own choice methods. These are admirably depicted in\nappropriate and unique ways; each in itself appears best for its purpose, so\nthat as a whole the exhibits of our universities possess a pleasing variety and\ngratifying extent. A pride in these institutions is pardonable. They stand\nas monuments to the generosity of their founders; to the patient labor, wellnigh tireless industry, and in many cases self-sacrificing devotion of the members ofthe corps of teachers and investigators; and last, but not least, to the\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nILLUSTRATED\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPURCHASE\n\n853\n\nzeal, energy, and loyal support of the great mass of young men and women\ncomposing the student body.\nA view of our educational activities such as this exposition affords puts\nnew courage within us, gives us greater wisdom toward the solution of our\nproblems, a clearer view and better grasp of our methods, and higher ideals\nfor our attainment. Ours is the noblest work in the world. May our study\nhere together enhance our worth and increase our abilities in our high calling— the uplift of humanity thru its education !\n\nAPPLIED\nARTHUR\n\nGEOGRAPHY, ILLUSTRATED\nLOUISIANA PURCHASE\n\nG. CLEMENT,\n\nINSPECTOR\n\nOF SCHOOLS STATE\nALBANY, N. Y.\n\nFROM\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTHE\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nEvery department of thought and endeavor may be regarded in a twofold\naspect. It may be viewed theoretically — i. e., as pure science; or it may be\nconsidered practically — i. e., as applied science. In the former case it deals\nwith the principles in accordance with which the phenomena of the subject\nunder consideration are classified ; in the latter case it treats of the application\nof these principles to some useful purpose. One hears constantly of applied\nchemistry and applied mathematics, and the terms at once convey to the mind\na clear idea. The term ''applied geography,\" tho not so common, has a similar\nsignificance.\nThe subject-matter of the science of geography consists in a consideration\nof the topographical distribution of the great features of the earth's surface —\nits lands and oceans, its rivers and lakes, its mineral and vegetable resources,\nand its animal life, including man himself. Applied geography impHes the\nactivity of man in investigating his relations to his surroundings and the\nreactions of mankind on its geographical environment, explaining how man by\ntaking advantage of geographical conditions, and changes of conditions\nmay promote his material prosperity, advance his interests and the interests of society.\nGuizot says that civiUzation depends on two factors — the progress of\nsociety and the progress of individuals, the amelioration of the social order\nand the expansion of the mind and faculties of man. It is our purpose to\nshow how applied geography, by recognizing and utilizing those physiographic\nconditions which aid the development of a country, helps to advance civilization. Altho illustrations may be found in all parts of the world, we wish to\ndraw attention specially to those on the Louisiana Purchase territory.\nThis territory now comprises the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri,\nIowa, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, and parts of Minnesota, Montana, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming; also Indian Territory and a part of\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": null, "text": "g^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOklahoma. It was purchased from France in 1804. In the first place, it\nmay be observed that the reasons leading to its purchase were prompted by a\nconsideration of geographical conditions. Jefferson in January, 1803, advised\nCongress to purchase from the Indians a strip of territory along the Mississippi,\nnorth of the Yazoo river, in order to possess ''a respectable breadth of country\non that river from our Southern limit to the Illinois at least; so that we present\nas firm a front on that as on our Eastern Border.\"\nJefferson realized the great importance of the Mississippi as a unifying\nfactor, and recognized the fact that the expansion of the United States was\nlargely conditioned upon the control of the country drained by this river and\nits branches. Someone may say we are placing too much stress on the influence\nof the topographic element in discussing this phase of our expansion, but it\nmust be borne in mind that we are seeking to present the influence of this\nelement as controlled and modified by the human will. In all problems of\napplied geography the human will is necessarily a large factor; and it was in\nthe development of this territory. As soon as the territory was opened, thousands crossed the river and took possession of the best lands. It was due to\nphysiographic reasons that the pioneers preferred these lands to those in the\nregions north of the Ohio. The soil and climate of the former were better\nadapted to the raising of crops requiring slave labor, which was not allowed\nin the Ohio country.\nJefferson also recognized the importance of the location of New Orleans as\na strategic point — an excellent iUustration of the apphcation of geographic\nfactors in determining important action. In a letter to Robert Livingstone\nhe said: ''There is one spot on the globe, one single spot the possessor of\nwhich is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans through which\nthe produce of 3/8 of our country must pass to market.\" That single spot\nwas the geographic key to the pohtical situation at that time, and Congress,\nrecognizing the fact, purchased the whole territory in order to control that\nspot. It might easily be demonstrated that Napoleon, who had great dreams\nof colonial empire on this continent, restrained his ambition and parted with\nthis section largely on account of opinions formed as the result of considering\nthe geographic factors involved in the problem of its retention.\nExpansion even in those days met with opposition. The older states in\nthe East opposed with great vehemence, and largely from motives based on\ngeographic causes, the plans of Jefferson to acquire so vast a territory. They\nperceived that the opportunities for transportation offered by the Mississippi\nwould tend to divert western interests from the East to the South, and they\nfeared the effect on eastern prosperity. They even argued that after this area\nhad been carved up into states, as geographic reasoning indicated it would be,\nthe economic interests of that vast region unified by the Mississippi vaUey\nwould ultimately cause the formation of an independent confederacy. They\ndid not perceive that there were other factors of a geographic nature that\nwould finally determine a larger and a nobler unity.\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nILLUSTRATED\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPURCHASE\n\n855\n\nIt is hardly necessary to draw attention to the factors of soil and climate\nthat have made possible the development of the states now included in this\npurchase — how man, by taking advantage of conditions of soil and temperature and moisture, has developed the sugar and rice plantations of Louisiana,\nthe cotton fields of Arkansas and other states, the corn fields of Iowa, eastern\nKansas, and Nebraska, the wheat and other grain fields of the Dakotas, and\nthe mineral resources of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. All this is a\nmatter easily and commonly understood. A tour of the various buildings on\nthe exposition grounds will disclose what products each state most prizes.\nIt was not a difficult matter for the pioneer under the homestead act to\ntake up and cultivate these lands and make thousands of homes in a section\nhighly favored by nature with excellent soil and climate ; but all such available\ncountry is now occupied, and still there are people who long to go west if\nthere is opportunity to settle there. There is still a vast territory west of\nthe one-hundredth meridian which has not been utilized. It has fertile\nsoil, but unfortunately lacks moisture. When I was a lad, this part of our\ncountry was designated in the geographies as the Great American Desert.\nThousands of acres of this so-called desert are included in the Louisiana\nPurchase and form a part of the great plains. Careful study of geographical\nconditions has disclosed the fact, that by taking advantage of the topography\nof the country, water can be stored and irrigation utilized in such manner as to\nreclaim the land and render it valuable for agricultural purposes.\nThe National Irrigation Association, formed for the purpose of preserving\nour national resources, has long advocated the construction of large reservoirs\nby the federal government for flood protection, and for the purpose of saving\nfor navigation and irrigation the flood waters that annually run to waste,\ncausing overflow of streams and destruction of property. The suggestions of\nthis association have at last attracted the notice of our lawmakers and have\nbeen embodied in acts of legislation. President Roosevelt in a letter to the\nNational Irrigation Congress in 1903 said: \"The passage of the national irrigation law was one of the greatest steps, not only in the progress of the states,\nbut in the progress of all mankind.\"\nOn recommendation of the director of the United States Geological Survey,\nthe government has granted authority for the acquisition of necessary property and rights of way prehminary to the construction of irrigation works in\nfive localities under the authority of the reclamation act of 1902. Two of\nthese are on the Louisiana Purchase, Sweetwater dam in Wyoming, and the\nMilk river project in Montana. These reservoirs will cost miUions of dollars,\nbut they will reclaim several hundred thousand atres of- land. All the geographical factors involved have been carefully considered, and the projects\nseem entirely feasible. Incidentally it might be mentioned that there is on\nthe exposition grounds an exhibit of methods of irrigation.\nIn the same letter in which the president spoke of irrigation he said: ''The\nirrigation development of the arid West can not stand alone.\nForestry is the\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": null, "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncompanion and support of irrigation. Permanent irrigation and destruction\nof forests cannot exist together.\" The problem of reforestation is largely a\nquestion of applied geography. Already the United States has many forest\nreserves of large size, several on the Louisiana Purchase. Not only must\nforests now existing be preserved, but trees must be made to grow in large\nnumbers where they do not now flourish, if the greatest economic results are\nto be reahzed. Careful study of geographical factors has demonstrated\nthat certain kinds of trees, like poplar and honey locust, can be made to\ngrow on the western plains. There is on the exposition grounds an exhibit\ncovering several acres, intended to show the most approved ideas in regard to\nthe plantation of forests.\nOne way by which the preservation of forests at the head waters of streams\nwill aid that section is by preventing disastrous floods along the larger streams\nbelow. It is confidently expected that after the storage dams are finished to\nhold the storm waters, these works, in connection with water-holding power\nof roots of trees, will prevent the great losses by flood along the Mississippi\nthat occur annually. I presume the flood-sufferers who have witnessed the\ngreat yellow surge passing by St. Louis several feet above the danger line will\nexpress some skepticism as to the practicability of these schemes. Yet with\nthe proper use of large sums of money expended in accordance with the\ndirections of men who have carefully studied all the geographical factors to\nbe overcome in constructing these reservoirs and in reclaiming the forests,\nthey seem entirely feasible.\nIt is interesting to consider the sociological results that may follow the\naccomplishment of these vast and expensive schemes. There can be no doubt\nthat these lands once reclaimed will be rapidly parceled into farms — probably\nsmall farms, since the price of land will not be low, owing to the great cost of\nirrigation. The homes thereon will therefore be numerous and not distant\none from another. They will be filled with a thrifty people. Churches and\nschools will be available for all, rural mail delivery service and telephone\ncommunication will be prevalent, and all the conveniences of modern Hfe will\nbe enjoyed; in short, as a result of wise application of geographic principles,\nideal rural communities will come into existence where there is now only\narid land.\nThese lands will produce vastly more than the population will consume,\nand will increase largely the business Hfe of the Louisiana Purchase country.\nWhere will this produce find a market ? How will it reach the consumer ?\nThese are questions that will be solved by the application of geographical\nprinciples. Will the tide of trade tend eastward and thru the enlarged Erie\ncanal reach the ocean, or will it go southward attracted by the influence of\nthe Panama canal ? The development of the arid land of the West and the\nconstruction of these canals, each undertaken after careful consideration\nof the adverse geographical factors to be encountered, are sure to affect the\nfuture commercial relations of the inhabitants of the Louisiana Purchase.\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nILLUSTRATED\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nPURCHASE\n\n857\n\nApplied geography indicates that when these vast improvements are\neffected there may be great rivalry for commercial preference. There will\nsurely be a rapid development of the ports of the Gulf of Mexico, and New\nOrleans may become a close competitor of New York city from an economic\npoint of view. St. Louis may become one of the greatest collecting and distributing centers of the world. Just as the building of the Suez canal restored\nto the Mediterranean the commercial activity which it lost by the discovery of\nthe Cape of Good Hope route, so the opening of the Panama canal may\nrestore to the South the advantages of its union with the Middle West which\nit lost as a result of the causes leading up to the Civil War and the development\nof the trade routes to the East. Apphed geography points out that there will\nbe great competition for traffic between these two routes, and it proclaims that\nthe Mississippi valley and Louisiana Purchase country are destined to be the\ncenter of a greater unity of the South, the East, and the farther West, and the\nfocus of the greatest civilization the world has ever seen.\n\nDISCUSSION\nChester B. Curtis, acting assistant principal, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. —\nI shall agree or disagree with the statements so ably presented by the preceding speakers,\nneither in a spirit of flattery nor in one of hostility, the sole object of the discussion beijtig\nto seek the truth thru honestly expressed opinions and observations.\nThe portions of my discussion which supplement and confirm the facts presented by\nMr. Bryan and Mr. Knox are the results of personal study of the exhibits.\nConsidering the topics in the order of their presentation, I find that the material for\nstudy in all the foreign countries is included in the exhibits of Germany, France, England,\nand Sweden; that the methods of teaching science must be inferred; that the inferences\nmust be drawn from totally unhke data. France and England present photographs of\nclasses at work; both show the laboratory method. The faces of the English children\nappear the younger by one or two years for the same grade of work.\nGermany and France present text-books; England, none. The German texts appear\nthe more scientific and methodical in statement and the better illustrated; neither, however,\ncomparing favorably with our own American texts.\nGermany presents a complete set of demonstration physics apparatus used in the 183\ncommon schools of Berlin, and the most complete scientific equipment for the study of\nadvanced physical, chemical, and astronomical subjects in university courses. It is largely\nupon this exhibition of apparatus that one must base his conclusions concerning scienceteaching in Germany.\nI conclude, therefore, that Germany has a highly organized and closely articulated\ncourse of study extending from the kindergarten thru the university. From the standpoint\nof an educational director the system is perfect. There is no evidence of individuality on\nthe part of the teacher. The system tends to produce a large number of investigators and\ntheoretical experts.\nWhatever may be the facts, the courses of study in England -would seem to produce\nfewer experts and more liberally educated artisans. There is no uniform system of science\ntext-books in England. The city boards of education prescribe courses to be developed\nand treated according to the plans of the school faculties. In England drawing is prescribed\nin all the lower grades.\nThis enables the pupils to give much clearer expression to their\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": null, "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nscience work by artistic and accurate illustrations in their written work in botany, physiology, physics, and chemistry courses extending simultaneously over four years of consecutive study. All science work, as far as I have observed, is done by English pupils at an age\none to two years younger than our own. Their results, however, are equal to any I have\nseen, and in some instances superior.\nIt is my conviction that the English teachers possess a freedom of presentation not\nfound in Germany or France. They secure most excellent results in illustration, in statement of facts, and in correct deductions. I noticed particularly the development of the\nlogical faculties of the EngHsh pupils, indicating intelligent growth. This fact is confirmed\nby the exhibit of the London public schools, and by the varied and superior products of\nthe great technical schools.\nGermany presents the apparatus, i. e., the machinery of education; England, the\nproducts.\nPassing now to the second topic, I consider these exhibits of value only to the extent\nthat educators who are seeking to improve their methods may find here and there standards\nhigher than their own, which, in being adopted the coulitry over, will soon elevate the plane\nof science-teaching.\nThat exhibit is the most valuable which shows the greatest unity. For instance, of\ntwo states presenting the same amount of material, illustrating science, that one in which\nwork of a representative city, town, or county is exhibited is superior to that in which the\nwritten work is collected at random and bound in composite volumes. California, Illinois,\nNew York, Minnesota, and Missouri have excellent exhibits and represent unity.\nCompleteness is a great factor in the value of an exhibit. As a single notable example,\nCalifornia has a large number of complete individual exhibits from cities and towns, in\nany one of which one may follow consecutively the science work from the lowest to highest\ngrades. The city of Oakland presents a valuable set of so-called \"Books of Methods,\"\nconsisting of about thirty typewritten volumes prepared by the teachers of the various\nsubjects taught in the grade and high schools. Each paper is a complete monograph on\nthe subject under consideration.\nThe best illustrated science work is found in city exhibits, for the reason that in many\ncity schools drawing is introduced into the lower grades and followed consecutively thru\nthe high school. One notable exception is the science work of the Winnebago (111.)\ncounty schools.\nWhat it lacks in artistic effect is compensated for in its sincerity.\nI consider a graphically inferior, but sincere, illustration of a natural object or piece\nof apparatus of more value to a pupil than an artistic and accurate copy of a text-book\nillustration. Wherever colored drawings can be made to advantage in botany, physiology,\nand nature study, especially without sacrificing the scientific for the artistic, it is the more\nhelpful. In test-tube work involving color reactions, and in the study of the theory of ions,\neven chemistry is the gainer. There is danger in colored illustrations if the pupil appreciates the artistic beyond the scientific value of the work.\nIn a nature-study exhibit I noticed a tinted drawing of what appeared to be a crystal\nof beryl in which the pupil had not been impressed with its hexagonal symmetry or crystal\nstructure. To this child it was a pretty object. In another place I saw a pen-and-ink\nsketch of a mass of granite. On the same page were enlarged drawings of the simpler\ncrystal forms of feldspar and quartz.\nIn the botanical side of nature study blue-printing is valuable in preserving the forms\nof grasses, leaves, and dehcate ferns.\nThe chief value of an educational exhibit is its actual class work. St. Louis is especially favored in its opportunity to present classes in many subjects working daily from 3\nto 5 p. M. in a model schoolroom.\n\nWe are indebted to Mr. Clement for a well-written and interesting paper on a new\nphase of an old subject. I have the feeling, however, that the term \"applied geography\"\nas used m parts of the paper depends for its significance upon the assumption of meanings\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nBIOLOGICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\n859\n\nwhich are not warranted; that the definition is too inclusive. For instance, I do not\nagree with the use of the term in a retroactive sense. I do not think we are warranted in\naccounting for the acts of Jefferson and Napoleon, after a lapse of a century, on the basis\nof applied geography.\nThe discovery of Neptune, one of the greatest triumphs of astronomical history, is an\nillustration of applied mathematics. In the light of the present interdependence of astronomy and physics, this discovery is not considered as a problem of astronomical mechanics\nor of celestial dynamics.\nJefferson even opposed the purchase of the Louisiana Territory, and changed his\nviews only because of popular clamor and the strategic value of New Orleans. With\nNapoleon it was a problem of transports and money. Lacking both, he chose to sell rather\nthan have a hostile country acquire the territory.\nThe statement is made that the soil and chmate of the new region were better adapted\nto the raising of crops requiring slave labor which was not allowed in the Ohio country.\nSlave labor impHes economic and sociological, not geographical, reasons.\nAgain, the development of sugar and rice plantations, the cotton and grain fields, and\nthe mineral resources of the Louisiana Territory should be considered applications of\nindustry in agriculture, mining, and railroading.\nI agree heartily with the writer in the correct use of the term \"applied geography\" in\nreclaiming the Great American Desert; in building reservoirs to accomplish the double\npurpose of preventing floods and supplying irrigation facilities; and in the preservation of\nforests.\n\nTHE\n\nJOHN\n\nMICROSCOPE IN THE BIOLOGICAL\nOF THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nF. THOMPSON,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nIN BOTANY,\n\nHIGH\n\nLABORATORY\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nRICHMOND,\n\nIND.\n\nProbably the first mistake that a well-prepared high-school teacher makes in\nteaching any subject is that he overestimates the ability of his pupils. He not\nonly overestimates their ability, but he overrates their knowledge of the' subject\nin hand. Pupils at the age of fourteen or fifteen years have not acquired much\ntechnique in doing things. The things they do best are those which call\ninto use their larger muscles. A boy at fourteen can play a fairly good game\nof ball, for in batting he has only to hit the ball, caring but little for accuracy\nof direction; but not one in fifty can make the more delicate stroke required\nin lawn tennis, where the direction of the ball counts for much and strength\nof muscle for but little. So I think it is for all of their games: the things they\nlike to do call for a display of muscle rather than skill, and so we find that\nboys love to jump, wrestle, throw, and the like. In drawing, a boy can make\na triangle or a square; can draw a fairly good picture of a house or horse, or a\ncartoon of someone he knows; but his penmanship is bad; he cannot follow\na ruled line ; part of the time he is above it and part of the time below. The\nreason is plain: in the one kind of activity he uses large muscles and gets\npretty fair rough results; in the other kind he is forced to abandon his larger\nmuscles and to bring into play smaller ones, those he has not learned how to\nuse, and the results of his efforts are bad, and when he is required to do work\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": null, "text": "g5o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ncalling for skill rather than strength, he soon wearies. Such work is irksome,\nand he hastens to get it done regardless of results. It is hard to interest him\nin things he cannot do. Work that may be deeply interesting to older pupils\nfails to interest h m, because its performance is painful to him.\nThere is no question but that the teaching of biology in the high schools\nhas in the past fifteen years improved loo per cent. First, because the teachers\nare well prepared; that is, they have had good training in our colleges and\nuniversities. They know the subject. This was not the case fifteen years\nago. But those very same well-prepared teachers have sometimes forgotten\ntheir own past experience and imagine that their pupils are able to take up\nwork where they themselves have left it in the college. This is probably\ntruer of teachers fresh from college. This is the great mistake which college\nor university graduates make when they begin high-school work. They try\nto do university work with high-school children, and this cannot be done. I\nspeak only for biology. It may or may not be true in other subjects. A man\nwho has been in college three or four years has acquired a skill in handling\napparatus. Things that have become a habit with him his pupii know\nnothing about. The manipulation of a compound microscope is to him like\nwalking, and he is hable to forget that pupils fourteen years of age have skill\nin but few things.\nFifteen years ago there were no microscopes in the high school, and but\nlittle, if any, biology was taught; and it is doubtful if what was taught was\nbiology. Now there aie many schools well fitted out with apparatus for\nbiology instruction ; probably few that are not well equipped with microscopes,\nmicrotomes, turn-tables, stains, and sections galore. The scientific spirit\nis in our high schools. The good work of Indiana's men of science has spread\nfrom the colleges and universities to the secondary schools, but I beheve our\nteachers in the secondary schools have overdone the matter in trying to do\ncollege and university work with high-school pupils.\nNow, it has been my experience, as it has been that of other teachers of\nscience in Indiana, to have tried to use the compound microscope in the\nstudy of botany in the high school. I have given it a fair trial, and believe\nmy pupils are good representatives of secondary students. But I think an\nexamination of their notebooks will show that pupils of this age do not make\ndrawings sufficiently accurate, nor are their descriptions sufficiently precise\nto warrant the conclusion that they are ready to do much work with the microscope. Much of the work shows impatience; much of it shows honest effort,\nyet is inaccurate. Perhaps there are one or two pupils in a hundred whose\nwork IS very good. It all shows immaturity in seeing and immaturity in the\nmuscles concerned in the drawing.\nIf the average pupil cannot make a good capital letter, or any letter after\na good copy, how can one expect him to draw something that is much harder\nto see and much harder to draw ? Pupils mus have practice in drawing\nlarger things before they can draw from the microscope.\nIf the average boy\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nIN THE\n\nBIOLOGICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\n86 1\n\nhas difficulty in drawing the thallus of a Uverwort, how much trouble will he\nhave when he draws the transverse section of the same thallus? There is\nalways a star pupil or two in every class, but instruction in the public schools\nmust be for the majority. Even if one boy in a class is able to do work far\nabove the average of his fellow-students, that may mean only that when he\nis ready for such work he will become an expert. If a pupil shows unusual\nability inTTiusic, it is no reason that he should be put on Beethoven's symphonies, but rather that he should be more than ever particular about his\nscales.\nAny teacher knows that a good drawing from the microscope requires time\nand much patience; and if a drawing is not accurate, it is not good enough,\nperhaps worthless. If a student at the microscope does not draw what is\nthere, two bad results follow: the knowledge is inaccurate, and the pupil is\nlearning bad habits. Any teacher of music knows that beginning pupils\nmust be kept from playing \"tunes.\" Practice on ''tunes\" never develops\nthe musician, never develops technique. The same principle holds good\nhere; the eye should first be trained in seeing without the microscope. As\ntraining should be toward the symphony from the scale, so training should be\nfrom the larger phases of biology to the more detailed where the microscope\nbecomes a necessity.\nIt has been my experience to have had pupils in my classes who from some\ncause were not able to take their botany with their class, but were obliged\nto omit it until their senior year. At that age they could do good work with\nthe microscope, and were able to manipulate the instrument with more precision and draw with accuracy; the only difference between them and the\nother members of the class being one of age alone.\nThere are, 'then, two principal reasons for the poor microscopic work of\nhigh-school pupils. The first, as has been said, is that the age of the pupil\ndoes not tally with the precision and accuracy required in the work; and the\nsecond is that he does not know enough of the subject which ought to precede\nwork with the microscope, so that the things he sees under the lens have little\nor no meaning.\nThe microscope is an invention to aid the eye. The average man, the\naverage scholar and scientist, does not look at the world thru the microscope.\nWhen the scientist has a good background of facts upon any subject which\nhe has obtained without the microscope, the things that he sees thru that\ninstrument are full of meaning. It is necessary that a pupil have some knowlecfge of a plant as a whole before he begins with its parts or sections of its\nparts. The old dictum of Sir William Hamilton holds good here: \"The\nfirst procedure of the mind in the elaboration of its knowledge is always\nanalytical, descending from the whole to the parts, from the vague to the\ndefinite.\"\nIt is more scientific that a pupil know a liverwort at sight, where it grows,\nat what time of the year, and what are its reproductive organs, than to try\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": null, "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nto draw the section of its archegonium without knowing the habits and habitat\nof the plant. A study of plants as they are found in their natural surroundings— the function of the stem, the way leaves are related to light, transpiration, respiration, and the like — should precede work with the microscope.\nI would rather a pupil might be able to tell the difference between a moss\nplant and a fern at sight than to know that the moss descended from an alga\nand the fern from a liverwort, and not be able to know an alga or S liverwort\nat sight. A few years ago the kind of botany taught in the high schools was\nthe so-called analysis of flowers which consisted in finding the names of plants.\nOf course, that was not good botany, but such work had some good results : it\ntook the pupils out into the woods and into gullies and along the rivers; and\nwhile pursuing plants only to find their names, they learned many things\nabout their surroundings. They learned unconsciously about plant habits\nand habitat. The teaching of botany along this line was probably carried\nto an extreme, and for a time a reaction set in against it in favor of microscopic work; and yet I am not sure but that the pupils got out of it a better\nknowledge of plants than those who later have studied plants with the compound microscope.\nI think, however, that in Indiana the teaching of biology has reached a\nmedium between the mere collecting and naming stage and the almost exclusive use of the microscope.\nAn intelligent study of plants in the field, learning to identify in order that\nthey may be more intelligently grouped and studied; a study of their habits,\ntheir ways of obtaining food, the relation they have to their surroundings —\nall this should precede microscopic work ; in other words, the study of aecology\nshould precede that of morphology. To show that plants are ahve and work\nout methods of doing things just as animals do, is better than to show or\ndraw beautifully stained sections of peziza.\nA cat has one way of obtaining food, a ground hog another way, and a\nsquirrel still another. The method is different, but the result is the same.\nAs long as a ground hog has to be a ground hog he must burrow to escape his\nenemies; he cannot chmb a tree successfully, however much he would like\nto do it; he has worked out his way of escaping danger, just as the squirrel\nhas worked out his and the cat his. Each has come to the same result, but\nby different methods. Which has the better way may be decided by determining which can the most successfully escape its enemres. Such things as\nthese are intensely interesting to pupils of high-school age, for they mean\n*\nsomething.\nThe lower petioles of the horseshoe geranium are longer than those above\nin order that the blade may be thrust out into the light; that is the way this\nplant has worked out of obtaining exposure to sunlight. The leaves of the\nmarguerite have no petioles, but they are much lobed and divided, so that\nsunhght may pass thru the notches to the leaves below. Each plant has\narrived at the same result, but by a different method.\nWhich is the better\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nMICROSCOPE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nBIOLOGICAL\n\nLABORATORY\n\n863\n\nis a subject for discussion. Such work with plants always excites the interest of high-school pupils, and while it may not be more important to know\nabout a plant's surroundings, and how it is related to them, and how it adapts\nitself to them, than to know the origin of a seed; yet it seems to me that a\npupil should know these things first.\nIt is my behef, therefore, that if a course of study have but one year of\nbiology, and that year be the first year, as it is in most Indiana high schools,\nmuch microscopic work ought not to be attempted. If there be a longer\ntime given to that science, or if it come in the senior year, some very good\nwork might be done; but with pupils of fourteen or fifteen years of age it is\nbetter to teach the larger phases of the subject, making a background for\ntheir more minute study, should they pursue it farther in the college or university. Ido not believe aecology more important .than morphology, but it\nseems to me to be more important that its study should come first, because it\nis more adapted to the age of high-school pupils.\nI do not wish it to be understood that the microscope is of no use whatever in first-year work in biology. It may be a very great help when manipulated by the teacher himself. It seems to me, for instance, that if the class\nis studying the relations of the foliage leaf, after its hght relations have been\nworked out and the transpiration and respiration experiments have been made,\nthe teacher could prepare some slides himself, showing the stomata and\nepidermis. Such slides would mean something to the pupil. But a study of\nstomata before knowing- something about leaf function, while it would be\nmicroscopic work and work that the pupil might do, would be meaningless.\nThere are many places where the microscope will add interest and help out\nmany experiments; but from the close work demanded in working with the\nmicroscope, and the accuracy which a science teacher must demand, there\nmay be, and is, danger of creating a dislike for a subject which ought to be a\ndelight.\n\nDISCUSSION\nS. M. Coulter, professor of botany, Washington University, St. Louis. — There are\nseveral factors to be considered in discussing this problem, and, while we- may not take\nany decided ground in the matter, we may get some light from a thoughtful consideration\nof some of these factors.\nFirst among these is the youth of the student. It has always seemed to me unfortunate\nthat all the botany or zoology should generally be given in the first year of the high-school\ncourse. It may be the part of wisdom so to alter the course that biological sciences\nrequiring the use of the microscope may be given to more mature students. In any case,\nthe belief that it is unwise to use the microscope in the first year need not carry with it the\ndecision that it should not be used at all.\nHowever, we must take things as we find them now, and if biology is taught in the\nfirst year, we are at once confronted with the question: What kind of biology shall we teach ?\nShall it be taught wholly from the standpoint of gross morphology, relation to environment\nand classification ? Shall we begin with the earthworm and the fern, and stop with the\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": null, "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nrabbit and the lily ? Shall we not teach of the amoeba, the paramoecium, or the alga ?\nShall wexjmit from our study of botany the life-history of the fern and ignore the alternation\nof generations ? Can we do otherwise if we do not use the microscope ? I presume we\nwill all grant that the student \"should have some knowledge of the whole plant, before he\nbegins with the parts or sections of the parts.\" But shall his knowledge end there ? Shall\nit not rather \"descend from the whole to its parts\" ?\nIt has been stated that the teacher is apt to overestimate the ability of his students.\nHe certainly gives ample evidence of this fact if he expects them thoroly to understand the\ncellular structure of plants or the processes of reproduction, from oral explanation,\nunaccompanied by ocular demonstration. It is a fact, also, that some teachers unwisely\nattempt to do university work with high -school children, and this fact is to be deplored;\nbut it is not competent evidence to prove that there is no other legitimate field in which\nbiology may be taught properly and successfully with the aid of the microscope. Tho we\ndo not ask the beginner to render Beethoven's symphonies, we do put into his hands the\ninstrument upon which he is to practice his scales. It seems to me that there is more\ndanger that the pupil may receive only partial, or perhaps inaccurate, information regarding\nthe fundamental principles of the biological sciences. That this is true is evidenced by\nthese same students when they enter college and take up botany or zoology as it is taught\nthere.\nInaccuracy of observation and interpretation is the legitimate fruit of incomplete\ninstruction. It therefore seems to me that any instruction, however elementary, should\nbe absolutely accurate and complete. How this kind of instruction can be given without\nthe aid of the microscope I can hardly understand. I certainly should deprecate any plan\nof teaching that would result in the pupil being unable to tell a moss plant from a fern, or\nto name some of the familiar plants; but I should wish to add to this fundamental knowledge\nthe larger facts regarding the phylogeny of the diiferent groups, the dififerentiation of the\ntissues, the development of the reproductive organs. Granted that the study of plants in\nthe field, their habits, and their relations to environment should precede their histological\nstudy, still I should be unwilling to see the latter crowded out altogether.\nThe very large majority of the high-school pupils do not pass on to the more minute\nstudy of the plant in the college or the university, and the high-school study must be more\nthan a background for future work. It must be this, and it must be complete in itself at\nthe same time. One deficiency which I find to be common in the students who come to me\nfrom the secondary school, altho they may have used the microscope, is that they do not\nunderstand it thoroly. In the very first exercise the microscope should be taken to pieces\nbefore the student, the mechanical and optical parts discussed and named, and all its\npossibilities carefully explained.\nThe number of students the teacher has in each section is another important factor\nin this problem. The best results can be attained only when the instructor can give personal attention to each student. If there are so many students as to render this impossible,\nand the results are correspondingly unsatisfactory, the blame should not be set down to\nthe use of the microscope.\nPerhaps this difficulty may be obviated another year.\nThe next point is the subject of drawing. It is said that students \" must have practice\nin drawing larger things before they can draw from the' microscope.\" This must be\ngranted, too; but when shall this practice begin, at six or twelve or eighteen ? Is the fact\nthat a boy of fifteen does not put down what he sees sufficient proof that he should wait\nthree years before he is taught to do so ? I am sure that the same boy will do no better at\neighteen unless someone has taught him so in the meantime. I have long thought it\nfeasible and eminently advisable to have a few lessons in scientific drawing given to the\nbeginners in biology by one who is competent to do so. There might then be gradually\nworked out a somewhat uniform system in the schools and colleges — a condition which\nsurely does not exist at the present.\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n865\n\nIn conclusion, I believe that two great helps of general educational value will come\nfrom the intelligent use of the microscope in the biological laboratory of the secondary\nschool: first, accuracy of observation — the ability to see things correctly; second, accuracy\nof interpretation — the ability to put things down as they are and to correlate them.\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nARTHUR\n\nL.\n\nFOLEY,\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHYSICS,\nBLOOMINGTON,\nIND.\n\nSTATE\n\nPHYSICS\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWhat is physics ? What is a high school ? If these questions were\nanswered definitely, there would not be such wide differences in our highschool text-books of physics and the work done by different teachers. Here\nthe high school is regarded as a finishing school; there as a preparatory school;\nyonder as a trade school ; at another place it includes psychology, neurology,\nphilosophy, and many other -ologies and -osophies, dissipating its energies\nover a curriculum that makes a university schedule appear insignificant.\nNor is there any greater uniformity in the conception of what physics is.\nHere it is problem-solving ; there it is a mass of definitions ; yonder it is entertainment; atanother place it is a study of machines; at still another it is nothing at all^unless we call it time-wasting.\nLet me say at once that I am not in sympathy with the notion that a high\nschool should be either a college or a preparatory school. It may serve as\na preparatory school and do it well, but this should not be the determining\nfactor in the arrangement of its courses.\nWhile it is true that the percentage of high-school graduates who enter\ncollege is increasing, it is true also that the number is relatively very small,\nand is likely to remain so. Indeed, the increasing facilities of the high school,\nthe lengthening of its course, the possibility of a six-year course — all these may\ntend to decrease rather than increase the percentage of future high-school\ngraduates who will enter college. The high school is now the finishing school,\nand it will remain the finishing school, of the majority of its students. Its\ncourses should be arranged to meet the needs of the majority who will not\nhave later the additional advantages of a college training.\nSomeone will say, as is often said, that there is no distinction between a\ngood finishing course and a good preparatory course; that the best finishing\ncourse is also the best preparatory course. I do not believe it. If a boy is to\ngo from high school to college, it would be best for him to do as much as\npossible of his language work during his high-school course, when he can do\nsuch work most easily. He should emphasize the observational sciences.\nHis chemistry and some of his mathematics can be done better in college.\nBut if the boy's schooling is to stop with the high school, who would say that\nthe translation of a few more Latin, French, or German books will be of\nmore benefit to him than a study of some of the laws and facts of chemistry ?\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": null, "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Sdencc\n\nIn the discussion of the topic, \"The Subject-Matter of High-School\nPhysics,\" I shall consider the high school primarily as a finishing school, and\nI shall hold that some of the subject-matter should be different from that\nwhich might be given to pupils who are taking the subject merely as an introduction to a more extended college or university course.\nI lately heard a noted physicist advocate a much more thoro study of\nharmonic and curvilinear motion than is made in any high school with which\nI am acquainted. This may be well for the student who will later enter college and have occasion to apply what he has learned, and who will have time\nto learn other things that he was prevented from learning in his high-school\ncourse by giving so much time to harmonic motion; but for the high-school\npupil who goes out to fight for bread in a world, whose vocabulary does\nnot contain the term \"harmonic motion,\" I am persuaded that any considerable time spent in the study of this topic might better be given to\nsome other subject which would not only develop the pupil's mental capacity,\nbut would, at the same time, give him information that to him will be more\nuseful. I do not mean to say that no subject should be taught which does\nnot appeal at once to the utiHtarian. I do mean to say that of two subjects\nwhich give equal mental training I should always choose the one which deals\nwith facts that give promise of being most useful in the after-life of the pupil.\nThis does not exclude the teaching of theory, for theory may be eminently\npractical.\nIt seems to me that many teachers give too much time to phenomena, and\ndo not make a sufficient effort to develop the reasoning power and arouse the\ninterest of the pupil by teaching fundamental theories and, so far as possible,\nexplaining everything by them; thus making physics a unity, and not a mass\nof distinct and apparently unrelated phenomena. Take a single instance;\nour texts tell the pupil that heat is a mode of motion of the molecule, but how\nmany books or teachers give him a thinking, working concept of the kinetic\ntheory ? Of a large class of high-school graduates entering college I found\nnot one who could explain, by this theory, how water cools by evaporation.\nLet the pupils picture to themselves the molecules of water in rapid motion\nin all directions, coUiding, changing velocities, their average kinetic energy\ndetermining the temperature, only the fast-moving ones having sufficient\nenergy to shoot thru the surface film and escape by what we call evaporation ;\nthe slow-moving ones being left behind, thus decreasing the average energy\nof the molecules, and consequently the temperature of the water. The pupils\nshould know that a change of state is in general accompanied by temperature\nchanges, and they should understand the appUcation of the principle to cooling by evaporation. But it seems to me that the first explanation explains\nwhile the latter merely shows the application of a certain physical law. Moreover, the first has the advantage of making the kinetic theory more real, and\nconsequently more interesting. The statement that high-school pupils should\nnot study theory because they are too young to assimilate it is not true. Young\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n867\n\npeople have vivid imaginations and receptive minds, and it is much easier for\nthem to accept most theories and get a mental picture of the conditions existing, than it is for the mature man whoSe imagination is dulled and who finds\nit very difficult to free himself from preconceived ideas based on experience.\nThere is another reason for a more thoro study of theory. This is an\nage of progress. The developments of science are marvelous. A physicist\ntoday may become a fossil tomorrow. A student may acquire a fair knowledge of the details of physics, but unless he understands fundamental theories\nand is able to reason on them, he will be wholly unable to comprehend the\ndevelopments of the future.\nI have already mentioned several of the many ways in which physics is presented insome of our high schools and colleges. I shall consider these in order.\nProblem-solving is not necessarily physics. Some time ago I visited what\nwas said to be a physics class in a large high school. The work that had been\nassigned the class was to calculate the solid contents of the walls of some\nhollow cylinders. The entire recitation period was consumed in solving the\nproblem by several slightly different methods. There was absolutely no\nphysics taught in this lesson, and the teacher did not alter the situation in the\nleast by saying something about cisterns, pipes, and steam boilers.\nI thoroly believe in problem-solving, but I believe in choosing problems\nwhich involve physical principles and laws. Problems must not be so numerous as to require an undue proportion of the pupil's time and energy, and so\ndisgust him with the study of physics. The data of the problems should be so\nchosen as to reduce the numerical work to a minimum. To give a pupil a\nproblem that requires ten seconds for him to grasp the physical principles\ninvolved and ten minutes to make the numerical calculations is, from the\nstandpoint of teaching physics, a waste of time.\nThe time was when the committing of laws and definitions constituted\nmost of the work of physics classes. It is even yet more general than one\nmight suppose. Teachers are required to teach physics when they have\nhad no regular college training and systematic laboratory practice in the\nsubject. They know nothing of the subject, even tho they have passed a\nstereotyped examination by committing the answers to the one thousand\nquestions of a ten-cent question book. They drag classes thru some physics\ntext-book, committing definitions and solving a few problems, and imagine\nthat they are teaching physics. The multiplication of laboratories has lessened this sort of teaching, but there is still too much of it. Definitions should\nbe reduced to a minimum, and whenever possible they should be illustrated\nor derived; that is, they should be shown to follow from the given conditions\nor equations. To illustrate: After showing experimentally that the resistance of a wire varies as its length, inversely as its cross-section, and that it\n\ni\n\ndepends upon the material of the wire, one may write the equation R=p-Making / and a unity, R=p (numerically), and the definition of specific\nresistance has been arrived at in a way that means something to the pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": null, "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nSchools everywhere are rapidly increasing their supply of apparatus for\nillustrative and laboratory work in physics. This has diminished the amount\nof problem- and definition-teaching. However, in some quarters it has not\nbettered the conditions very much, because it has substituted entertainment\nfor mental efifort. I know of schools having X-ray outfits and an extensive\ncollection of vacuum tubes, and not a galvanometer of any description. A\nfine model of a steam engine of glass, brass, and nickel, with air pumps, etc.,\nto run it, may be interesting, but to invest money in such a piece, when so\nmany other things are needed, is amusing, to say the least. Physics, real\nphysics, is a difficult study for a high-school pupil, and to hold the interest of\na physics class to the highest pitch is the difficult duty of the teacher. Showy\nand striking experiments aid in doing this, and therefore should be used occasionally. But the sensational and spectacular should not predominate.\nNothing can, indeed nothing should, relieve the pupil of earnest, honest\nwork. It is not the teacher's business either to keep the pupil in wonderland,\nor to sugar-coat and predigest his work for him.\nIt is surprising to learn how many people there are — teachers even — who\nregard physics and machinery as almost synonomous terms. To them the\nword suggests steam engines, dynamos, and trolley cars. In an article published recently a teacher advocates a more thoro study of the dynamo, because\ndynamos are used so generally. As far as this argument is concerned, we\nmight better study the mechanism of watches and sewing machines. Another\nhas said that we should give more time to the study of the steam engine,\nbecause whenever we travel, whether by rail, by trolley, or by sea, we depend\non the engine for power. By the same argument it would be much better\nto study self-binders, threshing-machines, and flouring mills, because, whether\nwe travel or stay at home, as long as we live and eat three times per day, we\ndepend on getting some of their product. The fact is that the study of a\nmachine, however perfect or compHcated the machine may be, has no place\nin physics unless the action of the machine illustrates, better than anything\nelse, some important principle or law of physics. Everybody knows that a\nsteam engine runs by the expansive force of steam. This is a physical principle which the pupils know before they study the engine. The cut-off, eccentric, governor, etc., are mechanical devices, and there are no more reasons\nfor studying them in an elementary course in physics than there are reasons\nfor studying the details of a grist mill. The same reasoning does not apply\nto the study of the action of a dynamo. People do not understand how a\ndynamo generates, and the machine itself illustrates electromagnetic induction on a large scale. Hence the pupil should study its action and its general\nfeatures. But a high-school class should not be required to learn the details\nof the winding of fields and armatures. Compound wound dynamos have noplace in an elementary physics text-book. Some authors have realized that\nthere are just as good reasons for the study of cream separators, pile drivers,\nand many other mechanical devices, and have included a discussion of them\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n869\n\nin their texts. Some have gone to the extreme of including descriptions of\nmachines and apparatus which the pupils may never see and which few\nteachers ever see. I venture that not more than one science teacher in a\nhundred has ever seen a Tesla oscillator; and they are not likely ever to see\none; yet some of our high-school text-books presume to discuss this machine.\nA description of a Gatling gun would be just as instructive and useful, and\nmuch more interesting.\n''Can you name any fact of which you are absolutely sure ?\" This is the\nquestion with which a recent text-book begins. One might well answer that\nhe is absolutely sure that the discussion of such a question by a high-school\npupil is a sheer waste of time. Yet a metaphysical question may be as good\nas one which is neither physical or metaphysical. \"If a tree fall where there\nis no ear to hear, would there be any sound produced ?\" ''A man drives a\nteam of horses around a race track. Does the outer horse go around the\ninner one?\" \"If a 'fnan walk around a tree on which there is a squirrel\nwhich always keeps on the side of the tree opposite the man, does the man\nwalk around the squirrel ?\" But these questions are old. Text-book writers\nmust be up to date. A recent author introduces something new : \" If a monkey\nsitting on the top of a circus pole always faces a man who walks around the\npole, does the man walk around the monkey ?\" The possibilities of this profound subject are not yet exhausted. There yet remain the owl on the limb\nand the woodpecker on the snag, for future authors who want to be original.\n\"What path does a rash man describe who jumps from a moving street\ncar ? \" In the first place, this question is indefinite. The path depends upon\nthe relative velocities of the car and the man and the direction the man jumps,\nanS not on how rash he is, or on the fact that he jumps from a street car in\npreference to some other kind of car. In the second place, there are pupils\nin every class from whom such a question invites an answer which will provoke alaugh, and thus disturb the recitation and make discipline more difficult.\n\"Why is it easier for a baby elephant than for a baby boy to learn to\nwalk ?\" I presume that the author intends that the pupil shall recall the fact\nthat the elephant has four legs and the boy but two. But the import of the\nquestion is almost sure to be lost by the thoughtfulness of the pupil who calls\nthe attention of the class to the fact that a baby chicken with but two legs\nlearns to walk more easily than either elephant or boy, while a kangaroo\nnever becomes an expert.\n\"Practical education\" is a much-used and much-abused phrase. The\ndesire to be practical has produced a class of teachers who see everything thru\nan engineer's glasses. A recent writer urges that we teach pupils to \"do the\nthing as it is actually being done in business every day.\" In illustration of\nhis argument he cites the difficulty pupils have in calculating the specific\nresistance of a wire when the centimeter cube is taken as the unit. He advocates the \"mil-foot\" as a unit, \"in order that we may get a little nearer the\nactual method used commercially in calculating specific resistance.\"\nHe\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": null, "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n.\n\n[Science\n\nwould take a system which is consistent thruout and which the pupils can be\ntaught to understand and admire, and substitute for it no system at all— but\na multiplicity of haphazard units; for where is this thing to stop ? The same\narf^ument that would change the units in which specific resistance is expressed\nwould change the units in which we express force, energy, mechanical equivalent of heat, coefficients elasticity, expansion, etc. Because engineers use the\nmil-foot (not all do so) is no reason why students should use it. Indeed, it\nis no reason why the engineers themselves should continue to use it. Most\nengineers in this country use the EngHsh units, but I think the time is coming\nwhen they will not do so. Not many decades ago physicists used all sorts of\nunits. Today they use the metric system exclusively. Granting that physicists have something to learn from engineers, it is true also that engineers\nhave much to learn from physicists. When it comes to a question of units,\nit is the engineers who must do the learning. The recent widespread discussion\nand agitation of the question of the general adoption'^of the metric system\nshow which way the tide is moving.\nIf we should adopt a mil-foot because engineers use it, then we should\nadopt a sidereal day because astronomers use it, and we should change all\nour watches and clocks to read from one to twenty-four instead of from one\nto twelve. We should use the Fahrenheit scale because most thermometers are\ngraduated to that scale. Perhaps someone will suggest the glass as a measure\nof capacity, as it is in such general use in measuring ice cream soda and beer.\nThe same author advocates also the use of tables of the various sizes of\nwire to save time in calculating specific resistance. Why not go ^ step farther\nand use resistance tables and save all the time ? If the resistance of a certain\nwire is all the pupil is to discover, let him discover it from a book of tables.\nBut if He is to be trained to reason accurately and to be self-dependent, let\nhim come to understand physical laws and principles by learning to apply\nthem.\nSome time ago I received a letter from a prominent physics teacher asking\nme what I regarded as the central thought in physics. Upon inquiry I found\nthat his recitations were given largely to the classification of thoughts — central\nthoughts, co-ordinate thoughts, subordinate thoughts, and so on. Method!\nMethod!! Method!!! But no physics. His students could not well select\na central thought when they had none from which to choose. A central\nthought must have a few others around it to make it central and keep it from\ntoppling over. The teacher must try to inspire his pupils to have thoughts —\nsound, sensible, serious thoughts. There is httle danger that the thoughts\nmay not take their proper rank. I do not mean to say that the teacher of\nphysics need not be logical and systematic. I do mean to say that the getting\nof thoughts is more important than their classification.\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICS\n\n87 1\n\nDISCUSSION\nAugust F. Foerste, instructor in physics, Steele High School, Dayton, O. — Any\ncourse of study which primarily subserves the interests of the few without vitally touching\nthe lives of the many is out of place in a public school. No excellency of grades attained\nby a few pupils during college-entrance examinations can atone for a four-year course\nwhich fails to give to the great majority the richest and most inspiring experience of which\nthey are capable. No brilliancy of attainment by the vanguard of the class can excuse\nthe feeling of hopeless mediocrity and inefficiency which often settles upon the remainder.\nWhat higher attribute can a student bring with him into citizenship than a ready\ninitiative, due to confidence in his own powers, based upon frequent successes ? Each\nsuccess is a source of inspiration for further effort, and begets confidence and self-reliance*\nIt is not necessary for a public-school pupil to learn that he can do indifferently well what\nothers can do better; but it is essential for him to realize that with his limited capacities,\naided only by honest, diligent effort, he can do many things thoroly well. Frequent successes! This should be the privilege of every student. No topic should find a place in\nthe curriculum of the public school whose study cannot be carried to a successful issue by\nthe average pupil.\nSuccessful issue ? What is the measure of success ? Is it not that thoroness of comprehension which results in ability to use, to make of service that which is the subject of\nstudy ? If definitions, rules, and formulae give a clearer understanding, if problems or\nthe study of machines, simple of course, give a clearer insight into the operations of physical\nforces, they are in place. But they are in place only in so far as they increase the power\nto do, in so far as they increase the self-reliance of the pupil.\nPhysics should be made utilitarian. To quote the words of Professor Foley: \"Of\ntwo subjects which give equal mental training, I should always choose the one which deals\nwith facts that give promise of being most useful in the after-life of the pupil.\"\nTheory ? Of course, theory should be taught. What is theory but the attempt to\nsecure an intelligent understanding of the operations of physical forces ? Will anyone\ndeny that an intelligent comprehension of phenomena is preferable to a mere knowledge\nof their existence ?\nPhysics, real physics, need not be more difficult than any other study, thoroly taught,\nprovided the subject-matter be chosen from material well within the range of the pupil's\ncomprehension. If a teacher will insist in teaching abstract units, and laws based upon\nabstract mathematical deductions which the majority of pupils fail to grasp thoroly, or\neven to retain in verbal memory more than a few days, he has only himself to blame. When\na teacher on finishing a subject is inclined to say, \"Thank goodness, I am glad that is over\nwith!\" it is likely that his pupils are in a worse state of mind, and it is questionable whether\nor not the undertaking has been of profit.\nPhysics certainly can be made more interesting than most studies. Experiments\nshould be made as showy and as striking as possible. Work is not predigested by showing\nstriking experiments, but by failing to bring the pupil's intellect into vigorous operation,\nthe teacher becoming so interested in the success of the display that he fatuously explains\nto the class what wonders he has just accomplished instead of utilizing the interest aroused\nby the experiment to set the pupils more actively to work.\nThe lack of judgment shown in the choice of experiments and the selection of apparatus\nmay often be appalling, but is certain to pass away as the purpose of experiments becon^es\nbetter understood. No experiment should be performed which does not assist in the\nlogical development of the subject, or which does not give the class a clearer insight into\nthe operations of physical forces than does the text-book alone. The idea that every topic\ndiscussed must be illustrated often leads to experiments so trivial as to be absolutely silly.\nNo experiments should be performed by the individuals of a class which are of\nsuch a trivial character that they invite play rather than study.\nOn the other hand\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": null, "text": "8^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nexperiments by the individuals of a class should not degenerate into a course in mechanics\nor in the manipulation of apparatus. Ample time should be allotted for attaining accuracy\nof results and for drawing conclusions. The object of the experiment should be stated\nso definitely, the use of the apparatus explained so thoroly, that the chief intellectual\neffort of the pupil can be centered on the investigation itself, and on the drawing of\nconclusions.\nExperiments do not increase in value in proportion to the number of pupils who helplessly flounder in their attempts to accomplish the task, but in proportion to the number\nwho carry the work to a successful issue. The amount of help to be given the pupil, and\nthe amount of work to be accomplished by him without further aid, may Require delicate\nadjustment, but what is the teacher for ?\nThe most serious defect is the frequent lack of organic connection between the experiment and the logical development of the subject taught, the experiment often being essentially an interruption or repetition of the work as outlined by the text-book.\nThe effort of the teacher often seems to be to determine how much the pupil can do,\nrather than how much the pupil can do well. For this the text-books offer ample excuse.\nThe wealth of material included in the realm of physics, the multiplicity of startling discoveries ofintense public interest, have often expanded the book beyond its proper limits.\nFor this there is only one remedy.\nThe text-book must become the tool, not the master.\nThe subject-matter of physics should be determined by but one thought — its usefulness\nin developing power and self-reliance. In its selection the highest collegiate training, the\nmost catholic culture, can find play; but it must be accompanied by the deepest insight into\nchild-life, its capacities, interests, and ambitions; and the final outcome must be the reality,\nnot the spurious imitation of education.\n\nTHE\n\nVALUE\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nWILLIAM\n\nM.\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nBLANCHARD,\nPROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY,\nUNIVERSITY,\nGREENCASTLE,\nIND.\n\nEDUCATION\nDE\n\nPAUW\n\nThe question of the value of chemistry in secondary education is only an\noutgrowth of the old question of the relative value of the classics and the\nsciences in education in general. We have no intention of discussing this\nolder question, but only refer to it in introducing the topic under present\nconsideration. The rapid growth, both in number and in efficiency, of our\ntechnical and engineering schools, the increasing demand for men with a\nscientific training, the growing conviction that a nation's industrial progress\nis in a large measure dependent upon its devotion to science — all are evidences\nof the widespread beHef that in the practical affairs of Hfe either a knowledge\nof science or the possession of the training which it can best give is of great\nvalue. Furthermore, the introduction of the sciences and the opening of\nlaboratories in all classes of educational institutions, even in those that have\nlong placed the chief emphasis upon the classics, is proof that our educators\neverywhere are persuaded that in the well-ordered college curriculum the\nsciences must have a place. Of all the natural sciences, no one occupies today\na more conspicuous position than chemistry.\nIf it be granted that at some period in a student's life it is well for him to\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n873\n\nstudy science, how are we to determine to what stage this study must be\nrestricted, if indeed it must be restricted at all ? If there is real educational\nvalue in the proper teaching of the sciences in the college, why is there not\nalso real educational value in the proper teaching of the sciences in the high\nschool ? Believing that high-school science does have true pedagogical value,\nand being persuaded that every tree will be known by its fruits, the defender\nof science instruction turns to the table of statistics, hoping that our Commissioner ofEducation will help him justify his position. But what does he\nfind? Instead of increasing, the proportion of students studying science in\nour secondary schools is steadily decreasing. In 1891-92, of all the students\nin the public high schools of our country, 22.82 per cent, were studying physics\nand 10.17 per cent, were studying chemistry; while in 1 901-2 only 17.48 per\ncent, were studying physics and only 7.37 per cent, were enrolled in chemistry.\nOn the other hand, in 1891-92 38.88 per cent, of the total were studying Latin;\nwhile in 1 901-2 this number had increased to 50.07 per cent. Again, comparing the number of students preparing for college, we find that in 1891-92,\nof the total number of students in our pubHc high schools, 6.33 per cent, were\npreparing for a college classical course and 6.90 per cent.were preparing for\na college scientific course; while in 1 901-2 these numbers had fallen to 5.59\nper cent, and 5.07 per cent, respectively. In ten years the percentage preparing for the classical course had fallen 0.74, while the percentage preparing\nfor the scientific course had fallen 1.83, or more than twice as much.\nBut in spite of these figures, which apparently furnish an argument for\nthose opposing the teaching of science in the high schools, there is probably\nno occasion for alarm on the part of those believing in the value of science\ninstruction even in secondary education. Several suggestions have been made\nwith a view to explaining away the apparent meaning of these figures. Someone has suggested that many of the students enrolled in 1891-92 as secondary\nstudents were really elementary, having only one study in the higher department, and that more of these elementary students were taking physics and\nchemistry than Latin. Someone else maintains that the cause of the decrease\nin the number of high-school students studying science is not to be found in\nany depreciation of the pedagogical value of these subjects, but is to be looked\nfor in the increasing demands upon the science students by virtue of the greater\nattention now paid to the quantitative side of these subjects. We are making\nthe requirements so rigid that, where science is elective, many students decline\nto take it.\nMay not another explanation be offered ? Is it not a fact that the classical\ndepartments in our colleges require more language for entrance than they did\nten years ago, while in the same institutions in many cases no entrance requirements in science are made at all ? Then, again, do not many of our technical\nand engineering schools require language, and in most, if not all, cases Latin,\nfor entrance, while they not only do not require chemistry or physics, but in\nmany cases prefer that the student shall receive his first instruction in these\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": null, "text": "874\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nsubjects in their own laboratories ? Even in our so-called classical schools,\nwhere no entrance requirement in science is made, the student receives no\ncredit for his high-school science and has to go over it all again. When the\nsubject is thus discounted, what wonder that the student should pass it by\nwhen he finds it among the electives ! Here is a dilemma in which the teacher\nof high-school science finds himself. Some maintain that he makes his subject too difficult, and for that reason the students avoid it; while others maintain that he does not make it difi&cult enough, and for that reason the colleges\nrefuse to accept it. What are we going to do about it ? But it is not our purpose to discuss the Umitations of high-school science instruction, but to consider the question of the value of chemistry in secondary education.\nWe shall look at the subject from two standpoints:\nFirst, the conditions determining the value of chemistry in secondary\neducation.\nSecondly, the educational and moral value of high-school chemistry when\ntaught under favorable conditions.\nWith reference to the first part of this subject, it may be said, in the first\nplace, that, in order that a high-school student may pursue any subject with\nadvantage, that subject must be presented by a competent teacher, and that\nteacher must have all the material aids that may be found necessary for\nelucidating the subject-matter. The high-school chemistry teacher must be\nwell trained for his work, and he must have the necessary equipment for the\nlaboratory and the class-room. It seems to us that no one should undertake\nto teach chemistry who has not himself pursued the subject for at least three\nyears. The field of chemistry is so broad, and there are so many different\nphases of the subject, that one can scarcely hope to appreciate its magnitude\nand its relations to other branches of science without following the subject for\nat least three years. The high-school chemistry teacher should have had at\nleast one full year in general chemistry, attending three or four lectures a\nweek, and spending six or eight hours a week in the laboratory. He should be\nwell grounded in the more important theories of general chemistry, and somewhat familiar with their origin and with the history of their development;\nhe should have some training in organic chemistry, and should be thoroly\naHve to the remarkable syntheses possible in this branch of the subject; he\nshould be famiHar with the most common of these syntheses, and should\nhave gained this familiarity thru personal experience in the laboratory he\nshould have received some practice in the analytical side of the subject, both\nqualitative and quantitative. It is not expected, of course, that a teacher of\nhigh-school chemistry be called upon to teach all that he knows. A teacher\nof Latin will certainly be familiar with many more authors than he will ever\nread with his students, and will have far more historical information about his\nsubject than he can hope to present to them. The teacher of high-school\nchemistry must not only be acquainted with the well-trodden paths over\nwhich he may be called upon to lead his students, but he should also know\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE.\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n875\n\nthe by-ways, the ins and outs, the trails not yet frequented, and perhaps will\nhimself have been the first to open up some new trail — the first to explore one\nof nature's mysterious labyrinths. The teacher must have the scientific\nspirit and must have acquired the scientific habit. This is more important\nthan the mere possession of knowledge ; it is the very source of enthusiasm\nand inspiration ; and it is the getting of the scientific spirit and the implanting\nof it in others that makes science worth while. No one has received his full\ntraining in chemistry, or in any science for that matter, until he has gone\nover the whole field in a general way and at the same time prosecuted some\nresearch along some special lines. It is to be hoped that some day will find a\nuniversity- trained man in every branch of high-school science, and Ph.D.'s\nas common in the high-school faculty as they are now in that of the college.\nBut the training and the efficiency of the teacher are not the only condition\ndetermining the value of chemistry in our secondary schools. Chemistry is\nof no value without a laboratory. Looking at the magnificent buildings that\nare being constructed for this purpose all over our country, and noting the\nthoroness with which they are being equipped, one hardly needs mention this\npart of the subject And yet there are schools that pretend to teach chemistry\nand still have no facilities whatever for laboratory instruction. One of the\ngreatest contributions made to the pedagogical world was the laboratory\nmethod, and this contribution was made by science. Soon after laboratory\ninstruction was generally introduced, like every other new thing that is good,\nit was much abused ; from no laboratory, many schools soon swung around to\nall laboratory, and this was found to- be as great an evil as the first. Now\nthe question that is still discussed is the question of the proper balance between\nthe time given to laboratory work, on the one hand, and that devoted to recitations and reviews, on the other. There are prominent educators who still\nbelieve that in high-school physics the laboratory work on the part of the\nstudent may be replaced by carefully planned lecture experiments on the\npart of the instructor, the student making drawings of the apparatus and\nworking out all the problems connected with the experiments. However this\nmay be, everyone must admit that for the successful teaching of chemistry a\nproper amount of laboratory work is indispensable. We believe the amount\nof time given to laboratory work should be at least equal to that devoted to\nrecitations and reviews, and this time should be so arranged that the student\ncan have at least two consecutive hours in the laboratory at each period.\nAnother condition determining to some extent the value of chemistry in\nthe high school is the time at which it is taught. As lack of time forbids a\ndiscussion of the subject, we can only state our opinion, and that is that\nchemistry should be preceded by physics, and where it can be taught for only\none year it should be presented in the fourth year of the high-school course.\nOne other condit\"on deserves some attention, and that is the proportion\nof time devoted to the different phases of the subject. How much should one\nattempt to give the student ? Where should the principal emphasis be placed ?\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": null, "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nShould an attempt be made to cover in a very elementary way the entire\nground of general chemistry with a dash of organic at the close, or should\nonly a small part of the subject be attempted and that taught thoroly ? This\nlast question was discussed at your meeting last summer. If all students\ntaking chemistry in the high schools are preparing for college, then it seems that\nthe position taken by Professor Williams in his discussion of last year is a very\ntenable one. In the first place, the student should be taken in the high school\njust as thoroly as he could be taken in college, over as much ground as the time\nallotted in the high school will allow; and, in the second place, the chemistry\ncourse in the college should be so modified that on completing his preparatory\nwork the high-school student could continue his work in chemistry without\nhaving to repeat what he has already done. It seems to us that when all of\nour secondary schools become as thoroly equipped as many of them now are,\nthis adaptation will logically follow. Suppose all students taking chemistry\nin the secondary schools are not prepared for college,- what then ? Will not\nthis position still be tenable ? How much chemical knowledge will the average student possess two years after his high-school course, if he has not continued the subject ? Is not the value of the chemical course to be found in\nthe training received rather than in the knowledge acquired, and cannot this\ntraining be given better in the teaching of the first half of elementary chemistry\nthoroly than in the teaching of the whole of it superficially ?\nGranted that this question be wisely settled; granted that the ideal conditions for the teaching of elementary chemistry be fulfilled; granted that we\nhave a well-trained teacher and enthusiastic worker, that we have a wellequipped laboratory, that we have made the proper adjustment of class work\nto laboratory practice, and that we have selected the proper place in the highschool course, what may we expect the student to receive from his elementary\nchemistry? Here we must not let our enthusiasm run away with us. We\nmust not be of those who seem to feel that the salvation of the world depends\nupon a knowledge of chemistry. That chemistry should have a place in our\nsecondary education we firmly beHeve, but the thought of its taking the place\nof other subjects we do not for a moment entertain.\nWe believe that the following results may be expected from the teaching\nof chemistry in our secondary schools. The subject will not fail to awaken\ninterest on the part of the student and stimulate keenness of observat.'on. It\nis surprising to note the number of things that a student fails to see in his\nfirst experience with the subject; it is equally surprising to note how acute\nhis power of observation becomes when he is led step by step by the proper\napplication of the laboratory method. It is a genuine pleasure to stand by\na student at the laboratory desk and, after a few questions, watch his face\nbrighten up as new phases of the subject present themselves and new phenomena are suggested. It does not require many weeks of this personal\ncontact of teacher with students to make the student himself a questioner.\nNor are these questions of the nature of doubts, but they are questions that\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF CHEMISTRY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n877\n\nprompt an eager quest for the truth ; they are questions that enliven the imagination, that quicken the understanding, and that lead to enthusiastic endeavor.\nSurely with a year of such work the student must show some intellectual\nprogress.\nHigh-school chemistry will teach a student accuracy of expression. There\ncan be no juggling with words in expressing a scientific fact, and clearness\nand accuracy of expression follow keenness of observation as the day the\ndawn. And when a student masters well these two habits — the habit of seeing\nthings as they are, of seeing things in their true aspect, of looking accurately\ninto details, and the habit of expressing accurately what he does see — he has\ntaken a long step in intellectual development, a long step in equipping himself\nfor the mastery of his environment.\nFurthermore, the study of chemistry will cultivate the student's analytic\nfaculty; it will teach him not to be contented with what may be seen on the\nsurface of things, but to pick things to pieces, to decompose them, to get at\nthe heart of things. It will also teach him the habit of weighing evidence, of\nbalancing one thing against another, of testing statements, of proving things.\nThe cultivation of this faculty is not Hmited to the sciences, but there is in\nscience, and especially in chemistry, a very great factor for its development.\nBut chemistry is not only a science that tears down, it is also a science that\nbuilds up; and the synthetic phase of chemistry is one of its most important\nphases. It is in the chemical laboratory that a student acquires the constructive habit. He learns to appreciate the full meaning of the phrase ''mastery\nof forces,\" and learns, too, its broader significance in relation to the affairs\nof life. The conception of an ideal, the comprehension of the full significance\nof that ideal, the apprehension of the forces that make its attainment possible,\nthe mastery of these forces, with the eye ever on the ultimate end, with a full\ngrasp of the meaning of the whole process — is not this the very essential of a\nsuccessful life ? How important that a student should acquire at an early\nage the synthetic instinct ! And why not develop this instinct in a chemical\nlaboratory ?\nBut our high schools must do more than train the mind; they must also\nreach the heart. Education is the building of character, and we beheve that\nhigh-school chemistry may be made a very effective agent in this direction.\nThe student will often fail in his experiments, and will leave the laboratory\nmuch discouraged and thoroly disgusted with himself; a watchful teacher will\nuse these failures as opportunities of encouraging the student in the cultivation of two important elements of a strong character — patience and selfreliance.\nAgain, no man can be a scientist who is not a lover of truth; the careful\nteaching of chemistry — and this is true of other science,s, for that matter —\ncannot fail to increase the student's regard for truth.\nFurthermore, a course in elementary chemistry cannot fail to impress the\nstudent with the beauty and the grandeur of the material world and its won-\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": null, "text": "gyg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nderful adaptation to the needs of man. This should tend to the cultivation of\ntwo quaHties very essential to a noble character— a becoming modesty and a\ngenuine reverence for an all-wise Providence.\nFinally, chemistry is intensely alive; it is a growing science, and its appHcations are so varied and so marvelous that even a gUmpse of the subject,\nwith a sketch of some of the heroes of the science, cannot but give a student\nambition and incite him to noble endeavor.\nDISCUSSION\nH. A. Senter, head of chemical department, High School, Omaha, Neb. — The\ngreatest factor in school or college, without question and without regard to the subject\ntaught, is the teacher. The value, therefore, of any subject to the pupil depends largely\non the teacher, especially at the stage of development such as is found in pupils of highschool age.\nThis is especially true of chemistry. This science is so broad, and all its various parts\nso closely in harmony, that one cannot teach any part understandingly, even in the most\nelementary course, without having, an extended and thoro course in the whole subject.\nNo one should attempt to teach the subject to beginners — the most critical and important\nof all chemical teaching — without having a thoro and extended course in general and\nqualitative chemistry, a course in quantitative analysis, and at least one year of organic\nchemistry.\nThe need of the high school, in all subjects, is more thoroly trained teachers, who are\nwilling to devote their entire time and all their energy to teaching, and who intend to make\nthis their life-work. Teachers of this class are on the increase, and boards of education,\nfortunately, are beginning to recognize and encourage such by making high-school positions\nas dignified and as remunerative as those of colleges and universities.\nThe outlook, with respect to developing better teachers for high-school work, is very\nencouraging and promises much for the immediate future.\nIn the teaching of chemistry, next to the personality and training of the teacher is the\nequipment for lecture and laboratory work. Wherever chemistry is taught there should\nbe an unHmited supply of all necessities, in the way both of apparatus and of chemicals.\nUtility should be the first consideration in the selection of these, and economy should be\nthe watchword in their disposal. A chemical department developed on these two principles, utility and economy, will lead any board of education wilhngly to grant luxuries in\nthe way of lecture apparatus from time to time, at the suggestion of the teacher.\nThese luxuries, however, should always be secondary, especially when the department\nis new, and at all times should be sacrificed when necessities are needed.\nAs to the laboratory itself, it is unfortunate that in most cases it has been modeled\nafter college laboratories, excellent in their place and suitable to college conditions and\nrequirements, but not at all adapted to high-school conditions. This, of course, was\nnatural, because most of the high-school laboratories have been built by college men,\nusually before they have had sufficient experience in high-school work to be acquainted\nwith the actual existing conditions there.\nI believe we are on the eve of a radical change in the arrangement of the chemical\nlaboratory. The high-school chemical laboratory should be arranged and adapted to\nhigh-school needs and conditions. SimpHcity and utihty here, also, should be the guiding\nprinciples. It should be built to accommodate not more than thirty-two pupils at one\nand the same time, giving each a desk and uniform equipment. Each desk should be\nprovided with as many sets of drawers as there are recitation periods in the school.\nEach\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMETHOD\n\n879\n\nset of drawers should be of such size and shape as to accommodate the apparatus to be\nkept in them, and should be partitioned so as to make a place for everything.\nThe drawers should be provided with a series of master-keyed locks, duplicates being\nused on each individual set of drawers. Lockers and padlocks, high shelves, and all\nunnecessary projections and ornamentations should be abolished. The writer has during\nthe past five years been looking forward to building such a laboratory adapted to highschool needs and conditions, and was recently given instructions to carry out his plans.\nThe result has been very gratifying, and has called forth very high praise by all science\nteachers who have visited it.\nThe time given to laboratory work will vary somewhat with local conditions. In a\nsmall school double recitation periods can be devoted to this, but in larger schools this is\nalmost impossible, owing to the difficulty in arranging the schedule. Here single periods\nmust be the rule.\nWhen pupils have two periods, the tendency is to lag somewhat, in the behef that\nthere is plenty of time, and also to cause confusion and disturbance and waste of time by\nvisiting and talking. With one period, the pupil realizes that he must make every motion\ncount, otherwise he can accomplish nothing; and in a month or so he learns to plan his work\nto better advantage, learns to put all his energy into the task in hand, and soon realizes\nthat it is a waste of time and energy to talk and visit while working. The motto in the\nlaboratory should be work, with absolutely no communication whatever. If carried on\nin this way, the laboratory develops that power to do work which is so lacking in most\npupils of high-school age, and teaches independence, confidence, and self-relialnce — the\nabiHty to do things.\nIf the work is systematically laid out beforehand, and properly directed by the teacher\nin the laboratory, as much work can be accomphshed in three single periods as in two\ndouble ones. The rest of the time should be devoted to recitation, reviews, and lecture\nexperiments and explanations by the teacher.\nBecause of its wider general scope, and more universal application to our everyday\nlife, physics came into our school system long before chemistry Of the relative value of\nthe two, to high-school pupils it is by far the most important; and when only one can be\ntaught, it should unhesitatingly be chosen. When both are taught, it should always\nprecede chemistry.\nBecause \"the study of chemistry is the key which unlocks the door into a great wealth\nof hitherto unknown facts, and which seems to me opens up a greater storehouse of knowledge than any study taken in the high school,\" it should be placed in the senior year, following physics of the previous year.\nThe study of chemistry in the high school, under a thoroly trained teacher, with the\naid of a simple, practical, well-chosen equipment, by means of lecture experiments, laboratory work, and reviews, should develop the habit of rapid, independent, intelHgent, and\naccurate work, should cultivate patience and self-reliance, and should open to the pupil,\njust as he is nearing, in the majority of cases, the end of his school days, a view of that\nminute, perfect, harmonious working of the Creator everywhere in the world in which he\nis about to take an active part.\n\nTHE\nS. A. FORBES,\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nDEAN\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\nOF\n\nSCIENCE,\n\nMETHOD\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nILLINOIS\n\nAlong with the existing movement to make the study of nature more natural\nhas lately appeared an equally significant movement to make the study of\nscience more scientific. The former movement affects especially the primary\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": null, "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand the elementary schools; the latter, the secondary school and the college.\nIt is the object of the former to enlarge, to refine, and to vivify the personal\nexperience; it is the object of the latter to organize experience into forms\neffective for future use. Nature study may thus be said to sow the seed from\nwhich the study of science cultivates the crop, and, in due time, reaps the\nharvest.\nThe method of assorting and generalizing the data of experience by means\nof which the average man is able to apply the lessons of his past to the conduct\nof his future is simply a crude, wasteful, and slipshod form of the method by\nwhich the data of science are organized in the process of scientific discovery.\nThe method of- science and the method of life are essentially the same, and a\npractical command of the scientific method is an important part of the preparation for life. This movement for the improvement of scientific instruction\nis thus a part of the more general movement to relate the work of the school\nmore closely to the life of the community.\nIt is as yet, it must be admitted, in its initial stages, so far as its effect on\nthe actual teaching of the average school is concerned, and it is with the hope\nof doing something to help it forward into practical operation that I have\nundertaken to discuss here, very briefly and in a general way, the method of\nthe physical sciences, together with the modifications of that method characteristic ofthe several sciences, as related to the work of the teacher in the\nsecondary school. I have chosen this topic because it has often seemed to\nme that the facts of the sciences, the multitude of objects with which they\nhave to do, the varied apparatus which most of them bring into use, and the\ninteresting mechanical processes involved in elementary science work, often\nexercise a kind of fascination over the science teacher, engrossing his interest\ntoo largely, to the partial neglect of the mental methods to which these facts\nand processes owe all their truly scientific character.\n\nThe physical sciences — chemistry, physics, astronomy, geology, biology,\netc. — do not agree in their methods in all respects. The method of chemistry\nis so different in some particulars from that of physics that one trained in\nchemical methods needs much more than a mere knowledge of the facts of\nphysics to become a physicist, and no training in physics with chemical knowledge superadded will make an expert chemist. A man may never be so much\na chemist or physicist or both, but he cannot then become a competent biologist by merely learning any number of facts about biology; he must still have\nhis training in the special biological method. But notwithstanding minor\ndiversities in the methods of the separate sciences, there are certain main\nfeatures common to them all which may be abstracted, generalized, and\nstated in comprehensive form; and these constitute what we may call the\nmethod of science, in our sense of the term.\nBut what shall we mean by \"method\" in this discussion ? Not the mere\nuse of tools of any sort, however compHcated and valuable; not the manipulation ofapparatus, or any form of mechanical operation on anything.\nTools,\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMETHOD\n\n88i\n\napparatus, and laboratory manipulations and experiments are helps to observation, indispensable often in the accumulation of facts, but they do not in\nthe least help to organize the facts accumulated, or to reason on them when\norganized. The method of even physical science is indeed a mental method,\nand the study of this method is a study of the action of the scientific mind\nwhile engaged in the pursuit of scientific truth. The subject is thus not\nphysical, but psychological, and the first question which we wish to find an\nanswer for is: What are the general features of mental method common to all\nsound and successful investigations in the physical, or concrete, sciences?\nWhat are the steps or stages in the method of the scientific man engaged in\nthe serious study of a new, difficult, and complicated problem.\nTime is wanting for an analysis of details, and I must content myself\nwith saying that the accumulation of observations pertinent to the subject in\nhand or the end in view, the classification and generalization of these observations, the framing hypotheses as to causes, explanations, and the hke, from\nthe materials thus obtained, deduction from these hypotheses, and comparison\nof the products of these deductions in every way possible with new facts till\nsubstantial certainty is reached — these are the general steps of the method\nof physical science. In practice, however, and in some of the sciences, this\nwhole round is rarely followed out in full. Short-cuts across comers, abbreviations, or even omissions of certain steps of the process are often possible\nto the expert, who may see, as by a flash of judgment, whither an investigation\nis tending, and so jump to the point at once.\nIn physics or in chemistry a single observation or experiment is sometimes enough to suggest a hypothetic explanation which brings the experimenter at once to the verification stage of his inquiry. In many departments\nof science vast masses of material have already been accumulated, classified,\nand generalized in advance, ready for the use of anyone; and investigation in\nthese departments may begin with imagined hypotheses, followed by verification thru experiment and by added observation. In mathematics especially\ninduction was long ago practically completed, and the mathematician is occupied now only with deductive and verification processes. Physics and chemistry also have gone some distance on the same road, and general laws have\nbeen established in considerable number and of extensive scope, from which\ndeductions may be made at once, and by reference to which new facts may be\nexplained without the tedious preliminaries of extensive observation and\nrepeated generaHzation. In the vast field of biology, on the other hand, full\nas it is. of the most perplexing complications, few stable generalizations have\nas yet been reached, and there most students are still busy with the inductive\nside of the operation. They are working toward general propositions, while\nthe mathematicians and physicists are working from them. Induction predominates, inshort, in the more compHcated — that is, the less developed —\nsciences, and the deductive method in those which are far advanced.\nIt is one of the features of the scientific method in biology that we are\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": null, "text": "gg2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nobliged to depend largely on mere hypotheses, which cannot be strictly verified\nby crucial experiments, but which commend themselves to us merely because\nthey accord with all known facts. If all the facts were completely known to\nus, such a hypothesis would, of course, be fully estabUshed as the final truth,\nbut as the mass of pertinent facts is almost never wholly known, and as the\nappearance of one inconsistent fact would overthrow it, many biological\ntheories must always be held subject to revision or abandonment.\nThe appreciation of these differences of method in the various related\nsciences is of great practical importance, since it is not an uncommon error\nto apply the method of one science in the field of another to which it is not\nappropriate. One trained mainly in chemistry, accustomed to infer with\ncertainty the characters of a whole class from the results of an examination\nof his first example of it, knows Httle of the tedious repetitions of observation\non multitudes of individuals and the complicated processes of generalization\nnecessary to establish class characters in zoology or botany; and the mathematician, accustomed to go at once to his general principles as an unalterable\npoint of departure, can scarcely appreciate the requirements of an investigator\nwho must start from individual instances, with general principles as the halfway house to his goal.\nThese various steps and phases of the scientific method are all processes\nof which we make almost constant use, in some crude and simple form at\nleast, in nearly all our thinking and in most of our intelligent active life. We\nbegin to discriminate, to classify, to generahze, and to infer long before we\nhave learned to read, and we never outgrow the necessity for the constant use\nof these intellectual processes until we cease thinking and acting altogether.\nUpon the thoroness of our command and the correctness of our use of them\ndepend much of our happiness and most of our success, and a course of school\ntraining which does not take them into practical account is evidently deficient\nin an important element of that preparation for life which is the end of training\nand the object of the school.\nHuxley taught that science is nothing but trained and organized commonsense, and the question, therefore, whether the scientific method should be\ndeliberately used in science-teaching is a question whether common-sense\nshould be deliberately organized and trained, or whether the ordinary man\nmay be safely left to train and organize his common-sense himself. Now, I\nthink that it is unquestionable that if the scientist needs to be trained in the\nscientific method, as so defined, for the fit performance of his labors as a scientific man, then the ordinary citizen needs it very much more for the fittest\nliving of his ordinary Hfe. The art of right and rational living is the most\ndifficult of all the arts, and the most compHcated and perplexing of all the\nsciences are those which underlie that art. The task of the investigating\nchemist in his laboratory, or of the botanist in the field, is simple indeed as\ncompared with the bewildering difficulties which beset the father of a family,\nthe citizen of a community, the voter in a democracy, the physician in charge\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMETHOD\n\n883\n\nof the health and Hves of hundreds of his fellow-men, the business man, whose\ntransactions reach to the ends of the earth, and are inextricably entangled in\nevery direction with the affairs of thousands of others, over whom he has little\nor no control.\nWe solve the great problems of practical life by the reference of particular\ncases, as they arise, to estabHshed and accepted general principles; by reference of them to ready-made generalizations drawn from our own experience;\nor by new judgments based on our general knowledge and on our previous\nacquaintance with similar instances; and hence we need for their solution not\nonly a store of applicable general principles and much practice in their application, but the power and the habit also of generalizing our own experience\naccurately and holding the results tenaciously, and the habit of revising general notions freely in the Hght of new occasions. We need, that is to say, a\nthoro comprehension and a practical command of that method of assembhng,\norganizing, and rationalizing facts of all orders which in scientific matters\nwe call the scientific method. An example or two from practical life will\nillustrate.\nIn an ordinary minor medical experience there is involved a determination\nprocess; the assignment, that is, of a case of Uness to its proper place in the\nclassification of diseases, or the recognition of a pathological state by means of\nthe visible and tangible characters which it presents, and the use of such\nremedial measures as have been associated in the physician's knowledge with\nthis disease or condition. In more difficult or unusual cases there is a more\ndefinite reasoning from effect to cause, as the physician studies the various\nindications of physical disturbance presented by the patient and infers from\nthem the precise nature of the existing disorder; and reasoning from cause to\neffect, as when the history of a case is analyzed and a selection is made from\nthe various items of this history of those which there is reason to believe are\ncausally connected with the disordered condition. A double hypothesis is\nthus framed, and upon it a program of treatment is based, involving the application ofremedies and the removal of such causes as remain. This treatment\nis in the nature of a verification process covering the whole series of observations, and the course of reasoning following thereupon.\nI well remember the discussion, in my presence, of a case in which I was\ndeeply interested, by a friend and eminent physician, who was good enough\nto do his thinking aloud as he debated with himself concerning the cause of a\ngroup of rather puzzHng symptoms in the case before him, and it would be\ndifficult to devise a neater illustration of the practical use of the logical method\nof residues. Reviewing the list of conceivable causes of the observed effects, but\neliminating them one by one because if existent they would have been attended\nby other symptoms not present in this case, he finally had but one possible\ncause remaining, and upon this conclusion he based his treatment for its\nremoval. He framed a hypothesis, that is, which was finally verified completely bythe outcome of his treatment.\nThe whole scientific process was\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": null, "text": "gg^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nhere excellently exempLfied; and yet just where in all his ordinary educational experience, preliminary or professional, may the prospective physician\nnow look with confidence for his training which he so clearly needs ? It is\nthe gist of my present argument that his education in the elements of the\nscientific method should be had in advance, at the expense of clams and earthworms, or, better perhaps, of beans and corn plants, and not in professional\npractice at the expense of the health and fives of men\nAnd so a business man laying in his season's goods and affixing prices\nthereto, or the farmer in planting his crops for the year and deciding on the\nspecial treatment of his land, or in determining he kinds and amounts of his\npurchases of live-stock and the special ends to which they shaU be fed, so far\nas he does not merely follow an average routine and take his chances on the\noutcome, must collect and compare and classify and generalize his facts, and\nreason to practical conclusions under the guidance of knowledge and experience previously acquired, and test these conclusions by the success or failure,\ngreater or less, of his undertakings, and the profit or loss on his investments —\nall of which is obviously the scientific process, just as much as if these men\nwere physicists or biologists engaged in origina research.\nBut it is not in these common practical pursuits that a usual reliance on\nthe methods of science is most essential, for if one errs in such matters, his\nerror presently betrays itself, and he corrects and refines his method the next\ntime as a result of his unfortunate experience. It is in those matters of behef\nand practice whose results cannot become apparent to the man at the time,\nbut only, perhaps, to his children or to his successors after he is gone; it is in\nthose political and social theories which only the experience of generations\nand the ultimate welfare of nations can fully verify; it is in those subjects so\ncompHcated, and those series of happenings so variable, that human intellige ce cannot trace connections of cause and effect with convincing certainty,\nthat an unwavering adherence to a sure and sound method is absolutely indispensable. And most of all we need it where, unchecked by the outcome of\nexperience, we are powerfully swayed by emotional motives, and are hence\nmost likely to go far astray with seemingly complete impunity.\nIn short, in all one's personal activities, in his business and professional\noccupations, in his more or less speculative reflections, in the general ordering\nof his mental life, in all that pertains to him, indeed, which contains a rational\nelement, the scientific method has its value and its use; for it is simply the\nmethod of right reasoning appHed to matters of fact.\nI ought at this point to recall the fact that the method of science is not\nlimited by any means to the sciences themselves as commonly so called, that\nis, to mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, and the Hke. The facts of\nhistory may sometimes be causally explained, and the explanations given may\nbe verified by deduction, altho not by experiment; and the parts of speech\nare classes, and the rules of grammar are generalizations, as strictly so as are\nthe laws of nature.\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMETHOD\n\n885\n\nMany words are highly variable in their meanings, and the choice of\nmeaning for each is finally determined in translation by the general significance of the sentence as a whole. That is to say, hypotheses are framed as\nto the precise meanings of single words, and these are tested by the results\nof the efifort to combine these hypothetical interpretations into a single whole ;\nwhich combination again has often the nature of a hypothesis, to be tested by\nits capacity to fuse with other sentences into a connected and rational statement or discussion.\nBut the analogy of this linguistic process to that of the scientific method\nrnust not lead us to conclude that the one may be substituted pedagogically\nfor the other; that if one is trained in language, training in science is unnecessary. Ifthese resemblances really amounted to virtual identity,then we should\nfind that good linguistic and good scientific ability go always together; that\nthe successful student of Latin would need only biological information to\nbecome a good biologist; and that the capacity for scientific study regularly\nincreased with one's experience in the study of language. In truth, the methods\nof language and of science are so different in some details that it is at least an\nopen question whether exclusive training in one does not tend to unfit for\nsuccess in the other. The linguist depends mainly on his memory for the\nprimary data of his translation, while the scientist must depend mainly on\nhis observation for the data of his inductive research. The use of the one\nmethod calls especially upon the verbal memory, and that of the other on the\npower of observation. The linguistic process deals always with extremely\nsimilar data — the meanings of words, easily obtained in a perfectly uniform\nway — by the use of a dictionary; and it deals with these data by an unvarying\noperation — that of linguistic interpretation and construction — which thus\ntends to become a stereotyped habit of mind.\nThe data of physical science, on the other hand, are of the most varied\ncharacter; they are nowhere assembled and organized for convenient search\nand rapid discovery; and the final test of their interpretation is not subjective\nreflection, but continued observation or experiment. Indeed, anyone who\nhas seriously studied both a language and a science needs only to reflect on\nhis own experience to recognize an enormous difference between the two\ndisciplines.\nBut it is scarcely necessary, I am sure, to argue here that the sciences of\nnature have a value, especially in the matter of causal interpretation, which\nis unique and irreplaceable as a means to the end we have in view.\nThe doctrine is occasionally put forward that a good observer is necessarily a sound reasoner, and that, consequently, we need only teach a student\nto observe and the reasoning process will take care of itself. This doctrine\nseems to me, however, to be both psychologically and empirically false.\nNeither analysis nor self-consciousness permits us to beheve that the mind acts\nin observation in the same way or to the same end that it does in inference, and,\nas a matter of fact, we all know that the reasoning power and power of obser-\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": null, "text": "335\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nvation do not necessarily go together. The acutest and best-trained observers\nI have ever known are the systematic entomologists, and yet, transferred to\nthe field of experimental investigation in economic entomology, they are often\nsingularly unsuccessful and unreHable, and seem in general no better quahfied\nthan ordinary, untrained men. We must all be able to recall instances of\nexact, painstaking, plodding laboratory workers whose manipulations, drawings, and reports were models of their kind, but whose powers of causal interpretation were embryonic, if not, indeed, abortive. It is the great reproach\nof much of our teaching that it tends to make just this kind of mental monsters.\nSays Huxley in his after-dinner speech on scientific education :\nThe great peculiarity of scientific training, that in virtue of which it cannot be replaced\nby any other discipline whatsoever, is this bringing of the mind directly into contact with\nfact, and practising the intellect in the completest form of induction; that is to say, in\ndrawing conclusions from particular facts made known by immediate observation of\nnature. The other studies which enter into ordinary education do not discipline the mind\nin this way.\n\nAnd now what may we say of the improvement of high-school work in\nrespect to this subject of the science method? Can we, indeed, teach the\nuse of the scientific method at all in the high school ? The term has a formidable sound, but however collegiate it may seem, the thing named is in its\nsimpler forms of kindergarten grade, and we have all noticed, no doubt, the\nessentially scientific inferences, sometimes amusingly shrewd, made by very\nyoung children. I happened to know two little ones, four or five years old,\neach of whom had spontaneously and quite independently thought out a\nchildish theory of the origin of the wind. Seeing the trees always waving\nwhenever the wind blew, and quiet when there was no wind, the conclusion\nwas reached, as if by the method of agreement, that it was the waving of the\ntrees which made the wind. Indeed, one of these httle ones first betrayed\nhis pecuUar notion by asking for little trees to set beside his pond to make the\nwind blow on the sails of his toy boat; and the other — a young woman now —\ntells me that this childish idea remained so long undisturbed and became so\nfirmly fixed that she still naturally thinks of the wind as coming from the trees.\nNow, I think that it would be safe to say that anything that children do so\nwell spontaneously they can be taught to do much better ; that is, at any rate,\nthe kindergarten principle.\nTo some it may seem that this subject smacks too much of dry formalism\nto have any proper place among the enthusiasms of the young; but we may\nstudy form without real formalism, and some such study is helpful, is necessary even, if the best fruits of enthusiastic interest and endeavor are not to\nbe thrown away. Literature without rhetoric, language without composition, history without reasoning and reflection, art without aesthetic principles,\nmay be pleasing to the imagination, or inviting to the eye, but they are gelatinous to the touch; there is no progress in their motions because there are no\nbones in their flesh — and such as these are, so are the sciences without the\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF THE\n\nSCIENTIFIC\n\nMETHOD\n\n887\n\nscientific method. It is worth while to study the structure of a language, for\nwithout this it is not a language, but only speech ; it is worth while to learn the\ncausal connections of historical events, for without these we have only narrative; and it is worth while to study the method of a science, for without the\nuse of this it is not a science at all, but only facts.\nIf I may speak from my rather limited knowledge of the usual preparation\nof science teachers for the secondary schools, I should say that it would perhaps improve the high-school work materially if every such teacher should\nhave or get a fair working knowledge of the science of logic, which may be\ncalled, indeed, the science of the scientific method. One might almost say\nthat it is only in scientific studies that logic has any important application in\na college course, and yet it is still taught more generally, I think, from the\nphilosophic standpoint than from the scientific, and is taken more commonly\nby literary than by scientific students. If taught without reference to the\nsciences, logic is left in the air, an academic study merely, pursued by itself\nand to its own ends, and with no very definite utilitarian outcome; while, if\ntaught with reference to the sciences, it becomes one of the most useful subjects\nof a college course.\nThen, in each separate science — chemistry, physiography, biology, and\nthe like — the distinctive features of its characteristic method should at some\ntime be brought clearly into view and compared with the characteristic methods\nof the other sciences, so that the student may learn to reason broadly on topics\nof any class; and this should be done, I think, thoroly, and as a matter of the\nhighest interest, at the sacrifice, if necessary, of some details of fact and some\nniceties of instrumental manipulation. Anyone would rather that his boy\nshould know how to think clearly and correctly, and how to tell when a thing\nis proved to a certainty, than that he should have a little more knowledge of\nthe facts of physics or geology at his immediate command. Indeed, I would\nmake the general principles and the characteristic features of the method of\nphysics or chemistry or biology as clear to the student and as definite as the\nprinciples of these sciences, and would develop in the course of my instruction\nthe general method of science with as much care and fullness as I would any\nscientific principle or law. Especially I would see to it that suitable opportunity isfound or made for thoro training of a practical sort in the various\nkinds and forms of the inductive search for truth ; for without inductive teaching\nwe entirely miss one of the chief values of a science course, and the one thing\nin it, I think I may say, of the greatest practical use.\nWe must also recognize a highly important difference between inductive\noperations performed on like and unvarying data — such as those of physics and\nchemistry, where one specimen of a class or one instance of an action is as\ngood as more, since we know in advance that all are practi'cally alike — and those\nperformed on variable objects like living animals and plants, where no two\nare exactly similar, and all are peculiarly sensitive to the modifying influence of\nan immense number of variable and constantly varying conditions.\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": null, "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nI would further make too plain to be misunderstood by anyone, would\nimpress so forcibly that it may never be forgotten, the vital difference between\nan unverified hypothesis, or a plausible interpretation, and a hypothesis verified by experiment or converted into a complete induction. The history of\nscience, the history of every department of research, is strewn with the debris\nof hypotheses once acceptable because accordant with all the facts then\nknown, but since tumbled to ruins by the touch of some discordant discovery.\nOn the other hand, I would not permit a student to derive from his scientific\nstudies the idea that only the certain is deserving of behef. The rashness of\nignorant credulity is often better than a hidebound skepticism.\nAs to the methods of procedure and materials for the work I only venture\nto suggest that the primary requisite is a copious and varied list of problems\nfor individual solution, mainly by inductive reasoning from the student's own\nobservations and experiments. The especial purpose should be, I think, to\nillustrate and establish the inductive method with materials of various kinds,\nbeginning, of course, with easy observations and experiments which lead to\ncertain conclusions, deaHng later with variable data to be treated by the\nmethod of averages and the estimation of probabilities. The subjects proposed would thus be such as to famiharize the student with the various logical\nmethods, not by name, but by actual use, and he should come to understand\ntheir relative values and the ways in which each may be made to supplement\nanother. For a supply of such problems good text-books will be of use, but\nthe Hterature of investigation must be searched, where an abundance of problems may be found capable of such simplification as to bring them within the\nreach of the student's capacity and the conditions of the school.\nIt is not expected that all inductive generalizations should be arrived at\nby induction. A law may be stated and illustrated, and verified either by\nexperiment or by a history of the method of its discovery, but it is not always\nnecessary, either to its comprehension or to confidence in its truth, that it\nshould be developed from the pupil's own experience. It is important, however, that varied and abundant practice in induction shall be had to the end\nthat the student may thoroly acquire the art of inductive inference.\nThe sum of what I have felt impelled to say this afternoon is this: that our\nscience-teaching may be materially strengthened and made practically far\nmore valuable if we will give much more attention and thought than hitherto\nto the rational action of the mind in science work, especially in the matter of\ninductive inference; if we will bestow as much care, ingenuity, and skill upon\nthe selection, adaptation, and arrangement of materials for the training of the\nmind in the processes of logical reflection on the products of experience as we\nhave heretofore used in equipping laboratories and in teaching our students\nhow to observe, to man pulate and to describe.\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS AN AID TO ADVANCED\nSCIENCE\n\nE. R. WHITNEY,\n\nVICE-PRINCIPAL\nSCHOOL,\n\nAS\n\nAN\n\nAID\n\nIN\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND HEAD\nOF SCIENCE\nBINGHAMTON,\nN. Y.\n\nWORK\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\n889\n\nIN\nHIGH\n\nNature study has most ardent advocates. It has also scoffing doubters,\nwho dub it a fad soon destined to disappear. The science teachers in secondary schools and colleges have, for the most part, held aloof from the controversy, letting the advocates and opposition combat alone. Their position has\nnot been one so much of indifference as it has of placid, deferred judgment.\nNature study has now been a corporate part of the elementary schools long\nenough for its results, either for good or for evil, to become apparent in secondary and collegiate institutions. Circular letters addressed to representative\nscience teachers in high schools, normal schools, and colleges brought back\nreplies from which several general conclusions are evident. To many of\nthese teachers nature study seemed to include all sorts of work, most of it\nenthusiastic. By others, nature study is understood as an introduction to the\nelements of physical geography, botany, and zoology, systematically planned.\nThe normal schools generally receive three classes of students. Some are\nfresh from the country, where the environment for the study of nature is\nsplendid, tho usually such study is deficient in guidance. Other students are\nfrom the city and village schools. The third class is from their own training\nschools. The evidence is overwhelmingly in favor of the superiority of the\ncountry students. The training-school students who have had some instruction in elementary science take second place. The testimony of the normalschool science teachers may fairly well be represented by this from one of them :\nThe students of my classes, barring a few from the country and those from our training\nschool, are nearly destitute of any knowledge whatever of the things which every country\nboy knows when he is ten years old. A few know two or three trees; most know but a\nfew plants, and practically no wild animals or birds at all. Their minds are blanks so far\nas nature is concerned.\n\nThere is not the same unanimity of opinion among high-school teachers,\nbut there seems to be an undertone of complaint that nature study, where\nattempted, is not given its full share of attention. In some localities the\ngrammar schools pretend to give a little nature-study work, but it appears to\nbe in such homeopathic doses as to have but little effect on high-school science.\nIt is true that the high-school science teachers of many cities most highly\nindorse the character and results of the nature-study work done in the grades.\nA careful investigation of the apparently divergent views of the high-school\nscience teachers makes apparent why nature study fails in one locality and\nsucceeds in another. It is largely a matter of the teacher's preparation,\nopportunity, and intelligent supervision. Nature study is perhaps the most\ndifficult subject that the elementary school has to teach. It requires the\nkeenest enthusiasm, combined with a breadth of knowledge and a fine art of\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": null, "text": "gpo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nteaching. Then, too, the city school machinery is often far too inelastic to permit the freedom necessary for excursions, gathering of material, etc. Usually\nthere is no special teacher of nature study, and the average science teacher is\ntoo busy in his own department to lend aid, and so supervision goes by default.\nOnly one of the correspondents would prefer students to come to him without any previous instruction in nature study. He says that he ''does not\nthink that teachers of nature study, equipped as at present, can do much\ndamage, except to give a lot of false notions about flowers talking and\nthinking.\"\nThere seems to be a general agreement that in botany, zoology, and\ngeology it is of immense help if the pupils know the names of the common\noutdoor objects, and that it is often quite useless for the science teacher to\ncite examples from the locaHty because the pupils lack fundamental acquaintance with even the most common things. As Professor Hodge says: \"They\nare tubs without bottoms.\"\nOnly the highest words of commendation can be spoken of the admirable\nwork of the state agricultural experiment stations in issuing, free for the asking,\nsplendid nature-study leaflets and magazines on elementary science adapted\nfor home study and for use by school children. These are of great help to\nthe teacher whose time is Hmited. As a direct result of this campaign, schoolgrounds have been beautified, children's gardens have been planted, school\nand home museums have been estabUshed, and a Uvely interest in nature has\nbeen evoked. Experiment clubs have been formed that tend to keep alive\nthe spirit of inquiry.\nNature study prepares a fertile soil for advanced work in the biologic\nsciences, and for physics and chemistry as well. No child can study, even in\nthe most simple way, a plant or an animal without getting some notions that\nwill contribute effectively to these subjects. As Dr. Hallock of Columbia\nsays:\nHow can a child understand properly the function of the roots and sap and leaves\nwithout knowing some of the principles of solution, capillarity, and evaporation? I\nbelieve that one reason that the teaching of. chemistry and physics is not more effective is\nbecause this purely elementary material has not been presented in the grades.\n\nA brief grammar-school course in physics, deahng with some of the simpler\nprinciples, may be a great help. Some of the qualitative and to some extent\nspectacular experiments dealing with osmose, diffusion, cohesion, and most of\nthe physics of the air, together with the plain phenomena of magnetism,\nmight readily be introduced. If desirable, metric measurements might at the\nsame time be used.\nPhysical geography, usually a first-year science subject in secondary\nschools, is largely a question of physics and geology. Its underlying scientific principles are few in number. If early and gradually introduced, the\nideas of pressure of the air as manifested in the siphon, pumps, and the Hke,\nthe distribution of heat, and the attraction and repulsion of magnets, are\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS\n\nAN\n\nAID\n\nIN\n\nSCIENCE\n\n891\n\nmade more sure of being understood than if dealt with all at once. How\neasy it is to teach the names and properties of the common rocks and minerals.\nOnce their interest is aroused, pupils find new treasures in every stone building, sidewalk, river side, and embankment.\nThe sooner these ideas are incorporated in the Hfe of the child, the better;\nfor such ideas are of slow growth and lead to larger views and interests.\nPupils who early get near to the heart of nature generally retain that love all\ntheir Hves. Each expansion of the mental and spiritual horizon brings new\ndelights that are more keenly appreciated because the better apperceived.\nAll knowledge helps in the gaining of new knowledge. Nature study, aiding\nso directly, as it does, in observation and deduction, is thus a decided help in\nthe higher work of science by becoming a link between the abstract and the\nconcrete, and showing the bearing of abstract principles upon human life.\nWhat shall be the product of nature study if it is to be effective in science\nwork ? Should it simply dull the keen edge of curiosity that is in every child ?\nChildren's interests in the phenomena of nature is enormous. It is paramount\nto most other interests. Inherent and spontaneous as it is, why not utilize it\nto the utmost ? School routine may dull or even obliterate it. Even nature\nstudy, improperly taught, may deaden it so that it can scarcely ever be revived\nin the high school, normal school, or college. Nature study has this one\ngreat end to accomplish, viz., \"to keep the tentacles of inquiry functional\"\nuntil the time for more solid science instruction begins. If this is done,\nnothing at least is lost. But a far greater end is the deepening of the interest\nso early and so strongly manifested by the child; and if this is accomphshed,\nwe shall have a class of students who know the trees and common plants,\nbirds and insects, and have learned enough to want to learn more about\nwhat they do in the economy of nature. The science teacher need not then\nbe obHged to teach the difference between a moth and a butterfly, or a cottonwood and a whitewood, or that angleworms do not rain down.\nPupils who have a smattering or fragmentary knowledge of odds and ends\nof science, which is so often advocated as nature study, think they know it all,\nand are a very trying class to instruct when real science is begun. \"Some\nyoung folks,\" says Dr. Bigelow, in the St. Nicholas Magazine, \"take nature\nstudy just as they take the measles — nobody knows where they got it, but it\nis none the less effective.\" Emerson has truly said: \"The best part of a\nbody's education is that which he gets to and from school.\" Nature\nstudy must, if it is to be of higher service, beget the abihty-to see things,\nto draw correct conclusions, and, more than all, to bring about a desire to\nknow all possible about natural objects and phenomena. When this is done\nit will cease to be, what Dr. Coulter so aptly calls it, \"the joke of the scientific\nfraternity.\"\nIt is not desired that nature study should in any way lessen the time\ndevoted to secondary or collegiate science instruction. It would simply\ndeepen the course.\nIf nature study is to be taught by gushing and emotional\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": null, "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nenthusiasts, who, lacking depth and breadth of training, endeavor to interest\nby liberal injections of myth, legend, and the imaginative, thus sacrificing\ntruth, accuracy, and the scientific spirit, it is better not to attempt it at all.\nWorse tho than the gushing teacher is the mechanical one who kills interest.\nA short time ago I was visiting in a city in a noble state noted for its\nhigh standards set in educational matters. Knowing that nature study was\none of the subjects set down in the curriculum, I asked a young A seventh\nacquaintance what he had learned in nature study. He replied that somehow his grade had been omitted in the teaching of this important subject, but\nthat the B seventh grade recited in his room and that he had learned all they\nhad been taught. He said: \"Well, I have learned all about twigs. If a\ntwig is one year old, it has a bud on the end ; if it is two years old, it has buds\non the sides.\" I asked him how this startling information was imparted.'\nHe said: \"Why the teacher wrote it on the blackboard, and the B seventh\ncopied into their notebooks, and so I did the same.\" Alas! how true are\nthe words of Agassiz: \"Pupils study Nature in the schools, and when they\nget out of doors they cannot find her.\" Such nature study is worse than\nworthless; it is positively damaging.\nTo be well quahfied to teach nature study with success, there must be\nmore than a passing acquaintance with all the sciences. The teacher should\nbe resourceful in finding and adapting material for the work, and have a true\nlove for animals and plants leading to first-hand knowledge of their ways;\nand, lastly, have tact in interesting others in the work. The main object is\nto excite wonder, and at the same time instruct the children in some of the\ncommon facts of outdoor Hfe. The teacher must have sufficient time in which\nto organize excursions, obtain specimens, and carry on the work. The\ndemand on the teacher of nature study is really greater than it is on the highschool teacher of science, for the nature-study teacher must not only have a\nscientific basis for the work, but must teach a greater variety of subjects that\nserve as starting-points for a lifelong interest in them all. Her chief emphasis\nis on the love for nature, rather than for the study of technical details.\nOne summer in the country, where one may watch the swallows in a country\nbam, observe the lazy blue wasps and their peculiar nests, see the bees swarm\non a hot summer's day, note how a thousand and one new and yet common\nevents take place, will do more for the average city boy or girl than tons of\ntalk on nature study in the schools, unless very properly conducted.\nNature study has large claims. There can be no doubt that a genuine\nlove for nature aroused in the elementary school begets a longing and a Hking\nfor advanced science. Relate the pupil to his surroundings. Get as many\nnew sensations and as many different views of the lives of other living things\nas possible. Somehow the impression is prevalent that the schoolbooks are\nnot connected with real life. Then, again, nature study paves the way for\nthe laboratory method. Simply handling specimens may not have much\nvalue so far as manual training is concerned, but it is observed as a marked\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS\n\nAN\n\nAID\n\nIN\n\nSCIENCE\n\n893\n\ntrait among pupils in zoology that the ones previously trained in nature study\ndo not hesitate to take up any work or objects and see n them famlHar interests; their minds are not filled with ideas of how ugly they are, or how disagreeable to touch; these points have been answered and settled\nNature study is strictly pedagogic. It conforms to the pedagogical conce tion of the first presenting of a new subject under large headings. It is\nletting the idea of the w^hole precede that of the part.\n\nAs Bailey truly says:\n\nThe child is first interested in the whole plant, the whole bug, the whole bird, as a\nliving, growing object. It is a most significant fact that most young children like plants,\nbut that most youths dislike botany. The fault lies neither in the plants nor in the youths.\nA youth may study cells until he hates the plant that bears the cells.\n\nThis is because the natural order of interest has been reversed.\nWhile it may be that it is only the very small children, in the very large\ncities where access to the country is difficult, who believe that butter grows in\nbuttercups, or is made from a special niilk called buttermilk, and that angleworms, which are nothing but small snakes, rain down with the thunder, yet\nmisconceptions not unlike these are very common in pupils taking up the study\nof science in secondary school and college.\nIf a durable structure of zoological science must be erected in the short\nperiod of twenty weeks, as is so often required, there is no time for laying a\nsure foundation. That must have been taught years before. This is the\ncase with the country-bred pupil. He knows the haunts and homes of the\nbumblebees, and the taste of their honey — and, alas! their sting. He is seldom fooled by the catbird's call. He understands some of the secrets of the\nmartins, the chimney-swifts, and the owls. He knows that the henhawk's\nwatchful eyes are swift to grasp opportunity in the chicken yard. Not all of\nhis knowledge is accurate nor even broad, but he has experiences that are\nbeyond value. He has seen bats feed. He can tell you where to find turtles.\nHe is a local authority on birds' nests and nesting habits. He has caught\ngrasshoppers and studied them long before he ever dreamed of entering a\nzoological laboratory. The codling moth, the tent caterpillar, the cutworm,\nthe Colorado potato beetle, and the Hessian fly are not unfamiliar objects.\nIs it any wonder than when he begins the study of zoology his teacher finds\nhim appreciative, always ready with illustrations, and often with personal\nincidents, unless his modesty prevents their relation ? For him zoology has\nadditional aesthetic, economic, and moral values. It broadens his sympathies and furnishes him with lifelong pleasures.\nIn the study of plant life, as in that of animal fife, there should be a constant endeavor to work along two lines — viz., (i) make clear the effort for\nself-preservation of the individual, (2) its consequent perpetuation by reproduction— and lay particular stress upon the devices for 'attaining these two\npurposes. Nothing is more fascinating to children than the warfare of plants\nagainst their enemies. The means of protection, extremely interesting to\nadults, are to them simply wondrous.\nTheir sympathies are aroused in\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": null, "text": "8^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nfavor of the apparently helpless and immovable plant, and they rejoice that,\nwhile it may not act offensively, it remains a citadel not easily stormed. For\nthem the wonders of plant life reach the maximum in cuttings and graftings,\nand in the methods of seed dissemination. Perhaps their curiosity leads\nthem to experiment on home trees and house plants. Give the child a garden\nof his own, and he will learn many practical lessons in botany that will serve\nas fundamentals in his science course in later years. Check Hsts of the wild\nflowers, with date of finding, name of locality where found, and name of\nfinder, properly recorded, help in starting herbaria.\nWho can measure the value of field excursions as ground work for subsequent science instruction ? The joy of finding a bubbling spring in a shadowy glen, the pure dehght of suddenly coming upon a vision of a sheltered\nvalley appearing thru an opening in the trees, are experiences that live in the\nheart, always forming settings for any and all the gems the science teacher\nmay produce. Is it not worth while to experience the dense forest with its\ninviting cool, its impenetrable gloom, its awful majesty, and its rustling,\nreverberating sounds that bring mystery and fears? No other sensation is\ncomparable to it. It is one of nature's choicest allurements. Its value is\nbeyond estimate in giving an aesthetic imagery — a background, if you please —\nto class-room instruction on the homes, haunts, and lives of living things.\nNo study pursued in the elementary school can be of more direct aid to\nearth science and to the biological sciences than nature study, which teaches\nthe pupil to gather knowledge first hand, trains so certainly in observation,\ndevelops the power of discrimination, leads to a capacity for concrete and\nabstract analysis, and at the same time is capable of giving a lifelong joy in\nthe appreciation of the ever-changing panorama surrounding us.\n\nDISCUSSION\nOtis W. Caldwell, professor of biology, Eastern Illinois Normal School, Charleston\n111. — In one of the preceding papers is the statement that ''the art of right and rational\nliving is the most difficult of all the arts, and the most complicated and perplexing of all\nthe sciences are those which underlie that art.\" Now, all the people practice this art of\nliving in varying degrees of devotion and intelligence; consequently all are engaged, consciously or mechanically, in \"the most complicated and perplexing of all the sciences.\"\nThe low degree of devotion and intelligence with which the art is practiced by the larger\nnumber of people furnishes us with an explanation of the facts that so few recognize the\npossibilities of the science, and that so many faulty conclusions have been formulated\nwithin it. The general method of procedure of the student engaged in one of those fields\nusually included in the term \"science\" is the thing that will give the greatest assistance to\nthose engaged in this larger field, and suggestions calculated to enhance the teaching of the\nmethod of science with the people in general should receive more earnest attention from\nthose engaged in the more technical aspects of scientific thought. The general method\nof scientific thought is usable in the various fields of human interest, each field necessitating\nspecial applications of the method. It is applicable in an elementary way to elementary\nthought upon various subjects, and is sufficient for use in the most intricate problems of a\nspecialist.\n\n"}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nNATURE\n\nSTUDY\n\nAS\n\nAN\n\nAID\n\nIN\n\nSCIENCE\n\n895\n\nIf all the people might have suitable instruction in several formal sciences, the benefit\nto the practice of the art of Hving would be enormous, but such a condition obviously is not\nnear at hand. Possibly when present opportunities for science are more judiciously used,\nthru the evidence of her fruition larger opportunities may come.\nNotwithstanding the fact that elementary science should not be a formal presentation\nof any separate field of science, the scientific method may be taught with varying degrees\nof appreciation in any part of an educational system where any science work is done. The\nmost elementary science, if properly presented, will develop a little of the method of science.\nIt may be greatly limited in quantity, and in application may not be seen in connection with\nany phenomena except those immediately at hand. The method may not even be appreciated as being present, but such appreciation is not essential in order that it may begin to\ndevelop. The method of any subject is taught in the most fundamental and potent way\nwhen the subject itself is taught in the best way. Certainly in secondary schools and\ncolleges some emphasis should be placed upon an understanding of the scientific habit of\nmind, but in lower work it would be futile to attempt this.\nIf so-called elementary science for grade work were more truly elementary science,\nand less legendary, mythical, imaginary, and impersonating, it would do something toward\nestabhshing some elementary notions of the scientific method of thinking; it would remove\nelementary science from its present position of well-earned disrepute; and would give it\nthe support of science men — a support it can never have until elementary science is scientific\nin an elementary way; it would give grade pupils an opportunity of observing phenomena\nin the field of science — a field in which normally they have an active interest — and would\nteach them some of the ways of discovering truth.\nIn secondary-school science the logic of the subject should be observed, thus permitting\nthe appUcation of the method of science study along a given Une of thought for a considerable\nperiod of time. The logic of the subject is easily seen in botany and zoology, whether\nthey be organized from the point of view of their evolutionary development, or from that\nof their special adaptation to nutrition and reproduction. In the case of any formal science\nbest results may be had when topic sequences are definitely related, rather than when\nconsisting of iso'ated topics, more or less attractive, but not necessarily representing the\nscience as such. To the claim that the latter plan is easier it may be said that less valuable\nresults accrue, and it may be questioned strongly whether it is easier or more attractive.\nIt has been strongly urged that the purely inductive method of study should be kept\nconstantly in mind, and with this I am essentially in agreement. But in many cases is not\nthe verification method necessary to beginners ? The processes involved in the study of\nany science are sometimes quite intricate. A law stated, then proved by experiment,\nconfers scientific value, not of the highest order, but often necessary as a step toward\nemployment of the highest order of scientific experiment. If sufficient experience has been\nhad already to enable the worker to project such experience into new occurrences or new\nfields, the verification method should decline or disappear, and the inductive method\nshould become predominant. In any piece of work assumption concerning the accuracy\nof preceding work must be made. These pieces of preceding work are not to be accepted\nin complete trustfulness, but must be questioned sufficiently to give assurance of their\naccuracy. The experiences of preceding workers must be reviewed in a scientific spirit.\nWhere doubts arise, all workers must employ the method of verification. The worker has\nbefore him the stated conclusion of his predecessor, and works to see whether it be true.\nThe ability to perform this work of verification involves the same sort of knowledge of the\nvalue of experiment and observation that will eventually enable the possessor to draw just\nconclusions from observations and experiences in a new field in which he does not have the\nguidance of the stated conclusion of a previous worker.\nIf the scientific method is to be taught by verification of details, each fragment of\nwhich is carefully stated and figured for the student, little of value will result, but the problem should be to see whether such proposition be true, not to see that it be true. If the\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": null, "text": "896\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\npreceding work be exact and sufficiently extensive, the verifier will approach the same\nconclusions in proportion to the inclusiveness of his experiences and the accuracy of his\njudgments.\nAt this point it should be said that in order to verify well-known scientific facts the\nuse of elaborate apparatus in the form of models, special preparations, and mechanical\ndevices under the direction of an extensive laboratory outhne quite often does less to confer\nthe scientific habit of thinking than did the meager equipment and paucity of laboratory\noutline that prevailed when science was just beginning to come into her own estate.\nIn the attempt to remove from the student the necessity of rediscovering the entire\nknown field of science he is sometimes left without the ability or inclination to discover any\nof this field. One needs but to recall the fact that some books highly recommended for\nscience work are made up of outlines for laboratory work by students, and following the\noutlines on the same page, or at best the one following, are found full answer and discussion\nof each of the points the student is asked to investigate. There is so much solicitude lest\nthe student should not learn promptly, and in some certain prescribed way, that haste is\nmade to inform him before he has opportunity to investigate.\nSo much of a cry has arisen for the commercial, industrial, and technical that a considerable part of our system of education has responded to the demand for an education\nof early utility. There are a great many facts in the various fields of science that it is\ndesirable for a student to know. It is not necessary for him to discover all of them by\ninvestigation in order that he may know them, but he must discover some of them in order\nto know and appreciate all of them. And he must obtain the mental discipline that will\nbe of inestimable value to him if the scientific method of thinking becomes a working factor\nin the ordinary affairs of his life.\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 1904\n\nThe department was called to order in the Hall of Congresses of the Universal Exposition at 2:30 p. M., by B. F. Hunsicker, president of the department, who read a paper on\n\"Retrospective and Prospective School Administration.\"\nWilliam B. Ittner, commissioner and superintendent of school buildings, St. Louis,\nMo., next read a paper on \"School Architecture.\" Stereopticon views of floor plans,\nelevations, and perspectives, showing the later school architecture of St. Louis, were used\nin illustration by Mr. Ittner.\nA paper was then read by Professor Calvin M. Woodward, president of the St. Louis\nBoard of Education, on the \"Lessons in School Administration Afiforded by the World's\nFair.\"\nWhile the attendance at the meeting was fair, it was apparent that there was not a\nsufficient number of Association members present to warrant the election of officers. It\nwas therefore decided that the present officers of the department hold over for another\nyear, unless otherwise ordered by the Executive Committee of the Association. These\nofficers were as follows:\nPresident — B. F. Hunsicker, Reading, Pa.\nVice-President — Grafton D. Cushijig Boston, Mass.\nSecretary — William George Bruce, Milwaukee Wis.\nExecutive Committee — Harlan P. French, Albany, N. Y.*, Albert Gehring, Cleveland, O.; Israel H. Peres,\nMemphis, Term.; Charles Holden, Grand Rapids, Mich.\n\nA final adjournment was then taken in accordance with the plan to hold but one session\nof the department.\nWilliam George Bruce, Secretary.\n\nI\n\nPAPERS\n\nB.\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nRETROSPECTIVE AND PROSPECTIVE\nADMINISTRATIONS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nF. HUNSICKER,\n\nREADING,\n\nPRESIDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDISTRICT,\n\nPA.\n\nIt is no easy matter to formulate into readable form all the tendencies in\nschool administration. We are now in a time of transition, and to find even a\ngeneral policy adapted to the country in general would set an expert to thinking. In this paper I can only give briefly\n897 my opinion of the past and present\nand what I believe possible in the future. As I already suggested, school\ngovernment is constantly changing.\nMany things enter into a school policy,\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": null, "text": "8g,8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nand I will not try to formulate a policy, but present those tendencies in school\ngovernment which are most significant.\nA school board is a creature of the lawmaking power designed to do certain\nthings, and it owes allegiance to this power. In the performance of its duty\nit comes in contact with other forces, and this creates other allegiances. Its\nduties in general may be divided into two classes — business and professional.\nOn the performance of these duties hinges the history of American school\nboards. In the performance of these duties, the state, the community, the\npaid officials, the teachers, and the pupils all play a part. To know just how\nto keep all these varied factors in harmony is now, and I think has been, the\nmooted question in school administration. For a solution of the problem the\npast does not furnish much help. School boards have had nearly as much\ndiversity in plan and policy as the number of such bodies will permit. In\nfact, outside of certain general regulations of a particular commonwealth,\nschool boards have been regulated by the kind of men that have composed\nthem. The personnel of school boards has been good, indifferent, or bad,\naccording to the interest of the community in educational matters. The\nearly history of the school board records little except a difficult task for existence. It was well satisfied if it could ''keep school\" with teachers who had\nsufficient muscle, sufficient influence, or could enlist sufficient sympathy to\nget the places. The school board, as a rule, wanted to be bothered as little\nas possible. In the course of time, however, as new issues arose, school boards\nfound themselves confronted with various problems. This was too much for\nmen otherwise employed and often with a mental equipment unable to grapple\nintelligently with the situation. This gave rise to paid officers such as secretaries, treasurers, superintendents, etc. Here again arose a contention as\nto what these officers should do and with what authority they should be\nclothed. This is now a bone of contention and promises to be for some time\nto come.\nIt is interesting to note the progress in school administration. The school\nboards now have a broader and a more intelligent attitude toward the state,\ntoward the community represented, toward the officials, toward the teachers,\nand toward the pupils. They are relegating self-interests to the rear and\nlegislating for the good of the pupils. They are beginning to understand that\nthe state has committed to them a sacred duty, and the present tendency is\nin favor of doing that duty unselfishly and conscientiously. The vague relation between the lawmaking power and district boards is clearing up. There\nis less clash and more recognition of a common interest. Lawmakers legislate more generally than they used to in behalf of school districts and less in\nbehalf of selfish interests. The past few years have been very encouraging,\nand a better spirit has grown up between these two factors in school government. In time the statute-books will largely reflect the sentiment of the\npeople in regard to school legislation. 1 here ill not be complete concord,\nand there cannot be so long as people have different notions of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": null, "text": "i\n\ni\n\nDepartment]\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATIONS\n\n899\n\nFor instance, in Pennsylvania all do not believe in compulsory education ; all\ndo not advocate a thirteen-year school-age limit; all do not submit to vaccination. A^any have di \"erent ideas of what shall be taught.\nThe law prescribes at least eight branches and names them; many might\nname others and omit some named, making a universal standard almost\nimpossible, and yet with all this difference people are getting closer together\non the subject. There is more consultation, more agreement to agree or\ndisagree. The gathering of school-administration men — a thing scarcely\npossible two decades ago — is now not only common, but expected. Men by\nminghng grow more progressive, and more intelligent on school matters. A\npronounced tendency in school administration, therefore, is the influence of\nrepresentative gatherings.\nIn the second place, the school board and the community are on more\ncordial relations. With the gradual disappearance of uninterested, neghgent, and selfish school boards the people at large are becoming more interested\nin school matters. The school directorship is a high and honorable position\nin which men have unlimited opportunity for work. People are beginning\nslowly to reaHze this, and the result is seen in more representative bodies. I\nthink it matters little how many members compose a board or how it may\nbe selected, but it does matter what sort of a community is back of a board.\nGenerally, a board is representative of the character of the community. The\npeople pay the taxes and support the schools, and they should be interested\nin the kind of schools that are kept. They should fully understand that the\nschools are a training for citizenship, and that the future of a community\ndepends largely on the education of the children of the state. The past may\nhave been one of indifference, depending upon the community, but the future\npromises to be one of interest on the part of citizens who have the welfare of\nthe RepubHc at heart.\nThe third factor with which the school board deals is the pupil, and this\nis the principal factor, for directly or indirectly all legislation is for the pupil.\nIn the early school, and in some schools of the present, the pupil was hardly\nconsidered. Little or no discrimination was used in the selection of teachers.\nThe pupils studied whatever text-books happened to be in the family. The\nwork of school boards was to comply with the law, so as to keep out of its\nclutches. There was Httle consideration for the pupil. There was no attempt\nat method, except as the teacher was conscientious or not in the discharge of\nhis or her duty. A writer of early education well described the school as a life\nof ''groans, tears, and blows.\" The present describes a different status.\nThe slogan today is: \"Adapt the school to the pupil.\" This is a complete\nrevolution of affairs and has changed in a measure the whole school policy.\nThe courses of study are now being changed to the needs of the pupils. This\nproblem is not being easily settled, for persons differ in their notions of education. Some believe in a comprehensive plan, others in a limited plan; some\nurge a practical education, others only an intellectual, and still others would\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": null, "text": "QQQ\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ncombine both. There is much difference of opinion as to how our children\nshall be educated and what such education shall undertake. Amid many\nopinions school boards hesitate, falter, and sometimes fail. The tendency,\nhowever, is toward a plan, regardless of branches, that will develop the pupil\nfor competent citizenship. Unfortunately, boards often lose sight of the fact\nthat branches of learning are not the end of education, but only a means to\nan end. When once they fully understand the higher object of the common\nschools, this contention will end.\nThe next factor that demands our attention is the teacher. Here the\ntendency is very encouraging, looking not only toward a higher appreciation\nof the instructor, but toward a greater efficiency of the teacher. School\nboards did not, and perhaps do not, always employ teachers because of their\ncapabiHty, but because of sympathy or political motive. There has been a\nradical change in the teachers of the present and a half-century ago, and this\nis due to the fact that school boards understand more fully their responsibihty.\nThe demand is generally for teachers well equipped mentally, physically, and\nmorally. The day is passing when the unfortunate and the unemployed are\nthe natural teachers. The future school board will say that the natural\nteacher is the one who has natural talent and who has trained that natural\ntalent for the work to be done.\nThe last factor I will consider is the most puzzling one, and that is the relation of the school board to its officials. How much power shall be retained\nby the board, and how much shall be delegated to paid officials ? The present\nand the past experience of school administrations present types of two extremes.\nIn the past school boards retained all power; they built schoolhouses, selected\nteachers, made up courses of study, when there was any; bought supplies;\npunished pupils; in fact, no detail was too trivial for the school director. The\nmodem tendency is shifting to the other extreme, to make the school board a\n\"dead letter\" and delegate to a superintendent all the power over the teaching\nforce, to another, over the finances, to another, over buildings, and so on. The\nfuture policy, I think, will tend to a course between the two. There are a\nbusiness side and a professional side for the school board to consider. For\nthe professional or educational side they must elect a superintendent of instruction- The duties of the superintendent have been a bone of contention. In\nsome cases he has had much authority ; in others, little. The plan that appeals\nto me is that the school board retain the veto power in all cases, but that the\nsuperintendent in educational affairs be the one to propose and to advise. I\nthink that the superintendent will soon find his place, and if he is a forceful,\ntactful school man, little question of what he may do or what he may not do\nwill be raised. The tendency seems along the line that the board retain the\nveto power and the superintendent be gauged according to his capacity and\ncapability!\nThe same may be said of the business responsibilities of the board. School\nboards should keep creditable records and accounts; should have a correct\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF ST. LOUIS\n\n901\n\nfinancial policy. While the school board need not create the policy, it\nshould pass upon it officially. The state makes it responsible for the management of affairs, and it cannot, I think, safely delegate its power to some\none else.\nIn properly maintaining the schools and caring for the physical interest\nof the pupils, the same poHcy should prevail. With the multiplication of\nduties and the necesssary repairs incident to the proper housing of pupils an\nexpert carpenter or builder is necessary, but he should act under the authority\nof the school board.\nThe prevalent tendencies are toward a division of labor. Each year will\nbring about better conditions; school people are thinking and discussing.\nThere is much agitation, but I think it is healthful agitation. I think it means\nimproved conditions ; it means a clearer demarkation of professional and administration factors, a more sanitary equipment for the housing of pupils and\nteachers, a better understanding of the requirements of the teacher and pupils,\na closer sympathy with the people, and a more loyal relation to the legislative\npower. The horizon clears by the breaking up of the clouds, and it is the\nduty of the administrative department of education to help dissipate prejudice\nand ignorance — the clouds that mar the educational horizon, so that the future\nmay develop a policy that shall reahze the hopes of an enhghtened and free\npeople. To the accomplishment of this end you and I must devotedly lend\nourselves.\n\nTHE\nWILLIAM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nB. ITTNER,\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nARCHITECT\n\nOF ST. LOUIS\n\nAND\nCOMMISSIONER\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBUILDINGS,\n\nUnlike most foreign and some American cities, the St. Louis Board of\nEducation has not formulated a code of rules governing the planning and\nconstruction of school buildings, other than a strict compliance with the\nbuilding laws of the city, which provide that buildings of this class shall be\nfireproof.\nThe effort has been to develop a plan in line with the best and most thoro\ndevelopment in school architecture; one that would insure improved hygienic\nconditions, and consequently preserve the health and morals, as well as promote\nthe intellectual progress, of the pupils, and at the same time invest the buildings\nwith that measure of architectural fitness now recognized as essential in training\nthe pupils to an appreciation of the beautiful, during the most receptive period\nof Hfe.\nBefore passing to the consideration of individual buildings, it may be well\nbriefly to summarize the general requirements that have influenced the plan,\ndesign, and construction of the schools, which are of the grammar grade.\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": null, "text": "QQ2\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\nTHE\n\nSIZE\n\nOF\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nCLASS-ROOMS\n\nThe adoption of the almost universal rule advanced by experienced educators, that a class-room should accommodate not more than fifty-six pupils\n(the tendency being to reduce the number), forms the keynote to, and has\nlargely governed, the planning.\nAuthorities agree that each pupil in the grammar grade requires a floor\nspace of about i6 square feet, and 200 cubic feet of air space; it follows that a\nroom approximately 25 feet wide by 32 feet long by 13 feet 6 inches or 14 feet\nhigh will give the required accommodation, admit of adequate Hghting, and\nenable the teacher to control, by eye and voice, the pupils. With such a room\nas a unit, it follows that the architect should so dispose the rooms as to receive\nlight in sufficient quantity, and render them easily accessible from stairways\nand corridors wide enough to permit rapid circulation of classes.\nCORRIDORS\n\nAnother consideration that has influenced the plans has been the endeavor\nnot only to depart from the conventional type of school building, wherein the\ncentral corridor fined with rooms on each side was necessarily dark, but to\nintroduce, if possible, outside light into the main corridor in practically its\nentire length, thus insuring the penetration of sunlight to all parts of the build\ning during some part of the day. This naturally led to a plan grouping the\nclass-rooms on three sides of the corridor only, the remaining side being opened\nits whole length to the light.\nWINDOWS\n\nSince the success of the building depends upon adequate light of the proper\nquality, it naturally follows that the width, height, and location of the windows\ndominate the exterior design. In no case is the window surface less than onefourth of the floor area.\nAs it is conceded that the maximum, if not all, of the light should come\nfrom the left of the pupil, and preferably from one side only, in order to avoid\ncross-lights, windows set 3 feet 6 inches above the floor, and extending within\n6 inches of the ceifing, are located to diffuse such fight. This fenestration is\npossible except in comer rooms, where small windows are introduced on one\nother side of the room in order that the design should receive fitting architectural treatment; it being manifestly impossible to locate desks in all rooms so\nthat pupils wiU receive fight from the left only, without inclosing the facade side\nof the room with a blank wall — something few architects deem essential.\nGENERAL\n\nGROUND\n\nPLAN\n\nThe general plan developed by these rigid requirements is necessarily\nmore or less similar in afi of the schools, approximating in form to the letter\nE, except where kindergarten rooms are incorporated in the plan. In all cases\nthe sites have been wisely selected to permit ample space surrounding the\nbuilding; thus affording generous playgrounds as weU as good fight and air.\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF ST.\n\nLOUIS\n\n903\n\nThe basements average 13 feet in height (or a clear height of 10 feet under\nheating ducts) and have been planned with the view of supplying separate\nplayrooms for boys and girls for use in inclement weather, accessible from\nout-doors, as well as affording space for the installation of the heating and\nventilating plant, the storage of coal, and the general toilet-rooms for both\nsexes. On floors above the basement, corridors 17-20 feet wide afford direct\ncommunication to class-rooms averaging 25 by 32 feet in size, with ceiling 13\nfeet 6 inches to 14 feet in height.\nWardrobes or coat-rooms lead from class-rooms only (a radical departure\nfrom the usual custom of opening them upon the corridor, as well as the room,\nside) — an arrangement that not only gives the teacher full control over the\nclass-room and wardrobe, but permits ventilation of the room through the\nwardrobe; the constant passage of air carrying with it the vitiated air from\nthe room, as well as odors arising from damp clothing in the wardrobes, thus\neUminating the disagreeable odor usually prevalent in schools.\nStaircases are located at each end of the corridor, and also on the open side,\nwhich permit rapid egress. In no case has the height of the buildings exceeded\nthree stories, the tendency in the later buildings being two stories, with a high\nbasement entirely above the ground.\nHEATING\n\nAND\n\nVENTILATION\n\nThe buildings have all been planned for a mechanical system, using lowpressure steam and a fan for forcing the air. This method insures — regardless\nof the state of the weather without, or the humidity of the air within — a positive\nflow of pure, warm air, at a uniform temperature, into each room, and a consequent outflow of a Hke quantity of vitiated air thru the wardrobe vents.\nThe system has been designed on the basis of supplying each pupil wdth 30\ncubic feet of air per mi/iute — an amount exceeded by 20-30 per cent, under\nactual conditions. This delivers to each room i ,800 cubic feet of air per minute,\nand changes the entire volume of air in the room every seven minutes, thus\ninsuring the health and comfort of pupils, and rendering them capable of study\nand instruction.\nThis is accomplished with a steam pressure of from 5 to 15 pounds upon\nthe boiler. The system is arranged so that the building can be warmed in\nmild weather by the exhaust steam from the engine that propels the fan (experience proves this is possible in our cHmate for about one-third of the heating\nseason), thus effecting a material reduction in the consumption of coal.\nFresh air is drawn into the fans in the basement, usually from an elevation\nof about 30 feet above the ground, first passing through the tempering coils,\nwhere the temperature of the air is raised to about 65 or 70°. It then passes\nthru the fan to the heating coils, where its temperature can be raised to any\nrequired degree, and then driven thru ducts from the hot chamber to the\nvarious rooms and corridors.\nThe heating and tempering coils are arranged with a system of by-passes\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": null, "text": "QQ4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLAdministration\n\nand double dampers, so that the air may be taken from the hot chamber, or\nmay be mixed with the cooler air passing beneath the heating coils, and so\ntempered to any desired degree. The system is, therefore, very flexible and\ncapable of many combinations at the will of the operator.\nThe urinals have marble partitioned stalls, are automatically flushed the\nsame as the water closets, and are vented thru an opening along the base at\nthe floor. The vent ducts from water closets and urinals are connected with\na heated stack, the fresh air, after making the circuit of the room, passing out\nthru the fixtures themselves thru these vent ducts and the stack.\nEQUIPMENT\n\nClass-rooms are equipped with natural slate blackboards set i foot 9\ninches above the floor for the lower, and 2 feet 6 inches for the higher grades,\nand extending around the three inner walls of the rooms. The desks are of\nthe single adjustable type, with aisles 18 inches wide between desks. A bookcase, shelf, and wardrobe are provided for the teacher, and cases are placed in\nthe Ubrary, kindergarten, and storerooms.\nDrinking fountains are installed in corridors as well as in yards and basement. The walls are painted in appropriate colors, with a stenciled frieze,\nand a picture molding is placed at the ceiling line. The corridors are also\ntreated in the same manner, and serve for exhibition of photographs and class\nwork. Kindergartens are decorated with mural paintings typifying the life of\nchildhood.\nEach room has a self-winding electrical clock, regulated from the master\nclock in the principal's office. Artificial light is furnished by gas or electricity.\nThe grammar schools illustrated here will accommodate, including the\nfixed seats and kindergarten, 1,200 pupils. Their cost has been $105 per\npupil, or $5,600 per class-room, or its equivalent.\nBUILDINGS\n\nDEVOTED\n\nTO\n\nHIGHER\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOne of the buildings recently erected, and devoted to higher education, is\nthe WiUiam McKinley Manual Training High School. The idea of manual\ntraining, Uke that of the kindergarten, had its first trial in St. Louis. Altho\nintroduced by Professor Calvin M. Woodward in the Washington University\nin 1879, and not in the pubHc schools, it has found its way into the curriculum\nof most of the pubHc-school systems in the large cities of America. This idea\nof thus supplementing the work of the brain by the work of the hand has\ndominated the plan of this building, and will illustrate that idea of educational\nexpansion which is one of the marked tendencies of our time.\nThe building is almost square in plan (255 by 253 feet) and of a much\nmore complex nature than the schools heretofore considered. A central\nentrance, flanked by octagonal towers, is supplemented by side entrances\nleading to the main corridor, 20 feet in width, from which lead auxihary corridors 8feet wide.\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": null, "text": "9\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nARCHITECTURE\n\nOF ST. LOUIS\n\n905\n\nOn the first floor there are a class-room for forty pupils; a reception-room\nand principal's office; three laboratories devoted to the study of chemistry,\nphysics, and biology, equipped for classes of twenty-four pupils, each laboratory having a lecture-room for forty-eight pupils; a teachers' laboratory; a\nstoreroom for apparatus; and a dark room for photography.\nThere are two wood-working shops, 32 by 70 feet in size, one for carpentry,\nthe other for wood-turning and pattern work, each equipped for twenty-four\npupils and each having a wash-, locker-, and tool-room, as well as a storageand stock-room.\nTo provide for the manual training of girls, two rooms are devoted to\ndomestic science, with a small model dining-room adjoining, and one room\nfor sewing; each with its storeroom.\nThe auditorium is entered from the main corridor on the first floor, and\nhas a seating capacity of 736. The gallery is entered from the main corridor\nof the second floor, and seats 216 pupils. It has a large stage and two dressingrooms; while coat-rooms are provided near the entrance to the auditorium,\nwhich is arranged and equipped so that it may be used for evening lectures.\nThe second floor has four 23 by 32-foot class-rooms, equipped for twentyfour pupils; four 28 by 32-foot rooms, for forty-eight pupils; and two 32 by 41foot rooms, for seventy-two pupils. There is also a large room to be used as a\nlibrary of reference.\nThe third floor has four class-rooms, equipped for sixty-four pupils, and\ntwo rooms for ninety-eight pupils; also a 23 by 64-foot room for free-hand\ndrawing; a business room with necessary banking-rooms, offices, etc., each\nequipped for forty-eight pupils; a large room for stenography and typewriting,\nfor twenty-four pupils; also a room for photography, with dark room adjoining.\nThe class-rooms were planned to enable the teacher to supervise the class\nat study, as well as to hear a class at recitation — an arrangement that obviates\nthe necessity for large study halls used for study only.\nWhen the central tower is carried above the third floor, it provides space\nfor a mechanical drawing room 72 by 32 feet in size, equipped for sections of\nforty-eight pupils, with two storage-rooms and a room for blue-printing.\nIn the basement, adjoining the entrance vestibules, are located the central\nlocker-rooms for each sex; small locker-rooms being also provided on each\nfloor in order not to concentrate lockers in one location. Retiring-rooms\nadjoin the general locker-rooms.\nThe boiler- and coal-rooms are located outside of the main building. The\nheating and ventilating apparatus and the electrical equipment for supplying\npower to shops have been installed under the auditorium, where an amphitheater seating forty-eight pupils is also located, in order that the dynamos\nand engines may serve for illustration and study by classes.\nThe blacksmithing and machine shops, each 40 by 84 feet in size, and\nequipped for sections of twenty-four pupils, are located in the courts, lighted\nby skylights, and entered from the main corridor thru vestibules, thus pre-\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": null, "text": "%\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n9o6\n\nventing noise penetrating the building. Each shop has a storage-, tool-, locker-,\nand wash-room.\nThere is a gymnasium 41 by 85 feet in size, with locker and shower\nbaths for each sex ; also a lunch-room of the same dimensions, with kitchen\nadjoining.\nThe entrance for janitors, engineers, etc., is placed at rear of basement,\nand the head janitor's room commands a view of all entrances to the main\ncorridor.\nFrom the foregoing description it will be seen that the plan promises to\nanswer the multifarious requirements of a problem comparatively new in\nschool architecture. The constructional features follow the same general\nUnes as of the grammar schools just described. The brickwork is Hght red\nin color, laid with wide and deep horizontal joints in courses composed of\nthree stretchers and a header, the latter being flashed.\nPORTABLE\n\nSCHOOLROOMS\n\nTo meet the demand for more schoolrooms where a building may be\ntemporarily overcrowded with pupils, a room was designed which could readily\nbe taken apart, transported in vans, and set up where needed; at the same\ntime answering the purpose of a well-lighted, ventilated, and comfortable\nclass-room.\nThe building here presented shows a room built in sections of such size as\nto be easily handled, capable of being bolted together, with all the joints of the\nsections covered. The buildings are constructed in such manner as will\nenable them to be readily taken apart when no longer required at one school,\nand moved to another. They are 24 by 36 feet inside measurement, with a\nclear story height of 12 feet. The floor is constructed in eight sections, the\nsides in six sections, the ends in four sections, and the pitched roof in sixteen\nsections. Each section is built upon frames which are readily bolted together\nin such manner as to make a perfectly tight and secure room. All joints\nbetween the sections are covered both inside and out by movable pieces secured\nwith screws. They are heated and ventilated by an indirect furnace, with\ndouble casing. The fresh air is taken directly from the outside, which supply\ncannot be cut off by the teacher. The vent is erected at the opposite end of\nthe room from the furnace, and the draft of the vent is induced by carrying\nthe smoke pipe from the furnace through the upper part of the vent flue. This\nnot only makes a perfect method of ventilation, but effectually prevents any\npossibility of fire from the furnace smoke-pipe. A test of the ventilation of\nthe first room set up shows that the air of the room is being changed every\n9:74 minutes, thus supplying each of the pupils with 16 cubic feet of fresh,\nwarm air per minute. These rooms are fitted with sixty adjustable desks,\nand in all respects make a satisfactory and comfortable schoolroom. Their\ncost has been about $850, ready for the school furniture.\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLESSONS\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n907\n\nGROUNDS\n\nBelieving that a large, well-located site is a wise investment, the board of\neducation has purchased generous sites for all its new school buildings. This\nhas not only enabled us to provide ample playgrounds, but has given an\nopportunity, in a modest way, for making our school grounds object-lessons of\nrefined civic taste in the art of landscape gardening. Each school ground\ncan thus be made to present to the juvenile mind some distinct instructive\nfeature, awakening an interest in the knowledge of decorative plants and\ntheir use in the embelHshment of the home and city at large. Thus the school\ngrounds may be made an important factor in the educational system of our\ncity.\nIn conclusion, the author would respectfully direct attention to the effort\nput forth in this work toward individuality, and to the absence of any straining\nfor effect not justified by the function expressed in the plan, in the belief that\nbuildings so expressed will more nearly fulfill their purpose as part of our\neducational system.\n\nLESSONS\nCALVIN\n\nIN SCHOOL\nM. V^^OODWARD,\n\nADMINISTRATION\nTHE FAIR\nPRESIDENT OF THE\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nTO BE GAINED\n\nBOARD\n\nAT\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\n[an abstract]\n\nNearly all exhibits of school systems, state and municipal, include statistics\nand publications in regard to the organization of boards of education and their\nduties. The general consensus of opinion seems to be, as shown by rules and\ncharters, to have small boards elected on general tickets, or appointed by\nmayors, for long terms of service. In many cases members of the board are\nforbidden to take into account partisan politics in appointing teachers, janitors,\nand officers.\nEverything is to depend on merit in their proper work.\nThe tendency is to require the appointment of expert officers who shall\nhave charge of the various departments of school work, namely, the department\nof instruction, the department of buildings and janitors, the department of\nsupplies. These officers are given great authority, and are loaded with heavy\nresponsibility. They are expected to relieve, and they do relieve, members\nof the board of education of executive work. The board, however, always\nreserves the right to disapprove of recommendations and the right to remove\nan officer the moment he fails fully to meet the requirements of his office.\nMany of the exhibits give photographs and floor plans- of school buildings\nand school furniture. These are most instructive, as they show the best results\nin the way of school structures. Several things stand out as prominent in the\nbest school buildings :\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n9o8\n1. They are fireproof thruout.\n2. The tendency is toward two-story buildings, with a basement finished\nthruout.\n2. All the heating is done by systems of steam coils in the basement, so\nthat there are no radiators to be found anywhere in the building.\n4. Each room is supplied independently by a generous stream of fresh,\nwarm air, driven by a fan, and an equally generous separate ventilation for\ncarrying away the vitiated air. Never before have school buildings been adequately ventilated while the doors and windows were shut. The air passes\nfrom the schoolroom thru the wardrobes to the ventilating flue.\n5. The temperature of the air in every schoolroom is maintained at a fixed\npoint, about 70°, by means of an individual thermostat. This regulates the\ntemperature of the inflowing air, but does not diminish its volume.\n6. It is found that in well-ventilated rooms the ceiling should begin at the\nvery top of the windows. All space above that point is wasted, and worse\nthan wasted, as it adds to the length of a flight of stairs, and increases the\nexpense of heating.\n7. The recent improvement in the construction of school desks is one that\nmust not be overlooked, namely, the adjustable feature whereby a seat may\nbe made higher or lower, according to the size of the pupil. A careful adjustment of all seats and desks goes far to prevent physical deformity.\n8. The necessity of playgrounds is recognized. These grounds should be\nample in size and well kept, so that they are a source of pleasure both to the\neye and to the active physical natures of the children.\nThe introduction of the laboratory in every modern, well-planned school\nis obvious. This laboratory reinforces the senses of seeing and hearing by\nthe senses of touch, smell, taste, and muscular exercise. Hence we find, from\nthe kindergarten to the end of the high-school course, appliances for handwork and the materials and small tools suited to the ages of the children. Up\nto the end of the sixth grade all hand- work is done in the schoolroom on ordinary\nschool desks. Pupils of the seventh and eighth grades require special laboratories, with opportunities for tool-work and drawing at least once a week for\nthe boys, and for the girls needlework and domestic science at least once a\nweek. How the shop for the boys and the domestic-science room for the girls\nare furnished is shown in the exhibit of the St. Louis schools. Some of the\nvisible products of this course of treatment are shown in nearly all schools,\ninasmuch as it appears that elementary manual training and domestic science\nis entering into every community in the two higher grades of the grammar\nschools and thruout the high-school grades.\nIn spite of the vagaries and unscientific experiments which are obvious in\nmany exhibits, it is evident that more and more the best manual training is\nseen to consist of systematic work arranged logically on scientific principles.\nI notice this particularly in the French exhibit, where it indicates a decided\nstep forward.\nOriginally nearly all the tool construction in France was given\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLESSONS\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n909\n\nin connection with what we should call practical work. They, made things,\nand they got their manual training as best they could while constructing articles,\nwith the assistance and under the guidance of expert workmen. It now appears\nthat before they begin the work of construction they go very carefully thru a\ncourse of instruction in which tools and processes are introduced, classified,\nand logically arranged. It is true that every untaught and undisciplined child\nis anxious to undertake the construction of elaborate and complicated articles\nwithout knowing how to use a single tool or how one piece of material is to be\njoined with another piece of material. In such work he is willing to resort to\nany device that will hold two pieces together, regardless of the demands that\nsubsequently may be put upon the connecting devices. To indulge a boy in\nthis, gratifying his fancy and his whims, is very injurious. It almost invariably\nresults in a lack of system, in bad habits, and in a loss of interest and a loss of\nrespect for the work. Work that can be done without teaching and without a\ncomprehension of the theory of tools, and the theory of construction according\nto the nature of materials, is necessarily cheap and almost worthless. A careful study of the exhibits from the best schools, both American and European,\nwill show that in every case the fundamental elements are first studied in connection with analytical exercises, then the elements are combined in connection\nwith synthetic exercises, in order that the pupils may see for themselves how a\nthoro knowledge of the methods and steps enables one to combine them\nin a full mechanical expression.\nAthletics and physical culture demand and are receiving much attention.\nWhen unregulated, athletics run riot in the lower schools as well as in the\nhigher. Boards of control must recognize the propriety and necessity of athletics, but they must so regulate them as to make them general, wholesome, and\nclean.\nFinally, school boards will observe a vast increase in the demand for secondary education. It is rapidly becoming the rule and not the exception for pupils\nwho finish the grammar grades to go on to the high school. The consequence\nis that the necessity for high-school buildings and high-school teachers is\nincreasing much more rapidly than the population. Mr. Rogers, chief of\nthe Educational Department of the Fair, pointed out that both the domestic\nand the foreign exhibits showed that elementary, technical, and scientific\ninstruction was rapidly subordinating the humanities in our schools. This\nI think should be nterpreted to mean, not that the humanities are taught\nless than ever before, but that elementary science and manual training are\ntaught much more. In other words, the educational work of our schools is\ngrowing as broad as the occupations of men. We teach more Latin than ever\nbefore, yet it bears a smaller ratio to all the things which we teach. When I\nwas a boy we studied Latin, Greek, and French in our high school, in addition\nto our mathematics, because there was nothing else to study, and the pupils\nwho did not wish to be trained in Latin, Greek, French, and mathematics did\nnot go to the high school or to the academy.\nThey had no secondary educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n9IO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\ntion. Now we maintain the best opportunities for Latin, Greek, French, and\nmathematics, and also splendid opportunities for those who wish to study\nphysics, chemistry, biology, drawing, and the mechanic arts ; and it is found\nthat these latter subjects are just as full of culture, are just as human, are just\nas useful in the development of the human mind and the human spirit, as the\nothers; and it is now the duty of every board of education in every city and\ntown to provide for this larger demand.\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": null, "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Tuesday, June 28, 1904\n\nThe Library Department met in the Model Library Hall in the Missouri Building,\nand was called to order by the president, Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania.\nThe meeting was opened by an address on \"Library Work in the Normal School,\"\nby Theodore B. Noss, president of the State Normal School, California, Pa.\nThe discussion of the paper was opened by Miss Grace Salisbury, librarian of the\nState Normal School, Whitewater, Wis., followed by President Albert Salisbury, of the\nsame institution.\nThe second paper was presented by President J. N. Wilkinson, of the State Normal\nSchool, Emporia, Kan., on \"The Duty of the Normal School in Relation to District School\nLibraries.\"\nThe discussion of this paper was opened by Miss Mabel M. Reynolds, librarian of the\nState Normal School, Cheney, Wash., followed by James H. Canfield, librarian of the\nColumbia University, New York city.\nThe following committees were appointed:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON RESOLUTIONS\n\nJ. N. Wilkinson, of Kansas.\nR. T. Adams, of Pennsylvania.\nMiss Anna Buckbee, of Pennsylvania.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON NOMINATIONS\n\nJames H. Canfield, of New York.\nAlbert Salisbury, of Wisconsin.\nDavid A. Harman, of Pennsylvania.\n\nThe session then adjourned.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Thursday, June 30\n\nThe department met in the Model Library Hall in the Missouri Building, and was\ncalled to order at 2 : 30 p. M. by President Schaeffer.\nThe Committee on Nominations reported the following nominees thru its chairman.\nDr. Canfield, and the secretary was instructed by unanimous vote to cast a ballot for their\nelection, viz.:\nFor President — C. P. Gary, state superintendent of public instruction, of Wisconsin.\nFor Vice-President — J. N. Wilkinson, president of State Normal School, Emporia Kan.\nFor Secretary — Miss Mary Eileen Ahem, editor of Public Libraries, Chicago.\n\nThe first paper, on \"The Place of the Library in Class Instruction,\" was presented\nby Clarence E. Meleney, associate superintendent of city schools, New York city.\nThe discussion was opened by Superintendent F. Louis Soldan, of St. Louis, followed\nby Miss Ange. V. Milner, of Normal, 111.\nThe theme for general discussion was \"The Value of the Library in Education,\"\nopened by President N. C. Schaeffer, followed by Principal Frank Cook, of St. Louis,\nF. M. Crunden, librarian of the Public Library, St. Louis, Mo., and M. E. Ahem, of\nChicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": null, "text": "912\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nThe Committee on Resolutions, thru its chairman, President Wilkinson, reported as\nfollows:\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nOF THE LIBRARY\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nThe Library Department of the National Educational Association urges teachers to study the best methods\nof using libraries in the subjects that arc taught in the schools and, especially, to train pupils to choose widely\nand to read effectively the books that are to occupy their time.\nThis department, believing that teachers will appreciate the need of trained librarians, addresses to the\nteachers, of whose great national convention this section is a constituent part, an earnest appeal that they stand\nfor the special training of librarians for all classes of library work.\nWe believe that the efficiency of library work is unnecessarily hindered by the present postal rate on books,\nand we therefore urge upon the Congress the passage of the bill, No. 4870, which provides for a pound rate\non all books sent out from a public library for Ubrary use.\nIt is the sense of this department that greater uniformity in library methods would be eflFective in bringing\nthe benefit of Ubrary work to all classes of schools, and it is therefore recommended that the Library Department\nbe authorized to prepare a manual of library methods, to be printed and distributed in the same mamier as was,\nin 1897, \"The Report on the Relations of the Public Libraries to Public Schools.\"\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nLIBRARY\nTHEODORE\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nWORK\n\nB. NOSS, PRESIDENT\nI.\n\nMary Eileen Ahern, Secretary.\n\nOF\n\nLIBRARY\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNORMAL\n\nIN PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nCALIFORNIA,\n\nPA.\n\nWORK\n\nThe recent change of stress in the subject-matter of instruction from form\nto content makes the Ubrary an indispensable factor in the public school. The\npresent tendency is to teach, not what the old century made customary, but\nwhat the new century finds necessary. The normal school welcomes this\ntendency as a sign of educational sanity and progress.\nEducation is in constant need of readjustment to meet ever-changing\nconditions. For this reason the Hbrary at the present time assumes an importance as an educational force never felt before. This is the result of various\ncauses, such as the immense increase in the supply of good books in cheap\nform, the rapid increase of the urban population, the disposition of men and\nmunicipalities to found libraries for pubHc use, and especially the recognition\nof the fact that education should deal more with things of intrinsic interest\nand of larger meaning — such as may be found in literature, nature study, and\nart — and less with mere formal studies that have a more or less conventional\nvalue. Much of the pupil's time has been used in teaching him things which\nhe will never need in geography, arithmetic, grammar, etc., and things which\nthe teacher has never needed except for examination. The hungry child has\nasked for bread, and we have given him a stone. He has said to the teacher:\n\"What shall I do to be saved from failure and poverty and ignorance?\"\nThe teacher's reply has been: ''Make the verb agree with the subject in\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n913\n\nnumber and person ;\" or, ** Multiply the numerators together for a new numerator and the denominators for a new denominator.\"\nThe pupil finds, when he gets into real life, that nobody cares for these\npedantic niceties of the school, while everybody prizes and praises the very\nthings the school neglected, such as strong interest in Uterature, music, art,\nphysical health and grace, speed and skill in doing things worth doing, social\naccomplishments, and moral excellence.\nThere are but few studies important in themselves, such as literature,\nscience, and art (including music, drawing, etc.) ; the other branches are but\nmodes of studying these. The form studies, such as reading, writing, and\narithmetic, have but little value in themselves. Moreover, we do not lessen\nbut increase interest in the ''three R's\" when we insist that they be taught in\nconnection with thought-studies that give them meaning and show their\nutility.\nIt is said that 75 or 80 per cent, of the first three years of school are spent\non the form rather than on the substance of learning. This results not merely\nin a waste of time, but in a sort of mental stupor. The pupil enters school at\nsix with mind alert and acquisitive, and leaves school at fourteen or sixteen\nwith mind apathetic and satiated. Somewhere during school life he has lost\nwhat is of more value than all the book knowledge he can acquire in school.\nPresident Eliot had a certain person read aloud all of the reading matter in a\ngrammar-school course for a period of six years, including history and geography, as well as the reading lessons. The actual time required was forty-six\nhours, or an average of one and one-fourth minutes a day.\nHow pitiful to see the fountains of youthful interests thus dried up in the\nschool where they should be fed! How pitiful to see teachers and pupils\nmagnifying trifles, and creating and intensifying artificial interests that are\ndesigned only for the school, and are often pernicious even there !\nThe need is for more reading, more teaching, more thinking, more feeling,\nmore doing, and less so-called \"reciting,\" examining, marking. It is just\nhere that good literature comes in the most helpful way to redeem instruction\nfrom dead form.\nIt is just here that this comparatively new factor, the library, can be used\nwith telling effect in the work of the school.\nIn this day, why should any child be required to read thru a whole series\nof school readers, made up on the scrapbook method, when there is such a\nwealth of good literature suited to pupils of every age ? And why should a\npupil be required to read the same book thru again and again, when he might\nbe absorbing the interesting contents of many books in the same time ?\nWhen there is such intensely practical business on hand as the education\nand training of a child, so that he will resist the forces of 'evil in his blood and\nsurroundings, does it not seem a pity to neglect the wealth of wholesome and\nnutritious culture material found in good books, and waste time on much of\nthe comparatively useless stuff embalmed in text-books ?\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": null, "text": "014\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nConcerning the permanent value of much that is usually taught in school\nthe thoughtful teacher must always be skeptical; but it is the teacher's happy\nprivilege to be sure that every interest created in good literature is to the pupil\na benefit that only grows in value with time.\nIf it is granted, then, that the library is needed as a working force in every\nschool, how may the normal school promote its use ?\nn.\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nThe frequent and systematic use of a library is a habit. If the habit has\nnot been formed, people may live, as many do, in the very shadow of a great\nlibrary and never read a book found on its shelves. If the habit is strong, no\ndifficulties will prevent the getting and the reading of books. To create a\ntaste for reading is more important business than merely to furnish books to\nread. We honor those favored few who can with their wealth erect and equip\nlibraries, but to build up an interest in good literature is a greater benefaction\nthan to build libraries, and it is a business in which every true teacher may\nengage. FaciHties for reading are an external boon of value; but a desire to\nread is an inner motive that is a pearl of great price. Has a school done much\nfor any pupil who at the end of his course does not care to read good books ?\nWho can estimate, however, the extent and value of that habit of reading\nwhich enables the pupil to become his own teacher — that habit which lures\nhim, unconsciously, into the most beautiful and instructive paths that the\nchoicest men of the race have trod ? Like most other habits, this one of reading\ngood Hterature is best acquired in youth. In the happy period when the child\nlooks up wistfully into the face of mother or teacher and asks for a story should\nbe begun the formation of this reading habit. The biographies we love to\nread tell us again and again how the insatiable thirst for good literature was\nfirst gained in the impressionable days of youth. Since the reading habit is\nbest formed in youth, it must be acquired either in the home or in the school,\nwhere the period of youth is spent. Children who are surrounded with attractive books at home, and those who are yet more fortunate in having a mother\nwho at first reads to, and then with, them, will need but little encouragement\nafterward to make use of the library; but unfortunately such children are\ncomparatively few.\nFor the great majority the school must be depended upon to initiate the\nchild into the art of reading good books; hence it becomes a matter of vital\nimportance that every school should be so equipped and so taught that each\npupil will glide or grow easily and certainly into the reading habit.\nIt has been said that \"85 per cent, of the value of the school Hes in the\npersonahty of the teacher, and 15 per cent, in all other means and appHances.\"\nIf this be true, we come at last to the teacher as our main support, the sheet\nanchor of our hope, in the slow and dehcate and difiicult process of forming\nin the minds of the young the Hbrary habit. Every teacher imbued with the\nlibrary spirit will have pupils who learn to read and love to read.\n\"As is the\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n915\n\nteacher so is the school.\" If the pupils acquire in the school a taste for good\nreading, and the habit of using the hbrary well, it will be, in most cases, because\nof the teacher's interest and leadership in this direction.\nIt is the function and privilege of the teacher to mold, guide, inspire, and\nenrich the mental life of his pupil. Where are such teachers to be found ?\nThey can be prepared in adequate numbers and with adequate knowledge and\nskill only in normal schools. There is no other considerable source of supply.\nIt should be the function of the normal school to furnish education and training\non the higher planes of real utility and culture, and not merely on the lower\nlevels of conventional studies. Students in a normal school should Hve in a\nlibrary atmosphere. No agency for awakening deep and lasting interests is\ngreater than that of the school library, well equipped and well used. It\nshould be a hive of industry, and an inspiring center for the work of the school.\nMr. Willard Austin, of Cornell University, has truly said: \"No institution has any moral right to call together a body of students at this period of\ntheir development without making adequate provisions for this need\" (of a\nlibrary). Is it necessary in this day to argue the indispensable need of a\nlibrary to one preparing to teach ? Without it how can the necessary teaching material be obtained in suitable kind and variety ? The two main sources\nof the teacher's supply are the pages of nature, in field, forest, and stream,\nand those found on the library shelves. In nature and in books are to be\nfound almost entirely the content of instruction. Teachers need the library,\nnot only for the good of their pupils, but to prevent their own work from\nbecoming to themselves monotonous. Normal-school students should be\ntrained in the art of finding books interesting to themselves and of making\nthem interesting to children.\nEvery graduate of a normal school should be an apostle for the spread of\nthe gospel of the hbrary. To fail here is to fail in a vital part of a teacher's\nwork. A library, either in a normal school or in the public school, is no\nlonger to be considered a luxury, but a necessity. Without it instruction tends\nto grovel and to become formal and mechanized. A considerable part of a\ngood education is a knowledge of books and skill in their use. The hbrary\nworks silently and powerfully, hke elemental forces in nature. It is the\nquickest and best means available to lift school instruction out of the ruts\nof long and low usage, and to redeem it from the bUght of a dead formalism.\nIt is said that a country lad after a fifteen minutes' talk with an expert hbrarian\nsaid: ''That talk with Miss R. was worth more to me than a term's work\nwith any professor. I know how to take hold of a book now, and get some\ngood out of it.\"\nEach normal-school hbrary will have its individual and pecuhar features.\nIts usefulness will depend on a combination of circunistances that do not\ncoexist in the same way anywhere else; such as the size and attractiveness of\nthe room; the number and kind of books; the attitude of instructors toward\nlibrary work, especially in such studies as literature, geography, history.\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": null, "text": "9i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nscience, etc.; the accessibility of the Hbrary; the hours of the day when open;\nthe personaUty of the hbrarian and her assistants; the effort made to encourage\nstudents to use the library; the credit given for good Hbrary work in the official\nrecords of the school; the emphasis placed by the faculty upon the reading\nhabit; the whole attitude of the faculty toward culture and personality as\nprime requisites rather than mere text-book information.\nIt is not enough to erect a library building, stock it with books, hire a\nlibrarian, and open the doors. It is usually necessary to infuse a missionary\nspirit into library work until its value comes to be realized by experience.\nThen, of course, it becomes as indispensable to the student as are tools to a\ncarpenter. If all normal schools could and would at once provide ample\nlibrary facilities and furnish, what is rarer than books, a good Hbrary atmosphere, itwould not be a dozen years until pubHc-school Hbraries would dot\nthe map of states, as the stars fiU the firmament.\nIn the normal school with which I am connected a Hbrary was begun\ntwenty years ago. Prior to that time we had no Hbrary or reading-room.\nNow the Hbrary is, next to the training school, the most striking feature of\nthe school. We began by taking for the Hbrary a good-sized recitation room.\nSome of the officials of the school thought a smaller and less desirable room\nshould have been used. A few hundred books were soon bought, begged,\nor borrowed. Periodicals were subscribed for and placed on tables, while\ndonated copies of newspapers were kept on files. In some six years we outgrew this room and then took possession of a room three times as large that\nhad previously been used as a study haU. This sufficed for ten years more.\nMeanwhile the library continued to grow in size and importance as a factor\nin the life of the school. Three or four years ago it was again found\nnecessary to obtain larger quarters, and a large assembly-room centrally\nlocated on the first floor of our main building was used and its size doubled\nby building to it an annex, octagonal in form, with a skylight in a dome\ntwenty feet in diameter. The use of the library by students and teachers\nhas increased in a still greater proportion than the size of the library. Not\nonly do all normal students make some regular and systematic use of the library,\nbut several grades of the training school as well, beginning with the third\ngrade, each class having the guidance of a student teacher or the assistant\nlibrarian.\nBy our plan, every child in a grade reads daily. Just enough help is given\nsilently, to each child needing it, to tide him over his difficulty. The natural\nand strong interest thus created enables the child to teach himself much which\notherwise the teacher would have to impart with difficulty in the schoolroom.\nEach child continues the reading of a book until it is completed and then\ngets another. Children eight years of age, including every pupil in a grade,\nread with motives as definite and interests as strong as in the case of adults.\nThe higher grades of the training school use the main reading-room of the\nHbrary, while the third and fourth grades use a smaU adjacent room which\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n917\n\nhas been especially fitted up as a children's reading-room. Our experience\nwith this children's reading-room has now covered two years and has been as\nsatisfactory as any other line of work. We have been surprised and highly\ngratified with the results with these young pupils.\nThe main reading-room as well as the children's room is decorated attractively with suitable color tints on walls and ceiling, and the floor is covered\nwith heavy Hnoleum.\nWe have about six thousand carefully selected books in this large, wellHghted reading-room. The library is central not only in location, but central\nin almost all of the activities of the school. Every department feels its helpful\ntouch and would be greatly crippled without it. The literary societies need\nit in the preparation of debates, essays, orations, declamations, etc. The\nvarious religious associations need it for its large assortment of Bible commentaries, missionary literature, rehgious biographies, etc. It is the main\nstandby in the geography classes, for their work is done largely thru the use\nof general reference-books. The study of literature without a library would\nbe but a hollow mockery. Much the same would be the case with history,\nscience, historical art, and some other subjects.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Grace E. Salisbury, librarian, State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.— Dr.\nNoss has brought before us so clearly the value of the library habit and its natural method\nof acquirement that we can remain in no doubt as to the importance of instruction in the use\nof books in normal schools. If the children now in our public schools are brought up in\nthe systematic and intelligent use of the library, there may come a happy time when special\ninstruction along that Hne is unnecessary in the education of teachers; but that day is still\nfar distant. If the children are in need of training in this work, their teachers in many,\nmany cases are in almost as great a need. A large proportion of our teachers, especially\nin cur graded schools, come from homes that are not centers of culture. They must\nacquire the love of literature and skill in reference work before they can transmit interest\nand enthusiasm to their pupils. In other words, the student teachers in our normal schools\nare the children Dr. Noss tells us about, grown large. We must meet their needs before\nthey can meet the needs of others.\nI believe in progressing still farther along the lines indicated by Dr. Noss. There is a\nfield of work that lies entirely within the province of the librarian. To get the most out of\nbooks, not merely for pleasure and literary culture, but for actual study purposes in the\nschoolroom, the teacher must understand how to find material in books she has never read\nand will never have the time to read. She can get this understanding most easily and\nthoroly by means of work in the analysis and indexing of books. Tliis work the librarian\nshould give. It seems to me that every normal school should offer two distinct courses in\nlibrary work — one in the use of the library, and the other in its organization.\nThe first line of work should be given to all entering pupils both in the normal department and in the upper grades of the model school. In the Whitewater Normal School\nthis course consists of a series of ten lessons: the first, an introduction to the library as a\nwhole, with a careful explanation of the classification, followed by actual practice in finding\nbooks and returning them to their places on the shelves.\nLessons are given on dictionaries,\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\n9i8\nooks.\ncyclopedias, annuals, biographical reference-books, and certain special reference-bby the\nOne lesson is given on the use of the Poole and Cumulative indexes, followed\nAt least one lesson is given on the\nmaking of careful, but not exhaustive, bibliographies.\ncard catalog.\nA course in library organization should be given to pupils who have already become\nfamiliar with the use of the library, and the aim should be to acquaint them with the work\nof the librarian, so that on graduation they may go into a rural school, or even into a high\nschool, and organize the library.\nIn this course, lessons should be given in choosing and ordering books, classifying,\naccessioning, and cataloging; also in the care and mending of books, cutting and mounting\npictures, binding magazines in manila covers, the care of newspaper chppings and pamphlets, etc. This oudine of work sounds overwhelming, but I know that it is practicable,\nif all available helps are utiHzed. Only a few principles and rules should be given them\nto work with, but they should have a reasonable number at hand in convenient form for\nreference in case of difficulty. Much attention cannot be given to form, penmanship, etc.,\nbut the work in the English department should be a help here. The student teachers will\nnot emerge from the course as Ubrarians, but they will emerge as more intelligent teachers.\nA few months ago I sent out a circular letter to our graduates of last year who had\ntaken this library course. In the letter I asked them to tell what use, if any, they had made\nof the work given. The replies, numbering about thirty, were interesting. With but one\nor two exceptions, all stated that the work had aided them very greatly in the inteUigent\nuse of their school Hbraries, and that they were exceedingly glad they had taken it. Eleven\nreported practical work done. Five of the eleven were men, and that from a class with\nonly nine men in it. Five reports indicated work in mending books, mounting pictures,\npaper-binding, etc.; one, in classifying; and five, in classifying and cataloging. One young\nman, principal of a small high school, with the help of his teachers and at an expense of four\ndollars, classified and cataloged a school library of seven hundred volumes. I confess he\ndid not adhere strictly to \"Library School Rules,\" but he wrote me that he considered the\nvalue of the library to have increased tenfold, and I believe it had, altho I doubt not that\nI should groan in spirit could T see the cards made, and think of the ''Library School\nRules\" violated.\nThe work just outlined cannot be done satisfactorily by depending on note-taking on\nthe part of the students. For two years we gave all the work orally, but it took so. much\ntime, and the notes were so often inaccurate, that we gave up in despair, and for a year\nsupplied mimeograph copies of the necessary rules and suggestions, spending the class time\nin illustrating and explaining difficult points with the books before us. This last year we\nhave used a little handbook printed for the purpose. It has proved a great time-saver to\nboth pupils and teacher.\nThis course should be elective and the teacher should meet with the class daily,\nassigning outside work as in any other branch. However the work can be done as we\ndo it. Our classes meet once each week for ten weeks, doing their practical work on\nthe intervening days. The work is all made very simple, and every paper and card is\ncarefully corrected and returned.\nNow that school libraries are growing to be such an important feature of our school\nsystem, our teachers must learn how to get the most possible good from them. This they\ncan do, I firmly beheve, only by acquiring some knowledge of simple library methods.\nAlbert Salisbury, president of State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis. —The study\nof library methods is one of the requirements for graduation at the Wisconsin State Normal\nSchool at Whitewater. The time at our disposal for it is Hmited, but an effort is made\nto make the work interesting and profitable.\nIn all the Wisconsin Normal Schools, one hour each week is set apart for what is\ncalled \"Library Readings,\" this work including the whole school.\n\nTo make place for\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nI\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n919\n\nthis, one hour each week is taken from the regular studies, moving on a sliding scale\nthrough the daily program. Two quarters, or 20 weeks, of this time in library readings\nis given to library methods. In one quarter the time is devoted to acquainting the students with the library itself, the finding of books by means of the card-catalog, the use\nof reference books, etc. In the senior year, another quarter is given to the study of\nlibrary methods in the stricter sense of the term. Still another quarter of the library\nreadings is given to acquainting the students with juvenile literature by actual examination and discussion of books suitable for children of different ages.\nJ. H. Canfield, of Columbia University, New York city. — We need to have among\nthe teachers a broad appreciation of public libraries as an integral part of every public\neducation. This thought should be driven home in the normal school. The teacher\nshould be a person of weight in the community, and he should carry his full load of responsibihty in building up an appreciation and an intelligent use of the free pubUc Ubrary in his\nvicinity.\nNo one can appreciate the full value of a library without knowing something of its\nmachinery. The rank and file of school men do not yet appreciate the part a Ubrary plays\neither in the school or in the community.\nThe normal school must start the movement.\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\nJASPER\n\nOF\nN.\n\nTHE NORMAL SCHOOL IN RELATION\nDISTRICT SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nWILKINSON,\n\nPRESIDENT\nOF STATE\nEMPORIA,\nKAN.\n\nNORMAL\n\nTO\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nLibrary work in normal schools is the only means these schools have for\ndischarging any duty they owe to district-school libraries. Taking this view,\nwe establish close connection between the two subjects for this afternoon's\ndiscussion. This paper will seek to establish the position that the training\nof librarians by normal schools is necessary to make school-district Ubraries\neffective.\nIs it necessary to show that district libraries are not now effective? It\nmay be dangerous to question in some quarters the eflGiciency of anything that\nis called a Ubrary. The very name itself is something to conjure with. We\nare impressed by the card pasted inside the cover of a book, '^ Library of John\nSmith,\" and we assume that John Smith must be a man of wisdom, even tho\nthere be none of that article in the books he has chosen for his library. A\nproposition to found any kind of public library cannot be opposed without\nbringing odium upon its opponent, however good grounds he may have for\ndoubting the possibility of getting good results under any management that\ncan be established. A library is a charity which must not be questioned;\nit may be Hke charity in that it '^ covers a multitude of sins.\" The best article\nI have found on district-school libraries reports an instance in which a benevolent hired hand on one of the farms of the district was keeping up the library\nby giving it his paper-backed novels as fast as he was thru with them. The\nlibrary department of a well-known bookstore has been known to do such a\nthing as send Boccaccio's tales with indecent illustrations.\n\nA library may\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": null, "text": "920\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\ngive poison instead of food; it may lead to habits of mental dissipation; it\nmay be so managed that the money it costs is worse than wasted.\nWe may safely concede, or concede as a measure of safety, that the libraries\nmanaged by the members of this Library Department are no such means'\nof evil, but we shall agree that the possibilities of wasting money which exist\nin all libraries are in greatest danger of being reahzed in district-school libraries.\nTheir only safety on this point, so far, is in the fact that they do not have much\nto waste. The library for which Kansas laws have long made provision looks\nwell in reports, but there is little to show for it in the schools. The law tries\nto protect us against the spending of money for fiction when it says: \"The\ndistrict board, in the purchase of books, shall be confined to works of history,\nbiography, science, and travels.\" Protection against the wily book agent\nwould have been more to the point. The district school Hbrary needs a teacher\nwho can guide correctly the book-buying. In many districts there has been\nthe experience that no one knew the need of books for which to spend the\nmoney when raised, and it came to pass that the money was spent for some\nsuch thing as a stereopticon which could be shown by the agent to come under\nprovisions of the law. How can even a teacher guide in the purchase of\nbooks unless trained ? Here is a duty for the normal school.\nOhio has been known to boast that she long ago put in operation a very\neffective district library law. The district in which I was a pupil had a library\nof which I learned by the merest chance. The books were at my father's\nhouse long enough for me to read Irving's Columbus and Franklin's Autobiography. Then the books went into the custody of another home in the\nfarther side of the district, and I never heard of them again. I never saw\nany of these books at the schoolhouse. The teacher was not prepared to do\nanything to make the Hbrary effective. He did not know what books would\ninterest and benefit pupils. He did not learn the truth that Edward Everett\nHale declares when he says: \"Whichever avenue we take must be one of the\npleasant avenues, or else the young people will go a-skating or a-fishing or\na-swimming, and not a-reading, and no blame to them.\" Parents cannot\nand will not take the guidance of the reading of their children. The teacher\nshould do it. How could he be prepared unless that was part of his training ?\nHere is a duty for the normal school.\nThe district school library cannot be effective unless the teacher is able to\ntake charge of it and attend to the distribution and collection of books. A\ncertain amount of formality is necessary to secure appreciation for the library.\nThe cataloging of the contents of even a few books is necessary to their effectiveness. The custodian of the books must know how to catalog as well as\nhow to use the catalog, the school must be trained into orderly habits in the\nuse of books. If this is not done, the library goes to destruction. Who can\nbe expected to do this except the teacher ? Even the teacher cannot do it\nwithout special training.\nHere is another duty of the normal school.\nIf the state normal school accepts the duty of preparing district school\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n921\n\nteachers to manage the district library, ways must be found for the discharge\nof this duty. For most of these teachers such preparation will, if received\nfrom the state normal school, be second-hand information at best. No state\nis likely soon to require that all its teachers be trained in state normal schools.\nBut hmited as is the influence of the state normal school, no other educational\ninstitution exerts a power so widespread among the schools. Not as a teacher\nin any other school could the writer of this paper have seen students assemble\nunder his instruction from every one of the more than a hundred counties in a\nstate of nearly a hundred thousand square miles. The making of library\nknowledge and enthusiasm general among normal-school students is a most\neffective means of making district-school libraries successful.\nTo discharge this duty of the normal school, every student in the institution must receive library instruction while in the course. The number who\ngraduate are a small percentage of those who take the work of the first year.\nAll who enter the normal school should receive instruction in the use of the\nlibrary early. They need this for their own guidance as students. In giving\nthis instruction to them early we make sure of their being ready to introduce\nsane library ideas into the teaching which many do between entrance and\ngraduation, as well as in the work done by those who never graduate. In\nthe Kansas State Normal School every student of the normal department is\neligible to a course of eight lectures for which regular attendance and the taking\nof notes are required. In order that all who make progress thru the course\nshall get this work, the entire membership of the classes in one of the secondterm subjects take this work as a part of the subject. The following is a list\nof the subjects presented in one course of these lectures:\nSaturdays, 9 a. m. — February i to April i, 1904\n1. Classification and arrangement of books in reading-room.\n2. Catalog.\n3. Periodical indexes.\n4. Encyclopaedias, including biography, geography, and statistics.\n5. History.\n6. General information; quotations, customs.\n7. Government documents, check list, catalogs, etc.; Congressional Globe and Record.\n8. How to look up a subject in the Hbrary.\n\nThese subjects for lectures doubtless include both more and less than the\nteacher of the district school needs to know for the satisfactory managing of a\ndistrict library. The things omitted can be filled out in the exercise of good\ncommon-sense in actual practice, just as the bookkeeper who has a general\nknowledge of his subject can adapt himself to the conditions of any particular\nbusiness. Training in excess of what is required is necessary to keep up enthusiasm and a proper standard for the minimum. On this ground, we find the\nnecessity for an optional course in the work of a library school, if we are to commend to all the minimum requirement such as the lectures outlined here. All\neducators understand that the maintenance of higher schools is necessary to\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": null, "text": "922\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nkeep up the standards of elementary schools. The doing of advanced work\nby a few serves to incite all to some measure of achievement in the elementary\nphases of a subject. My earUest recollection of any particular interest in the\nstudy of arithmetic dates from the time when I saw the highest class in school\nreciting algebra. Most people must see some higher attainment by another\nto convince them that their similar achievements are worth the effort. The\nstate normal school cannot do its duty toward the district-school libraries\nwithout giving, to those who desire it, advanced work in library management.\nIn the school that the writer knows most about, the senior class may elect a\ncourse of fifty recitations on library management. For those graduates and\nHbrarians who wish to make special preparation for Hbrary work we have a\ncourse taking all the time for nine weeks. We beheve that the enthusiasm of\nthe speciahst who gives these courses, and of the students who take them, is\nof much value for the building up of an interest in district school libraries,\nand therefore this advanced work should be mentioned in connection with the\nsubject we are discussing. Let me run still greater risk of being suspected\nof special pleading for the library school adjunct to a normal school, when I\nurge that the preparation of teachers for the care of high-school libraries is\nnecessary to make the administration of district-school libraries a matter of\nsufficient general concern. When the high school sends its graduate to teach\na district school, the high-school library will be the standard of that districtschool library. I will go even farther than the high-school library and say\nthat, if the city libraries which I have seen under the control of city council\ncommittees were under the control of school boards, there would be more\nefficiency demanded of librarians, and the standard would be raised all the\nway down the Hne. Too many city councilmen rise no higher in their standard\nof qualification for the librarian than did a certain old man who could be\nnamed. He reported that he had been looking around for a job that he could\ndo, and he was sure he could take down and put back all the books except\nthose on the top shelves, and he would hire a boy to climb up to them if he\ncould be favored with the position of head librarian. School boards are more\naccustomed to demand some standard of preparation than are city councils.\nThe influence that reaches from the normal school thruout the public schools\nshould be potent to raise the level of all library work. Let me say here that\nthe normal students are not to be the only librarians ; we shall expect from the\nlibrary schools which admit none but college graduates the most abundant\ninspiration and guidance for library-training departments in normal schools,\njust as the work done by the normal schools shall furnish inspiration and\nguidance for the teacher of the common school.\nI close with the recording of my conviction that the normal school should\ninclude in its function the giving of all training that- the teacher finds should\nsupplement his general education, and by this standard the normal school\nowes to all the libraries with which teachers have anything to do such preparation ofthose teachers as will enable them to commend the library and to\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDUTY\n\nOF THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n923\n\nmake it give good returns for the money invested. Only when the library\ntraining given by normal schools has reached down to the district schools will\nthe duty of the normal school to the district-school libraries have been fully\ndischarged.\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Mabel M. Reynolds, librarian of the State Normal School at Cheney, Wash. —\nIn the extension of the library movement normal schools have a most important place.\nThe promoters of the traveling-library movement have found their greatest difficulty in\nsecuring local librarians. Normal schools have the opportunity to train the districtschool librarian. They may help even those teachers who have but a few months to spend\nat school, to become interested in the library movement. The people who teach, and\nwho do not come to the normal at all, may be reached thru the county superintendents, the\nteachers' institutes, and thru articles in the state teachers' journals, and reprints of these\narticles, or other circulars, sent to the teachers and county superintendents.\nOne county superintendent in Washington told me that he thought the districtschool teachers needed most to know how to select the best books for use as supplementary\nand reference material in the different branches of the course of study, and how to select\ninteresting and profitable books for the home reading of each child. Both of these things\nmay be taught at the normal school, if the teachers of methods, the training-school supervisors, and the librarians will work together, and use the children's books.\nThe training-school library ought to be of much service to the normal students. The\nstudents in our normal schools read children's books a great deal, as many of them had no\nopportunity to do so when they were children themselves. This reading is encouraged,\nand, as the training-school children come to the main library rooms to draw their books,\nmany of the books most in demand are placed on the tables for examination, so that it is\neasy for the most indifferent students to get something as they pass by. Further acquaintance with the best literature for the school may be gained thru the many excellent lists at\nthe command of the librarian, and by model exhibits of good collections of ten, twenty,\nand fifty books for district-school libraries.\nThe district-school teachers should learn of the library movement in their own state,\nof the library legislation, of the hsts compiled by the state superintendents, if there are such,\nand of the way in which local conditions are being met by the most progressive districtschool leaders. This means that the normal-school librarian must put herself in touch\nwith the district schools of the state. She must see that all students who have the opportunity to use the normal library, for many of whom it is the first good collection of books\nthey have ever used, get some definite book knowledge to use in their schools, and some\nlibrary enthusiasm to make them eager to obtain books for their pupils when they go out\nto teach.\nNormal students need to be provided with an opportunity to catch the library spirit.\nVisits to children's rooms in the public libraries; hearing talks given by the library assistants\nwho work with the public schools; assisting, at the loan-desk when the children of the\ntraining school draw books ; reading of the \" accomplished good \" in the library world, as\ngiven in the articles in the general magazines — all these things may open a new world of\npossibilities to young people who are to teach the country schools.\nThe women's clubs and the farmers' institutes are interested m the traveling libraries.\nTwo collections of books in a community are better than one, and should not the districtschool teacher work with all library forces ? Her library course ought to make her feel\nthat, no matter into how isolated a community she may go, there are library workers interested in her and in the spread of the library movement in that place.\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": null, "text": "024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIn Washington I have found county superintendents, members of the State Federation\nof Women's Clubs, the state librarian, and mothers anxious to have their children love good\nbooks, all interested in what the normal schools are doing for the library cause.\nThe normal-school library must work not only inside the walls, but outside, if the\npatrons of the district schools are to be reached, and the country children trained to love\nand use books. The more the normal schools grasp their opportunity, the broader grows\nthe library field.\n\nTHE\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nPLACE\n\nOE THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nCLARENCE\n\nE. MELENEY,\n\nASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT\nNEW YORK CITY\n\nINSTRUCTION\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe last report of the superintendent of school libraries of the city of New\nYork shows that there were on January i, 1904, in the elementary schools\n7,981 class libraries, independent of the libraries of the several departments\nin the high schools and the general libraries of the elementary schools. During the year ending February i, 1904, over two hundred thousand new books\nwere added to the school and class hbraries of the public schools. Every\nschool, except those recently opened, is thus furnished. About $44,000 is\navailable each year for school libraries, apportioned to the several schools\naccording to the enrollment. Each principal may select such new books as\nthe school needs from the library list adopted each year on the recommendation\nof the board of superintendents.\nThe library list contains the following classes of books:\n1. Books for teachers, including (a) professional books on the history, science, and\nart of teaching; (&) reference-books on the subject-matter of the course of study; (c) books\nfor general culture.\n2. Books for the use of the pupils, including (a) reference-books dealing vdth the\nsubjects of study of a wider range, or more highly specialized than the regular class textbooks; (6)prose and poetry in the realm of literature designed to cultivate a love of reading,\na taste for good literature, and the development of the emotional and aesthetic nature of the\nchild.\n\nThe books on the pupils' list are used as follows:\n1. In the class-room: (a) by individual pupils as aids to study; (b) by individuals\nfor silent reading, to cultivate the power of independent effort; (c) by the class as a basis of\ndiscussion and for critical reading; (d) by the teacher, in all grades, and by pupils in higher\ngrades, to read to the class, to give pleasure and to awaken an interest in the subject-matter\nor in the author's work; (e) by the teacher and the class to accustom the children to the\nuse of a library, to encourage research, to teach the method of getting facts from books, to\ncultivate the habit of looking up subject-matter, and to prepare pupils to make practical\nuse of a private or a public library; in brief, to prepare students to understand, to appreciate\nand to use a library in after-life as a means of self -education.\n2. At home: (a) to furnish additional information on the subjects of school work,\nand to cultivate the power of individual study and research ; (b) to afford practice and give\nfacility in reading, to cultivate a love of reading, and to establish the reading habit; (c) to\nafford pleasure to members of the family, and to establish a closer relation between the\nhome and the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": null, "text": "f\n\n\\\n\nDepartment]\n\nLIBRARY'S\n\nPLACE\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n925\n\nThe administration of the class Hbraries is under the supervision of the\nprincipal, who is responsible for the selection and ordering of the books ; under\nthe direction of the teacher, who is responsible for the general care of the\nbooks, the assignment when necessary to the pupils, and the suggestions as to\nthe subjects to be read; and under the charge of the class librarian, one of the\npupils, who keeps the record of the books taken out, and who holds the borrower responsible for the safe return of the volumes to the library.\nIn addition to the library books available in the schools there are very\nmany branches of the New York and Brooklyn Public Libraries well distributed thruout the boroughs, and many other library systems maintained\nby philanthropic societies affording all the privileges of a circulating library.\nMany pupils in our public schools are ''members,\" so called, of these libraries\nand are constant readers. It is common practice for teachers to obtain sets\nof books from these libraries to supplement the work of instruction. Catalogs\nare available so that the teachers may suggest to their pupils suitable books\nappropriate to their needs. The traveling libraries, so called, loaned by the\nsocieties, have for a long time been available, not only to the day schools, but\nto the vacation schools, playgrounds, and evening recreation centers.\nI have indicated in outline the character of the library material available\nfor use in the public schools. It may be assumed that a detailed presentation\nof the definite purpose and method of using such appliances in the school is\nunnecessary at this time. The value of a library in an elementary school is\nmeasured by the capacity of the pupils and their ability to make use of it as an\ninstrument. Its importance grows with the advancement of the class. This\nis true of all apphances and apparatus in the schools. Class libraries may be\nof little use in elementary or high schools. We have seen very expensive\napparatus and very admirable text-books in high schools unprofitably used.\nThe success of library or of school apparatus depends upon the method of\nits use, and the method depends upon the person in charge, whether librarian\nor teacher. A suitable class library is just as important as a set of text-books\nor proper illustrative apparatus.\nA library that can be made useful and profitable, that can be readily managed\nby a successful teacher, and that will prove a delight to a class, should be selected\nupon a few fundamental principles : it must be limited in the number of volumes ;\nit must be related intimately to the subject-matter of the grade ; it must contain\nonly books that the pupils can easily read. Each hbrary should be distinctly\na class library, of the appropriate grade, and should not be duphcated in a\nhigher grade. The pupils should understand that it belongs to their class\nalone, and they should know that an entirely new library — new to them — is\nawaiting them in the next higher class. There should be volumes enough in each\nlibrary to satisfy the reasonable demands of all, beyond which the pubHc library\nshould be available for the use of the most ambitious or most studious readers.\nThe books of the class library should be thoroly and repeatedly read. The\nvalue of a book to a student is in its mastery.\nThe teacher should train his\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\n926\n\npupils to read a few books thoroly rather than to read many books carelessly\nand superficially. I asked a young girl why she was reading Little Women,\nand if she had read it before; to which she replied: \"Because I love it. I have\nread it twenty times \"—which I took to mean that she had read it 7nany times.\nGood books should be read ''twenty times,\" and a book that is not worth\nreading over and over is not worth reading at all. I am convinced that we as\nteachers and Hbrarians should institute a decided reform by inculcating the\nhabit of repeated reading of good books and by breaking up the habit of carelessly reading new matter. A properly selected library can be utilized to train\nto right habits, whereas the usual practice makes superficial people and caters\nto the hunger for new things, new excitement, feeds an overstimulated imagination, and resuks in a total lack of concentration and careful reflection. One\nof the greatest banes of modern hfe is the voluminous newspaper; another is\nthe mukipHcity of magazines; and the library, unless properly used as precious\nmaterial, may utterly fail in its office as a means of education.\nTo appreciate fully the place and function of the school or class Hbrary\none must look at the subject in relation to the whole problem. The school\nand the library are two agencies in the education of the community. The school\nis limited in its operations by the years of school age; the library is one of the\nmeans of education which are operative during a whole Hfetime. The function of the school is to prepare children to take up the activities that constitute\nthe whole of life — this whole of life embracing complete development of all\nhuman powers, much of which is education. In the direction of education,\nthe school is only the introduction, and its chief service is in preparing the\nchild to educate himself. This preparation embraces a training in the mastery\nof arts and appliances; a mastery of the means and instruments which contribute to acquisition of knowledge, power, and skill. In school the child is to\nmaster the art of reading; to get information from text-books; to discover\nthe sources of knowledge; to learn how to examine the contents of books;\nand to select the facts and truths desired. He is to learn how to get hidden\nfacts from various sources and authorities; to choose; to compare; to verify\nthe truth. He is to acquire the mastery of the language; to comprehend the\nmeaning of terms and expressions. He is to learn to appreciate the best and\nchoicest language, and to acquire a love for study, research, meditation, and\nrecreation in literature.\nIn school the child is also to acquire the mastery of appliances, of tools,\nof machines, of illustrative apparatus, and of the art of experimentation. He\nis to become acquainted with sources of knowledge in nature, in museums, in\ninstitutions of society, in the common fields of human activity, whether of\nsocial or business or civic Hfe. He is to become so familiar with these institutions as readily to meet the demands that may be made upon him to do his\npart, to take his place; and to use all these as agencies in developing his powers\nand enlarging his possibilkies. The school is not fulfilHng its mission if it\ndoes not bring within the reach of the child all available agencies that may\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY'S\n\nPLACE\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n927\n\ncontribute to these forms of educational activity. The school must send out\ninto the world students and workers who have broad interests, power of adaptation, readiness in application, initative in undertaking, earnestness in endeavor.\nIt is not expected that the school will enable the child to acquire all knowledge,\nto develop all his power, or reach the acme of skill. After the course of study\nhas been completed there will be much more to learn; after the use of tools has\nbecome facile there will be much to be made; after the experiments have been\nperformed there will be much room for invention; after the school library has\nbeen well utilized there will be alcoves yet to explore.\nWe must not overlook the limitations of the school. These limitations\nare determined by the shortness of the school period, the age and ability of\nthe pupils, and the resources or available funds. We must ever keep in mind\nthat we are dealing with children, and that the school is to open and point the\nway to the larger activities of life. The school is not to usurp the functions\nof the Hbrary, the museum, or other educational agencies; it is not to invade\nthe province of the institutions of business or social or civic life. There are\nthose who fear that the establishment of class libraries is an encroachment on\nthe public library, but this is not true when the place of the school library is\nunderstood and appreciated. No feature of a well-conducted school is an\nattempt to duplicate the sphere of the institutions of the community. The\nsolution of problems in interest, discount, and stocks is not usurping the\nfunctions of the broker; the drawing of models or of plans is not invading\nthe province of the artist and the architect; the study of objects from the\nnatural world is not duplicating the functions of the museum; the study from\nreference-books or the home reading in literature from the class library is not\nencroaching upon the domain of the librarian.\nAs we look back and consider the development of our institutions we find\nthat school activities have had much influence upon this development. The\nintroduction of drawing in the public schools improved art in the home and\nin trade; the study of nature in the schools stimulated a wonderful interest in\nthe study of museums, public gardens, and public parks; the inauguration of\nschool libraries gave a great impetus to the founding of town and city libraries.\nWhatever beginnings appear in the schools the community extends in a larger\nmeasure in its institutions. Conversely, the features of school instruction are\nshaped with reference to their relation to later interests and activities in the\neducational, social, and business world. If the coming generation is to be\ncompetent to appreciate and to profit by our institutions, the school must keep\npace. If the museums, the botanical and zoological gardens, the acquaria,\nthe landscape gardening, the park systems, are to be understood and appreciated, the schools must continue nature study. If the fine arts as expressed in\ntemples, in decoration, in furniture, in tapestries, in textiles, in water-colors\nand oils, in illustrations, are to be understood and admired, we must continue\nart and design and color study in the schools. If our home and public libraries\nare to be utilized and made serviceable as a means of education and centers\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\n928\n\nof literary culture, we must develop and maintain our school libraries as preparatory steps and as training schools for readers and students. There need be\nno confusion of the functions of the pubhc school and the public library.\nThey are estabHshed institutions supported at pubhc expense and appreciated\nby a generous people. The school should not attempt to do the work of the\nlibrary, nor should the hbrary curtail or hmit the sphere of the school. Never\nshould the pubhc funds be expended in extending the operations of either into\nthe domain of the other. There should be no duphcation of expenditures\nby these institutions in material or in administration.\nThere are some questions relating to the estabhshment and maintenance\nof Hbraries which have not yet been definiiely settled, as there always will be\nin the administration of pubhc institutions, especially in the economic aspects\nof the case. The expenditures for school hbraries should be confined to the\npurchase of books that are peculiarly schoolbooks, appropriate material for\nthe accomphshment of the purposes of the school hbrary. The hnes should\nbe tightly drawn against volumes that may better be on the catalog of the public\nhbrary. Many of our school hbraries contain books that need not be there;\nthey are superfluous because they are so seldom read, and because their presence\nin the school reheves the readers of the dependence on the pubhc library and\nprevents the establishment of a desirable relation with the pubhc library.\nThe school or class should not be so large and so extensive in scope as to necessitate the machinery and the services of a trained force of librarians and\nassistants. It should not entail work that is not legitimately the duty of the\nteacher. However, it is the legitimate work of the teacher to master the\nadministration of the class library in all the uses to which it is to be put as a\npart of school instruction and training.\nThe board of education of the city of New York has employed a trained\nand experienced hbrarian to organize and direct the management of the school\nand class hbraries, to confer with the superintendents in the selection and\ngrading of books, to aid in the disbursement and expenditure of the library\nfunds, and to instruct teachers in the use and management of libraries in the\nschools. We believe that greater economy, efficiency, and effectiveness will\nresult from such direction, and that the time formerly taken by superintendents and principals will thus be saved for other duties and efforts in their\nseveral fields of labor. The present progress in education has been brought\nabout by differentiation and specialization. School administration has been\ncriticised by those whose only business it is to curtail expenditures, because\nof the number of specialties introduced and the number of expert directors\nof special branches. Those of us who realize the value of expert supervision know that the organization of work by experts has resulted in greater\naccomphshment, in minimizing valueless experimentation, in effecting definite\nprogression, and in greater economy of time and material. Directors of\ndrawing, of kindergarten, of music, of industrial work, of physical training,\nhave saved their salaries over and over again by being able to economize\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY'S\n\nPLACE\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n929\n\neffort and to save waste. Tf the library is to become an efficient instrument and factor in school instruction, there must be skillful direction, economic management, definite purpose, and special training of teachers. In\ncities and towns where public libraries are well developed and conveniently\nlocated or distributed, a librarian should become perfectly familiar with the\ncourse of study in the schools, and may prepare a graded subject catalog\ncorresponding to the class-room work. He may co-operate intelligently with\nthe superintendent of schools and the teachers, and together they may successfully establish the necessary relation with the school system. In short,\nthe librarian may become the supervisor of the school libraries and the director\nof the work of the teachers in this branch of instruction. If the subject came\nwithin the scope of this paper, I should urge the establishment of similar\nrelations between the public school and the art museum, the natural history\nmuseum, and the botanical and zoological gardens.\nWhere a city is unable to maintain school libraries, but is provided with\na public library, books in sets should be loaned to the schools for class use.\nUnder such a plan the library can manage the whole system of distribution,\netc., and leave to the teacher the pleasant duty of deaUng with the books\nwholly from the standpoint of the individual child.\nUnder whatever plan this library work is carried on, it is absolutely essential\nthat the teacher be well equipped to manage her library as efficiently as she\nis obliged to utilize her text-books, her appliances and equipment for other\nsubjects. She should know the bibliography appropriate to the grade of her\npupils and to the subjects of instruction; should know where every book may\nbe found; should know the interest value and the educational value of each\nwork. She should also understand the details of library economy and technique to the extent of a perfect mastery of the class-room machinery. In all\nthese matters I think teachers are lacking, because they have not been trained,\nand because they have not been under expert direction.\nIt seems that there is an opportunity and a duty that the Hbrarians have\nwith respect to the teachers who are undertaking library work in the schools,\nviz.:\n1. To recognize the place, scope, purpose, and function of the school libraries.\n2. To establish a co-operative relation between the Ubraries and the schools.\n3. To become familiar with the courses of study and the syllabuses of the schools,\ngrade by grade, in those subjects with which the books in the library are related,\n4. To prepare graded departmental lists of available books in the library for the use of\nteachers and pupils.\n5. To organize traveling sets to be used as class libraries.\n6. To organize conferences with teachers on the bibliography of the subjects of the\ncourse of study, and on library administration and economy.\n7. To visit the schools to examine the libraries and the method of library work.\n8. To encourage the establishment of a practical intelligent system of class libraries.\n\nLibrarians ought not to lose sight of the fact that the development of the\nlibrary method in the schools and the extension of school libraries is a means\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": null, "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nof extending the possibilities of the public library and enlarging the field of\ntheir own activities.\nThe duties of school officers and municipal officials are equally plain, viz. :\n1. To recognize the school and class libraries as legitimate and necessary material of\nschool equipment.\n2. To limit the scope of the school Ubraries to their proper function, and the appropriation for books to an economical portion of school expenditure.\n3. To emphasize the value of a school Hbrary as a means of training.\n4. To establish a natural and co-operative relation between the school and the public\nlibrary.\n5. To supervise the library work in the schools in a measure commensurate with its\nimportance and in equal proportion to the supervision of other branches of school work.\n6. To provide for the training of teachers in library organization, technique, and\nbibliography to a degree equivalent ta their training in other features of their school work.\n\nDISCUSSION\nMiss Ange V. Milner, librarian, Illinois State Normal University, Normal 111. — Do\nwe realize the great progress in using libraries that teachers have made in the last ten or\nfifteen years? We have just heard what the teachers in the large city schools are doing;\nnot what they ought to do, but what they are really accomplishing. Nor are the city\nteachers alone in this. Equally good work is done along the same lines in the small towns\nand in the country schools. It is work that requires both interest and skill, and it is all\nthe more admirable because it contrasts so strongly with the ways in which teachers used\nthe libraries such a short time ago. Then, if a teacher co-operated with a library at all, she\ndid so by drawing out the three or four most convenient reference books on a subject, not\ngiving the slightest warning that further information would be asked for by her pupils,\nand carefully keeping the book until after the demand was entirely over. In the meantime\nthe pupils would flock to the library during the busiest hours, for something on some subject\nthat they evidently found it difl&cult to express. The dismayed librarians would have to\nguess what was wanted and hunt up references in a hurry, while the children were discouraged from coming again by the waiting that nobody likes. As for school libraries, in a\nstate where the law required them to be supplied, the county superintendents reported that\nmany teachers did not know how to use them, and did not even take proper care of the\nbooks.\nIt was near the time of the Columbian Exposition that educators began to realize\nand meet the difficulty. In the early nineties many normal schools which had always had\nlibraries added librarians. The laboratory method of library work increased in the normal\nand high schools thru the recent appointments of college graduates upon their faculties.\nInterest in school libraries increased, and books and reading for the children were discussed\nat teachers' associations and institutes. In 1896 this Library Department of the National\nEducational Association was organized.\nNormal-school librarians had an opportunity to meet teachers in the making, and found\nthat they needed to learn how to use books for their own as well as for their pupils' advantage. Each normal school developed its own method of teaching them how to do both.\nSince the method of the Illinois State Normal University differs from many of the others,\nI will describe it briefly. Two lessons for each class of entering students serve as the\nfoundation. The next step is accomplished by means of the reference work accompanying\nthe regular school studies, and is made practicable by the co-operation of the faculty.\nPupil-teachers are given individual instruction in the library work required for their teach-\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nLIBRARY'S\n\nPLACE\n\nIN SCHOOL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n931\n\ning. The summer school has a large attendance of experienced teachers. These appreciate weekly lectures, illustrated by exhibits, on the various phases of the formation, care,\nand use of school libraries. They have also benefited by a pamphlet that we published\nlast fall on the same subject. As in the other normal schools,^our efforts are rewarded by\ngood results.\nWhile there is still much to be done for the improvement of school libraries and schoolhbrary work by both teachers and librarians, yet it is evident that the efforts of both have\nbeen thus far successful. Teachers have, made a notable advancement in their use of\nschool libraries and their co-operation with librarians, in the period between the Columbian\nExposition and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.\nN. C. ScHAEFFER, State superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. — I have\nnot so much to say for the value of books to the people of the towns and cities, but I have\nmuch to say why it is a very important thing that a knowledge of books and a liking for\nbooks should be cultivated in the minds of those who live in isolated districts or in an\nenvironment presenting few of the things that make for the comfort and elevation of mankind; those who live in the widely scattered farming districts, seldom seeing the face of a\nneighbor, and particularly the women among this class; those who live in the factory\ntown in one ceaseless grind of mechanical labor; those who spend a large share of their lives\nin the mines shut out from the light of heaven, or in the quarries where the very existence\ndepends on constant manual labor. These are those to whom the book would come in\nthe spirit of a broader and better life, bringing the best thoughts of the best minds of all ages,\ncounteracting the monotony of what must otherwise be a lonely hfe.\nThe library has a double value in giving information as to what we do not know and\nconfirmation as to what we think we know.\nPrincipal Frank Cook, St. Louis, Mo. — I have been very much interested and deeply\ngratified at the expression of ideals in library work as set forth in this meeting. I will also\nsay that I have been agreeably surprised to find so sympathetic a spirit displayed on the\npart of the library people. This is entirely different from my experience. One is so often\ncompelled to go without what he does want, or else be satisfied with what he does not want,\nbecause of the interminable red tape that is involved in so much of the library machinery.\nF. M. Crunden, librarian of the Public Library, St. Louis, Mo., after referring to his\nearly associations with Principal Cook in his high-school days, expressed his regret that\nanything in library work should make it possible for Mr. Cook to feel and express himself\nas he did at this time. The St. Louis PubUc Library gives due heed to the principle that\nthe public library belongs to the people, and that the way by which the people may come\nto their own should be made as easy as is consistent with economic administration.\nAfter long years of experience and observation, he felt safe in saying that the public\nlibrary is, by all means, one of the most potent factors in a community for raising the\nmental and moral tone of the people. When a man is brought in contact with the best\nin books, he is brought in contact with the best in hfe. It wakens a love of ethics and its\nprinciples. The latent tastes and possibility for good, oftener than otherwise in a majority\nof people, owe their awakening to the impression made upon the reader by a single book.\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nFIRST\n\nMINUTES\n\nSESSION.— Wednesday, June 29, 1904\n\nThe sessions of the department were held in the Assembly Hall of the Mines and\nMetallurgy Building of the Universal Exposition. The department was called to order\nby President J. W. Jones, superintendent of the Ohio State Institution for the Deaf,\nColumbus, O.\nThe following program was carried out:\nOhio. I. President's address, by J. W. Jones, superintendent of the Ohio Institution for the Deaf, Columbus,\nII. \"What Teachers May Learn from the Model Schools of the Deaf and Blind and Their Exhibits,\"\nby S. M. Green, superintendent of the Missouri School for the Blind, St. Louis, Mo.\nIII. \"Sight and Hearing in Relation to Education,\" by Oscar Chrisman, professor of paidology, Ohio\nUniversity, Athens, O.\n\nInformal discussion followed by Dr. D. P. MacMillan, director of the Child Study\nDepartment of Chicago PubUc Schools, and R. C. Spencer, president of the Wisconsin\nPhonological Institute, Milwaukee, Wis.\nThe president appointed as Committee on Nominations:\nMary R. Campbell, Chicago, HI.\nPerdval Hall, Washington, D. C.\nS. M. Green, St. Louis, Mo.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION.— Friday,- July 30\n\nThe department met at 2 : 30 p. m., and was called to order by President Jones. The\nfollowing was the program of the session:\nI. Report of the Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hearing of Public-School Children,\nby Percival Hall, professor of applied mathematics and pedagogy, Gallaudet College, Washington, D. C.\nII. \"The Chicago Hospital School for Nervous and Delicate Children — Its Educational and Scientific\nMethods,\" by Miss Mary R. Campbell, secretary of board of trustees and educational advisor for the Chicago\nSchool of Special Education, Chicago, 111.\nIII. \"The Teacher and the Defective Child,\" by Dr. M. A. Goldstein, editor of The Laryngoscope,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\nOfficers for the ensuing year were elected as follows:\nFor President — Miss Margaret Bancroft, head of Haddonfield Training School, New Jersey.\nFor Vice-President — ^J. H. Freeman, superintendent of the Illinois School for the Blind, Jacksonville, 111.\nFor Secretary — Miss Anna E. Schaffer, state supervisor of schools for the deaf Wisconsin.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n\nElizabeth Van Adestine, Secretary.\n\n933\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": null, "text": "7 0>\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCAT^IONAL\n—\n\nPAPERS AND\n\n[Special\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\nJ. W. JONES, SUPERINTE^fDENT\n\nION\nCIAT\nASSO\n■\n■\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF THE OHIO\nCOLUMBUS,\nO.\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nFOR THE\n\nDEAF,\n\nI wish to express my appreciation of the honor conferred upon me by my\nelection to the presidency of this department. Special education has its place\nin our great school system, and it is right and proper that those engaged in it\nshould meet for exchange of ideas. By \"special education\" we mean the\neducation of special classes, usually known as defectives, such as the deaf,\nbhnd, feeble-minded, and those both deaf and bhnd; rather than the education of the normal child in special subjects.\nOur work, then— what is it ? How are we progressing as compared with\nteachers in the ordinary schools ? Our pupils— what of their gain as compared with what it would be in the ordinary school, and what is the organization of our schools as compared with the organization in ordinary schools ?\nThese are all interesting questions.\nSchools for special education are for the most part state or city schools,\nwhose pupils are generally surrendered by parents for the term, and whose\nconduct in and out of school is supervised by the teachers of the school. The\nchild's Hfe at once becomes systematic and regular, with wholesome food,\nsufficient play, an abundance of sleep, diversified work, regular study, and\npunctual attendance in school. These advantages are not fully recognized\nand appreciated by educators. It is impossible to secure them in ordinary\nschools, where children are responsible to their parents out of school hours.\nTo one who has had experience in watching results in special schools, where\nthe management controls in and out of school, the advantages seem so superior\nas to make him wonder if the question is not of sufficient importance to engage\nthe attention of educators generally. In special schools also is found a much\ngreater variety of instruction than in ordinary schools. In addition to a varied\ncurriculum of studies are found all kinds of manual and industrial training, a\ncomplete art school, a gymnasium, instruction in domestic science, fancy\nneedlework, music when the pupils can hear, trade schools, and specialties\nof almost all kinds, where few or many pupils are taught to be useful and\nself-supporting. The sense of which the children in these schools is bereft\nis compensated for, in a measure, by the varied opportunities to develop the\nremaining senses.\nThe manual training affords a wonderful help to these children in both\ntheir physical and mental development. They return to their homes for\nvacation, and parents note the ease with which they can turn their hands to\ndoing things. This is especially true of the deaf children.\nIt is not an uncom-\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nPRESIDENTIAL\n\nADDRESS\n\n935\n\nmon thing for parents to say that their deaf child is more useful and helpful\nthan any of their other children. Children from special schools usually go\nback to their homes better housekeepers, have more modern ideas, and exert\nan influence for better things. From this we conclude that the state could\nafford to do more in the ordinary schools to train the hand and eye to work\nin unison with the mind. This will cost more money, but it will make more\nefficient men and women, and the state will have its return for the increased\nexpenditure.\nIt is true that there is a larger percentage of objectionable children in our\nspecial schools, and that the average of intelligence is, even in the schools for\nthe deaf and blind, not as high as is found in the ordinary schools, for the\nreason that the causes which destroy sight and hearing often affect the mentality\nas well. It is also true that when the sense only is affected the mind is quickened and intensified, the character becomes beautiful, and the disposition sweet.\nIt is a joy to have such children as pupils. The deaf children are especially\nattractive and interesting. I am told by those who work with the bhnd that\ntheir perception is keen, their ideas are often original, and their memories\nare so strong that it is a pleasure to teach them.\nIt is not expected that the feeble-minded can be educated to a high standard ;\nthe fact of their mental weakness makes this impossible. Many, of course,\ncannot be educated at all. But, in proportion to the abihty and expectancy,\nthese unfortunate children are far better off in special schools than they could\npossibly be in the ordinary school or at home.\nThe work of educating the special classes is very important. One of the\nnecessary conditions is their segregation. Under the plans adopted and\nmethods pursued in all of our states and a few cities, we see the deaf and blind\nhighly educated, sometimes in general knowledge, sometimes in special lines,\nbut always to the point of usefulness. They do not become beggars, but\nbecome industrious and self-supporting citizens, able to maintain their families\nand to educate their children. When you see a deaf or blind person begging,\nyou must not think he represents his class ; for he is the rare exception, and in\nall probability was never in a special school. These habits are sometimes\ntaught by indolent and thoughtless parents; but when the child goes to school\nhe is too proud of his acquirements, when he returns to his home, to acknowledge in any way that he is not capable of taking care of himself.\nThere are many reasons why the pupil in special schools are proportionately better educated, considering their disadvantages, than are the children\nin the ordinary schools. We have already spoken of regular attendance,\nregular study, systematic living, diversified opportunities, manual and industrial training. Teachers are generally much more carefully selected, and\ntheir preparation and work are more carefully supervised than in ordinary\nschools. This is especially true in a state school, where the superintendent\nhas the entire field from which to make his selections, and is free from local\ninfluences which often secure the appointment of incompetent persons as\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": null, "text": "936\n\nNATION^AL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nteachers in the ordinary schools. The services of good teachers once secured,\nthe tenure of appointment is almost certain, the remuneration is satisfactory,\nand the results are bound to be the best.\nTeachers in the ordinary schools are always interested, surprised, and\npleased when they visit the special schools. They are at once struck with the\nthoroness of the work done and the satisfactory results secured. They learn\nthe value of simpHcity and illustration. They see the full force of objective\nteaching. In the special school they see the object, the action, the thing done;\nand then they watch the mental process of the child to express in English what\nthe eyes have seen and the mind has thought. It has taken time, but no\nenergy has been lost; something has been done. They also find these special\nschools better equipped with working material, hand-made charts, useful\npictures, supplementary books, and the like.\nNot only in the detailed work of instruction do the special schools keep\nabreast of the times, but the work as a whole is aided by discoveries growing out\nof scientific, sanitary, economic, and sociological investigations. The attention ofthose interested in these discoveries is called to the papers to be presented\nin this meeting.\nI desire to call your attention especially to the advanced step taken in\nthe Ohio School for Feeble-Minded Youth for the care, of the adults of this\nclass. The able superintendent of that institution. Dr. G. A. Doren, who\nhas had charge of the institution since its founding, nearly fifty years ago, has\nsucceeded in having the state legislature provide a custodial farm of sufficient\nacreage to give employment to the adult feeble-minded of the state, and in\nsuch a way that the sexes are entirely separated, not only from each other, but\nfrom society at large. The prime object of this movement is to prevent the\npropagation of then: own kind. As statistics show that the offspring of the\nfeeble-minded is almost always imbecile, this is doubtless a great step toward\nlessening the percentage of this unfortunate class of people, and in time the\nexpense of maintaining schools for such children may be lessened. But\nwhether it be or not, the good of society is served by this segregation, and\nthe welfare and happiness of the feeble-minded themselves are greatly increased.\nThe advanced work in speech and in lip-reading which the deaf schools\nare accomplishing, and the increased opportunities for the education of those\nwho are both deaf and bHnd, as exemplified by Helen Keller, Tommy Stringer,\nOren Benson, LesHe Oren, and many others, show the efforts that are being\nput forth by these special schools to better the condition of all classes and to\nrestore to the fight of the world those who would otherwise spend their lives\nin darkness and misery.\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nWHAT\n\nTEACHERS MAY LEARN FROM THE MODEL\nFOR THE DEAF AND BLIND, AND\nTHEIR EXHIBITS\n\nS.\n\nM.\n\nGREEN,\n\nMODEL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nMISSOURI\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nDEAF\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nFOR\n\nBLIND\n\nTHE\n\n937\n\nSCHOOL\n\nBLIND,\n\nIn the advance in recent years of educational spirit and methods to the\npoint where the whole child is considered, where his body is trained as well\nas his mind developed, where his social and ethical impulses are directed by\na sound judgment, we approach the ideal training of the young citizen-to-be\nfor the duties and relations of future citizen Hfe.\nIn schools for special classes of pupils, such as the blind and deaf, this\nadvance is of special beneficence, tho the problems encountered are not so\neasily solved as in schools for the normal child. Such training of faculties\nand powers as equip the child for self-support is for the defective classes a\nproblem unsatisfactorily solved and subject to constant revision.\nThe teacher of the normal child, as he approaches the work of the deaf\nand the bUnd, may be greatly helped by observing the mental processes and\nintellectual tendencies of the two classes so handicapped in the acquisition of\nknowledge.\nAs by far the greater number of sense-percepts come thru the eye, the\nblind child has a much more narrow basis of knowledge than the deaf child,\ncompares and classifies his percepts more frequently, knows what he knows\nmore thoroly, and is more dogmatic in his expression of the truth so gained.\nHe early becomes accustomed to a mental visualization of his percepts, which\ncan be greatly utilized by the teacher in leading him to the unknown; for it\nis to this intuitive grasp of the idea, and its ready expression in language,\nso dij6&cult for the deaf, that the blind child owes his intellectual life. \"It is\nthe soul that sees.\" It is then not surprising that, as the words come trippingly from his tongue, the blind child overrates his acquisition, while the\ndeaf child, with his brain flooded with sense-percepts — gained thru the eye,\nusually lacking the concentration common to the blind, who have not these\ndistractions — understands the thing seen and its relations, but does not always\ncompare and classify, or pass to the abstract contemplation of the idea. With\nhis brain a confused register of sense-impressions, he cannot translate his\nknowledge into terms intelligible to bthers, and becomes distrustful of his\nability to apprehend the idea, which he is unable to clarify by expression in\nlanguage.\nThe deaf child has the idea; the bhnd child, too often the sign of the\nidea. The beneficent results of developing the whole child, by the manual\nwork and domestic-science occupations, are especially felt' in schools for the\nblind and deaf. Limited as is each class in sense-activity, the wholesome\neffects are particularly felt by the bhnd child, who finds the outer world unfolding to him as successive, not simultaneous, acts of sense-perception, as in the\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n938\ncase with his deaf brother. His own activity makes the idea vivid. To put\nthe sloyd hammer in his hands gives him a clear-cut idea of the tool itself;\nand to use it opens a new world of activity. If the first tendency in using be\niconoclastic, it needs only direction to become constructive.\nThe making of the flower-stands, the picture-frames, the chaks, opens to\nhim the joy of self-expression, and regarding those objects, at least, no more\nare his ideas formless and inaccurate. The blind girl, in sewing and using\nthe utensils of cooking, has now the clear-cut idea made vivid by her own\nparticipation in the process of construction, and no longer the word, as the\nvague symbol of thought, is the sole fruit of her efforts. The joy of becoming a useful member of the family and sharing in the world's work transforms\nexistence to a class hitherto assigned to the chimney corner. This training\nof the hand and the muscles awakens the motor center of the brain, and\nstimulates neighboring areas, producing more normal activity, which results\nin clearer and more sustained thinking power.\nThe deaf child, with its wealth of percepts gained thru the eye, is baffled\nin his attempts to use the symbols of thought, his ideas becoming vague from\nthe inabihty to clothe them in fitting language, demonstrating to us how\nlanguage does clarify thought.\nRight here I would suggest that the great deficiency in the instruction of\nthese two classes of pupils is the lack of nature study. The sense-perception\nof the bhnd may be greatly increased by introducing into the school more\nscience study — not the dry formulas and theories, but the vital facts which\nthey may classify and compare themselves. The bhnd child needs to go to the\nfields to know his neighbor birds and flowers, to gather the common plants\nand grains, to learn the size and varieties of animal life, to observe the variations of temperature, moisture, and direction of the wind from his own observation, not the hearsay of others.\nTo show that this can be done, I cite a class of bhnd pupils, of which five\ngathered, classified, and mounted 358 specimens of insects, the only aid given\nbeing that which was rendered by younger seeing children in catching specimens.\nOne pupil, E. H., aged eighteen, analyzed and dissected plants and flowers,\ndiscovering all parts that could be seen without the aid of the microscope, by\nhis sensitive fingertips. This work was done under the direction of an enthusiastic teacher, whose excursions with pupils to the country and morning trips\nto the park were intellectually stimulating and recreative. Who can estimate\nthe value of the knowledge so gained in correcting and removing inaccurate\nideas of plant and bird fife ? This abundance of material so gained can be\nused to develop power of expression for the deaf, training him into easier use\nof the symbols of thought.\nThe nature work will cultivate for the bhnd an exact habit of thought,\nwhich he needs to substitute for his irregular emotional mental habits. The\nbhnd pupil can accompHsh the prescribed amount of culture studies — history,\nliterature, civics, and ethics — in the same time as his seeing brother, but is\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT\n\nAlSfD HEARING\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n939\n\nphysically barred from laboratory and microscopic work, which the deaf may\nperform, while the culture studies supply the deficiencies noted in the\nsympathetic, emotional nature of many of the deaf.\nFrom the written work of the exhibit, we find that one class of eight furnished 307 absolutely perfect papers in language and history in eight months,\nnot one dot of which is out of place. The accuracy and neatness here displayed\ncount for much in the daily life of the pupils, who have probably themselves\nreceived greater benefit from the exhibit than those who examine and admire.\nFrom the pictorial exhibits, we find the play-life to be that of normal\nyoung people, as we see them playing games, giving physical-culture drills,\nentertaining by programs of musical and literary efforts, and entering into\nall the regular pleasures of youthful life.\nIn the matter of trades taught for self-support, the great problem of afterstudent life, the deaf outnumber the blind — about fiye to one — as there are\nso few occupations which can be followed by the blind without the help of\nseeing people. The broom trade is one, and is especially adapted to the\nMiddle West, where the corn is grown. Piano-tuning is necessarily Umited\nto those having a musical education. Musical talent, contrary to the popular\nidea, is not an invariable attendant of bhndness.\nIn the courses of study, music, manual training, and art are offered to\nthese two classes of pupils ; the girl or boy without musical talent, or talent for\ndrawing or painting, may find development in the manual training, and not\nbe kept where progress is impossible and special talents are not recognized.\nThe girl who has not talent for music or other arts may find her greatest\ndelight in domestic science, and in mastering the problems of the kitchen\nand the table.\nThe teacher who leaves this exhibit without feeling that there are many\navenues to reach the child and further his development, and that his individuality should be studied and conserved, has missed much of its lessons.\nThe instructor of the seeing child is helped by his study of these schools\nto determine what variation his pupil makes from the normal pupil; whether\nhe needs more observation work or more imagination culture; whether logical and reflective studies, or those with a social sympathetic basis, are required,\nthat he may set to work to remedy or remove the deficiency; not to label the\nchild stupid and to consider him hopeless.\n\nSIGHT AND\nOSCAR\n\nCHRISMAN,\n\nHEARING\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\nPAIDOLOGY,\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nOHIO\n\nATHENS,\n\nO.\n\nPerhaps the first examination of the sight of school children was made\nby Cohn at Breslau, Germany, in 1865, and of the hearing of school children\nby Reichard at Riga, Russia, in 1878.\nSince that time there have been quite\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": null, "text": "Q40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\na large number of school children examined as to sight and hearing, and it\nhas ever been found that a large percentage have defects of sight and hearing\nwhich greatly affect the work of the school. Notwithstanding the importance\nof these two senses in education, it is surprising to learn how Httle is being\ndone to ascertain their condition among school children. The committee\nwhich was appointed by this Department of Special Education for the purpose\nof collecting data in regard to defective sight and hearing, in their report to\nyou of last year, 1903, state that a special circular of inquiry was sent out in\nthis country to the superintendents of schools in cities of more than 25,000\ninhabitants. \"The circular was sent to 160 superintendents, seventy-eight\nanswers were received, but in nineteen cases only were any statistics reported.\"\nFrom this we are led to conclude that the number of schools in this country\nthat are examining the sight and hearing of the children are very few. And\nyet every thinking man and woman today beheves that there should be frequent\nphysical examinations of school children, and many hold that every school\nshould have a medical examiner connected with it. This is surely coming,\nand yet how slowly it comes! In this audience are people from different\nsections of this country. How many of you know of a single school where\nsome kind of examinations or tests are not regularly held in the subjects taught ?\nBut do you know of a single school where examinations are regularly made of\nthe eye and ear and nose and throat of children with tests of sight and hearing ?\nYet, which examinations are of most importance to the welfare of the child ?\nThe medical people are becoming active in this matter and are doing much\nto bring about a change in this respect. At the meeting of the American\nMedical Association at New Orleans in May, 1903, thru the efforts of Dr.\nFrank AUport, of Chicago, the following was adopted:\nWhereas, The value of perfect sight and hearing is not fully appreciated by educators,\nand neglect of the delicate organs of vision and hearing often leads to disease of these\nstructures; therefore, be it\nResolved, That it is the sense of the American Medical Association that measures be\ntaken by boards of health, boards of education, and school authorities, and, where possible\nlegislation be secured, looking to the examination of the eyes and ears of all school children,\nthat disease in its incipiency may be discovered and corrected.\n\nIn reference to this resolution, 'Dr. AUport wrote me under date of May\n\n26, 1904:\n\nThis resolution has already been adopted by the Mississippi Valley Medical Association, and the state medical associations of South Dakota, Michigan, Montana, Delaware,\nMinnesota, Colorado, New York, California, Alabama, Utah, IlHnois, and Connecticut.\nThe resolution has also been adopted by the American Public Health Association, and\nthe state and provincial boards of health of North America. The following state boards\nof health have passed the resolution and are taking steps to put the plan in operation in\nthe fall: North Dakota, Rhode Island, Alabama, Illinois, Montana, New York, Indiana,\nConnecticut, Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, and Ohio. The state legislature of Connecticut has taken up the work, and children are examined in that state under the state law.\nThe resolution has also been passed by the state boards of education of Texas, Kansas,\nMinnesota, and Colorado.\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT\n\nAND\n\nHEARING\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n941\n\nCivilization is laying great burdens upon the eye and the ear. In city\nlife especially must the innumerable noises be very hard on the hearing apparatus of the young child, greatly affecting the delicate parts ; and not only affecting\nthe ear itself, but also the brain connections therewith. The eye is yet even\nmore affected by the demands of civilization, for perhaps no other organ has\nhad heaped upon it so many new things by advanced civiHzation as has the\neye, and it has hardly been able to keep pace in its growth and power of adjustment with the increase of the demands. Whether or not civilization has\nbrought on an increase of abnormalities of these two sense-organs may never\nbe fully known, but no one can doubt that the increasing demands made upon\nthem must have aggravated any original abnormalities to such an extent with\nthe child of today as to demand our careful consideration.\nJust what number of children in any given schoolroom may have defective,\nsight or hearing can be ascertained only by careful examination; but the\nteacher may be sure that there are several. The latest gathering of statistics\nhas been by your committee, who find that returns from their inquiries show\n*'that large numbers of children in the public schools are handicapped in their\nprogress thru school by defective sight or hearing.\"\nBy the statistics gathered from various sources, it is clearly shown that a\nlarge number of school children have defective sight and hearing. Perhaps\nthe best and most conclusive examinations of the sight and hearing of school\nchildren made in this country are those of the Chicago Child Study Laboratory.\nThe results obtained in these examinations are in some ways different from\nthose obtained elsewhere. As they are most carefully made, they bear much\nweight and deserve our highest regard.\nIn his two articles on sight and hearing in the Journal of Adolescence,\ngiving reports from the Chicago Child Study Laboratory, Professor Krauskopf shows that upon first entrance to school at six years of age 32 per cent,\nof the children were found with defective sight, and 26 per cent, with defective\nhearing. He shows in the highest form of defective sight, 20-30 of normal\nvision or lower, and of defective hearing, 3 or more points below normal,\nthat there is a very rapid increase in the percentage of defectives until the\nhighest point is reached not far from the ninth year — before the ninth\nin hearing and after the ninth in sight — and then as rapid a decrease till the\nlowest point is reached not far from the thirteenth year — before the thirteenth\nin hearing and after the thirteenth in sight — which goes lower than that upon\nentrance to school. Then a slight rise takes place, till at the close of the high\nschool the percentage of defectives is about the same as upon entrance to\nschool. In the lower forms of the defectives there is shown a difference in\nthese two senses. In sight there is an increase of defect from entrance upon\nschool all the way through school life, while in hearing the lower forms show\nrise and fall as in the higher form, but at end of school life there is a higher\npercentage than at beginning of school life.\nThe great fact brought out by these Chicago investigations is the very\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": null, "text": "P42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nrapid increase of defective sight and hearing in the early school years of the\nchild, which culminates not far from the ninth year. This is a remarkable\ntime in the Hfe of the child, for other troubles show strongest about this year.\nAt this time the brain has about reached its full weight, and in its development\nis changing from increase in size to increase in function. This is also the time\nof the greatest susceptibihty to fatigue in the Hfe of the child; for near this year\nthere is q^ sudden growth, which is not shared by the heart, so that it does not\nkeep pace in growth, while the 'extra strain on it causes dilation and great\nfatigue when exertion forces the heart to do more work than it can rightly\naccompHsh. The maximum weight of the spleen in proportion to the body\ncomes at this time, but just what that means is not determined. At this year,\ntoo, the child has yet about half of his temporary teeth remaining, most of\nwhich are in bad condition, thus preventing proper mastication of food, and\nfrequently keeping the child from eating sufficient amount of food because of\npain from the bad teeth. All these conditions lower the general tone of the\nchild's system, and, with the adenoid and catarrhal growths and the various\ninfectious diseases of childhood, act upon these two senses of sight and hearing\nso as to increase the bad condition which school work aggravates.\nWhether the school greatly affects these two senses in older pupils may be\na question, but there surely can be no question that it does cause an increase\nof defects in the early school years. This is well shown in nearsightedness.\nMost young children are, perhaps, farsighted, but, strange to say, in their work\nthey often bring objects near to them, so that they may be counted as normal or\neven nearsighted. With proper care, it is held, such children could be saved\nfrom much nearsightedness, if not wholly from it. School work requires\nclose appHcation, and this, when continued, so affects the plastic eye as to\nchange it and pass it from farsightedness thru the normal stage on to nearsightednes . Iis\nt held that the learning to read by the young child requires\nthe same amount of eye-strain and exertion as the learning to use the microscope by the older people. If this is true, it can readily be seen that the\ngrowing eye is greatly affected thereby. Some teachers have been convinced\nthat reading, writing, and the Hke, should not be begun by the child until he\nis at least ten years of age. Not only is the actual reading itseff a heavy strain\non the child, but there also goes with it the getting of the thought, keeping the\nplace in the book, holding the book properly according to the teacher's views,\nand other requirements which worry the child and help to keep up the strain\non him and so react on the sight. Not only may the child's defective vision\ncause him to take a .position that the teacher may deem awkward, but even\nthe position of the eyes in the head may make it imperative that he hold his\nhead differently from others. Thus Stevens in Popular Science Monthly\n(Vol. LIX, pp. 390-401) shows that the long head has a low plane of vision,\nand so holds the chin up and head back; and the broad head also has a low\nplane of vision, but not quite so low as the high head, and the head goes back;\nwhile the tall head has a high plane of vision and carries the forehead forward,\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT\n\nAND\n\nHEARING\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n943\n\nmaking the head turn down. Such positions are to lessen the strain on the\neye muscles, because of the need of elevating or lowering the eyes to get the\nproper plane of vision.\nThe important part that sight and hearing bear in education requires that\nthe eye and the ear be in good condition, and with children that are defective\nn these senses all possible should be done that would help them in their work.\nThe eye is of special importance because of the great amount of work required\nDf it and of its assistance to the hearing. We are scarcely aware of the great\nhelp the eye gives to the ear — especially that given in understanding spoken\nlanguage thru Hp-reading. Without proper examination, neither teacher nor\nparent nor even the child himself may be aware of the defect, or at least of\nthe extent of it. This is because such a child does not always show the same\ndegree of defect, and in hearing he usually turns the better-hearing ear toward\nthe one speaking, and thus at times shows much better hearing than at others.\nAlso the latent power in these senses is brought into play at moments of great\ninterest, and so gives the child almost the appearance of normal-hearing\nchildren. Again, the child is not aware of his defects, and considers that he\nhas the usual sense-power, that he is not different from other children, that\nall children see and hear as he does, and so he makes no complaint. This is\nwell illustrated by the following from Krauskopf :\nIn testing some three hundred graduates of the secondary schools of Chicago, a number of them were found suffering from marked defects of vision of which they were entirely\nunaware. Supposing that others had the same difficulties in seeing objects as themselves,\nthey had finished the entire course of the city schools without realizing how seriously they\nhad been handicapped. ^\n\nDefective sight or hearing in children is quite hurtful to good school work.\nA child so afflicted fails to understand, because he cannot see or hear properly,\nand so loses interest and becomes indifferent. He then is designated as lazy\nor stupid by his teacher. He cannot do his work quickly, and so must make\nslow progress, until in the grammar grades many cases are found of children\nbelow grade; that is, children whose ages should place them in a higher grade\nthan that in which they are classed. In every instance of investigation of sight\nand hearing, the dull, the lazy, and the stupid children of a grade have been\nfound to be in most cases defective in sight or hearing, or both. Some investigators go so far as to claim that every dull child has defective sight or hearing,\nor both. Krauskopf sums up the Chicago results thus:\nChance plays but a minor part in pushing the pupil above grade, so that this group\nof advanced pupils are for the most part of exceptional ability; while many causes besides\nmental deficiency may tend to keep a child back in school, and the group below grade\nwill not consist entirely of dull pupils. Notwithstanding this, and in spite of the fact that\nhearing is only one of the many factors that might affect the child's school standing, there\nis no point where those below grade are not on the average distinctly inferior to their more\nfortunate companions.^\n•\n\nSuch defects, too, have great influence upon the character of the child.\nI Journal of Adolescence, Vol. I, p. 198.\n\n' Ibid., Vol. II, p. 105.\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": null, "text": "g^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nHis inability to see or to hear well causes him to lose interest and to become\ncareless, and, if punished by his teacher, he feels that he is wronged, yet without knowing the true conditions; hence, he perhaps grows stubborn or morose,\nor, worse yet, becomes filled with the feeHng that all is against him, and\nso loses hope and falls away too often into that number who become truants\nor criminals. This is well shown in that the tests on the boys of the John\nWorthy School in Chicago — a school for truants and the Hke — showed these\nboys to have greater defects than the children of the public schools and even\nof those below grade.\nWe all beHeve, I am sure, that there should be stated and careful examinations made of the eye, the ear, the nose, and the throat of all school childre*n,\nand tests of the sight and hearing. Such ought really to be made by specialists and not left to teachers. Yet for the present we have not progressed\nsufficiently to feel the need of specialists, and so the teacher will have it to do\nif it is done. The teacher may make the simple tests of sight and hearing\nwhich will be of much help, especially in gaining a better knowledge of the\ndull, the backward, and the bad children. Dr. Allport has worked out plans\nwhereby this can be carried on by teachers, and, as mentioned before, thru\nhis efforts these plans are being introduced into the schools of this country.\nWhere tests of sight and hearing have been made in schools, there usually\nfollows a reseating of the children, so that those with defective sight or hearing\nare given seats more favorable to them for seeing and hearing, and the parents\nare notified of the condition of their children. But simply seating the child\nin a more favorable locality only partially accompHshes the results needed.\nHe should be carefully studied so that his condition may be well known all\nthe time, and he should be taught in such a way as to give him every opportunity for growth and improvement; and this really can be accompHshed only\nby specially trained teachers. Also the notifying of parents will not necessarily end in just the improvements needed, but the school authorities should\nwork with the parents in this matter, and should see that all is done for the\nchild which is needed to be done. That parents may be well-meaning, and\nyet fail properly to look after these needs, is seen when in tests made on sight\nof children glasses worn by the children were frequently found to be of no\nuse to them, and indeed in many cases were really injurious, the parents having\nfailed to have examinations made and glasses changed as frequently as needed.\nShould the teacher be prevented from testing the sight and hearing, even\nby the simplest methods, because of prejudice on the part of the parents and\nschool authorities, he may learn much by quiet observation. He should from\nday to day take careful notice of his pupils, and especially so of all dull, vicious,\nand lazy ones. By carefully noting of pupils, habits will be found which may\nlead to the ascertaining of the defects. Notice if pupils are in the habit of\nkeeping one side of the head usually turned to the one speaking or reciting,\nand if at times when this side is turned away the pupil comprehends as well and\nquickly as at the other times; also see if such pupils, when deeply interested in\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nSIGHT\n\nAND\n\nHEARING\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO EDUCATION\n\n945\n\nsomething being told, can withdraw their attention to something else as quickly\nas can the other pupils. Pupils who cannot do this probably have defective\nhearing. Note if there is frequent wrinkling of the forehead as if frowning,\nthrowing forward of the head, turning about to catch a better focus, and\nholding work close to eyes; if frequent headaches occur, and if in reading a\nchild persists in mispronouncing words which it is certain he knows. Such\nmay arise from defective sight. In dictation exercises and copying of work\nfrom the board, if frequent mistakes are made, they are pretty certain to arise\nfrom defective sight and hearing. If a child has a dull, expressionless face;\nif he keeps his mouth open; if his face is flat, as tho deformed, with almost an\nidiotic stare upon it ; and if such a child is disturbed by bad dreams, snores at\nnight, is addicted to nightly bed-wetting, such facts pretty well determine\nthat the child is a sufferer from adenoid growths. Thus the teacher may find\nthe defective children of a schoolroom, and yet it must be known that there\nare children whose defects can be learned only by careful tests by a specialist;\nand even in some cases the specialist may be unable to learn the extent of the\ndefect.\nSince the state provides the school buildings and appurtenances, and then\ncompels the child to attend the school, the state should supply the child with\nmeans to keep up and improve his physical being, and to prepare him and\nkeep him in condition to do the work required of him by the school. Therefore the state should carefully examine every child, and see that he gets proper\ntreatment for his defective sight and hearing, and that he is provided with\nwhatever he may need to make it possible for him to see and to hear the work\nhe is to do.\nA very different classification of school children should be made than is\nthe custom now. Instead of wholly classifying on the basis of mental aptness,\nthere should also be a classification according to physical capacity and condition. In sight and hearing, the children should be carefully examined and\nclassed according to the degree of these senses possessed by them, and frequent examinations should be made and frequent changes in classification, as\nchildren improve or become worse in these senses.\nTeachers in the common schools have very much yet to learn from you\nteachers in special education. Teachers should be carefully trained to instruct\nchildren of different degrees of sight and hearing, and to know how to help\nthem to improve physically as well as mentally. The school of the future\nwill be filled with experts, not only in subjects and methods, but also in knowledge of children. The children will be carefully studied and examined, and\nclassified according to physical and mental conditions, and teachers specially\ntrained will take charge of special children, just as at present in our special\neducation we divide into the bUnd, the deaf, the deaf-blind, the feeble-minded,\nand the Hke, and further divide these into classes and groups, and have specially\ntrained teachers to take charge of the special classes.\nThe patience and close work in the training of feeble-minded children\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n946\nshould be used in the training of children in the common schools. As careful\na study should be made of each normal child as is now made of each abnormal\nchild. The physiological method of Seguin needs to be applied to the children\nin the common schools, and especially to young children; and not till such is\nthe case can our children receive such care and training as they need properly\nto develop their being.\n\nREPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ST A TISTICS\nSIGHT AND HEARING OF PUBLIC SCHOOL\n\nOF DEFECTIVE\nCHILDREN\n\nTo the Department of Special Education of the National Educational Association:\nThe Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hearing of PubUcSchool Children, appointed by this department of the National Educational\nAssociation at the meeting of 1902, at Minneapolis, Minn., made a most\ninteresting report at the Boston meeting last summer, giving statistics v^hich\nwere collected for the committee thru the Bureau of Education.^\nIt was found that out of 34,426 pupils examined in six cities, 13.4 per cent,\nwere seriously defective in sight; and out of 57,072 pupils examined in seven\ncities, 3.6 per cent, were seriously defective in hearing.\nThese percentages, obtained from a comparatively small number of pupils,\nand varying greatly, as the report showed, in different cities, cannot be taken\nas a definite basis for computing the number of such defective children in the\nwhole country; but they certainly point out most plainly a state of affairs\nwhich calls for uniform and methodical examination with the view of alleviating present troubles, of finding out the causes of the defects discovered, and\nof checking them, if possible, in the future.\nThe report of last year's committee was accepted, and the committee was\nenlarged and continued, with the suggestion that methods of testing the sight\nand hearing of school children should be investigated.\nThe present committee, before beginning active work, endeavored to\nobtain the assistance of the Bureau of Education in sending out queries and\ngathering further statistics; but, on account of the great pressure of work at\nthe bureau because of preparation of the great exhibits for the exposition, the\nCommissioner of Education felt unable to offer the assistance sought.\nThe idea of testing the sight and hearing of school children is by no means\na new one. In some cities, such as Worcester and Chicago, much systematic\nwork of this kind has been going on for years, but from the statistics gathered\nlast year it was clear that in a great many cities nothing was being done.\nTherefore the committee, to stir up interest in the work, sent out the full report\nof last year's committee to superintendents of public schools in about 125 of\nthe largest cities of the United States.\n= Proceedings of the National Educational Association for 1903. A full report, with a valuable appendix,\nis published in the advance sheets of the Report of the Conunissioner of Education for 1902, chap. 46.\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n947\n\nIt was decided that the committee itself, by experimenting for a short time\nwith various tests, would not be able to obtain results of any value compared\nwith those already obtained in several places where different kinds of systematic tests of the sight and hearing of thousands of school children have been\ncarried on. Therefore the following set of questions was sent out to the\nsuperintendents of schools of every city of the United States of 30,000, or\nover, inhabitants.\n1. What method or device is used to test the sight of the pupils of the\nschools ?\n\npublic\n\n2. What method or device is used to test the hearing of the pupils of the\nschools ?\n\npublic\n\n3. By whom (whether by specialists or by the teachers of the pupils examined) are\nthe tests made ?\n4. In case preliminary tests are made by teachers, are the pupils found defective\nwhen tested by speciaHsts?\n5. Are the kindergarten children, or children unable to read, tested to determine\ndefects of sight, and, if so, what device is used ?\n6. Do you consider the watch test a proper and sufficient one to be used by the teacher\nto determine defective hearing?\n7. Have you ever used methods, other than those given above, of testing sight and\nhearing ? If so, why did you change ?\n8. What are the main causes of defective sight among your school children ?\n9. What are the main causes of defective hearing among your school childreri ?\n\nThese questions were sent out to 135 cities, and fifty-five replies were\nreceived. In twenty-eight of these cities formal tests of the sight of children\nable to read are made periodically ; in nine others informal tests are made by\nhearing the children read, by using charts, and by general observation.\nIn twenty cities formal tests of hearing are made at regular intervals; and\nin twelve cities informal tests are carried out by means of conversation, reading,\nand general observation.\nIn only nine of the fifty-five cities replying are the kindergarten children,\nor those unable to read, tested for defective sight.\nSnellen's standard test types are employed in nearly all cases for testing\nsight. It has been pointed out by several authorities that this test is not\nsufficient for detecting ^'farsightedness,\" neither is it a test for color blindness,\nand some other defects of vision, and in a few cities additional devices are\nemployed to make the test more complete. However, the test by means of\nSnellen's types, simple color tests, and observation on the part of the teacher\nas to the causes of headaches among the pupils have, in several cities, led to\nthe detection of nearly all cases of defective vision.\nTesting the sight of kindergarten children, or those unable to read, is\nsuccessfully accomplished in Chicago and other cities by means of the illiterate,\nor \"£\" test, which consists of placing an E in different positions\n\ne;\n\nu\n\nm\n\n3\n\nat fixed distances, and requiring the child to place an E in the same positions.\nNaming familiar objects at fixed distances, and recognizing or reproducing\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n948\nsimple geometrical forms from given distances, are other tests that are employed\nwith young children.\nA majority of the replies to the committee's questions shows that testing\nthe hearing by means of a watch is not satisfactory. In Chicago the watch is\nsupplemented by the use of the voice, a \"cHcker,\" and the audiometer. In\nWorcester the ordinary voice is used. In all cases where defects of hearing\nare suspected it is clear that the teacher's observation must count as a part\nof the test.\nThe reported. causes of defective vision are numerous. It is of much\ninterest to note that only one reply gives bad Hghting of schoolrooms as a\ncause. Lack of proper ventilation, lack of outdoor Hfe, bad postures in sitting, the habit of holding books too near the eyes, poor print, and the constant\nuse of the eyes, are all given as causes, every one of which nearly all teachers\nare aware of, but noted here because the removal of these causes Hes largely\nwith the teachers and principals of the schools.\nThe causes of deafness as given show little connection with schoolroom\nHfe, and their prevention Hes rather in the hands of parents and physicians.\nA fact worth attention is that the state of Connecticut requires tests of the\neyesight of school children every three years by means of Snellen's test types.\nIn Philadelphia, Jersey City, and Yonkers regular medical inspectors\nor specialists test the sight and hearing of all school children. In New York\nand Boston, while every child is not tested, all backward children are given a\nthoro examination by specialists. In Chicago a regular child-study department is maintained, the head of which has charge of the work of testing the\nsight and hearing of the children.\nAt the last meeting of the American Medical Association the following\nrecommendation was passed:\nResolved, That it is advised by the American Medical Association that measures be\ntaken by the various school authorities and boards of education, boards of health, and,\nif possible, state legislators, to secure examinations of the eyes and ears of all school children in this country, with a view to suitable treatment for the relief of opthalmologic and\notologic imperfections.\n\nIn conclusion, the committee reports that it beHeves periodical tests of\nthe sight and hearing of aU school children, including those in the kindergartens,\nshould be made in every city of the United States in order to discover cases\nof defective vision and hearing.\nIt beHeves that these tests should be conducted, where possible, by regular\nmedical inspectors or speciaHsts, but that they may be conducted satisfactorily\nby the teachers, if they themselves are first instructed by a speciaHst.\nIt beHeves that the parents of aU children who are thus found defective\nshould be notified, and the child, if examined first by a teacher, should be sent\nto a speciaHst. As many of the defects of sight are directly caused by school\nHfe, it does not seem proper to leave the matter to the authority of parents\nalone.\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSTATISTICS\n\n949\n\nAPPENDIX\n\nCities in which regular tests of the sight of school children are made: Atlanta, Bridgeport, Cambridge, Camden, Chicago, Cleveland, Denver, Duluth, Elmira, Grand Rapids,\nJersey City, Little Rock, Lowell, Milwaukee, New Haven, New Orleans, Philadelphia,\nRockford, Saginaw, San Antonio, Somerville, Superior, Trenton, Utica, Waterbury,\nWilliamsport, Worcester, Yonkers.\nCities in which regular tests of the hearing of school children are made : Atlanta,\nCambridge, Camden, Chicago, Cleveland, Denver, Duluth, Grand Rapids, Little Rock,\nJersey City, Lowell, New Haven, Philadelphia, Rockford, Saginaw, Superior, Trenton,\nUtica, Worcester, Yonkers.\nCities in which kindergarten children are tested for defective eyesight: Camden,\nChicago, Cleveland, Duluth, Lowell (in some of the schools), Phildadelphia, Trenton,\nUtica, Yonkers.\nAny one desirous of obtaining detailed information as to how tests are carried on in\nthese cities will find much interesting matter in the report of last year's committee. School\nsuperintendents are also usually very glad to supply all the information they can.\nB\nExamples of notices sent to parents when children have been found defective in sight\nor hearing.\nDULUTH\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nOffice of\nSchool.\nMr. and Mrs.\n.\nBy request of the board of education, your child, with many others, has been examine^ by Drs. Titcomb\nand Collins for eye, ear, nose, and throat trouble.\nAs a result of this examination\nis found to have sufl&cient trouble with the\nnot only to compel to work at a great disadvantage, but also to menace the child's best development and be a cause of illhealth.\nThe board of education herewith urges you to have this matter attended to by some competent physician\nor specialist, beUeving that it will result greatly to the benefit of your child.\nYours respectfully,\n, Principal.\nWorcester,\n\nMass.,\n\n190-.\n\nBy vote of the school committee, the superintendent of schools has been authorized to have tests made\nannually of the sight and hearing of all pupils in the schools. This is done by the principals of each school\nunder the direction of competent physicians.\nThe sight of\nhas been found below the standard deemed necessary for the\nproper execution of school work.\nIt is advisable that you consult a physician (not an optician).\nTrusting\nthat you will co-operate by having an examination made at once,\nYoursI remain,\ntruly,\n\nBy order of the school committee.\n\nSchool.\n\nc\n\nSuperintendent F. H. Beede, of New Haven, reports in regard to the law of Connecticut:\n\"I would say that the law relative to the testing of the eyesight of school children in\nthis state is very simple. The state law requires that the eyesight of pupils in all schools\nof the state shall be examined triennially according to the instructions furnished by the\nstate board of education. These instructions are not elaborate. The regular card used\nfor testing the eyesight by physicians is used for this purpose ia the schools. Teachers\nare required by law to notify in writing the parent or guardian of every pupil whose eyes\nare found to be defective or diseased. The teacher must also make a written report of\nsuch cases to the state board of education,\n\"There is no law in this state requiring the testing of the hearing of school children.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n950\nDr. James B. Fitzgerald, director of physical training in the Boston public schools,\nreports through Superintendent Edwin P. Seaver:\n\" There is no regular examination of the eyes and ears in the Boston schools. This\ncourse was decided upon after consulting some of the most eminent specialists in the city.\nNo examination is made until the child shows some definite symptoms. When this happens, the teachers report the cases to the parents in a formal way and urge that examination\nbe made by a speciaHst. Usually this is done; but when it is not done, the responsibility\nis with the parents, where in our opinion it belongs.\n\" Our teachers are taught the common symptoms of defective sight and hearing, and\nin my opinion the system works well.\n\"We do, however, have the eyes and ears of backward children examined occasionally\nby specialists.\"\nDr. Elias G. Brown, of the board of education, New York city, reports:\n\"The plan for examining all defectives in the New York city public schools is as\nfollows:\n\"Children who have difficulty in keeping up with their classes, for any reason, are\nreported to headquarters (board of education). Being in charge of work for defectives,\nI visit the different schools and examine all children reported. As yet no attempt is made\nto examine children who keep up with their classes.\n\"My examination is into the mental as well as the physical condition of the children,\nto see, if possible, what it is that holds them back. In many cases it is pure mental deficiency. In other cases it is defective sight or hearing. The test I make for sight and\nhearing is simple and practical — simply to determine whether sight or hearing is defective\nenough to prevent usual progress in the school grades.\n\" The examination is made as follows :\n\"The child is required to stand across the room and, one eye covered, tested as to\nability to tell how many fingers I hold up. Astigamatism is not tested for, unless headaches or some other symptom is complained of by the pupil, or unless the teacher gives a\nreport indicating to me the probabiHty of astigmatism.\n\"Special classes or special treatment is advised where indicated.\n\"Children who may have slightly defective eyesight or hearing, but who keep up in\ngrade, are not examined.\nThis step has not yet been reached.\"\nWORCESTER\nEYE AND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nEAR EXAMINATIONS\n\n(From instructions for examinations)\n\nDo not expose the card except when in use, as familiarity with its face leads children\nto learn the letters \"by heart.\"\nFirst-grade and kindergarten children need not be examined.\nThe examination should be made privately and singly, in a room or hall well lighted,\nand as quiet as possible, apart from the general school session. .Eyes and ears should be\ntested at the same sitting.\nAscertain if the pupil habitually suffers from inflamed lids or eyes.\nChildren already wearing glasses should be tested with such glasses properly adjusted\non the face.\n\nPlace a card of Snellen's test types on the wall in a good light; do not allow the face\nof the card to be covered by glass.\nThe Une marked XX (20) should be seen at twenty feet; therefore place the pupil\ntwenty feet from the card.\nEach eye should be examined separately.\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nHold a card over one eye while the other is being examined. Do not press upon the\ncovered eye, as the pressure might induce an incorrect examination.\nHave the pupil begin at the top of the test card, and read aloud down as far as he can,\nfirst with one eye and then with the other.\nIf the pupil does not habitually suflfer with inflamed lids or eyes, and can read a\nmajority of the XX (20) test type with each eye, and does not, upon inquiry, complain of\n1\nhabitually tired and painful eyes or headaches after study, his eyes may be considered 95\nsatisfactory; but if he habitually suffers from inflamed lids or eyes, or cannot read a majority\nof the XX (20) test type with both eyes, or habitually complains of tired and painful eyes\nor headache after study, a card of information should be sent to parent or guardian.\nTo examine for defective hearing, test each ear separately. Have pupil stand twenty\nfeet distant, facing squarely to right or left, not allowing eyes to turn toward examiner.\nHave pupil gently press a soft handkerchief to the ear turned away from examiner, and\nthen whisper, slowly and distinctly, or pronouce in an ordinary conversational voice,\nwords or numbers, requiring the pupil to repeat them as soon as heard. If the words\nare not heard at twenty feet, approach pupil until they are heard, and note the distance,\nand record in the blanks furnished for the purpose. If found defective, a card of information should be sent to parent or guardian.\n\nThe committee believes that to secure uniformity, Snellen's test iy^ts\nshould be used as a part of the test of sight, and the ordinary voice, as used\nin the tests in the city of Worcester, should be employed in the examination\nfor defective hearing.\nThe committee believes that these statistics should be collected at regular\n2\nintervals; that it is not likely it will be| done by the Bureau of Education; that\nBy Whom\n\nI Conducted\np\n\nDefective\nChh-dren\nTest Used\n\n1 1 II\n\nTest for\nKindergarten\n\nAh\n\n17\n\nSight\nInformal tests . . .\n\nFormal tests\n\n9\n\n25\n9\n\n28\n\n0\n\n2\n\nI\n\n7\n\n3\n\nObservation: reading\nprint at\nvarious\ndistances.\nFor \"nearsightednes\"\ntwenty-four use Snellen's test types-, for\n\"farsightedness\"\nteachers depend\nupon\nobservation.\nThree report\ntests\ng\"^\nfor color-blindness.\n\nHearing\nInformal tests\n\nFormal tests\n\nFour\nusetest.\n\"£\" One\nor\nilliterate\nuses pictures\nfamiliar objects;ofthree\ntion andontesting\nby\ndepend\nobservasimple geometrical\nfigures, 0, A, etc.;\none uses intersecting\nline test.\n\n17\n12\n\n20\n\n12\n\n0\n\n3\n\nThe figures all refer to number of cities.\n\nI\n\n7\n\n2\n\n5\n\nTest used: Fourteen cities use the watch test;\nsix use the voice; other supplementary tests\nare by means of a \"cUcker,\" tuning-fork, and\naudiometer.\nOn the question. \"Is the watch test satisfactory and sufficient?\"\nTen reported \"No,\"\nfoiu: reported \"Yes.\"\n\nTotal number replying, fifty-five.\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\n95^\n\n_^\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ne;\nthe National Educational Association might do it thru a permanent committe\na work.\nbut it points out that there is no provision of funds to carry out such\n' Finally, the committee urges that the causes of defective sight and hearing\nshould be investigated, with a view to- educating children, parents, and teachers on the subject, and thus preventing, as far as possible, such defects among\nour school children.\nReported causes of defects of sight.— Asiigmsitism,^ hypermetropia,^ myopia,'\nacute inflammation,' bad furniture, bad posture at desk, congenital causes,\nconstant use of eyes, defective light at home, holding books too near eyes,\nlack of outdoor exercise, poor food, poor print, poor ventilation of schoolrooms,\nneglect of parents and teachers.\nReported causes of defects of hearing.— Adenoid growths, catarrh, congenital causes, falls, measles, neglect of parents, scarlet fever.\nF. W. Booth, Chairman;\nO. H. Burritt;\nF. Parke Lewis;\nClarence J. Blake;\nPercival Hall;\nCommittee.\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\nDELICATE\n\nHOSPITAL SCHOOL\nFOR\nNERVOUS\nCHILDREN— ITS EDUCATIONAL AND\nSCIENTIFIC METHODS\n\nAND\n\nMARY\n\nR. CAMPBELL, DEAN OF THE CHICAGO HOSPITAL SCHOOL EOR NERVOUS\nAND DELICATE CHILDREN, AND EDUCATIONAL ADVISOR FOR THE\nCHICAGO\nSCHOOL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nIn this era of greatest scientific educational triumphs in the care of all\ndefectives, the blind are trained to have seeing fingers, the deaf to have hearing eyes. After such educational triumphs in the training of one sense to\nfunction for another, and the re-educating of the insane to mental balance,\ndare we not hope much for those whose senses are unimpaired, but whose\nminds are mentally bhnd or crippled?\nIt is not, therefore, of the deaf, nor of the bhnd, nor yet of the feebleminded, that I would speak; but it is of those children so sHghtly subnormal\nthat they cannot be properly provided for educationally with any of these\nthree classes just mentioned, nor can they be educated, as our educational\nsystem stands today, with the children in the pubhc schools. I refer to those\nchildren who thru accident or illness have been left with imperfect mental\nand physical functions. They are the hearing mutes; the children of retarded\nspeech; the children who, as the result of illness, must be redeveloped and\nre-educated; the children who, because of injury at birth perhaps, have\n» These are, of course, the defects themselves, but were reported as causes.\n0\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n953\n\northopedic conditions sometimes coexistent with unintelligible speech; and\nthe children who, on account of malnutrition, are temporarily subnormal.\nThese are the children who, with minds working almost normally, have not\neven a fighting chance. To the wealthy few the special education necessary\nto bring them out of this subnormal condition is now possible. To the thousands of poor the two or three years of special education and care requisite to\ndevelop even the normal attitude in these children is practically out of the\nquestion.\nChiefly from this class of children slightly subnormal, because of malnutrition inparticular, come the children of wayward tendencies — the recruits\nto swell the ranks of the juvenile criminals.\nHow are the needs of such children to be met? Such children require\nnot merely the care of medical specialists, but expert nursing and scientific\neducational care.\nTo provide special education for sHghtly subnormal and invaUd children;\nto provide the laboratory facilities for the scientific investigation of the phenomena as evidenced by such children; and to provide the special training for\nteachers and nurses who wished to fit themselves for work with such children,\nwere the three primary aims in organizing the Chicago Hospital School for\nNervous and DeHcate Children.\nThat the first purpose has been accomplished is evidenced by the fact that\n60 per cent, of the children who have received educational and medical care\nin the school are now working with normal children. The success of the\nfirst aim was obtained thru the second — the scientific investigations, some of\nwhich have already been published, and others of which are to appear during\nthe coming year. The third aim has been realized, with the exception that\nthe demand for teachers has by far exceeded the supply.\nHow hearing mutes have been taught to talk ; how the erratic and nervous\nchild, but temporarily subnormal, has been brought into such poise and balance\nthat he can work with normal children, is too long a story to tell at this time.\nTo present in full the methods that have brought some of these children out\nof a condition of twilight and beclouded minds into rational beings would\nnecessitate a thoro presentation, covering all the daily observations of teachers\nand nurses during a period of two to three years — the time required in producing the permanent results. To give an idea of the kind of children and\nof the methods employed in accomplishing these satisfactory results with\nthem is the object of this presentation.\nEvery child in itself was a problem, and a very complex one at that, with\nits many coexistent disorders. How to overcome a child's anaemic condition,\nhow to overcome special defects and orthopedic conditions, and how to give\nthe child as much educational work as he was able to do, were taxing problems,\nnot the least of\" which was how not to sacrifice the individuahty of the child\nby all the -necessary therapeutical measures and technical laboratory work.\nHow to preserve the personahty of the child was the greatest problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": null, "text": "054\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nNecessarily the peculiar needs of the individual children shaped our laboratory methods. The child who was subnormal mentally and physically\nhad to have outlined for him a method of educational procedure different\nfropi that of the child who was supranormal mentally, but subnormal physically. The child who was abnormal in sensory defects, but whose central\ncondition was apparently normal, could not be approached in the same way\nas the child whose defect was central.\nFully 75 per cent, of the children admitted since the organization of the\nschool in 1899 were suffering from malnutrition and anaemia, in addition to\nother pathological conditions. The typical cases — such as speech-defect due\nto injury at birth; general orthopedic conditions due to instrumental birth;\nfunctional neuroses; psychic epilepsy; paralytic cases due to infantile meningial troubles; juvenile insanity; defective speech due to infantile illnesses;\nstammering, stuttering; partial deafness; cases of disproportionate mental\ndevelopment — were some of the infirmities of the children brought to us for\ntreatment; the most difficult cases being those in whom, coexistent with speechdefect, were other orthopedic conditions and marked motor inco-ordinations.\nMany of such children had minds very nearly normal, or whose mentation\nwas even supranormal.\nNone of the problems presented by the peculiar infirmities of such children could be adequately met by an exclusively analytical method — a method\ntoo often employed in the study of children. The analytical had to be supplemented bythe observational, and this, in turn, by the experimental, and in\nsome cases by chemical analyses of foods and excretions. It was by combining these methods that the problems worked out at the school yielded such\nfruitful results. The daily life of the child was recorded in minute detail.\nEvery child was constantly under skilled observation from the time of his\nawaking in the morning until his retiring at night. There were three trained\nnurses for the ten children under observation, and fourteen teachers, including the special teachers, the tutors, and supplementary teachers.\nThe empirical data gathered by the nurses covered such points as the\nfollowing, which I present in the same sequence as recorded in the nurses'\ndaybook:\n1. A report on how the child slept and rested during the night.\n2. The time of his awaking in the morning.\n\n3. The child's emotional tone on awaking.\n4. The child's temperature, pulse, and respiration on awaking.\n\n(The\nobject of taking this record before the child arose was to determine his normal pulse before physical\nexertion).\n\n5. The kind of bath given the child— whether salt, cold or tepid, or a shower bath.\n6. The time of dressing and length of time consumed in dressing.\n7- The child's attitude toward others.\n8. The quantity of water taken during the morning.\n9. The kind and quantity of food taken for breakfast.\n10. The exact time of the performance of physical functions, with a record of the kind\nand quantity of eliminations'.\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n955\n\n11. The pulse record taken immediately before a period of special mental effort.\n12. The pulse record taken immediately after a period of special mental effort.\n(This was to show the effect of fatigue on the pulse as induced by particular work.)\n13. The general social conduct of the child during his free play period.\n(The children were very carefully observed during their play time, for the child is most truly himself when\nhe plays.)\n14. The pulse record at midday, to show the effect on it of the morning's physical and\nmental fatigue.\n15. The kind and quantity of food taken at luncheon.\n16. The pulse record immediately after eating.\n17. A report on the afternoon nap — duration, the effect on mental efforts for the afternoon.\n(The records of a number of children showed that better work was done from four to six in the afternoon\nthan at any other time during the day. It seemed as tho they were reinforced both physically and mentally.\n18. The pulse record of the child immediately after his afternoon nap.\n19. The kind and quantity of food eaten at dinner.\n20. The time during the day when the greatest hunger was manifested.\n(Inasmuch as hunger is one of the strongest and most imperative of the child's feelings, it seemed one of\nthe most important points to record was when this feeUng most strongly evidenced itself.)\n21. The mental condition and social attitude of the child during the children's social hour.\n22. The temperature, pulse, and respiration of the child at bedtime.\n23. The kind of evening bath — whether hot or tepid.\n24. The kind of massage — whether dry rub or oil massage.\n25. The exact time of going to sleep.\n(A very careful note on the last point, to show accurately the number of hours' sleep per day the child had.)\n\nThe data gathered by the teachers were both empirical and experimental.\nThey covered the following points:\n1. A note was made as to the kind of day, whether sunny, cloudy, rainy, snowy, warm,\nhot, chilly, or cold; and the apparent effect on the child.\n2. The physical and mental condition of the child on entrance into the class was carefully\nnoted.\n3. The pulse at the beginning and at the end of mental activity was taken to show the\neffect of the particular lesson.\n(From this group of special data we were enabled to arrange the children's programs of work so that the\nlessons producing the greatest fatigue would not come too close together, and so that the hardest lessons\nwould come at the time of the child's period of maximum energy.)\n4. The child's emotional tone was very carefully noted, and its relation to the child's\nphysical and mental attitude.\n5. The child's dominant interest.\n(This was sometimes taken as a central subject, and about it was grouped his other work.)\n6. A report of the lesson — its aims, methods, and results.\n\nOther observations of both teachers and nurses showed a record of —\na) Any unusual manifestations.\nb) Anything that might deflect or modify a child's emotional tone — such as parents'\nvisit, peculiar influence of teacher, etc.\nc) Anything that might affect the natural unit of the child's life.\nd) Anything normally naughty.\ne) The effect of weather on the mental condition of a child for a given day or for a\nnumber of given days.\n\nIn addition, the weight and height of the children were taken every twentyeight days. Blood counts with the anaemic children were made every seven\ndays, and a monthly digest report of the condition of certain children was sent\nthe consulting physicians.\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": null, "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nSeemingly unimportant phases, such as the relation of preferred foods\nand better digestion, and the relation of pulse deviation to emotional tone,\nthrew great Hght on the emotional tone of the child as affecting his general\nphysical and mental activity. The fact that a teacher could, by referring to\nthe nurses' record for the day, find out the exact number of hours of sleep the\nchild had, explained to her many times the cause of Johnnie Jones' irritability,\nand why he seemed to have got out of bed on the wrong side, and could not\nconcentrate his attention. The children were studied as carefully during their\nsleeping as during their waking hours.\nDuring sleep it is generally admitted that the pulse is slower and more\nregular, and yet many times I have observed that the pulse of some of our\nmost nervous children during their sleep indicated almost the same rate of beat\nas during the daytime, thus showing that mentation of some sort was going\non. I made a particular study of some very nervous children who dreamed\na great deal, and in one case the pulse beat was higher at this time than during the mental activity of the day. Nervous children, as a rule, dream a\ngreat deal, and thus is much of their nervous force consumed, incapacitating\nthem for mental effort during school hours.\n. A very careful study was made of the emotional tone as affecting the pulse,\nand of the pulse as affecting the emotional tone. This emotional tone is an\nindex of the current state of the nerve centers as a whole, and is therefore an\nindex of the mental dynamics of the child.\nFrom these charts you will see a connection established between the emotional tone of the child, his pulse beat, and his eHminations.\nWe found, after a study of some three years, that a markedly subnormal\npulse coexisted with the subnormal mental activity of the child. A child\nwith a pulse of 56 to 64 beats could not be expected to do the work of a child\nwhose pulse was 80 to 90; neither could a child whose pulse was bounding\nfrom 80 to no and 115 do the careful, concentrative, even work of the child\nwhose pulse was averaging 80 to 90 beats. Brain conditions were changed\nwhen, by close study of the pulse during any period of work, the pedagogical\nstimulus was changed. After a very careful study of the relation of the child's\npulse to mental fatigue, we sometimes rearranged the child's entke program\nof work for the day, based entirely on the fluctuations and deviations of pulse\nbeats. These pulse records of the teachers and nurses were made by tactile\nmvestigation rather than by the distracting mechanical registration of the\nsphygmograph.\n\nTaking a child's respiration was another of the teachers' and nurses'\nmethods of anticipating the nervous cHmax in the child. To calm an excited,\nnervous child by a few systematic deep-breathing exercises, to reduce the\nnervous condition, was another simple, but effective, mode of treatment.\nWhen the child is first admitted into the school, he is given a thoro physical\nexamination by one of the neurologists. The family and personal history of\nthe child are taken. In investigating hereditary causes of the trouble, we\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n957\n\ndid not confine ourselves to the parental history only, but went back even to\nthe great-grandfathers and the great-grandmothers, and to their collateral\nhistory. Curious as it may seem, with our particular children, grandmothers\nand grandfathers were less important factors in the causes of the condition of\nthe child than the condition of malnutrition in the immediate life-history of\nthe child.\nAfter the neurologist had made the preliminary examination, a series of\nanthropometrical and psychophysical measurements were taken, to afford\nsome basis for the pedagogical methods to be prescribed. This initial examination also included a microscopical analysis of the blood and the kidney\neliminations. In the anaemic children blood counts were made every seven\ndays.\nWhile in the statement of methods I am presenting to you only crosssections, as it were, of some of our researches, I wish it clearly understood\nthat every child was taken in relation to its entire situation. That is to say,\nif we were studying the development of the mathematical concept in the child,\nwe did not confine our records and observations only to the period of presenting that particular subject-matter, but these records showed, in addition,\nobservations as to how and to what extent the child could apply the idea of\nmeasuring magnitude from one subject to another; for instance, from cooking\nto manual training, or from music to chemistry and physics. If the investigation was one on the restoration of the speech function, our observations were\nnot confined to the child's work during the technical lesson, but covered all\nmanifestations of the speech function, and other factors that might modify\nand develop the expressive side of his life. Nor did we, in our study of the\ncorrelation of the physical and mental states in children, confine our observations to one or two phases of coexistent phenomena. Obsessions and compelHng impulses were analyzed by the data preceding and succeeding the\novert act. It is unfair to judge a child by a momentary mood, for he has his\nemotional overtones and undertones; therefore, as it is the whole action that\nasserts the child's being, we studied the whole child, not the child in part.\nI have indicated to you somewhat of our laboratory methods of gathering\ndata on the child's physical and mental life. By these records we were able\nto establish approximately the individual norm of the child, and also his\npathological norm. From our child-study notes we were conversant with his\ngreatest and least deviations from these norms, and with the conditions producing these deviations. Our technical laboratory investigations may be briefly\nexplained by the statement that during one investigation the children were\nweighed every twenty-eight days, blood examinations were made every seven\ndays, the pulse was taken on an average eight times a day, the food was\nweighed and chemically analyzed before and after cooking, and the kidney\nand intestinal eliminations were submitted daily to chemical analysis — all this\nin addition to the educational work which was being carried on simultaneously.\nI am not going into the technical explanations of our scientific method, for\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n958\nthese investigations are soon to be published. Suffice it to say that, as a result\nof these scientific investigations, we have reached a few conclusions which will\nbe valuable in the care of both normal and abnormal children. We have\n\nlearned —\n1. That the majority of nervous children should have from twelve to fourteen glasses\nof water per day— two quarts at the very least.\n2. That children from five to twelve years of age should average fourteen hours of\nsleep per day.\n3. That children should have the heaviest meal of the day in the evening.\n4. That young nervous children require hot baths at least once a day to help reduce\nthe nervous condition.\n\n5. That a close relation exists between pulse deviation and non-elimination.\n6. That young nervous children, because of their excessive activity, require more\ncarbohydrates, and should be fed five, six, and even seven times a day.\n7. That the so-called abnormal craving of children for candies and sweets is nature's\ndemand for sugars.\n\nA few points were observed that may throw light upon certain forms of\ninsanity. We do not state our conclusion on these points dogmatically, but\ninasmuch as no data or hterature on the subject are to be found elsewhere,\nwe bring forth these points in the hope that further investigation along this\nline may be made that may throw Ught on the nervous phenomena of children.\nBriefly summarizing:\n1. By chemical analyses we found that stomach indigestion produced acerbity of\ndisposition, oversensitiveness, fretfulness, and irritability.\n2. These chemical analyses also showed that obstruction of the small intestine produced variability, erratic conduct, and similar manifestations.\n3. By chemical analysis we found also that obstruction of the large intestine produced\nstupidity, languor, accompanied by heavy headaches, particularly over the eyes. Moodiness, moroseness, and melancholia were also mental accompaniments of this physical\ncondition.\n\nWhile we have spent much time in taking psycho-physical and anthropometrical measurements — which were taken, by the way, not to detect\ndefects so much as to show us the rate of growth of a child, and his sequence of\ndeveloping out of a subnormal into a normal condition — our greatest attention\nwas paid to the physiology of the child's Ufe, his mental as well as his physical\nphysiology, the function side of the child's life being to us more important\nthan the anatomy side. It was the living, growing being, the pulsating,\nhuman organism, that was of more importance than the mere anatomical\nskeleton of the child, which simply showed disproportion, deficiencies, and\ndownward trend.\n\nMay I add here that we have found that, in general, stigmata revealed\nin physical and psycho-physical measurements are no criterion of moral\nperversions; that anthropometrical measurements do now show or prove the\nexistence or non-existence of criminal tendencies ? I may add further that\nmy own conclusion on this point is substantiated by the elaborate investigation\nof Dr. D. P. MacMillan, of the Child Study Department of the Chicago\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n959\n\nPublic Schools, and by no less great authority than the New York police\nrepresentatives of the Bertillon and finger-print system.\nThe tenative data, however, afforded by the psycho-physical measurements show that the subnormal condition is quantitative, not qualitative; that\nsubnormality is simply a question of degree. In outhning our educational\nwork, we corroborated these measurements by the pedagogical results obtained,\nand we found that our children could do the same educational work, but in a\nless perfect way. In all the educational work of the school we have given\nthese subnormal children exactly the same kind of work as was given in the\nDewey School and the University of Chicago School of Education. Some of\nour children, however, could only approximate the work.\nWith all this scientific investigation and the necessarily great amount of\ntechnical work for overcoming the neural defects of the little patients, the\nmotive side of the child was given pre-eminence. Children think in situations,\nand in our educational work we aimed to keep paramount the meaning side,\nthe desire side, the feeling side, the social side — the controlling elements of the\nemotional tones of children.\nNotwithstanding that one of the main purposes of the school is the scientific research into the physical defects of children — defects that go toward\nproducing general backwardness and mental infirmities — the most beautiful\naspect of the school is from the child's standpoint ; for everything that is done\nhas a direct bearing, not only upon the needs, but on the desires and wishes,\nof the children. It is to the child an ideal world. Every child has his particular talents developed. If he shows a marked talent for music, the efforts\nof the teacher are concentrated along that line. Great attention has been\npaid to the effect of music both in the way of mental development and in controlling the emotional tone. Some of the children only six years old have been\ntaught to compose, to read, and to write music, as well as to play. Lessons\non the piano, violin, and other instruments were given. If manual work\nseems to be his particular bent, special attention is paid to a child in that line.\nIf simple problems in physics and chemistry interest him, his scientific tastes\nare satisfied and directed, and the toy steam engine, so dear to the heart of\nthe small boy, is explained by simple problems in physics, and thus his concept enriched. What a child loves to do, he is encouraged to do, unless his\ndesire partakes too much of the nature of an obsession, in which case his\nattention is diverted by a counter-attraction. The child's natural sequence\nin the way of personal interests is followed. When a little invalid enters the\nschool, there is no break between his home life and this new environment. A\nvery careful study is made of the child's likes and dislikes, his preferences and\ntastes, and there is no new arrest in the child's developrnent by the teacher\nforcing her arbitrary sequence upon the child's own natural mental sequence.\nTo understand the needs of such a subnormal child, it has been most aptly\nsaid by a well-known educator that the teacher must get inside that child and\nlook out upon the world thru his eyes.\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": null, "text": "q5o\n\nnational\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Special\n\nMusic. — In addition to the purely motive side of the work in music, the\nwork is interesting because of the double purpose for which it is given. The\nspeech center and the leg, arm, and finger centers of the brai» are adjacent.\nTo assist in developing speech, finger exercises on the piano — finger gymnastics— are given to assist in developing the right co-ordinations and to develop\nthe motor area in the brain. Often a child's first knowledge of number and\nmathematical concept he gets thru the work in music. In fact, every educational phase of the school is correlated with music.\nSpeech. — For 'developing retarded speech or for developing speech in\nhearing mutes, or to restore the speech function in young children who thru\nillness have lost the power of speech, the normal co-ordinations of ear and\nvoice are first set up before the eye and ear co-ordinations, or the eye and\nvoice co-ordinations. The success of this method of developing speech lies\nin the fact that the children learn their vowelization by the sensation of\nvoice-placing and tone-placing. They are given much technique to free them\nfrom technique. Notwithstanding that in the majority of speech cases many\ntechnical lessons are necessary both in speech and music, the thought side is\ngiven much prominence.\nGymnastics. — In the orthopedic gymnastics, which are almost entirely\ntherapeutical in nature, little can be done along this fine, but with the introduction ofmusic the exercises become purposeful, and when it is explained to\nthe child that certain treatments will help him to regain the use of his Httle\ncrippled legs or arms, these exercises become full of interest and meaning to\nhim., And even in these treatments the \"why\" side of his nature is being\nsatisfied, altho it be by these sometimes painful manipulations upon his own\npoor Httle twisted body.\nSometimes it is not the Httle legs that are twisted. It may be that, because\nof spinal meningitis, the child has a twisted and twiHght mind; for here, in\nthis child's sanitarium with educational provision, children with crooked\nHttle backs, crooked Httle legs, and crooked Httle minds are admitted, to find\nbenefit and reHef thru these special methods.\nOne of the most interesting phases of the work is the way some of these\nHttle cripples take their work in dancing. Unable to stand on their legs,\nthey are placed on their backs on a mattress on the floor, and the gymnastic\nteacher puts the legs thru the rhythmic dancing movements in time to music.\nThis is done so that, altho the Httle patient himself cannot execute the required\nmovements, these exercises wiU assist to develop the motor area in the brain\nso that the child wiU eventually gain motor control over his legs, and it wiU\nnot take him so long to relearn to walk.\nWhile special attention is given to overcoming speech defects and other\nneural defects, the majority of children are receiving instruction in cooking,\nsimple physiology, elementary physics and chemistry, reading, writing, music,\nvoice-training, and aU kinds of gymnastics. Some of the best work is done in\nsloyd. Those children who are unable to stand sit while at the bench. AU\nsorts of things are made— boxes, paper knives, doU-houses; anything that\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nHOSPITAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCHILDREN\n\n961\n\nthe childish mind conceives is fashioned out in wood.\nIn this work technique\nis subordinated to motive.\nAs the special methods evolved and developed from our more purely\npedagogical experimentations are soon to be published, I have not gone\ninto detail here. Suffice it to say at this time that the generalizations from\nthe conclusions reached are as follows:\n1. That music as a factor in the educational development of all young children, both\nnormal and abnonnal, should be given greater emphasis.\n2. That technical drill on speech — the physiological alphabet — should be given\nyoung children, in order to free them from technique.\n3. That young children, both normal and abnormal, should be given more dancing.\nDancing movements are a prerequisite in developing other motor co-ordination — speech\nin particular.\n\nAlso as a result of these conclusions, the following questions have been\nraised, calhng for further investigations:\n1. To what extent is the general nervous condition of children at the age of nine to\neleven due to an insufficient quantity of water and of sugars, rather than to that particular period of growth, as is generally conceded ?\n2. Are not insufficient sleep, and unwise distribution and insufficient number of\nmeals, influential, tho ignored, factors in causing the physical and nervous breakdown of\nchildren at that age ?\n\nL\n\nThe sanitarium was organized in the fall of 1899. With the opening came\nmore applications than the building could possibly hold. Twelve children\nwere admitted on probation, and from that time to the end of the present\nschool year in May, a period of less than five years, over four hundred children\nhave been examined and tested. Of this number about fifty have been admitted\nfor treatment. With the limited accommodation of house capacity, and the\nassisting staff, but few children could be cared for. However, the results\nobtained by the laboratory method, which we were thus better able to work\nout in minute detail, have made it possible for us to formulate such generalizations from our data obtained as may be applied to the care of both normal\nand abnormal children. In our investigations we have not sought to be able\nto estabHsh glittering generalizations, but we have worked for a few fruitful\nresults upon which pedagogical procedure may be based. We lay no claim to\noriginality of method. We have simply brought together in one method of\ninvestigation the empirical, the analytical, the experimental, and, merely for\ncorroboration, the statistical method.\nThe new era in child study is marked by laboratory methods. We are\nleaving behind us the methods of statistical evidence; the new child study, as\ndoes the study of medicine at the present day, demands laboratory methods\nand experimental evidence.\nWhile we might have obtained much from tradition and hearsay knowledge\nin the handling of such children, we wanted a first-hand knowledge, and, for\nthis reason, in our child study laboratory we have spent a great deal of time\nupon recording in minute detail the daily life-history of the child.\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n962\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n[Special\n\nWe need more laboratory schools for the scientific investigation of subnormal children. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, and who\nknows but what many of the four hundred children we have examined would\nnot have needed special care had their mothers been properly instructed ?\nWould not a national child-study laboratory, under the auspices of the\nDepartment of Special Education of the National Educational Association,\nbe one means of extending the ideals and aims of this section, and also of\npromulgating the cause of all abnormal children ?\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": null, "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF INDIAN EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nThe opening meeting of the Department of Indian Education was called to order in\nthe Hall of Congresses, Administration Building, at 9:30 A. m., by the president, R. A.\nCochran, superintendent of the Rice Station Indian School, Arizona.\nThe Oklahoma Indian school band furnished the music.\nThe opening prayer was offered by Most Rev. John J. Glennon, archbishop of St.\nLouis, after which was sung a song entitled \"This is the Indian's Home,\" written by Mr.\nA. O. Wright, supervisor of Indian schools.\nAddresses of welcome were delivered by Hon. A. M. Dockery, governor of Missouri;\nHon. D. R. Francis, president of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; Dr. Howard J.\nRogers, chief of the Department of Education and director of congresses, Louisiana\nPurchase Exposition; Dr. Calvin M. Woodward, director of Manual Training School,\nWashington University, St. Louis, Mo.; Dr. F. Louis Soldan, superintendent of instruction, St, Louis, Mo.; Miss. Amelia C. Fruchte, of the City Norrnal and High School, St.\nLouis, Mo.; and Most Rev. John J. Glennon, archbishop of St. Louis.\nAddresses in response, and touching upon matters of interest to Indian teachers and\nworkers, were made by Dr. W J McGee, chief of the Department of Anthropology,\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition; Dr. John T. Doyle, secretary of the United States Civil\nService Commission, Washington, D. C; Hon. Levi Chubbuck, special inspector, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C; Superintendent S. M. McCowan, Chilocco Indian\nAgricultural School, Chilocco, Okla.; Superintendent R. A. Cochran, Rice Station Indian\nSchool, Talklai, Ariz.; and Superintendent of Indian Schools, Miss Estelle Reel, Washington, D. C.\nMonday, June 27, 7:30 p. m.\nAn entertainment was given in Festival Hall by the Indian students, under the direction of S. M. McCowan, superintendent of the Chilocco Agricultural School, Chilocco,\nOkla.\nTuesday, June 28, 2 : 30 p. m.\nThe department was called to order in the Indian Building by Superintendent R. A.\nCochran, president of the department.\nDr. John T. Doyle, secretary of the United States Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C, delivered an address on \"Efficiency in the Indian Service.\"\nMiss Natalie Curtis, New York city, dehvered an address on \"Indian Music and\nIndian Education.\"\nTuesday, June 28, 8 p. m.\n'^\nA reception was given to Indian teachers and workers in the Indian Building.\nWednesday, June 29, 2:30 p. m.\nThe department met in Agricultural Hall in joint session with the Department of\nManual Training.\nFor the program of this session see Minutes of the Department of Manual Training.\n963\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": null, "text": "g64\n\nNAfldMAl\n\nEDUCATtONAL\n\nASSOCIATION-\n\n[Indian\n\nThursday, June 30, 2 : 30 p.m.\nThe department met in the Hall of Congresses in joint session with the Department\nof Elementary Education.\nFor the program of this session see Minutes of the Elementary Department.\nFriday, July i, 2:30 p.m.\nThe department was called to order in the Indian Building by President R. A. Cochran.\nA Round Table Conference of Indian Workers was held, led by Mr. A. O. Wright,\nsupervisor of Indian schools. The subject for discussion was: \"Review of Educational\nPoints Acquired from the Study of the Various Exhibits and Model Schools, and from\nthe Joint Sessions with the Manual Training and Elementary Departments of the National\nEducational Association.\" A general discussion followed of the best methods to adopt\nin applying the knowledge gained to Indian school work.\nThe following resolutions were adopted:\nResolved, That we heartily commend the president's attitude in connection with matters relating to Indian\naffairs.\nResolved, That we thank the secretary of the interior for the unfailing support given to all efforts looking\nto the advancement of the Indian and improving his condition-, that we are in hearty sympathy with the practical, businesslike administration of the commissioner of Indian affairs, and commend his broad-minded and\ndisinterested course in the conduct of the Indian school service. We also commend the superintendent of\nIndian schools for her untiring zeal and energy in the cause of Indian education, and especially for the practical reforms introduced in school work. Our thanks are tendered to Mr. R. A. Cochran, the president of the\ndepartment, for the able and impartial manner in which he has presided over our meetings.\nResolved, That we tender our heartfelt thanks to Superintendent S. M. McCowan for the manner in\nwhich he has entertained our teachers, and extend to him oiu: warm congratulations upon the great success he\nhas made of the model Indian school and exhibit.\nResolved, That we are especially gratified at the substantial progress made by the schools during the year\nand the general betterment of conditions affecting the Indian.\nResolved, That we commend the efforts of the Civil Service Commission to better the industrial service\nof the schools.\nResolved, That we gratefuUy tender our acknowledgment of courtesies extended and hospitality shown\nby the people of St. Louis, and offer our hearty thanks to the archbishop and other clergy, to the oflBcials of the\nstate and city, and to the members of the Universal Exposition management for their kind words of welcome,\nand for their assistance in making our meeting a success. We also sincerely thank the local press for its reports\nof our proceedings and helpful notices.\n\nThe department then adjourned.\n. .\n\nADDRESSES\nHON.\n\nA. M.\n\nDOCKERY,\n\nEsTELLE Reel, Secretary.\n\nOF WELCOME\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\nMISSOURI\n\nLong ago in our copy-books we learned that ''education is the chief defense\nof nations.\" The experience of later years has proved the truth of that assertion. Looking back, we can see how, as villages grew to towns and towns\nto cities, a broader and higher education was demanded, which upHfted the\ncommunity and made possible its expansion. Knowledge of our needs is\nthe foundation for providing means to meet them. Thus it is that the splendid public-school system of this country has grown and developed. Here,\nas nowhere else, the child of poverty is the equal of the more fortunately\nendowed child of wealth, and the strength of mental attainments is the one\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department!\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n965\n\nmeasure of ability to receive the education which fits him to aspire to the\n•highest position. Without it the poorer classes of the United States would\nbe as indifferently informed as are the peasants of foreign lands. No lad in\nthis country need be without the rudiments of a good education, and what\nhe attains after that is only limited by his perseverance in mastering the\ncollege curriculum which covers the whole field of learning.\nAs instructors of Indians, yours is a most important vocation. The\nmissionary who carried the gospel paved the way for your coming. With\nthe acquirement of knowledge thus brought, the first settlers of this continent\nbegan to realize, by comparison, the difference between them and their Caucasian brothers. True it is that not all of them were ready to accept the\nprotection of our government, but once accepted they have generally come\nto know the significance of the change that has been wrought, until now\nmany of the descendants of the aborigines are among our most honored\ncitizens.\nA grateful nation, therefore, looks on and applauds your efforts still further\nto augment the usefulness of the ''Red Man of the Forest.\" Not only are the\nelements of an EngHsh education afforded him, but he is trained in the arts and\nsciences and in manual labor, and is given the opportunity to become as learned\nand as skilled as any students or artisans. Slowly but surely the Indian as\nwe know him in history is disappearing, and in his stead we find the educated,\nstrong, and worthy citizen. Yours has been the task which effected this\ntransformation. With the aid of the national government, whose aim has\never been to afford equal facilities to all, churches and schools have been\nestablished, presided over by those best fitted to minister to these people.\nTheir needs are studied by the brightest minds of the country, and, as our\nnation develops, the Indian secures his share of the prosperity which attends it.\nMissouri takes pride in every effort which seeks to advance the youth of\nour land. In the promotion of higher education for the masses we see the\nstrength of future generations. The greatness of your work is among the best\nexamples of the good accomplished.\nI congratulate you upon the splendid showing you have made in several\nexhibit palaces. Here on these grounds are ample evidences of progress.\nOver in the Indian congress, and in some of the attractions of the Pike, many\nan old chief takes pride in exhibiting the Indian of the plain and forest. In\nthese buildings, however, the descendants of these same tribes are as jealous\nof the culture attained by your efforts as were the denizens of the woods of\ntheir prowess with bow and arrow or the repeating rifle. Both have reason\nto be proud. The original inhabitants of these great American lands were\nlords of all. Having yielded to our government, the older ones still glory in\nthe traditions of their forefathers, and their fealty is to be commended. The\ntribal youth, too, are proud of their ancestry, but have been taught in the schools\nuntil they now see the advantages of the highest civilization and are quick to\nrespond to it.\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": null, "text": "national\n\nq66\n\neducational\n\nassociation\n\n[Indian\n\nLet the good work continue. It cannot be too thoro. The educated\nmasses of an otherwise savage people rise up to bless you. As the exponents\nof a nation's will, you lead them on in paths made bright and lives made\nuseful by an awakened intelligence. The people of this country owe you a\ndebt of gratitude for your sacrifices that these wards of the government may\nbe trained into the best of citizens. It is my pleasure, therefore, to welcome\nyou to our state and to this, its chief city.\nOur people are your friends and the friends of those over whom you\nexercise supervisory care. Each broadened Hfe is a monument to the glory\nand power of our government which employs your hands to achieve its own\ngrand purpose.\nHON.\n\nDAVID\n\nR.\n\nFRANCIS,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nLOUISIANA\nST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nPURCHASE\n\nEXPOSITION,\n\nI shall not only be amiss if I fail to extend to the Congress of Indian Educators agreeting, but I shall not be true to my own feelings. I have had some\nofficial connection — for a short time only, it is true — with the Indian education\nof the United States. As secretary of the interior, 1896-97, it was my pleasant\nduty to have something to do with the Bureau of Indian Affairs. It gave me\nan insight into the management of that bureau which I should never have\nhad if I had not been connected with it.\nI desire at this time to pay tribute to the devotion of the educators of the\nIndian. I well remember how I was impressed with the interest which those\neducators manifested in their duties, and with the fact that they were not\nworking solely for the compensation given them by the government. And\nit seems to me that field is not confined alone to the Indian education. People\nwho live immediately adjoining the Indian — the pioneers, as it were — do not\nhave the same consideration. They do not cherish the same feeUngs toward\nthe Indian which those do who Uve in the East. My experience and observation, and information from every source, are to the effect that when a rightfeeling, proper-thinking American man or woman is placed in this position\nof responsibihty — and it is a position of great responsibility to be called upon\nto teach an untutored race — there is evinced, beyond the compensation received,\na deep-rooted interest in the welfare and in the elevation of the Indian which\nis well-becoming to our Anglo-Saxon nation. I am, therefore, very glad on\nbehalf of the Exposition Company to extend to you greetings this morning.\nSpeaking for the exposition management, and not dwelling at length, if\nat all, upon the scope and merits of the exposition, I wish to say a word in\nregard to its educational advantages in studying the exhibits of the products\nof all civilized countries, and attending the congresses which are to be held in\nconnection with the exposition, which are sufficient, in my mind, to make it a\nlandmark in the great progress of human thought. The man or the woman,\nwhoever he or she may be, who fails to take advantage of the opportunities\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n967\n\nhere presented within the small area of two square miles, will not be true to\nhis duties to himself and will never cease to regret it. I beHeve that this\nexposition is in itself a great educator, and it is highly proper that we should\nwelcome the assemblage of educators. We have endeavored, and shall continue to endeavor, to make this exposition a university, as it were, in itself.\nIn the classification of the exhibits, in the organization of the company and of\nthe exposition itself, we have made the first department a department of\neducation. All of the other departments have been organized with a view\nof establishing their relations to each other and with this first department of\neducation, and upon that basis of education all these structures have been\nbuilt. We of a country which governs itself reaHze the value of education to\nall, and we have made every effort from the inception of this enterprise to promote the education of the people of the United States; and if I were called\nupon to say what are the main objects of this exposition, I should dare to say\nthe promotion of the education of the people of the country and the promotion\nof the spirit of education.\nThe management, therefore, extends a greeting to the Indian educators,\nand trusts your stay among us will prove a pleasant and profitable one, and\nthat it may be prolonged to the fullest extent possible. On behalf of the\nmanagement, I therefore greet you.\n\nHOWARD J. ROGERS, CHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR\nOF CONGRESSES, LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nDn behalf of the Department of Congresses, I take great pleasure in welcoming you to the exposition. This is the first gun, in the series of great educational conferences to be held within the grounds in the next eight days, and as\nusual your energetic superintendent, Miss Reel, is on hand to fire that gun.\nIt is especially appropriate that on the banks of the great river which bears\nan Indian name, flowing thru scenes which are filled with historic interest to\nthe descendants of both races, and whose waters for so many years marked\nthe boundary between the advancing customs, manners, and civilization of the\ninvading races, and the customs, tribal laws, and manners of the original\nholders of the soil, there should be installed at this great exposition of peace\nthe first working exhibit of Indian schools and Indian instruction.\nI have watched with great interest the growth of the Department of Indian\nEducation in the National Educational Association for the past six years.\nAltho young in the history of the National Educational Association, it commands the respect and admiration, not only as indicative of the great amount\nof work done in the reservation schools, but for the scientific value of the work\nand discussions carried on in the department. It is particularly fitting that\nin this great exposition of processes there should be maintained a working\nexhibit of the Indian schools which shall demonstrate the methods and processes inuse for the training of Indian children in those arts and crafts which\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": null, "text": "g5g\n\nI^ATIOT^AL -EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nhelp them to become useful members of society. It cannot fail to be the utmost\nbenej&t in impressing the people of this country with a sense of the obHgation\nwhich they owe the wards of the nation in generously providing every reasonable means for the necessary industrial training to make them self-supporting,\nself-respecting, and law-abiding citizens.\nI congratulate the superintendent of the Indian schools, and the teachers\nand instructors of such schools, on the very inteUigent and masterful way in\nwhich you have presented the work of your department, and extend to you\nthe greeting and thanks of the exposition, not only for your presence here today,\nbut also for the interesting addition to our educational exhibits.\n\nDR. CALVIN\n\nM. WOODV^^ARD,\n\nDIRECTOR OF MANUAL TRAINING\nINGTON UNIVERSITY, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWASH-\n\nI am designated on your program as the director of the Manual Training\nSchool of Washington University; therefore it is my great pleasure to welcome\nyou this morning on behalf of this university to this room and to this building\nof Washington University, and to all these grand buildings belonging to\nWashington University.\nTwo years ago I met you in Detroit. I am deUghted to meet you again,\nand to welcome you to this new life, and to the splendid opportunities ofifered\nhere today and thru the coming week. I congratulate you upon the progress\nyou have made in two years. I have watched the growth of the Indian education, and I have seen with satisfaction how you have been leading on succes ful y arace to a higher standard of civilization. It is a great and noble\nwork, and I am well aware that many of you are devoting yourselves to that\nwork in a sort of missionary spirit. I honor you for your devotion, enthusiasm,\nand patience, because I know this work requires infinite patience, as well as\ninfinite devotion. If I had you by yourselves — just the teachers and no one\nelse — I would talk to you a little about some of the things I think you can do,\nand some of the things I hope you will, do in the future in your respective\nlocalities.\n\nBelieve me, most of the civihzatipn of today stands upon what I might very\nproperly call a technical foundation. And the civiHzation of the Indians is to\nbe built upon a technical foundation. They :must understand the laws of\nindustrial progress. They must not bring in too much of tradition. While I\nask no Indian to forget his father and mother, or to speak disrespectfully of his\npeople, I do ask him to receive graciously and openly what the new civilization\nhas to offer. When we reach out our hands to him to Uft him up to a higher\nstandard, we do not do it with any scorn or contempt of the past. I would have\nthem build upon the past a noble future. You have been told of the triumphs\nof this generation. You can hardly realize how completely mechanical force\nand nature-force have taken the place of muscular men and women.\nWe sometimes hear people say: \"There must be 'hewers of wood and\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOP\n\nWELCOMM\n\n969\n\ndrawers of water;' there must always be some people with us to do the menial,\ndisagreeable, and degrading work.\" This is gradually being shown to be not\ntrue. We want no people of any color or any nationality to grow up with the\nidea that they have got to do the menial work of this world. We want them\nto feel that all fields are now open. We hew no wood by human hand ; all by\npowerful machinery. We want to give the Indian youth of this country the\nbest we have to give. We have no slavery today except the slavery of ignorance\nand vice. We want no such slavery in this land. This university has its doors\nwide open to every youth who intends to be something in the future. Hereafter start him thoroly and _well in the rudiments. Do not try to build the top\nstory of your house until after the foundation is laid. Build the foundation\nwell and the building will grow, just as a well planted tree will grow to its\nfinal and magnificent growth. Therefore I give you this word of encouragement. Ishall watch your progress. This morning I simply welcome you\nto this room, which is a part of Washington University. And with this word\nof greeting I bid you good morning.\n\nDR.\n\nF.\n\nLOUIS\n\nSOLD AN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nST. LOUIS,\n\nOF INSTRUCTION,\nMO.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe surroundings of the present hour form a fitting background for the\nwords of welcome which the representatives of the city of St. Louis have been\ninvited to extend to you. Within the sphere of Indian education, within the\nsphere of Indian interest, this is historic ground. The street car or the train\nthat has brought you out to this place has run over streets where once were\nIndian mounds extending along the river front of St. Louis to the northern\npart of the city, which were leveled to make room for our growth. From the\nstandpoint of the Indian, and the standpoint of his education, this is historic\nground. A few feet from here the old river Des Peres runs. The name of\nthe river reminds us of the efforts made one hundred and fifty years ago by\nthe missionaries to educate the Indian — efforts continued to the present day.\nThe mounds and direct evidences of Indian occupancy of this ground are\nmissing, but you cannot mention river or hill in this part of the country that\ndoes not remind us of the Indian. A few miles from here runs the Mississippi\nriver, as it did at the time of Indian occupancy. Its name, given to it by\nthe first inhabitants of this place, is Indian, and tells us that before the white\nman came the Indian had owned that river and named it. A few miles north\nthe Missouri tells the same story.\nIn welcoming you I feel like saying a few words in grateful recognition of\nwhat the education of the Indian race has done for the cause of education.\nIt has emphasized the principle that a man's or a woman's education, in\norder to be a true education, must proceed along the fine of his or her lifework.\nIndian education, the training of the young men and women of that\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": null, "text": "Q70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nrace has pointed clearly to the importance of the manner of training and its\nimportance in adjusting school education to the paths of Hfe they follow.\nThe system of Indian education which the government and your efforts\nhave built up invites thoughtful study. I cannot help feehng that what you\nhave done is grand, from the standpoint of citizenship. It is of civic importance. When you teach that boy or that girl, spiritually and appreciatively,\n\nto pray ''Our Father,\" you estabhsh in that very phrase the grand civic idea\nof the brotherhood of all men and women. We all are aware of the great\ndifficulties that beset your task. In other institutions the school takes care of\nbut a fractional part of education; but in the education of our Indian boys\nand girls you do more than simply teach the elements of reading, writing, and\narithmetic. Your school suppUes the missing family education. You go\nbeyond your pupils to the Indian home, where your help and influence produce amazing results.\nIf I am rightly informed, about one-seventh of the total Indian population\nis in the schools. In this great city, with all its facihties, not quite one-eighth\nof the total population are in the pubHc schools. Over one-third of the Indians\nof this country have been taught to speak EngUsh, and do speak English today;\nover seven-eighths of them have discarded the dress and attire of the old times\nand walk in the garb of civilization ; two-thirds, I am told, live in houses after\nthe white man's fashion. These achievements are owing to educational work\nin which many of you have had a large share.\nIn welcoming you to this city, I thank you for what you have done. I\nwish to extend to you this welcome on behalf of the eighty thousand children\nof this city. They appreciate and feel what is being done for the Indian;\nthey feel an interest in the labors of the teachers. I welcome you on behalf\nof our citizens who feel that a national pledge has been given to this race\nwhich you in your schools are nobly redeeming. Show me a patriotic citizen,\nand I will show you a friend of Indian education, and one who appreciates\nthe teachers of the Indian race. I welcome you on behalf of the St. Louis\nBoard of Education, and invite you to visit some of the schoolhouses that will\nkeep their doors open for you. You are invited to see what the board of education inSt. Louis is doing for the white children. The doors of the schoolhouses are open now; the hearts of our citizens have been open to you at all\ntimes.\n\nMISS\n\nAMELIA\n\nC. FRUCHTE,\n\nNORMAL\n\nAND\n\nllIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nMany years ago, when I read Shakespeare's quotation, ''I will put a girdle\naround the earth in forty minutes,\" it did not dawn upon me that some time\nin this Middle West we would find a man who would do better, and would put\na girdle around the earth in thirty minutes. Mr. Francis has put around this\nexposition a railway which in thirty minutes will take you around the world,\nas it were.\nHe has enUsted the help and co-operation of all the races of the\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n971\n\nworld. In this exposition we shall learn how to control the material resources\nof the world ; we shall learn at this congress and others how to get hold of the\nprinciples that control our lives in general.\nTo me the most interesting of the exhibits is the Indian exhibit. I beheve\nif Pestalozzi were here his heart would throb for joy. I spent a number of\ndehghtful hours in the Indian building. I studied there the habitat of the\nrace; on the one side I saw at work the old Indians manufacturing their\nnative wares, and on the other side the young Indians acquiring the art of\ncontrolling themselves and fitting, themselves for the responsibiUties of citizenship.\nI believe it was a fortunate thing for the American people when President\nMcKinley in his wisdom saw fit to select for us a Caucasian woman of ideaUty\nas superintendent of Indian schools. I believe that to Miss Reel we owe\nthanks for the progress of this race. She more than anyone else has urged\nthe Indian's needs and gradually introduced industrial training in general.\nShe has, I know, been exceedingly active for the Indian, both in educational\nwork and in enabling him to find a profitable market for the fruits of his\nindustry. I am told that one lady alone sold $18,000 worth of Indian products last year.\nOn behalf of the women teachers of St. Louis, I welcome Miss Reel and\nall her friends and co-workers to the exposition, where we all together shall\nlearn what I presume we all conceive to be the great lesson of life.\n\nMOST\n\nREV. JOHN\n\nJ. GLENNON,\n\nARCHBISHOP\n\nOF ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nThere have been so many greetings pronounced and so many welcomes\nextended that I am afraid your convention will become altogether one of\ngreetings, because by the time the greetings are exhausted, then will come the\nparting, instead of getting in the solid work. Perhaps, after all, this is better\nthan to take things too seriously, and I believe that most of our conventions\nconsist of a greeting and a parting. Perhaps this is the sum total of hfe. We\nmeet and greet and part again — to meet again, I hope.\nI am dehghted to see you today. As a friend of Indian education I greet\nyou, and because of the consecration that I am sure is in your work you deserve\na double greeting. Speaking of consecration to your work, I believe that it\nwould not be unfair for me to say also that I greet you as a representative of a\nchurch that has given many of its sons and daughters to the consecration and\nuplifting of the Indian race. I feel that I form here a kind of a bond between\nthe past and the present — the past which is represented by those mission\nschools of the West. I can almost fancy today that I hear again the voice of\nsome Gabriel or the monks of Santa Barbara summoning their little flocks\ntogether that they may teach them the truths of knowledge, and also those\nundying truths on which are based the consecration of the Missionary Board.\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nr.Ho\n97^\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n.^ .\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n.\n\nSome of these missionaries are still living, and I am glad to know that you and\nthey are working together, for there is one bond of unity in your work.\nIn his endeavors to go onward and upward we can greet the Indian as a\nfriend and as a brother under a common flag, in a common nationality, under\nthe standard of the Blessed Savior, under the standard of the Almighty, the\ncommon Father of us all.\n\nRESPONSES\nDR. W\n\nJ McGEE,\n\nCHIEF OF THE DEPARTMENT\nOF ANTHROPOLOGY,\nPURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nLOUISIANA\n\nIt is a particular pleasure for me to accept, on behalf of the Congress of\nIndian Educators, and on behalf of the Department of Anthropology as well,\nthe greetings which have been so kindly extended this morning. It is true, as\nthe fathers thought, that he is a public benefactor who makes two blades of\ngrass grow where one grew before; but it is equally true, as we, the children,\nare learning, that he is a greater benefactor who makes a spear of wheat grow\nwhere a blade of grass grew before. In other words, the great lesson of\nmodem intellectual development is that it is not so much quantity as quaUty\nthat counts in the development of the world and in the development of our\ntime. And this is the lesson that has been taught in part by Indian education\nIt is true that this great Exposition has a function which is not always reaUzed\nbut it is not to be forgotten that the excellence of the Exposition is in a large\namount due to the fact that other educators have perceived this function, have\ncontributed to it, and have joined in making it a success for those who spend\nbut a day or a week within our gates. Every educator who comes profits\ngreatly by the coming.\nMuch has been said this morning about the progress of Indian education.\nHis excellency the governor said something about modern civihzation and the\npower which it exercises. Suppose I try for a moment to formulate the law of\nintellectual development, contrasting it with the law of commercial interchange.\nIn commercial interchange you may have money and I wheat. I sell my\nwheat to you; I have the money and you the wheat. The two of us have\nno more than we had before; the distribution is better, but the stock of money\nand wheat is not increased. Now, consider for a moment the law of intellectual interchange. You have knowledge and I have knowledge. You communicate yours to me, and there is no loss on your part ; I communicate mine\nto you, and I lose nothing; indeed, I profit a Uttle by the exercise of the giving.\nThe consequence is that each individual of the pair possesses double the\nknowledge there was before. Neither is impoverished, but the two are doubly\nenriched. Collectively we have four times the intellectual strength which we\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n973\n\npossessed jointly at the beginning of the transaction. This is the great law\nof intellectual interchange which Hes at the very foundation of all education\nand of all the vast educational power which has been extolled this morning as\nthe development of civilization.\nNow a word with respect to the red race. Let it not be imagined for a\nsingle moment that in dealing with the red race we Caucasians are dealing\nwith an inferior type of mankind. Let it be understood that this iyipe of mankind, indigenous to the western hemisphere, is indeed noble; is in fact so noble\nand worthy that the law of intellectual interchange may benefit us who come\nin contact with them, just as they profit by contact with us. Think for a\nmoment of some of the achievements and characteristics of our aboriginal landholders; ofa race which formerly reigned over all of this territory now occupied by our seventy milUons of people. Think of the lessons we have gained\nfrom it. Those of us whose heads are touched by the snow of time remember\nthat admirable and notable example of the world's oratory, the speech of\nLogan, chief of the Mingo tribe. Never have I seen an Indian child disobedient\nto or disrespectful toward its parents or anyone else. In this particular we\nmay well profit by the example of this people. Nor are we for a moment to\nimagine that the people for whose education, in conjunction with our own, we\nare constantly working, is devoid of accomplishment. If we select the first\nhundred or thousand of the makers of the nations, or the shapers of the progress of the times, in the repubUcs south of the Rio Grande, we shall find that\nin the veins of 90 per cent, of them Indian blood flows. This is the kind of\nstock which makes up the race which you, teachers of Indian schools, are\neducating and raising to a higher plane; and we profit by association, just as\nthey profit by the contact with us.\nIf time permitted, I should be glad to say something of the general course\nof human progress. I should like to point out the general tendency of human\ndevelopm^ent — that tendency under which the races and the peoples of the\nearth are each decade becoming more and more alike; but time will not permit.\nSuffice it to say the tendency is a clear one.\nOne final word with respect to the aim of Indian education, as I conceive it.\nI am perfectly ready to profit constantly by the spirit of such leaders of education as the commissioner of Indian affairs; as the superintendent of Indian\nschools. Miss Reel; as Superintendent McCowan, who has charge of the\nChilocco Indian School, and is also in charge of the Indian school here. I\nam always ready to profit by their experience and their devotion to Indian\neducation, which, as I conceive it, embraces the making of better Indians and\nthe improvement of the Indian as an Indian. It is true that the object — or\none of the main objects — is to make citizens, just as it is the object of education\namong ourselves. But cannot we make students of the Indian without\nde-Indianizing him ? I think we can — by endeavoring to make better Indians;\nto make the Indian more confident of supporting himself; to make him more\ncompetent to enter into those struggles for supremacy in which we are all\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": null, "text": "Qy.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nalike engaged, whether we profess it or not; and to take his part in those\nstruggles for progress which represent the making of all human activity. I\nam of the opinion that every Indian should be a better Indian than was his\nfather, just as I am of the opinion that every white man should be better\nthan his father. So that seems to me to be the keynote of Indian education —\nto make each generation of Indians better than the one before; better citizens,\nbetter guardians of our common flag, better people. Of such should be the\naim in Indian education.\n\nDR. JOHN\n\nT. DOYLE,\n\nSECRETARY\nCOMMISSION,\n\nOF THE UNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nCIVIL SERVICE\n\nIt may seem rash to say that anything is bigger than this big exposition,\nbut there are several things bigger. One thing bigger is the hearts of our\ngood friends who have given us this welcome and tendered us the freedom of\nthis Utopia. Another thing that is bigger is the genius of those who have\nfashioned this vast aggregation of material progress illustrating the triumph\nof man in studying the earth and human wants.\nCivil-service examinations for appointment in the Indian service are made\nas practical as possible, but these in themselves are not sufficient to secure\nefficient employees. In addition, there is the probational test in the actual\ndealing with the Indian, in protecting his interests and guiding his development. This probation is the most important of the tests of fitness, as it is\nintended to test the possession of the requisite tact, character, and capacity\nin the actual performance of duty. If a teacher is lacking in force, industry,\nor enthusiasm, he should be dropped as failing in the most requisite qualifications. A Tammany leader criticised the civil-service examinations in\nsaying: \"I have seen many, oh, so many, young fellows, who were bubbling\nover with enthusiasm and patriotism, laying right down and losing all interest\nin their country after running up against a civil-service examination.\" A\nteacher, instead of lying right down and losing all interest in his profession,\nshould work harder than ever to be a success. He has been appointed\nbecause of his standing in a competition of character and capacity, and given\na tenure dependent upon his dihgence and subordination. It should be to his\ninterest to devote his abilities with sincerity and zeal to his task and make the\nIndian service a career.\n\nHON.\n\nLEVI CHUBBUCK,\n\nSPECIAL INSPECTOR,\nDEPARTMENT\nWASHINGTON,\nD. C.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nINTERIOR,\n\nTwo years spent with those who are in the field as employees in the Indian\nservice, many of whom have spent decades in the work, give me but Httle\nwarrant to stand before the Congress of Indian Educators and respond to\nthe kind greetings that have been extended to us; but the length of my serv-\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF\n\nWELCOME\n\n975\n\nice does not, I trust, measure the extent of my interest in the cause of Indian\neducation, nor the depth of my sympathy for the workers in the field.\nHaving had the privilege of visiting more than one hundred Indian schools —\nday, reservation, boarding, and non-reservation schools — located in a dozen\ndifferent states and territories, and in which a thousand or more men and\nwomen are employed, I have added to my list of acquaintances such a number as must give to me, while life and memory last, an abiding personal interest in the Indian school service. One does not have to spend a lifetime\nvisiting Indian schools to become conscious that as a class the Indian service\nemployees meet the requirements set forth by one who has spent long years\nin the service, when he said to me, on assuming my present duties, that no\none was fit to be in the work in any capacity unless he or she be imbued with\nthe true missionary spirit. Certainly the conditions of isolation and deprivation under which, for the most part, the work must be carried on, are not\nattractive to those whose heart-throbs are in unison only with self-interest.\nAnd your presence here today attests the fact that you are interested in your\nwork beyond the point of self, and are actuated by a desire not only to render\nefficient service to the government, but to do good to the people for whom\nthe Indian service is maintained.\nIf it be not presumptuous in one whose experience in the Indian service\nis as limited as mine, let me raise a question at this time as to the line along\nwhich the Indian schools can do the greatest good. It is, of course, assumed\nthat the good these schools are established and maintained to do is that to\nIndians, tho some may have a conception hke that held by a certain politician,\nwho, while recognizing that laws were to be framed in the interest of the\ngreatest number, candidly admitted that, as he saw the situation, the greatest\nnumber was No. i.\nWhat is the greatest good we can do the Indians of the present generation ?\nTo make them self-supporting, and, consequently, self-respecting citizens.\nPresident Roosevelt, in his first annual message to Congress, said: ''One\nof the greatest needs of the Indians of the present generation is confident\ncommand of colloquial EngHsh.\" With this statement I fully agree, but\nmake the point that the need is simply the means to an end, and, by supplying that, it will go farther towards putting the Indians on a self-supporting\nbasis than will anything else. Of course, neither we nor the Indians must\nget the idea that mere \"talk,\" even if it be English, will produce the desired\nresult. Of course, the idea is that, when Indians are given \"confident command of colloquial English,\" they are thereby put into closer touch with our\ncivilization than by any other single factor, and given the most potent means\nof acquiring the knowledge necessary for their advancement.\nAt the risk of being charged by teachers with heresy, I will say that, to\nmy mind, if the Indian children shall be taught to speak everyday English,\nit will be of more importance to them than all the other class-room knowledge\nthat can be given them; and, further, that the children can be better\ntaught to speak Enghsh outside than inside the class-room.\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": null, "text": "9^6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nAdmitting that the speaking of EngHsh is a means to an end, along what\nline should Indian children be led in the acquirement and exercise of the\naccompHshment as being the surest to reach the desired result— namely,\nself-support? Along the industrial Hne, will be the most general answer;\nor, to put it more correctly, along the line of physical rather than mental\nactivities. Hence it is that, under the poHcy of the Indian Office, our Indian\nschools are largely of an industrial character, and instruction in shop, farm,\nand house work is supposed to have a prominent place in the educational\nscheme.\nIt is admitted, I presume, that the greatest good we can do the Indian\nchildren is to make them self-supporting citizens. It will also be readily\nadmitted, by all who know anything about the Indians and their environments, that if they are to become self-supporting, it must in very large measure\nbe by some branch of farming.\nLet me say, in conclusion, that from my point of view, if the government\nis to accompHsh, in any reasonable length of time, its purpose of making the\nIndians self-supporting by means of instruction given in the Indian schools,\nit must, by the raising of salaries and educational requirements, put into these\nschools educated and trained industrial employees and require of them that\nthey be teachers always, and of the \"whys\" as well as the \"hows.\"\n\nS. M.\n\nMcCOWAN,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nOF CHILOCCO\nCHELOCCO, OKLA.\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIt gives me pecuHar pride and pleasure to have this opportunity of responding to the many cordial greetings which have been extended to us this morning.\nI especially appreciate the many kind words of praise of our Indian exhibit\nand model school. These are primarily intended to illustrate the great\nprogress which is being made in educating and uphfting the Indian.\nResults are beginning to show. We are beginning to reap the harvest of\nyears of sowing. We can now see for ourselves what Commissioner Morgan\nsaw years ago, that Indian nature is but human nature bound in red. God\nnever yet marooned a soul. He started every human being out equipped\nwith all the elements of manhood— all the elements of greatness. And he\ndoes not maroon the Indian's. soul, for all the Indian needs, as Commissioner\nJones has aptly said, is to be given a white man's chance.\nI want the Indian exhibit to speak for me— it already speaks for itself.\nThe exhibit and the model Indian school show, in the most practical way\npossible, the progress the Indian is making and the rapid strides he is taking\ntoward civiHzation. The model Indian school will show that the young\nIndian is being instructed, not only in the ordinary English branches, but in\nthe practical industrial arts which will enable him in adult Hfe to be selfreliant and self-supporting, and consequently a good man and a good citizen.\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN\n\nPAPERS\nEFFICIENCY\nDR. JOHN\n\nT. DOYLE,\n\nTHE\n\nAND\nIN THE\n\nSECRETARY\n\nINDIAN\n\nSERVICE\n\n977\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nINDIAN\n\nSERVICE\n\nOF THE UNITED STATES\nMISSION, WASHINGTON, D. C.\n\nCIVIL SERVICE\n\nCOM-\n\nSince the methods employed in other schools need adaptation to fit them\nto the teaching of Indians, the subject of Indian education has problems\nwhich are peculiar to itself. Out of the deliberations of Indian educators\nin congresses such as this come improved methods of instruction, appropriate\ntext-books, unity of effort, and an organized system of education. As I have\nbeen identified with the cause of civil-service reform, I presume I shall be\nexpected to speak to you upon the relations of that reform to Indian education, but I shall try to speak to you practically rather than professionally.\nThe character of Indian teaching depends upon the character of the teaching\nforce, and it is therefore fundamental that those appointed shall be capable\nand of good character. The method of their selection should be designed\nto this end. To obtain suitable employees, particularly at remote places,\nwhere the surroundings are not attractive, is very difficult, but vital. Then,\ntoo, the qualifications required are unusually varied. Work among the\nIndians reverts to earlier types, and there is little subdivision of labor attempted\nupon reservations. This makes it difficult sometimes to obtain persons who\nhave all the qualifications required for the particular position. For instance,\nthe clerk of an agency or of a school should have integrity, should be a good\naccountant, and should have sufficient executive ability to enable him to\nperform, in the absence of the agent, the duties of that position also. The\nphysician of an agency or of a school should bring to his work, to even a larger\ndegree than usual, the skill and self-denial which characterize the profession,\nbecause of the ignoraiice and helplessness to which he ministers and the need\nof winning the Indian away from the superstition of the medicine man. The\nfarmer must be familiar with the different kinds of farming that the locahty\nof the reservation requires, and be able to impart his knowledge to others,\nto induce the Indians to become interested in farm work, and to encourage the\nindolent to be industrious. The blacksmith should be acquainted with ironworking in general, ingenious enough to work in various allied lines of handicraft, even without a complete outfit of tools; as should also the carpenter, the\nmiller, the sawyer, and other mechanics.\nIt will thus be seen that the inherent difficulties in the way of securing\nemployees for the Indian service are much greater than in almost any other\nservice. The law requires that the service shall be recruited thru free, open,\ncompetitive examination, and there is therefore the widest possible field for\nsecuring employees irrespective of party, creed, or personal influence. In\nview of the pecuhar conditions existing in the Indian service, persons selected\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": null, "text": "978\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nfor all positions, with the possible exception of physician, should have teaching\nability, as the purpose of their employment is essentially that of instruction.\nThe examinations are designed, therefore, to test the knowledge of the competitor, and to determine as far as possible his ability to impart instruction\nto others. They are made as practical as possible, and are modified from\ntime to time as experience requires. Previous experience is given consideration in some of these examinations, and in the non-educational examinations\nit constitutes 60 per cent., while the elements of age and physical condition\nconstitute the remaining 40 per cent.\nThe progress that is being made in civilizing the Indian is largely due to\nthe efficiency of the teaching force. Upon your individual efforts as teachers,\nand your missionary zeal, the Indian comes out of his isolation and savagery\ninto assimilation with his white neighbors. From being a menace to social\norder he becomes a contributor to it and is absorbed into the civilization of\nthe Republic.\nIt is your privilege and opportunity to aid in this civilizing work, and to\nbring your inteUigence, skill, and zeal to the betterment of the condition of\nthese fellow-beings of ours, leading them in a few generations into the wisdom\nand opportunities which it has taken long centuries of struggle for the white\nrace to attain. We take by the hand the Cuban, the Hawaiian, the Porto\nRican, the Filipino, and the Indian, and bid them be our brothers and share\nour blessings with us. In this benevolence we obey the injunction of John\nLocke, who said: \"I think everyone, according to the way Providence has\nplaced him in, is bound to labor for the pubHc good as far as he is able.\"\nI have said that your work in civilizing the Indian is a privilege, a duty,\nand an opportunity. , In this I do not wish to be understood as indulging in\nmere commonplace expressions, or as underrating the difficulties or selfsacrifice required in the task. Your task, is a very difficult one, and only as\nit is inspired and directed by more than ordinary zeal and inteUigence will it\nresult in good to the Indians and to yourselves. There used to be many who\nrefused to beheve in the possibiHty of good resulting from governmental,\nreligious, or humanitarian effort to redeem the Indian from his deplorable\ncondition, just as there are many even now who refuse to beheve that we can\nassist the Filipino, of untutored mind and body, to bear the hard burden of\ncivihzed fife. The prophets to the contrary, we have helped the Indian, and\nwe are helping the Filipino, and we shall keep on in our work until with sound\nbodies and disciplined minds, capable of systematic labor, they are living\nlives of contentment and happiness. We have but to witness the wise and\ngood work that you are doing for the elevation of the Indian to see how ready\nhas been his response to your appeal to his moral nature. That response has\nbeen greatest where your sympathies and labors have been strongest. Your\nwork has proved that the Indian will advance in civilization by methods which\nwill win his confidence.\n\nOne of the greatest forces' in the betterment of the Indian has been the\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIAN\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nINDIAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n979\n\nraising of the standard of the civil service and in retaining faithful employees\nin office. We now have a system enforced to the end that the persons appointed\nin the Indian work shall be possessed of integrity, the requisite degree of knowledge, of experience, and of administrative capacity, sympathy for the Indian,\nand enthusiasm in the work of teaching. Where the lives and welfare of human\nbeings are at stake it is vital that those put in charge shall be honest and\ncapable.\nThe teacher who enters the service thru a civil-service examination 'is\nappointed upon probation, and that probation is the most important part of\nhis examination. The same laws which determine success or failure in the\nbusiness world apply in much the same way in the public service. It is true\nthat the motives are different and that personal favoritism, political influence,\nand prejudices of one sort or another incident to human nature, sometimes\nvitiate appointments, promotions, and removals, and operate to defeat the\njust claims of merit; but, taking the classified service in the main, the competent and deserving are advanced. It is no disparagement of the employee's\nfaithfulness to find him after many years of service in eitKer a private or a\npublic institution still holding a distinctly subordinate position. He may be\nthe best of employees, courteous, obliging, obedient, prompt; and yet, if he\nlacks force, he may spend all his life in the sphere in which he started and make\nno gain in rank or authority. It is hard for such an employee to realize that\nthe trouble lies in a fault of his own. The employee who wants to go on must\nkeep his interest and intellectual activity alive. He must not only obey orders,\nbut obey them inteUigently and with discretion, and in doing so he will learn\nto command and be fit for promotion.\nThe outlook in the Indian work is full of hope. The service has been\nlargely taken out of politics, abuses are being remedied, and the Indians are\nmaking steady progress toward civilization and self-support. The noble\nmissionary efforts of Christian men and women have prevented the entire\ndestruction of the race, preserved its native arts and crafts, and directed the\nforces of civilization against nomadic and lawless tendencies. It rests with\nyou to carry on this work.\n\nINDIAN\nMISS\n\nMUSIC\nNATALIE\n\nAND\n\nINDIAN\n\nCURTIS,\n\nNEW\n\nEDUCATION\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nIt is a great pleasure to me to confer with you today, for altho I am not a\nteacher in Indian schools, I share with you the love and interest in the Indians\nthat must be felt by all who have lived among them.\nYou are all aware that at Hampton, Va., special effort is made' to preserve\namong the negro students the old plantation melodies and typical negro songs.\nThese songs are sung at the anniversaries and commencement exercises at\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\n980\n\nHampton. Overwhelming is the effect of this natural folk-music as it pours\nfrom hundreds of imtutored throats. Great is the service rendered by Hampton to the world by the perpetuation of this music, not only for the intrinsic\nvalue of the music itself, but for its reactionary effect upon the students.\nThe problems of negro education and the problems of Indian education\ndiffer, yet what I believe to be the ideal of Hampton hold^ good for the education of all races to develop character and individuaUty as the basis of all selfrespecting citizenship.\nThis year, at its annual exercises, Hampton had its Indian students sing\ntheir native melodies. The music of the Indians is beautiful, striking, and\nunique, and its effect was a revelation to the listeners.\nOn my return to New York last winter I sang for representative and\nfamous musicians some of our Indian melodies. These musicians had gathered in New York for the season from all parts of Europe and America. One\nof them was a German court conductor who leads concerts in London, Paris,\nand all the great cities of the civilized world. He was thrilled with the beauty\nof the Indian songs. ''But these things are wonderful,\" he cried; ''they are\nunique. How rich your country is in artistic material! This is something\ntruly remarkable. Would that Wagner could have heard these songs. You\nhave a wealth of inspiration in your country.\"\nIn the Government Building here at the World's Fair you will see models\nof ancient Indian architecture. Among the great buildings of the world this\narchitecture stands unexcelled in its simplicity and dignity of line, its harmony\nof detail, its grace and beauty of ornament.\nIt is for the Indian schools to help fulfill America's duty of preserving for\nthe world the striking and beautiful features of Indian Ufe, Indian character,\nand Indian arts. If you are already attempting to retain the arts of basketry,\nweaving, and pottery, extend your efforts to the other arts as well — the poetry\nand music of the Indians. Let the Indian student record in written form all\nthat he can find of his native art and of his people's unwritten literature; for\nliterature it is. Let this be done now — now before it is too late. Begin in\nthe kindergarten. Draw out the Indian himself, the real child. Allow his\ncreative instinct a chance to develop along natural lines. Where you have\nnative teachers the task becomes an easier one. Confer with these native\nteachers as to the best means of gaining your aim.\nIn the Government Building you will see a mantelpiece designed by Angel\nde Cora, an educated, gifted, and noble young Indian woman. On this mantel\nare carved the fire symbols and fire sticks of the Indian. Framed amid these\nsymbols is a painting of a fire-lit Indian camp, full of suggestive poetry and\ncharm. Such work shows what native talent developed along native lines\ncan mean economically as well as artistically to our country; for who can\nsay, from a purely commercial standpoint, if we must indeed have it so, that\nsuch work is not of far more worth than the sort of wood-carving that means\nnothing to anybody and can be turned out wholesale by any machine ?\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nINDIAN\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\nINDIAN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n981\n\nWhy, then, do we want Indian art preserved ? For our own sake as well\nas for the best development of the Indian. As the Indian is to become part\nof the nation, it behooves us to absorb, in absorbing him, that which will add\nto our own native strength.\nIf the Indian woman sings as- she grinds her com; if the Indian sees poetry\nand beauty, not dollars only, in his waving field of grain, let us thank God\nwith reverent hearts.\nIn the cultured circles of our eastern coast we hear the cry: \"There is no\nart in America; our children must go to Europe to be educated.\" Did we but\nopen our eyes and unstop our ears, we should find in our own land a wider\nroad for inspiration in artistic development than can be offered by the timebeaten pathways of the Old World.\nThe Indian has much to bring to us — rich gifts of poetry, of art; yea\nmore — gifts of human character rare and noble; and these gifts, if absorbed\ninto our national life, might flower into such a garden of national art, character, and culture as would make it as distinct among nations as any country\non the globe. Our civilization is but an aftermath of European culture; it is\nbut a conglomerate reflection of the thought of the Old World. Yet there is\none poem in our literature known thruout Europe as distinctively American;\none poem taught in all the public schools of our land. What is it ? Hiawatha.\nMy friends, there are unwritten Hiawathas by the hundreds and the thousands.\nMistake me not. In pleading the cause of Indian individuality I am not\none of those who believe that the Indian should be kept in a glass case like\nan ethnological specimen. The Indian is a man, not a curiosity. As a man\nand a noble man will he develop, and there is no logical reason why good\ncitizenship and self-supporting industry be not compatible with the true and\nrightful growth of individuality. In our schools in the East we believe in the\ndevelopment of the individuality of each and every scholar, knowing that\nthis is the way to make citizens. Once then, and for all, the Indian is a factor\nand a worthy factor in our national life. And if he be led to feel this true, if\nhe be taught that we are glad and eager for his gifts, if he be gathered close\nto the very heart of our country and made to feel that in his own pulses throb\nits life-impulse, who shall say that this will make him less loyal to his country,\nless industrious as a citizen ?\nOh, Indian workers, think of your possibiHties ! Think what your schools\nmay mean ! You are history-makers. To conserve all the noblest gifts and\nquaUties of the Indian nature is your task. No man can consecrate himself\ntoo wholly; no man can give himself too utterly to this national cause. It is\na debt we owe not only to the Indian and to our country; it is a debt we owe\nto our own manhood and womanhood, to our own fatherhood and motherhood, to posterity our children, and our God.\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": null, "text": "educational\n\nassociation\n\nq82\n\nnational\n\nABSTRACTS\n\nOF ADDRESSES AND DISCUSSIONS\nTABLE CONFERENCES\n\n[Indian\n\nAT ROUNQ\n\nTOPIC— A REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF POINTS GAINED FROM. THE\nTHE MODEL SCHOOLS OF THE\nEDUCATIONAL EXHIBITS AND\nEXPOSITION\nBenjamin S. Coppock, school supervisor for the Cherokee Nation, I. T. — It is said\nthat the Cherokee tribe of Indians is the largest in numbers in America and the most\nciviUzed. There are a good many things to learn from the history and present conditions\nof the Cherokee people. They are all civilized and self-supporting. We have a great\nmany Cherokees who are highly educated and who have traveled extensively. Many of\nthese are worth twenty, forty, or sijfty thousand dollars. Many enjoy the comforts and\nconveniences of very elegant homes.\nWhile we have a good school system, the part in which we most lack is the industrial\nwork. I am very decidedly in favor of industrial education in all the schools in the service,\nespecially that boys be taught to cultivate the soil. They should be instructed in farming,\nstock-raising, fruit-growing, etc. If we should put a hundred Indian girls and boys, as\nnow educated, in our towns and cities, and a hundred boys who have learned trades, when\nthe first hard times came, ninety-nine in every hundred would be out of a position. I\nthink the Indian boy's place is in the country. If we give him an education in connection\nwith the tiUing of the soil, we are giving him the best possible education.\nE. C. Nardin, superintendent of Mount Pleasant Indian School, Michigan. — I was\nvery much pleased to hear, at the meeting of the Elementary Department of the National\nEducational Association, one of the most popular speakers make the statement, in substance,\nthat we must never give a child anything to make for which he himself does not have a\ndefinite use — never under any conditions whatever. That statement seemed to receive\nthe hearty indorsement of every teacher present. Another point brought out, which seems\nto me of particular interest to the Indian workers, is that teachers should study the children\nand endeavor to lead them to unconsciously take an interest in the class-room work.\nThere seems to be a general disposition to overlook this point. Teachers should study\nthe children more closely and adapt the class-room exercises to the needs of the pupils,\nencouraging them to endeavor to overcome all the diflSculties which are put in their way.\nRev. J. A. Sinclair, principal of Regina Industrial School, Canada. — I came down\nhere quietly, not appointed by anybody, hoping that I would not be asked to say anything.\nI came to look to you for assistance and to take notes with reference to dealing with the\nIndian. I must admit that in this you have passed us in the race. The statement has\nbeen made at this meeting that you have solved the Indian problem. I regret to say that\nwe in Canada have not solved the problem, nor is the solution in sight. The most striking\nthing I have seen during this visit, and the visit I made to Hampton, Va., a few years ago,\nis the results of your work — the results in developing the character, the mind, and the\nheart of the pupils you are training. I was delighted to see in the 1903 report of the\ncommissioner of Indian affairs that during the past year about 225 Indians were given\nemployment in the Indian school service at salaries above $300 per annum. I made this\nstatement at home some time ago, and I must say it created a sensation among those\nwho are interested in the Indian cause.\nWe have not reached such results as that.\nI am delighted to see the tendency to make a greater effort to look at things from the\nIndian's standpoint. I may mention that one of the results of my visit to Hampton was\nthe securing of one of the graduates of that institution as a teacher. She was recommended bythe faculty and appointed, and I am glad to say that she has more than fulfilled\nour expectations.\nWe are sorry .to see her leave us and are having trouble to fill her place.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nABSTRACTS\n\nOF ROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\n983\n\nIf you are producing in your schools Indian men and women who can do anything that\nwhite people can, and can do some things better, you are doing the very best thing for the\nIndian that can be done.\nI wish to express my high appreciation of the work you are accomplishing and the\nprogress you are making in developing the Indian into a loyal citizen.\nW. H. WiNSLOW, superintendent of Genoa Indian School, Nebraska. — One thing\nthat struck me at the meeting yesterday was the remark of G. Stanley Hall that teachers\nwere getting back to the idea that the best place for the American boy is on the farm. I\nam glad to see that teachers in the white schools are getting back to that idea; and if it is\ntrue with reference to the white boys in this country, it is true in a larger and better sense\nof the Indian boys and girls. I think the industrial work should be made very prominent\nin the Indian schools, especially the farm work. We get development of mind and muscle\nfrom our industrial training on the farm, and it should not be surprising to us at all that\nso many great men come from the farm. They are developed in a natural and normal way.\nAnother thing Dr. Hall said which impressed me was that after the close of the college\nor university courses there is a general letting down on the part of the men and women\ngraduates. It struck me that this might teach us something in regard to the Indian boy\nand girl. If there is a general letting down on the part of the college or university graduates, how can we reasonably expect the Indian boy or girl to do any better ?\nC. F. X^AMPBELL, superintendent of Fort Shaw Indian School, Montana. — The Fort\nShaw school is located in a northern section, and I think everyone there is in favor of\nmanual training for our boys and girls, especially as it relates to cattle-raising and agriculture. The hope of the Indian of the Northwest lies exclusively, I think, in stock-raising\nand farming. I agree with the policy of the Indian Office that we should provide education along those lines.\nPaph Julian, teacher of Day School No. 10, Pine Ridge, S. D. — I did not expect to\nbe called upon at any of the meetings of the National Educational Association to do anything but listen.\nI was much interested in the masterly address delivered by G. Stanley Hall, president\nof Clark University, which all of you heard yesterday at Festival Hall, and which could\nnot fail to impress and help us.\nIt has been suggested to me that I say something to you about my methods of teaching\nat the Day School No. 10. I believe that teaching the Indian to speak English is of the\nfirst importance. My theory in regard to teaching is to use the most natural and simple\nmethods. In teaching English I have a table on which are arranged various objects\nwhich are familiar to the children. I have one lesson in which all the objects are pairs\n— shoes, socks, suspenders, tongs, scissors, etc. Pupil No. i takes the shoes and says,\n\"This is a pair of shoes, one, two.\" Then pupil No. 2 takes the shoes, and so on. But\nI shall not take up your time by going into further details. The main thing is to have a\ndefinite plan and carry it out in a practical and thoro manner.\nJohn J. McKoin, superintendent of Siletz Indian School, Oregon. — What we should\ngive the Indian is manual training. Teach him to love the soil and the products of the\nsoil as a means of living. Two years ago I was asked to discuss that subject, and I said\nthat the best hope for the Indian was to make him a farmer or stock-grower. Get him out\non the farm or ranch, and teach him to raise cattle and stock of all kinds, and to become a\nuseful citizen. I believe that in accomplishing this a great step forward will be taken in\nIndian education. We all know that the Indian does not love work and has an idea that\nit is undignified to work. Make him understand that there is dignity in toil, and that the\nbest thing he can do is to labor in the field.\nThe subject on the program is \"a review of the educational points gained from the\neducational exhibits and model schools.\"\nI think, if we will look at all we can, we shall\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": null, "text": "Q\n904\n\nNATIONAL\n:\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Indian\n\nwe\nfind much to carry back home with us and much that will be helpful to us. I think\nmay learn by looking over the exhibits that almost anything is possible with the Indian.\nMiss Viola Cook, superintendent of Wild Rice River Indian School, Minnesota. —\nIt seems to me that we are all agreed upon industrial training. About everything that\ncan be said on the subject has been said. There is one thing I am especially interested\nin- that is, where teachers can get the manual training that all seem so much interested in.^\nJohn A. Buntin, superintendent of Riverside Indian School, Oklahoma. — I am\nmost interested in the industrial work, and that has been pretty well explained. We are\nall aware of the fact that only a few of the Indians can become doctors, lawyers, etc., and\nhope to cope with the white man; but everyone can learn to work his land and make a\nliving.\nE. B. HiNSHAW, superintendent of Bloomfield Seminary, Indian Territory. — The\nbest thing to do for the boys and girls of Indian Territory is to put them in the homes and\non the farms. We speak of manual training, which is all right; but let us add to manual\ntraining industrial training. The very best thing the United States government ever did\nfor the Indian was to allot his land and say to him: \"That is your piece of ground; go\ncultivate it.\" The boy says: \"This is my home; I will plant an orchard, and build a\nhouse and barn.\" When we have taught the Indians to love labor, love work, and do\nthat work wilHngly, we shall have solved the Indian problem; and it is being solved.\nS. M. McCowAN, superintendent of Chilocco Agricultural School, Oklahoma. — I\nhave been absolutely at a loss to know what to talk about, and I could not think of anything at all to say until our brother said that they were going to solve the Indian problem.\nThen I felt like getting right up and stating that we had already solved the Indian problem.\nI see that he is very curious to know how and where. We solved it when we made up our\nminds that there was no Indian problem; that Indians are just the same as white people;\nthat they have the same elements of manhood; that they have the same talents; and that\nthe same processes of evolution that have been followed so successfully in the cultivation of the white races will be followed with as much success in the cultivation and development of the red race.\nIt seems to me that this meeting should be turned into a love feast. We have every\nreason for congratulating each other. In my fifteen years in the service I have never met\nso many intelligent and cultured people. The personnel of the Indian service has taken\nimmense strides forward. All you old teachers will agree with me. The civil service\nhas done a great deal for us. We have developed ourselves. We have done much by\nstudying the people we are trying to develop. We cannot develop ourselves without\ndeveloping others.\nI beUeve that we should prepare the Indian for the complications of today, for difficulties and discouragements that he will have to meet today, and not those of a hundred\nyears ago.\nIn looking over the exhibits in the Education Building, and in the other buildings in\nthe exposition grounds, we have found no reason to be ashamed of the work done in our\nIndian schools. I think we get closer to the student than the teachers in any other schools\nor any other system of schools. We should congratulate ourselves on having at the head\nof the service such a splendid man as Commissioner Jones. He deserves all the credit\nthat can possibly be given him. He has stood by us in every way; he has done everything\nthat can be done to develop the educational pohcy. And, if Miss Reel were not present\nI would include her.\nT. G. Lemmon, superintendent of Grand Junction Indian School, Colorado. — I have\njust made my speech in the person of Mr. McCowan. Mr. Coppock made an assertion\nabout the old-fashioned farm.\nTwo hundred miles from where I am standing I got my\n» In the Official Course of Study for the Indian Schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": null, "text": "Department]\n\nABSTRACTS\n\nOF ROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nCONFERENCES\n\n985\n\nI\n\ntraining in old-fashioned farming.\nI want the new-fashioned farming.\nAt our school\nat Grand Junction there is no better strain of cattle than we are raising. There is no\nbetter school than the Grand Junction School. We want the farm work up to date. I\nam a farmer, and if I leave the Indian service, I expect to go on a farm. We are miserably\nshort in the service in one thing, and that is in teachers that are worth what they should\nbe on the farm. We get too many farmers that connot farm. I am in favor of an industrial\nnormal department in some of our Indian schools, and I hope we shall do something\ndefinite in this direction.\nA. O. Wright, supervisor of Indian Schools. — When you go back to the schools\nwhich you represent, you should try to improve your work a little by taking up some line\nof study on Indian character, such as has been suggested here; it may be child study,\ncomparing the Indian child in school on the same line as white children; it may be, as\none of the Pine Ridge day-school teachers did, you will study the Indian in his home life.\nI would advise you all to take up some study of this nature as one of the things you are\ngoing to do. Do not consider yourselves banished from civilization. You have a strong\nsense of honor, and I would suggest that you determine to do your best for the development of the children under your care. Make it worth something for yourselves by\nhaving a little specialty of your own to work up where you are. In doing that you will\nbe gathering material in line with what we have heard yesterday and today.\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": null, "text": "CLASSIFIED\n\nNATIONAL\nFOR\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nTHE\n\nYEAR\n\nI904\n\n(ST.\n\nLife\nors\nDirect-\n\nNorth Atlantic Division\n5outh Atlantic Division\nSouth Central Division\n....\nNorth Central Division\nWestern Division\nDependencies\nForeign (incl. Corres. M'b'rs, 28).\nNorth Atlantic Division —\nMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\nSouth Atlantic DivisionDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nSouth Central DivisionKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama\nMississippi\nLouisiana\n\nIndianCentral\nTerritory\n'.\nNorth\nDivisionOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois.\nMichigan.... ;;iii|^\nWisconsin\nIowa\n[\nMinnesota. . . ......]\nMissouri\n[\\\nNorth Dakota\n...\nSouth Dakota\nNebraska\n.[\nKansas\n\n',\n'.\n. . ..\n\nMontana Division—'\nWestern\nWyoming\n[[[[\nColorado\n[\nNew Mexico. . . . . . . .\nArizona\nUtah\n;;;;;;;\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\n.....\nOregon\n[,[\nCalifornia\n.,\nDependencies —\nAlaska\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\n\nPorto Rico\nOther Countries (incl.' Cciri-es.' M'b'rs,\" 27)\n\nMEETING)\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nE 67\n\n665\nLife\nbers\nMem-\n\nTotals\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nLOUIS\n\nACTIVE\n\nTexas\nOklahoma\nArkansas\n\nBY STATES\n\n19\n\nTotal\nActive\n\n119\n\n225\n14\n\n245\n\n189\n\n3,725\n\n29\n27\n270\n\nFormer\nActive\n\nNew\nActive\n\n54\n34\n\n27\n1.539\n1,408\n186\n298\n\n55\n\n5\n5\n\n28\n27\n35\n\n4SO\n19\n\n19\n354\n34\n59\n621\n88\n\n71\nIS46\n\n162\n8\n39\n\n2,079\n63\n1,512\n\n61\n\n3,567\n128\n\n2,861\n4,940\n209\n\n39\n\n47\n\n356\n\n40s\n\n13\n\n15\n\n8\n372\n17\n\n14\n35\n37\n57\n700\n39\n30\n71\n74\n47\n\n28\n85\n\n37\n20\n\n6\n\n12\n\n19\n153\n413\n\n106\n439\n\nI\n203\n203\n\n68\n8\n\n38\nloi\n\n10\n\n132\n99\n\n270\n\n37\n\n4\n6\n5\n5\n\n45\n39\n159\n1048\n149\n128\n296\n48\n15\n13\n142\n46\n52\n373\n520\n43\n\n9\n\n106\n\n40\n53\n9\n56\n121\n\nI\n5\n4\n55\n4\n\nI\n30\n5\n5\n8\n\n7\n\n38\n194\n74\n\n26\n27\n69\n\n66\nS3\n419\n97\n14\n\n19s\n28\n93\n37\n199\nSI\n189\n39\n\n393\n103\n190\n939\n27\n2,299\n90\n\n14\n\n8\n\n25\n\n1,926\n\n47\n\n10\n36\n50\n\n24\n\nIII\n\n670\n180\n94\n\n38\n\n4\n\n21\n545\n\n14\n\n23\n\n38\n\n1,640\n389\n507\n\n262\n\n13\n13\n18\n\n263\n26\n83\n149\n\n29\n8,109\n\n12\n3\n60\n12\n7\n9\n\n76\n121\n12\n41\n130\n\n67\n26\n\n31\n\n5\n50\n\n52\n\n146\n95\n70\nI\n5\n7\n8\n\n48\n\n70\n61\n2\n\n42\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": null, "text": "RECORD\n\nNATIONAL\n\nOF\n\nMEMBERSHIP\n\nBY\n\nIN THE\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSTATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFOR EACH YEAR FROM\n1884-1894, INCLUSIVE\nExcepting for 1893, when no regular meeting was held.\nHeavier numbers show membership from the state\nin which the meeting of the year was held.\nThe first column shows average, by states, of attendance at following meetings: Madison, '84 (2,729);\nSaratoga, '85 (625); Topeka, '86 (1,197)'. Chicago, '87 (9,115): San Francisco, '88 (7,216)-, Nashville, '89\n(1,984); St. Paul, '90 (5.474); Toronto, '91 (4.778); Saratoga, '92 (3,360); Asbury Park, '94 17\n(5,915)25\n1899\n\nState or Territory\n\nm\n\n1897\n\n1895\n\n'\" 1896\n\"\n11,297\n289 82 237\n\nTotals\nNorth Atlantic Division\nSouth Atlantic Division\nSouth Central Division.\nNorth Central Division.\nWestern Division\nDependencies\nForeign (incL Cor. M'b'rs, 28)\nNorth Atlantic DivisionMaine\nNew Hampshire\nVermont\nMassachusetts\nRhode Island\nConnecticut\nNew York\nNew Jersey\nPennsylvania\nSouth Atlantic DivisionDelaware\nMaryland\nDistrict of Columbia\nVirginia\nWest Virginia\nNorth Carolina\nSouth Carolina\nGeorgia\nFlorida\nSouth Central DivisionKentucky\nTennessee\nAlabama. .^\nMississippi\nLouisiana\n',\nTexas\nArkansas\nOklahoma\nIndian Territorv\nNorth Central DivisionOhio\nIndiana\nIllinois\nMichigan\nWisconsin\nIowa\nMinnesota\nMissouri\nNorth Dakota!\nSouth Dakota/\nNebraska\nKansas\nWestern Division —\nMontana\nWyoming\nColorado\nNew Mexico\nArizona\nUtah.....\nNevada\nIdaho\nWashington\nOregon\nCalifornia\nDependencies —\nAlaska.\nHawaii\nPorto Rico\nPhilippine Islands\nForeign\n\n1903\n\n'\" 13\n16\n1898\n10,533\n\n13\n1.877\n14\n13,656\n\n899\n\n739\n122\n324\n17\n2,388\n569\n25\n\n14\n\n1,462\n27\n13\n1,403\n\n2,940\n9,072\n14\n419\n\n15\n172\n304\n7,11]\n\n17\n191\n26\n55\n\n17\n13\n128\n3\n16\n18\n8\n\n168\n437\n\n49\n47\n\n8\n15\n\n52 5\nI\n\n3\n\n84\n62\n176\n\n60\n118\n26\n36\n137\n40\n298\n\n205\n284\n126\n207\n215\n\nSio\n\n66\n294\n49\n36\n108\n\n12\n5.315\n\n197\n\n159\n942\n\n10\n5.882\n\n361\n\n3667\n6\n\n159\n6\n63\nII\n412\n\n154\n16\n\n12\n5\n29\n1578\n\nII\n\n18\n\n87\n27\n\n327\n\n23\n179\n29\n\n1.495\n193\n15\n188\n58\n592\nr 321\n28\n1,113\n1,086\n\nno13\n\nII\n\n255\n2\n9\n411\n157\n10\n16\n4\n7\n\n558\n229\n36\n\n9\n\n54\n3«2\n31\n\n63\n14\n43\n23\n77\n59\n57\n\n11\n\ns\n\n31\n\n20s\n30\n\n83\n1,174\n565\n250\n41\n\n357\n78s\n285\n327\n1,870\n543\n\n303\n\n578\n177\n363\n325\n406\n43\n7\n16\n\n80\n\n699\n\n99\n\n261\n\n536\n22\n22\n113\n50\n16\n46\n\n100\n146\n\n187\n333\n53\n1x8\n14s\n251\n10\n\n408\n76\n60\n132\n\n7\n196\n29\n137\n21\n\n7\n\n81\n18\n57\n\n512\n215\n22\n\n691\n\n77\n39\n108\n\n361\n45\n20\n87\n\n453\n86\n\n8\n\n187\n\n465\n158\n\n375\n10\n\n78\n\n4,357\n70I\n9\n2\n\n18\n3\nII\n20\n30\n156\n\n39\n\n25\n26\n301\n481\n28\n68 7 459\n281\n2,323\n335\n2,025\n315\n137\n116\n595\n15\n\n17\n62\n28\n\n32\n43\n37\n73\n35\n26\n\n131\n229\n363\n114\n508\n\n4162\n\n28\n677\n\n157\n\n217\n34\n\n22\n308\n\n3486\n\n390\n7\n105\n\n194\n\n231\n210\n\n382\n71\n118\n\n45\n\n47\n313\n432\n186\n408\n14s\n\n97\n33\n\n81\n\n90\n\n16\n\n189\n\n27\n\n74\n60\n7\n\n106\n331\n49\n79\n38\n\n15.619\n677\n937\n\n24 1,247\n286\n753\n7212\n261\n2,193\n357\n15\n187\n25\nno 1,14230\n109\n557\n13\n71\n19\n801\n65\n444\n2,498\n166\n121\n82\n19\n13\n16\n415\n52\n27\n486\n96\n86\n46\n196\n41\n141\n325\n372\n10\n\n196\n382\n\n987\n\n35\n76\n148\n116\n293\n9\n\n173\n\n38\n89\n\n287\n47\n13\nII\n164\n267\n,313 98 673\n354\n196\n379\n103\n1,216\n383\n.340\n27 41 593\n591 41 42580\n26\n795\n\n13\n7.535\n\n385\n\n1454\n\n20\n\n927\n\n363\n1.548\n\n1,84s\n34.984\n1.954\n14.163\n\n323\n\n60\n221\n\n10s\n\n768\n173\n\n93\n65\n756\n\n6\n\n53\n\n82\n\n129\n0\n\n50\n\n169\n\n434\n\n16\n6,981\n39\n\n136\n\n52\n\n589\n413\n\n686\n\n257\n248\n\n34\n138\nL\n78\n216\n14\n1,171\n10\n14\n25\n47\n742\n26\n4 1,130\nS25\n16\n2\n2\n3\n6\n6\n\n172\n509\n\n19\n325\n\n21\n25\n25\n\n5.074\n81\n39\n5.487\n294\n\n187\n\n14\n43\n35\n2,132\n\n99\n31\n204\n\n473\n23\n\n4,641\n414\n24\n354\n,903\n139\n,181\n\n5.083\n377\n\n8\n53\n\n783\n1,492\n1,146\n1,588\n\nM\n213\n172\n124\n\n1.309\n10,182\n\n23\n24\n\n33\n7,211\n\n29\n\n25\n10,350\n\n189\n195\n\n2,653\n55\n47\n\n199\n15\n\n103\n393\n190\n24\n1.383\n939\n1,086\n4,013\n98 2,299\n1,078\n1,176\n402\n521\n56\n\n27\n1.471\nI, III\n271\n161\n707\n\n121\n\n26\n26\n82\n305\n7\n\nS08\n\n55\n108\n\n251\n26\n\n70\n\n98\nI\n5\n5\n6\n\n48\n4\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": null, "text": "INVENTORY AND PRICE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN THE DEPOSITORY AT WINONA,\nMINN., JULY I, 1904\nPROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION\n\nPrices in Price per sinsets, car- gle volume,\nriage not carriage\n\n[m PAPER covers]\n\nprepaid\n1857\n1858\n1859\ni860\n\n1861\n1862\n1863\n1864\n1865\n1866\n1867\n1868\n1869\n1870\n\nprepaid\n\nPhiladelphia (organized)\n___----_\nCincinnati\n___-------Washington\n____-_---Bufifalo -----------_-_------_\n(No meeting)\n(No meeting) -----------\n\n*\n♦\n*\n♦\n\n*\n♦\n«\n♦\n\nChicago\n----------Ogdensburg\n----------Harrisburg\n--_--_---_\nIndianapolis\n-------------------(No meeting)\nNashville\n----------Trenton\n----------Cleveland\n-----------\n\n*\n•\n«\n♦\n\n•\n•\n•\n♦\n\n*\n*\n*\n\n*\n*\n*\n\nBOUND\n\nVOLUMES\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nOF THE NATIONAL\n\n1871\n187a\n1873\n1874\n187s\n1876\n1877\n1878\n\nSt. I^uis\n----------Boston\n-----------Elmira\n----------Detroit -----------Minneapolis\n-_---__--_\nBaltimore\nLouisville\n----------(No meeting)\n-\n\n1879\n1880\n1881\n1882\n1883\n\nPhiladelphia\n---------Chautauqua\nAtlanta\n---_-_-_--_\nSaratoga Springs\n---------Saratoga Springs\n---------\n\n1884\n1885\n\nMadison\nSaratoga Springs\n\n1886\n1887\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1892\n1893\n1894\n189s\n1896\n1897\n\nTopeka\n----------Chicago\n----------San Francisco\nNashville\n----------St. Paul\n---------__\nToronto\n-----___--_\nSaratoga Springs\n-_\n_\nChicago (International Congress of Education)\nAsbury Park\n----------Denver\n----------Buffalo ----------__\nMilwaukee\n----------\n\n1898\n1899\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1903\n1904\n\nWashington,\nD. C. -----_-___\n------___\nLos\nAngeles\nCharleston\n--------___\nDetroit\n---------__\nMinneapolis\n---------__\nBoston\n--------___\nSt. Ix)uis\n------_--.__\nSubject Index (from 1857-1897, inclusive)\n-----\n\n-\n\n---------\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n_\n\n-\n\n_\n-\n\n-\n\n_\n-\n\n-\n\n_\n-\n\n_\n-\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n*\n*\n$1.25\n1.25\nJ25\n1.25\n125\n\n*\n*\n$1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n1.50\n\ni.2S\n1.25\n125\n*\n*\n\n1.50\n1.50\n1.5©\n•\n«\n\n1.50\n*\n\n1.75\n«\n\n1.50\n1^50\n1.50\ni^^q\n1^5\nj,^^\nj^^\n1.75\n1,^5\n1.75\n1.75\njy^\n\n1.75\njyg\n1,75\n1.75\n200\n20^\n2,00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n\ni'^^\njy^\nj y^\n,;„\njy^\n1.75\n175\nfree\n\n2!oo\n2.00\n2 o^\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\n2.00\ni.oo\n\nA complete Subject Index of all published proceedings to 1897 has been issued in a\nseparate volume, bound in cloth, uniform with the volumes of proceedings. The index\nwill be sent free of charge to those who purchase five or more volumes; to others it will\nbe sent postpaid for $1.00. The index volume will be supplied to active members for 25\ncents for postage, wrapping, etc.\n* Stock exhausted.\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": null, "text": "REPRINTS\n\nFROM\n\nTHE\n\nANNUAL\n\nVOLUMES\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS» Price per\n\n[bound in paper covers]\n\nsingle copy\n\nHistorical Sketch of the National Educational Association, 1857-91 •PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE\n891\n1892\n\nPhiladelphia, 147 pages\n\"\nBrooklyn, 237\n\n1893\n\nBoston,\n\n-\n\n-—\n___________\n\n$0.25\nby mail\n$0.25\n.25\n♦\n\n««__________-\n\n1894\n189s\n1896\n^897\n1898\n1899\n1900\n1901\n1902\n1903\n\nRichmond,\nCleveland,\nJacksonville,\nIndianapolis,\nChattanooga,\nColumbus,\nChicago,\nChicago,\nChicago,\nCincinnati,\n\n1885\n1888\n1889\n1890\n1891\n1894\n1895\n1896\n1898\n1900\n1 90 1\n1903\n\nSaratoga, 120 pages\nSan Francisco, 75\n\"\n98\"\nNashville,\nSt. Paul,\n80\n\"\nToronto,\n114\n\"\nAsbury Park,\n86\"\nDenver,\n81\"\n78\"\nBuffalo,\nWashington,\n102\n\"\nCharleston,\n67\"\nDetroit,\n150\n\"\n76\"\nBoston,\n\n184\n\n» Report\ns Report\nReport\nReport\nReport\nReport\n\nof Committee\nof Committee\nof Committee\nof Committee\nof Committee\nof Committee\n\n194\n120\n118\n165\n166\n\n\"\n\n___________\n___________\n\n.25\n♦\n\n___________\n\"\n___________\n___________\n\"\n____________\n\"\n___-_-____\"\n___________\n»'--_______\n\n•\n.35\n•\n25\n.25\n.25\n,25\n\nPROCEEDINGS\n\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\nThe\n\n-\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\n•\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n___________\n(Henry Barnard Number)\n___________\n\nREPORTS\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\nof Ten on Secondary Schools,\nof Fifteen on Elementary Schools,\non Rural Schools,\non College- Entrance Requirements,\non Normal Schools,\non Public Libraries and Pubhc Schools,\n\n-$0.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n.15\n•25\n.15\n.25\n.15\n.IS\n.15\n.IS\n\nCOMMITTEES\n249 pages\n235\n228\n188\n64\n80\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n$0.30\n.30\n\nSEPARATES OF DEPARTMENTS (Boston and St. Louis Meetings)\nGeneral Sessions __________---$o.i5\nNational Council\n____-__--_--.10\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education\n_________\n.10\nDepartment of Elementary Education (not including joint sessions)\n_\n_\n_\n_\n.©s\nDepartment of Secondary Education\n__--___--_\n.10\nDepartment of Higher Education\n______-_-.10\nDepartment of Normal Schools\n_-_--______\n.10\nDepartment of Manual Training (including joint sessions of Elementary and Art Departments) . 10\nDepartment of Art Education (not including joint sessions)\n-___-,©5\nDepartment of Child Study\n-_-_-__-___\n.10\nDepartment of Science Instruction\n__________\n.j©\nLibrary Department\n____________\n.10\n\nIN ADDITION\n\nTO THE\n\nABOVE\n\nTHE\nBE\n\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\nDepartment\n\nFOLLOWING\nOBTAINED\n\nSEPARATES\nREPRINTED\nFROM\nAT THE PRICES INDICATED\n\nTHE\n\nST. LOUIS\n\nof Superintendence (Atlanta meeting) of Physical Education\n_---------of Music Education ___________\nof Business Education __________\nof School Administration ---_-_-----of Special Education\n\nVOLUME\n\nMAY\n\n-$0.25\n.10\n,1©\n.j©\n,05\n.10\n\n* Stock exhausted.\n1 All orders for reprints should be accompanied by remittance; a discount of 20 per\ncent, v^^ill be allowed on orders for ten or more copies to one address, by prepaid express.\n2 Proceedings of the Department of Superintendence previous to 1891 were printed\nby the Bureau of Education at Washington, D. C.\n3 The Reports of the Committee of Ten and of the Committee of Fifteen are printed\nand sold by the American Book Co. for 30 cents each, postage paid.\nAll reprints noted above are included in the bound volumes of Proceedings except\nthe Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary Schools.\nAll publications listed abavo ?an>b'; obtained of the undersigned.\n,>\n'.. .' c ' ' ^ , , 3 ^ Winon\na, ^.,\nMinn\n'\nItw^N S^EisA.M)^v^4^re/fl>:y\nTV\". £.\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": null, "text": "V- :..;•,:\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": null, "text": "GENERAL\n\nINDEX\n\n[Names of department presidents and authors memorial\nof formal sketch.]\npapers are set in small capitals.\nActive Members, Annual Business Meeting\nof, 25.\nAct of Incorporation, 4.\nAddress before the Kindergarten Department— Madame Ottelia Bondy, 415.\nAddress of Welcome, Department of Kindergarten Education — Mrs. Fannie Lachmund, 381.\nAddresses of Welcome, General Sessions —\nW. T. Carrington, 43; C. M. Woodward,\n45; F. Louis Soldan, 47; Rolla Wells, 49;\nDavid R. Francis, 50; Howard J. Rogers,\n53;W. S.Chaplin, 54.\nAddresses of Welcome, Department of Indian Education, 964.\nAdministration and Supervision: I, The\nSuperintendent as a Man of Affairs —\nWilHam H. Maxwell, 259; II, The Assistant to the Superintendent — His Functions\nand Methods of Work — Miss Alice E.\nReynolds, 264; The Management of Special Departments, C N. Kendall, 271;\nDiscussion, 277.\nAdult Education — Henry M. Leipziger, 284.\nAdvantages of Co-ordinate (Annex) Method\nin Education — Charles F. Thwing, 547.\nAdvisory Committee to the Council, Members of, 39.\nAffleck, G. B. — Object and Methods of\nPhysical Training in Normal Schools,\n817.\nAhem, Mary Eileen — Secretary's Minutes,\nLibrary Department, 911.\nAim of Modern Language Study in Our\nSecondary Schools — George Arthur\nSmith, 522; Discussion, 524.\nAldrich, Fred Davis — The Function of\nGrammar in the Teaching of Modern\nLanguage, 525.\nAmendments to Constitution and By-Laws,\nHow Made, 4.\nAmerican People, Art Education for the,67o.\nAmerican Navy, Education in the, 120.\nAndrev^s, E. Benjamin — The General\nTendency of College Athletics, 549.\nAngell, James B. — Coeducation in Relation to Other Types of College Education\nfor Women, 548.\nAnimal Pets in the Kindergarten, The\nValue of, 432.\nAnnual Business Meeting of Active Members, 25.\nApplied Geography, Illustrated from the\nLouisiana Purchase — Arthur G. Clement,\n853; Discussion, 857.\n\nA f indicates a\n\nAppropriations, Recommended, 341; Grant\ned, 39; New Rules Governing, 39.\nArchitecture of the Exposition — George\nJulian Zolnay, 167.\nArnold, E. Hermann — The Importance\nof Walking as a School Exercise, 804;\nPresident,\ncation, 803.Department of Physical EduArt in Connection with Hand-Work, Possibilities of,603.\nArt Education, Department of, 631,\nArt Education for the American People, as\nShown at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition inthe Normal Schools, Art Schools,\nand Art Handicraft — Miss Anna Vandalaine Henkel, 670.\nArt Education in England, 659.\nArt Education\nfor the\ntilda Evans Riley,\n654.People — Mrs. MaArt Education for the People in Germany —\nLeopold Bahlsen, 648.\nArt, The Educational Influence of Public\nOutdoor, 665.\nArt Educator, The Influence of a Great Exposition as an, 632.\n157. in the Exposition — Halsey C.\nArtIves,\nExhibits\nArt, France — A Nation of, 643.\nArtCivic\nSchool\nLife,and637.Art Museum, Influence on\nArt Study, English as an, 502.\nArtistic\nHandicraft in Sweden, Education\nfor, 667.\nAssistant to the Superintendent, The — His\nFunctionsCharacter\nand Methods\nAthletics,\nin, 558.of Work, 264. '\nAthletics and Collateral Activities in Secondary Schools — F. D. Boynton, 206.\nAthletics,\nCollege, Effects\n564. of, on the Morale of the\nAthletics, General Tendency of College,\nAthletics, Objects and Methods in Colleges and Universities, 822.\nAtkin,\n549- Percy — Organization for Art Education in England, 659; Popular Education in England, 83.\nAtypical\nEducation of, in Public\nSchools,Children,\n754.\nAuditors' Certificates, Treasurer's accounts,\n18; Trustees' accounts, 20.\nAvenues of Language-Expression in the\nElementary School: I, Percival Chubb,\n452; II, Miss Delia Justine Long, 459;\nIII, Frank W. Cooley, 464.\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n99^\n\nAyres, Brown— Progress of the South, as\nShown by Exhibits, 627.\nBacon, Louis A.— Report on Work in\nManual Training Shown by the Exhibits\nfrom IndianapoHs, Ind., 605.\nBahlsen, Leopold— Art Education for the\nin Germany, 648; The PreparaPeople\ntion of Teachers in Germany, 140.\nBalliet, Thomas M.— The Organization\nof a System of Evening Schools, 278.\nBass, E. E.— Discussion, 277.\nBatt, Max— Discussion, 532.\nBayliss, Alfred— What May Be Done for\nManual Training in Country Schools?\n623.\nBennett, Charles A. — Report on the Exhibit of the Bradley Polytechnic Institute,\n612.\n\nBingham, Reuben\n\nS.f — Frank B. Cooper,\n\nBiological\nLaboratory of the High School,\n368.\nThe Microscope in the, 859.\nBishop, J. Remsen — Report of the Committee of Nine, 730; Discussion, 508.\nBishop, N. L. — Secretary's Minutes, Round\nTable of City Superintendents, 179.\nBlanchard, William M. — The Value of\nChemistry in Secondary Education, 872.\nBoard of Directors, How Elected, 2 ; Duties\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBryan, W. J. S. — A Comparative Study of\nthe Methods of Science Instruction of the\nVarious Countries, as Shown by Their\nExhibits, 844.\nBuchanan, J. T. — Discussion, 495, 496.\nBuck, B. F.— In What Respects Should\nthe High School Be Modified to Meet\nTwentieth-Century Demands ? 496.\nBuck, Philo Melvyn — Laboratory Method in English Composition, 506.\nBuckbee, Miss Anna — Methods of Teaching Child Study in Normal Schools, 787.\nBuntin, John A. — Discussion, 984.\nBureau of Education, Exhibit of the, 183.\nBurnham, William H. — The Hygiene of\nthe Kindergarten Child, 416.\nBurrill, Mr. — Discussion, 52*.\nBusiness Education, Department of, 709.\nBy-Laws, 4.\nCaldwell, Otis W. — Discussion, 894.\nCalendar of Meetings, 6.\nCampbell, C. F. — Discussion, 983.\nCampbell, Mary R. — The Chicago Hospital School for Nervous and Delicate\nChildren — Its Educational and Scientific\nMethods, 952; Some Laboratory Investigations ofSubnormal Children, 744; Discussion, 802.\nCapabilities\nof the, 738.of School Children, Diagnosis\n\nof, 3; List of, for 1903-4, 8; For 1904-5,\n12.\n\nBoard of Directors, Minutes of, for 1903-4,\n32; for 1904-5, 38.\nBolton, Frederick E. — What May the\nSecondary Schools of the United States\nLearn from a Study of German Secondary Education ? 478.\nBondy, Madame Ottelia — Address before\nthe Kindergarten Department, 415.\nBooth, F. W. — Chairman of Committee on\nStatistics of Defective Sight and Hearing\nof Public School Children, 952.\nBoynton, F. D. — Athletics and Collateral\nActivities in Secondary Schools, 206.\nBradley Polytechnic Institute, Report on\nthe Exhibit of the, 612.\nBrittain, M. L.— Higher Standards in the\nEmployment of Teachers, 320.\nBronson, Miss Minnie — The Resources\nof the United States, as Illustrated by the\nLouisiana Purchase Exposition, 717.\nBrooks, Josephine D. — Discussion, 531.\nBrown, George W. — Discussion, 716.\nBrown, J. Stanley — In What Respects\nShould the High School Be Modified to\nMeet Twentieth-Century Demands ? 491 ;\nDiscussion, 495.\nBruce, William George — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Administration, 897.\nBryan, E. B.— Education in the Philippines, 100.\nBryan, William L.— In What Respects\nShould the High School Be Modified\nto Meet Twentieth-Century Demands?\n496.\n\nCardinal Satolli, Remarks by, 29.\"\nCarp,\nElizabeth\nH. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nEnglish\nConference,\n473.\nCarrington, W. T. — Address of Welcome,\nCertificates and Diplomas, Recognition of,\n306; Committee on, 178.\nChalmers, W. W. — Objects and Methods\nof Physical Training in Primary and\n43Grammar Schools — From the Standpoint of the General Teacher, 807.\nChamberlain, Arthur H. — President,Department of Manual Training, 953.\nChambers, Will Grant — Questionnaire\nMethods of Child Study, 762.\nChaplin, W. S. — Address of Welcome, 54.\nCharacter in Athletics — William H. P.\nFaunce, 558.\nChemistry in Secondary Education, 872.\nChessin, A. V. — Discussion, 521.\nChicago Hospital School for Nervous and\nDelicate Children, The — Its Educational\nand Scientific Methods. — Mary R. Campbell, 952.\nChild, The Individual, 422.\nChild Psychology versus Adult Psychology,\n568,571.\nChildren from Ten to Eighteen Years,\nWaywardness in, 797.\nChild Study, Department of, 737.\nChild Study in the Grades— P. W. Horn,\nChild\nStudy797.in Grammar\nGrades,\n\nand Secondary\n\nChild Study in the Kindergarten, Method\nof,\n797- 794.\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nChild Study in Kindergarten and PrimaryGrades, 791.\nChild Study, Laboratory Tests as a Means\nof, 770; Methods and Results in, 791;\nQuestionnaire Methods of, 762; Unsolved Problems of, 782.\nChild-Study Methods at the St. Louis Exhibit, 759. ^\nChild Study in Normal Schools, Methods\nof Teaching, 787.\nChittenden, Orietta S. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten Education, 380.\nChrisman, Oscar — Relation of the Home\nto the Wayward Child, 800; Sight and\nHearing in Relation to Education, 939.\nChubb, Percival — Avenues of LanguageExpression in the Elementary School, 452.\nChubbuck, Levi — Response to Addresses\nof Welcome, 974.\nChurch Related to Higher Education, 68.\nCivic Life, The Influence of the Art School\nand Art Museum on, 637.\nCity Superintendents, Round Table of,\ni79> 322.\nClement, Arthur G. — Applied Geography, Illustrated from the Louisiana\nPurchase, 853.\nCobb, Herbert E.— The Real Problem of\nthe Teacher of Mathematics, 518.\nCochran, R. A. — President, Department of\nIndian Education, 963.\nCoeducation — G. Stanley Hall, 538.\nCoeducation as It Has Been Tested in State\nUniversities — R. H. Jesse, 542.\nCoeducation in Relation to Other Types of\nCollege Education for Women — James\nB. Angell, 548.\nCollege Athletics, The General Tendency\nof, 549; Objects and Methods, 822.\nCollege Education for Women, Coeducation in Relation to Other Types of, 548.\nCollege, The Place of the Small, 134.\nCollender, Professor — Discussion, 522.\nCommercial Schools, The Work of Private,\n714.^\nCommittee of Conference on a Uniform\nSystem of Key-Notation for Indicating\nPronunciation, 175.\nCommittee of Nine, Report of, 719, 729,\n730; Discussion, 736.\nCommittee on Industrial Education in\nRural Schools, Appropriation for, 39.\nCommittee on Investigations and Appropriations, Members of, 336; Report of,\nCommittee on Nominations, Members of,\n338.\n24; Report of, 26.\nCommittee on Resolutions, Department of\nSuperintendence, 177.\nCommittee on Resolutions, Members of,\n23; Report of, 30.\nCommittee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers; Appropriation for,\n39; Preliminary Report of, 370; Members of, 377.\n\n993\n\nCommittee\nof, 174. on Simplified Spelling, Report\nCommittee on Statistics of Defective Sight\nand Hearing of Pubhc School Children,\nReport of, 946.\ntion for, 39.on Taxation, etc., AppropriaCommittee\nCommittee on Universal Key-Notation,\nAppropriation for, 39.\nComparison\nMethods and Results in\nChild Study,of 791.\nComparative Study of the Methods of\nScience Instruction of the Various\nCountries,\nas Shown\nW.\nJ. S. Bryan,\n844. by Their Exhibits —\nCoMSTOCK, Clarence E. — The Unification of Secondary Mathematics, 519;\nDiscussion, 521.\n313;\nConference,\nEnglish, 502; Modern Language, 522. Round Table, 502.\nConferences,\nConsolidation of Schools — ^J. Y. Joyner,\nConstitution of General Association, i.\nConstructive Idea in Education — Wilbur\nS. Jackman, 594.\nContributions of Zoological Psychology to\nChild Study— Linus W. KUne, 776.\nConversation as a Vehicle of Instruction in\nModern Languages, 532.\nCook, Frank — Discussion, 931.\nCook, John W.— Herbert Spencer's Four\nFamous Essays, 223; Memorial Address\non William Bramwell Powell, 361; The\nNeed of a New Individualism, 62.\nCook, Miss Viola — Discussion, 984.\nCooley,\nEdwin etc.,\nG. — 377.\nMember of Committee\non Salaries,\nCooley, Frank\nSchool, 464.\n\nW. — Avenues of Language-Expres ion in the Elementary\n\nCooper, Frank B. — Memorial Address on\nReuben S. Bingham, 368.\nCo-ordinate Method in Education, 547.\nCoppock, Benjamin S. — Discussion, 982.\nCoulter, S. M. — Discussion, 863.\nCouncil, National, Constitution, 333; Officers of, for 1903-4, 335; for 1904-5, 336;\nCommittees of, 336; Members of, 336;\nSecretary's Minutes, 338.\nCountry Schools, What May Be Done for\nManual Training in, 623.\nCounty Superintendents, Round Table of\nState and, 306.\nCourse of Study in Elementary and Secondary Schools, The: I, The Superintendent's Influence on the Course of\nStudy— W. H. Elson, 188; II, What\nOmissions Are Advisable in the Present\nCourse of Studj^, and What Should Be\nthe Basis for the Same — Frank M.\nMcMurry, 194; Discussion, 202.\nCourse of Study in English, Report of\nSubcommittee on, 505.\nCourse of Study andf\" System of Grading,\nImprovements in, 316.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": null, "text": "994\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nCreed, Our Educational, 104.\nand the Juvenile\nCriminal Tendencies\nCourt— Charles W. Waddle, 797.\nCrosby, W. E.— Discussion, 495.\nCrunden, F. M.— Discussion, 931.\nCurtis, Chester B.— Discussion, 857.\nCurtis,\nNatalie — Indian\nMusic\nand\nIndian Education, 979.\nCusHMAN, Lillian S. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Art Education, 631.\nDabney, Charles W. — Educational Principles for the South, 235.\nDavis, Miss Jessie — Acting Secretary, Department ofChild Study, 738.\nDeaf and Blind, Model School for the, 937.\nDeclaration by Committee on Resolutions,\nDefective Sight and Hearing of PubHc\n30. Children, 946.\nSchool\nDepartments, List of, i.\nDepartment Ofl&cers, List for 1903-4, 10;\nfor 1904-5, 14Department of Art Education, 631; of\nBusiness Education, 709; of Child Study,\n737; of Council of Education, T,T,y, of\nElementary Education, 379; of Higher\nEducation, 537; of Indian Education,\n963; of Kindergarten Education, 379;\nof Library, 911; of Manual Training,\n593; of Music Education, 675; of Normal Schools, 567; of Physical Education,\n803; of School Administration, 897; of\nScience Instruction, 843; of Secondary\nEducation, 473; of Special Education,\n933; of Superintendence, 173.\nDexter, E. G. — Discussion, 802.\nDiagnosis of the Capabilities of School\nChildren— D. P. MacMillan, 738.\nDirectors, How Elected, 2; Powers and\nDuties, 2.\nDirectors, Life, How Elected, 2 ; List of, for\n1903-4, 8; List of, for 1904-5, 12.\nDirectors, List of, for 1903-4,9; List for\n1904-5, 13Discussions at Round Table Conferences,\nIndian Department, 982.\nDiscussion of Points Gained from the Educational Exhibits and the Model Schools\nof the Exposition, 982.\nDistrict School Libraries, The Duty of the\nNormal School in Relation to, 919.\nDoBBS, Miss Ella V.— Report on Work\nas\n607.Shown by Exhibits from Pacific Coast,\n\nDockery, a. M.— Address of Welcome, 964.\nDopp, Katharine E.— The Natural Activities ofChildren as Determining the Industries in Early Education, 437.\nDownen, J. M.— Discussion, 491.\nDoyle, John T.— Efficiency in the Indian\nService, 977;\nWelcome, 974, Response to Addresses of\nDrawing, Construction, and Design, New\nYork City Exhibition of Work in, 610.\nDuluth Public Schools— Eye and Ear\nExaminations, 949.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDuTTON, Samuel T. — The Expediency of\nImporting Teachers of Approved Merit\nfrom Without a Town or City, 322.\nDuty of the Normal School in Relation to\nDistrict School Libraries — Jasper N.\nWilkinson, 919; Discussion, 923.\nEarnest, W. W. — Discussion, 509.\nEdson, Andrev^^ W. — Some City Exhibits;\nTheir Purpose and Plan— The City of\nNew York, 185.\nEducation Adult, 284; The Constructive\nIdea in, 594; The Ethical Element in,\n249.\nEducation in the American Navy — Caspar\nF. Goodrich, 120.\nEducation for Artistic Handicraft in Sweden— Carl Lidman, 667.\nEducation in England, Popular, 83.\nEducation\nin Japan,\nese Exhibit\nto, 354. Relation of the JapanEducation in the Philippines — E. B.\nBryan, 100; A Filipino's View of, 468.\nEducation in Porto Rico — Samuel McCune\nLindsay, 127.\nEducation of the Southern Negro — Booker\nT. Washington, 128.\nEducation at the Universal Exposition,\n1904; I, From the View-Point of the\nChief of the Department — Howard J.\nRogers, 179; II, Exhibit of the United\nStates Bureau of Education — W. T. Harris, 183; III, Some City Exhibits: Their\nPurpose and Plan; A., St. Louis — F.\nLouis Soldan, 184; B., The City of New\nYork — Andrew W. Edson, 185.\nEducational Exhibits and Model Schools of\nthe Exposition, 982.\nEducational Influence of Public Outdoor\nArt — George E. Gay, 665.\nPhillips, 94.Needs of the South — J. H.\nEducational\nEducational Possibilities for the Country\nChild in the United States— O. J. Kern,\nEducational Principles for the South — I,\nCharles W. Dabney, 235; II, Charles D.\nMclver, 242.\nEffects of Athletics on the Morale of the\nCollege, The — Frank Strong, 564.\nEfficiency\nin the Indian Service — John T.\nDoyle, 977.\nElective\n\nCourse\n\nin High\n\nSchool\n\nMusic,\n\nElementary\nEducation,\nDepartment\nof,\n703Elementary Schools, Course of Study in,\n188; The French and German, 404.\nEllis, A. Caswell — Discussion, 395, 575.\n379Elson,\nThe of\nSuperintendent's\nInfluenceW.on H.\nthe— Course\nStudy, 188.\nEmerson, Henry P. — President, Department of Superintendence, 1 73.\nEngland, Art Education in, 659; Popular\nEducation in, 83.\nEnglish as an Art Study — William Schuyler,\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nEnglish Composition, Laboratory Method\nin, 506.\nEnglish Conference, 502.\nEthical Element in Education, The —\nWalter B. Hill, 249.\nEvans, Lawton B. — The Factory Child,\n244.\nEvening Schools, The Organization of a\nSystem of, 278.\nEverett, Miss L. B. — Discussion,\n509.\nExecutive Committee, How Constituted, 2;\nMembers of, for 1903-4, 8; for 1904-5, 12.\nExhibit of the Bradley Polytechnic Institute, 612.\nExhibit at the St. Louis Exposition of Private Commercial Schools, 714.\nExhibits of High Schools and Colleges, 849.\nExhibits from Indianapolis, Ind., Report\non Work in Manual Training Shown\nby, 605.\nExhibits from Pacific Coast, Report on\nWork as Shown by Exhibits from, 607.\nExhibits, Physical Training, 836.\nExhibits, Reports on Work as Shown by\nthe, 603.\nExpediency of Importing Teachers of\nApproved Merit from Without a Town\nor City — Samuel T. Button, 322.\nExpert Supervision — Isaac W. Hill, 321.\nExposition as an Art Educator, 632.\nExposition, Architecture of the, 167; Art\nExhibits in the, 157; Lessons of the, 345;\nSculpture and Decoration at the, 163.\nExtension\nof Public-School\nPrivileges:\nI, The Organization of a System of Evening Schools — Thomas M. Balliet, 278;\nII, Adult Education — Henry M. Leipziger, 284; III, University Extension for\nTeachers in Service — R. H. Halsey, 294;\nIV, Vacation Schools, Playgrounds, and\nRecreation Centers — Miss Evangeline\nE. Whitney, 298; Discussion, 303.\nEye and Ear Examinations, 949, 950.\nFactory Child, The — Lawton B. Evans,\n244.\nFall, Delos — Improvements in Course\nof Study and System of Grading, 316.\nFarrington, Frederick Ernest — The\nFrench and German Elementary Schools,\n404.\nFaunce, William H. P. — Character in\nAthletics, 558.\nFilipino's View of Education in the Philippines, —A Senora Maria del Pilar\nZamora, 468.\nFisher, Mr. — Discussion, 522.\nFiSKE, Wilbur A. — President, Department of Science Instruction, 843.\nFitzpatrick. Frank A. — President, National Council, 338.\nFoerste, August F. — Discussion, 871.\nFoley, Arthur L. — The Subject-Matter\nof High-School Physics, 865.\nForbes, S. A. — The Teaching of the\nScientific Method, 879.\nFrance — A Nation of Art, 643.\n\n995\n\nFrancis, David R. — Address of Welcome,\nFrench,\nJohn S. — What Study of Mathe50, 966.matics\nIsNeeded by the Man of Average\nEducation for Practical Life? 510;\nDiscussion, 521.\nFrench and German Elementary Schools —\nFrederick Ernest Farrington, 404.\nFrench Secondary Education versus Secondary Schools of the United States, 475.\nFruchte,\nWelcome, Miss\n970. Amelia C. — Address of\nFunction of Grammar in the Teaching of\nModern Language, The — Fred Davis\nAldrich, 525; Discussion, 528.\nGambrill, J. M. — Discussion, 509.\nGates,\nGeorge 134.\nA. — The Place of the\nSmall College,\nGay, George E. — The Educational Influence of Public Outdoor Art, 665.\nGeneral Sessions, 43.\nGeneral\nTendency\nof College\nE. Benjamin\nAndrews,\n549. Athletics —\nWork in, 583.\nGeography,\nApplied, 853; Out-of-Door\nGerman and French Elementary Schools,\nGerman Secondary Education versus Secondary Schools of the United States,\n404.\nGermany, Art Education for the People\nin, 648.\nGermany, The Preparation of Teachers in,\n478.\n140.\nGiddings,\n— Member\nof CommitteeFranklin\non Salaries,H.etc.,\n377.\nGideon, A. — Discussion, 536.\nGilbert, C. B. — The Elementary School\nas Illustrated in Its Exhibit, 389 ; ManualTraining High Schools or Manual\nTraining in High Schools, 614.\nGlennon, John J.— Address of Welcome,\nGoggin,\nCatharine\nMember of Committee\non Salaries,\netc.,— 377.\nGoodrich, Caspar F. — Education in the\nAmerican Navy, 120.\nGove, Aaron — Limitations of the Super971.\nintendent's Authority and of the Teacher's Independence, 152.\nGrades, Child Study in the, 797.\nGrading, Improvements in System of, 316.\nGrammar Grade, Child Study in the, 797.\nGrammar in the Teaching of Modern\nLanguage, The Function of, 525.\nGraves, Miss Lilian — Discussion, 510.\nGreen, S. M. — What Teachers May\nLearn from the Model School for the\nDeaf and Blind and Their Exhibits, 937.\nGroszmann, Maximilian P. E. — To What\nExtent May Atypical Children Be Successfully Educated in Our Public\nSchools? 754; Discussion, 802.\nHager, Albert Ralph — The Philippine\nTeacher\nand the Philippine Educational\nExhibit, 396.\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": null, "text": "996\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nHaley, Margaret A.— Why Teachers\nShould Organize, 145 •\nHall, G. Stanley— Coeducation, 538;\nIn How Far May Child Psychology\nTake the Place of Adult Psychology or\nRational Psychology in the Training\nof Teachers ? 568; The Natural Activities\nof Children as Determining the Industries in Early Education, 443; Unsolved\nProblems of Child Study and the\nMethod of Their Attack, 782.\nHalleck, Reuber Post— President, Department ofSecondary Education, 473.\nHalsey, R. H. — Member of Committee on\nSalaries, etc., 377; University Extension\nfor Teachers in Service, 294.\nHandicraft in Sweden, Education for\nArtistic, 667.\nHandwork in connection with Art, 603.\nHarris, Miss Ada Van Stone — President,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\n380. W. T.— Exhibit of the United\nHarris,\nStates Bureau of Education, 183; Herbert Spencer and His Influence on\nEducation, 214; Response to Address of\nWelcome, 55.\nHarrison, Miss Elizabeth — The Study\nof Children by Means of Their Handiwork, 792; Discussion, 431.\nHarvey, Anna E. — The Value of Animal\nPets in the Kindergarten, 432.\nHarvey, Lorenzo D. — The Natural Activities of Children as Determining the\nIndustries in Early Education, 447.\nHastings, Montana — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Normal Schools, 567;\nDiscussion, 590.\nHatch, William Edwin — Memorial Address on Frank Alpine Hill, 365.\nHayden, P. C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department ofMusic Education, 677.\nHedrick, E. R. — Discussion, 521.\nHenkel, Miss Anna Vandalaine — Art\nEducation for the American People, as\nShown at the Louisiana Purchase\nExposition in the Normal Schools, Art\nSchools, and Art Handicraft, 670.\nHerbert Spencet: I, His Influence on\nEducation— W. T. Harris, 214; II, His\nFour Famous Essays— John W. Cook,\n223; III, His Individuality as Manifested\nin His Educational Thinking— W. S.\nSutton, 226; IV, As an Educational\nForce, A. E. Winship, 230; V, As a\nPhilosopher, W. Rose, 231.\nHerrick, Cheesman a. — Old Wine in\nNew Bottles, 710; President, Department of Business Education, 709.\nHigh School— How Should It be Modified\nto Meet Twentieth-Century Demands?\n\n491.School, Microscope in\nHigh\nthe Biological\nLaboratory of the, 859.\nHigh-School Music Course, Report of\nCo-operative Committees on, 702.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nHigh-School Music Elective Course, 703.\nHigh-School Physics, The Subject-Matter\nof, 865.\nHigh Schools, Manual Training, 614.\nHigh Schools, Secret Fraternities in, 484.\nHigher Education, Department of, 537.\nHigher Education in the United States,\nThe Relation of the Church to, 68.\nHigher Standards in the Employment of\nTeachers — I, Francis P. Venable, 319;\nII, M. L. Brittain, 320.\nHill,\nFrank\nHatch,\n365. Alpine,! — ^William Edwin\nHill, Isaac W. — Expert Supervision, 321,\nHill, Miss Patty S. — The Kindergarten\nas Illustrated in Its Exhibit, 383.\nHill, Walter B. — The Ethical Element\nin Education, 249.\nHinemon, John H. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 177.\nHinshaw, E. B. — Discussion, 984.\nHODGDON, W. A. — Rote-Singing and Its\nProper Place in the Public Schools —\nPractice versus Theory, 685.\nHolland, E. O. — Report of the Subcommittee on the Course of Study in\nEnglish, 505.\nHopkins, James Frederick — The Influence of a Great Exposition as an Art\nEducator, 632; President, Department\nof Art Education, 631.\nHorn, P. W.— Child Study in the Grades,\nHowe, Miss Annie L. — The Kindergarten\nin Japan, 398.\nHowe,\nGeorge H. — Discussion, 521.\n797. Much\nHow\nMathematics Should the\nPhysics Teacher Teach?— WiUis E.\nTower, 516; Discussion, 521.\nHuNSiCKER, B. F. — President, Department\nof School Administration, 897; Retrospective\nand 897.Prospective School Administrations,\nHyde, Miss Mary B. — Possibilities of\nArt in Connection with Hand-Work,\nas Shown by Exhibits from the Teachers\nCollege, New York City, 603.\nHygiene\nthe Burnham,\nKindergarten\nWilliamof H.\n416. Child, The —\nIllustrated Aids to the Teaching of Modern\nLanguage, with Special Reference to\nthe Teaching of German — J. Perry\nWorden, 533; Discussion, 536.\nImportance of Walking as a School Exercise— E. Hermann Arnold, 804.\nImprovements in Course of Study and\nSystem of Grading — Delos Fall, 316.\nIncome mentfrom\nof, 19. Permanent Fund, StateIncorporation, Certificate of, 5.\nIncreasing\nEfiiciency of Rural Schools\n— Arthur the\nLefevre, 309.\nIndian Education, Department of, 963.\nIndian\nNatalieMusic\nCurtis,and979. Indian Education —\nIndian Service, Efficiency in the, 977.\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": null, "text": "I\n\nINDEX\n\n997\n\nIndividual Child, The — Miss Bertha Payne,\n\nKindergarten Education,\n\n422.\nIndividualism,\nThe Need of a New, 62.\nInfluence of the Art School and Art Museum\non Civic Life — Edmund H. Wuerpel, 637,\nInfluence of a Great Exposition as an Art\nEducator — James Frederick Hopkins,\n\nKindergarten and the Elementary School as\nIllustrated in Their Exhibits: I, From the\nKindergarten Standpoint — Miss Patty S.\n379- 383; II, From the Standpoint of the\nHill,\nSchool — C. B. Gilbert, 389; Discussion,\n\n632.\n\nIn How Far May Child Psychology Take\nthe Place of Adult Psychology or Rational\nPsychology in the Training of Teachers ?\nI, G. Stanley Hall, 568; II, E. H.\nRussell, 571; Discussion, 575.\nIn What Respects Should the High School\nBe Modified to Meet Twentieth-Century\nDemands? I, J. Stanley Brown, 491;\nDiscussion, 495; II, William L. Bryan,\n496; III, B. F. Buck, 496.\nInvestigations and Appropriations, Committee on. Members of, 336; Report of\nIttner, William B. — The School Archi338. tecture of St. Louis, 901.\nIves, Halsey C. — Art Exhibits in the\nExposition, 157.\nJackman, Wilbur S. — The Constructive\nIdea in Education, 594.\nJames, Edmund J.— The Relation of the\nChurch to Higher Education in the\nUnited States, 68; Discussion, 716.\nJapan, The Kindergarten in, 398.\nJapanese Exhibit and its Relation to Education in Japan — Mosuke Matsumura,\nJefferson,\nMark S. W. — Out-of-Door\n354Work in Geography, 583.\nJesse, R. H. — Coeducation as It Has Been\nTested in State Universities, 542; Objects\nand Methods of Physical Training in\nColleges and Universities, 822.\nJohnson, W. E. — Rapid Reading, 528;\nDiscussion, 490, 532.\nJoint Session of Kindergarten and Elementary Departments, 381.\nJones, J. W. — President, Department of\nSpecial Education, 933; Presidential Address, 934.\nJones, Lewis H. — President, Department\nof Normal Schools, 567.\nJournal of Proceedings, 23.\nJoyner, J. Y. — Consolidation of Schools,\nJuhan, Paph — Discussion, 983.\nJuvenile Court, 797.\nKeeler, Harriet L. — Discussion, 509.\nKendall, C. N. — The Management of\nSpecial Departments, 271.\nKern, O. J.— Educational Possibilities for\nthe Country Child in the United States,\n89.\nKey-Notation for Indicating Pronunciation,\nReport of Committee on a Uniform System of, 175.\nKindergarten Child, Hygiene of the, 416.\nKindergarten, Child Study in, 791, 794.\nKindergarten Disciphne, What Is, 427.\n\nDepartment of,\n\nKindergarten\nin Japan, The — Miss Annie\nL. Howe, 398.\nKindergartens in the Southern States, and in\nSome\n395- of the Countries South of the United\nStates — Miss EveHne A. Waldo, 411.\nKirchner, Elida — Secretary's Minutes,\nModern Language Conference, 473.\nKirkpatrick,\nA. — President,\nDepartment of Child E.Study,\n737.\nKlemm, Mrs. — Discussion, 522.\nKline, Linus W. — The Contributions of\nZoological Psychology to Child Study,\n776; Discussion, 801.\nKnight, R. F. — Discussion, 521, 522.\nKnight, Thomas H. H. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education,\nKnox, George Platt — The Nature and\nEducational Value of the Scientific Exhibits ofHigh Schools and Colleges of the\nUnited States, 849.\n710.\nLaboratory Method in English Composition\n— Philo Melvyn Buck, 506; Discussion,\nLaboratory Tests as a Means of Child Study\n— Miss Mabel Clare Wilhams, 770.\nLachmund, Mrs. Fannie — Address of\nWelcome, 381.\n508.\nLagerstedt, N. G. W. — The Swedish\nEducational Exhibit and Its Relation to\nthe Schools of Sweden, 349.\nLawson, Florence — Discussion, 432.\nLeavitt, Frank M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Manual Training, 593.\nLefevre, Arthur — Increasing the Efl5ciency of Rural Schools, 309.\n284.\nLeipziger,\nHenry M. — Adult Education,\nLemmon, T. G. — Discussion, 984.\nLessons\nof the345.Exposition, The — Howard\nJ. Rogers,\nLessons in School Administration to Be\nGained ward,at\n907. the Fair — Calvin M. WoodLibrary Department, 911.\nLibrary, Normal School in Relation to the,\nLibrary in PubHc School Work, 912.\nLibrary\nSchool Instruction, The Place\nof the, in924.\n914.\nLibrary Work in Normal Schools — Theodore B. Noss, 912; Discussion, 917.\nLidman, Carl— Education for Artistic\nHandicraft in Sweden, 667; Manual\nTraining in Sweden, 600.\nLimitations of the Superintendent's Authority and Gove,\nof the 152.\nTeacher's Independence —\nAaron\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\n998\nLindsay, Samuel McCune— Education in\nPorto Rico, 127.\nLong, Della Justine — Avenues of Language-Expres ion in the ElementarySchool, 459.\nLough, James E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 537.\nLouisiana Purchase, Applied Geography\nIllustrated from the, 853.\nLuDLUM, Mrs. Mary H. — Acting Secretary, Department of Physical Education,\n804; Objects and Methods of Physical\nTraining in High Schools — From the\nStandpoint of the Specialist, 827.\nLyttle, E. W. — What May the Secondary\nSchools of the United States Learn from\na Study of French Secondary Education,\n475; Discussion, 490.\nMacdougall, H. C. — Chairman of Co-operative Committees of Music Associations,\n707.\nMacMillan, D. p. — The Diagnosis of the\nCapabilities of School Children, 738.\nManagement of Special Departments, The\n— C. N. Kendall, 271.\nMann, Miss Mary Ida — Physical Training Exhibits in the Education Building\nof the Exposition, 836.\nManual Training in Country Schools, What\nMay Be Done for?\n623.\nManual Training, Department of, 593;\nReport of Work Shown by Exhibits from\nIndianapolis, Ind., 605.\nManual Training High Schools or Manual\nTraining in High Schools — Charles B.\nGilbert, 614; Discussion, 619.\nManual\nTraining in Sweden — Carl Lidman,\n600.\nMarduel, Jean— The Republic of France\n— A Nation of Art, 643.\nMark, E. H. — Discussion, 202.\nMarsh, Clinton S.— Discussion, 205.\nMarshall, Carl C— The Work of the\nPrivate Commercial Schools, as Illustrated in the Exhibits at the St. Louis\nExposition, 714.\nMathematics Conference, 510; Discussion,\n521.\nMathemat\nics— How Much Should the\nPhysics Teacher Teach? 516; Least\nAmount that Should Be in Any Secondary School Course, 514.\nMathematics Needed by the Man of\nAverage Education for Practical Life\n\n510. ics, Real\nMathemat\nProblem of the Teacher\nof, 518; Unification of Secondary, 519\nMatsumura, Mosuke— The Japanese Exhibit and Its Relation to Education in\nJapan, 354.\nMaxwell, William H.— The Superintendent as a Man of Affairs, 259\nMcAndrew, William— Member of Committee on Salaries, etc., 377.\nMcCowan, S. M.— Response to Addresses\nof Welcome, 976; Discussion, 984.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMcGee,\nJ— Response to Addresses of\nWelcome,W 972.\nMcIvER, Charles D. — Educational Principles for the South, 242; Response to\nAddress of Welcome, 59.\nMcKoin, John J.^Discussion, 983.\nMcMuRRY, Frank M. — What Omissions\nAre Advisable in the Present Course of\nStudy, and What Should Be the Basis for\nthe Same ? 194.\nMeetings, Constitutional Provisions for, 3.\nMeleney, Clarence E. — Report of the\nNew York City Exhibition of Work in\nDrawing, Construction, and Design, 610;\nThe Placestruction,of924. the Library in School InMembers, Classes of, i.\nMembers of the Council, Elected by Board\nof Directors, 40.\nMembers of Council Elected in 1904, 344.\nMembership, Conditions of, i.\nMembers of National Council, How Chosen,\nMemorial Addresses, 361.\nMerrill, Jerry B. — President, Departmentof Kindergarten Education, 380;\nDiscussion, 432.\nMethod of Child Study in the Kindergarten\n— Miss Luella A. Palmer, 794.\nMethods of Child Study, 762.\nMethods, Primary Music, 681.\nMethods of Science Instruction of the\nVarious Countries, 844.\nMethods of Teaching Child Study in Normal Schools — Miss Anna Buckbee, 787.\nMethods versus Results — W. H. Pommer,\nMicroscope\nin the Biological Laboratory of\n696.\nthe High School, The— John F. Thompson, 859; Discussion, 863.\nMiller, James M. — Discussion, 510.\nMiller, Mary Jean — What is Kindergarten Discipline ? 427.\nMills, Miss Esther — Discussion, 509.\nMilner, Miss Ange V. — Discussion, 930.\nMinutes of Annual Business Meeting of\nActive Members, 25.\nMinutes of Meeting of Board of Directors,\nfor 1903-4, 32; for 1904-5, 38.\nModel School for the Deaf and Blind, 937.\nModern Language Conference, 522.\nModern Language, The Function of Grammar in the Teaching of, 525; With Special Reference to German, 533.\nModern Language Study in Our Secondary\nSchools, The Aim of, 522.\nModern Languages, Conversation as a\nVehicle of Instruction in, 532.\nMonroe, Will S.— Typical Child-Study\nMethods at the St. Louis Exhibit, 759.\nMoore, Robert Webber — Discussion, 524,\nMorrison, Gilbert B. — Secret Fraternities in High Schools, 484; Discussion,\nMusic Education, Department of, 675.\n536.\n490.\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\n\n999\n\nMusic in High School, Elective Course, 703.\nMusic Methods, Primary, 681.\nMusic in the Public Schools a Means of\nCulture in the Community — Miss Lucy\nRobinson, 692.\nMusic Supervisor and His Relations to\nProfessional Musicians and Educators,\n699.\nMusic Teachers' National Association,\n\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training\nin Primary and Grammar Schools —\nFrom the Standpoint of the Physical\nTraining Teacher — William A. Stecher,\n\nNagel,\n702. Frank — The Public School Music\nSupervisor in His Relations to the Professional Musicians and the Professional\nEducators, 699.\nNardin, E. C. — Discussion, 982.\nNash, G. W. — Discussion, 307.\nNational Council of Education, T,T,y, Constitution of,T,T,y, Officers of, for 1903-4;\n335; for 1904-5, 336; Committees of,\n336; Members of, 336; Secretary's Minutes, 338.\nNature and Educational Value of the Scientific Exhibits of High Schools and\nColleges of the United States — George\nPiatt Knox, 849.\nNature Study as an Aid to Advanced Work\nin Science— E. R. Whitney, 889; Discussion, 894.\nNatural Activities of Children as Determining the Industries in Early Education: I,Katherine E. Dopp, 437; II, G.\nStanley Hall, 443; III, Lorenzo D.\nHarvey, 447.\nNavy, Education in the American, 120.\nNeal, George W. — Discussion, 533.\nNeed of a New Individualism, The —\nJohn W. Cook, 62.\nNegro, The Education of the Southern,\n\nOld Wine in New Bottles — Cheesman A.\nHerrick, 710,\n\n128.\n\nNelson, B. E. — Discussion, 303.\nNervous and Delicate Children, The\nChicago Hospital School for, 952.\nNew Departure in Secondary Education,\nThe — J. J. Sheppard, 114.\nNominations, Committee on, Members of,\n24; Report of, 26.\nNormal Schools, Department of, 567;\nLibrary Work in, 912; Methods of\nTeaching Child Study in, 787.\nNormal School in Relation to the Library,\n914. Theodore B. — Library Work in\nNoss,\nNormal Schools, 912.\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training\nin Colleges and Universities — R. H.\nJesse, 822.\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training\nin High Schools — From the Standpoint\nof the Speciahst — Mrs. Mary H. Ludlum, 827.\nObject and Methods of Physical Training\nin Normal Schools— G. B. Affleck, 817.\nObjects and Methods of Physical Training\nin Primary and Grammar Schools — From\nthe Standpoint of the General Teacher\n— W. W. Chalmers, 807.\n\n810.\n\nO'Connell, Monsignor D., Remarks by, 29.\nOfficers, Constitutional Provisions for,2;\nMethod of Election, 2.\nOfficers of the General Association for\n1903-4, 8; for 1904-5, 12.\n\nOlmstead, Emma G. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Elementary Education,\nOrganization for Art Education in England\n— Percy Atkin, 659.\nOrganization of a System of Evening\nSchools,\nThe, 278.\n380.\nOur Educational Creed — Z. X. Snyder, 104.\nOut-of-Door Work in Geography — Mark\nS. W. Jefferson, 583; Discussion, 588.\nPacific Coast, Report on Work as Shown\nby Exhibits from, 607.\nPalmer, Miss Luella A. — Method of\nChild Study in the Kindergarten, 794.\nParker, Bertrand DeR. — The Report of\nthe Committee of Nine, from the Standpoint of the General High School, 725.\nParr, Mrs. Marie Burt — Primary Music\nMethods, 681.\nPayne, Miss Bertha — The Individual\nChild, 422.\nPensions of Teachers, 370.\nPermanent Fund, Statement of, 18.\nPerrin, Miss F. R. — Discussion, 509.\nPhillips, J. H. — Educational Needs of\nthe South, 94; Discussion, 203.\nPhilippine Educational Exhibit, and the\nPhilippine Teacher, 396.\nPhilippine Teacher and the Philippine\nEducational Exhibit — Albert Ralph\nHager, 396.\nPhilippines, Education in the, 100.\nPhilippines,\nin the, 468.A Filipino's View of Education\nPhysical Education, Department of, 803.\nPhysical Training in Colleges and Universities, 822.\nPhysical Training Exhibits in the Education Building of the Exposition — Miss\nMary Ida Mann, 836.\nPhysical Training Exhibits in the Physical\nTraining Department of the Exposition\n—Miss Elsa Pohl, 832.\nPhysical Training in High Schools, 827.\nPhysical Training in Normal Schools, 817.\nPhysical Training in Primary and Grammar Schools, 807, 810.\nPhysics, High School, 865.\nPhysiological Psychology ? What Is the Net\nGain tions\nto in,Education\nof Recent Investiga576.\nPlace of the Library in School Instruction\n— Clarence E. Meleney, 924; Discussion,\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": null, "text": "lOOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPlace of the Small College, The— George\nA. Gates, 134-\n\nrr.\n\n• •\n\nPOHL, Miss Elsa— Physical Training\nExhibits in the Physical Training Department ofthe Exposition, 832.\nPoMMER, W. H.— Methods versus Results,\n696.\nEducation in England— Percy\nPopular\nAtkin, 83.\nPorto Rico, Education in, 127.\nPowell, William Bramwell,!- John W.\nCook, 361.\nPreliminary Report of Committee on\nSalaries, Tenure and Pensions of Teachers—Carroll D. Wright, 370.\nPreparation of Teachers in Germany —\nLeopold Bahlsen, 140.\nPresident's Address, Department of Business Education— Cheesman A. Herrick,\n710.\nPresident's\nAddress, Department of Music\nEducation— William A. Wetzell, 678.\nPresidential Address, Department of Special\nEducation— J. W. Jones, 934.\nPrimary Grade, Child Study in, 791.\nPrimary Music Methods — Mrs. Marie\nBurt Parr, 681.\nPresident's Address — ^John W. Cook, 62.\nProceedings, Journal of, 23.\nProgress of the South, as Shown by Exhibits— Brown Ayres, 627.\nPsychology, Child, Adult or Rational,\n568, 571Psychology, Investigations in Physiological,\n\nPublic\n576. School Children, Defective Sight\nand Hearing of, 946.\nPubUc School Music Supervisor in His\nRelations to the Professional Musicians\nand the Professional Educators — Frank\nNagel, 699.\nPutjlic School Work, The Library in, 912.\nQuestionnaire Methods of Child Study —\nWill Grant Chambers, 762.\nQuinn, John B. — Secretary's Minutes,\nMathematics Conference, 473.\nRapid Reading — W. E. Johnson, 528;\nDiscussion, 531.\nReal Problem of the Teacher of Mathematics, The— Herbert E. Cobb, 518;\nDiscussion, 521.\nRecognition of Certificates and Diplomas\nGranted (a) by State and County Authorities, {h)by Schools of Education —\nL. E. Wolfe, 306.\nReel, Miss Estelle — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Indian Education, 964.\nRelation of the Church to Higher Education in the United States, The — Edmund\nJ. James, 68.\nRelation of the Home to the Wayward Child\n— Oscar Chrisman, 800 ; Discussion, 801.\nReport of Board of Trustees, 18.\nReport of the Committee of Conference\non a Uniform System of Key-Notation\nfor Indicating Pronounciation, 175.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nReport of the Committee of Nine — J. Remsen Bishop, 730; From the Standpoint\nof the General High School — Bertrand\nDeR. Parker, 725; From the Standpoint\nof the Independent School of Commerce— James J. Sheppard, 719.\nReport of the Committee on Resolutions,\nGeneral Sessions, 30; Department of Superintendence, 17 .\nReport of Committee on Salaries, Tenure,\nand Pensions of Teachers, 370.\nReport of Committee on Simplifying\nSpelling, 34.\nReport of the Committee on Statistics of\nDefective Sight and Hearing of Public\nSchool Children, 946.\nReport of Conference of Co-operative\nCommittees of Music Associations on\na High -School Music Course, 702,\nReport on the Exhibit of the Bradley\nPolytechinc Institute — Charles A. Bennett, 612.\nReport\nHigh School Music Elective\nCourse,of 703.\nReport on the New York City Exhibition\nof Work in Drawing, Construction, and\nDesign — Clarence E. Meleney, 610.\nReport of Special Committee on Simplified\nSpelhng, 174.\nReport\nof Committee\non Working Plans\nof Council,\n343.\nReport of the Subcommittee on the Course\nof Study in English — E. O. Holland,\nReport of Treasurer, 16.\nReports on Work as Shown by Exhibits:\n505I, Possibilities of Art in Connection\nwith Hand-Work, as Shown by Exhibits\nfrom the Teachers Collegej New York\nCity — Miss Mary B. Hyde, 603; II,\nReport on Work in Manual Training\nas Shown by the Exhibits from Indianapolis, Ind. — Louis A. Bacon, 605;\nIII, Report on Work as Shown by Exhibits from Pacific Coast — Miss Ella V.\nDobbs, 607; IV, Report on the New\nYork City Exhibition of Work in Drawing, Construction, and Design — Clarence\nA. Meleney, 610; V, Report on the\nExhibit of the Bradley Polytechnic\nInstitute — Charles A. Bennett, 612.\nRepubHc of France — A Nation of Art —\nJean Marduel, 643.\nResolution, Commemorative, of Council,\nResolutions, Committee on. Members of,\n23; Report of, 30.\nResolution from the Council Recommend344- ing Advisory Committee, 39.\nResolutions by the Council Recommending\nAppropriations, 39.\nResolutions on Plans for SimpHfying\nSpelling, 34.\nResolution on Proposed Amendments to\nConstitution, 28.\nResolution on Reincorporation, 28,\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nResolutions, Report of Committee on,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 177.\nResponses to Addresses of Welcome —\nW. T. Harris, 55; Charies D. Mclver,\n59; W J McGee, 972; John T. Doyle,\n974; Levi Chubbuck, 974; S. M. McCowan, 976.\nResources of the United States, as Illustrated by the Louisiana Purchase Exposition— Miss Minnie Bronson, 717.\nResults versus Methods, 696.\nRetrospective and Prospective School Administrations— B. F. Hunsicker, 897.\nReynolds, Miss Alice E. — The Assistant\nto the Superintendent — His Functions\nand Methods of Work, 264.\nReynolds, Miss Mabel M. — Discussion, 923.\nRicheson, John — Discussion, 509.\nRidgley, D. C. — Discussion, 588.\nRiley, Mrs. Matilda Evans — Art Education for the People, 654.\nRobinson, Miss Lucy — Music in the Public Schools, 692.\nRogers, Miss Florence L. — Discussion, 509.\nRogers, Howard J.— Address of Welcome,\n53, 967; Education at the Universal\nExposition, 1904: From the View-Point of\nthe Chief of the Department, 179; The\nLessons of the Exposition, 345.\nRose, W. — Herbert Spencer as a Philosopher, 231.\nRote-Singing and Its Proper Place in the\nPublic Schools — Practice versus Theory\n— W. A. Hodgdon, 685.\nRound Table of City Superintendents,\n179,322.\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents— Chairman, N. C. Schaeffer,\n177; 306.\nRound Table Conference on Child Study\nin Grammar\nand Secondary\nGrades,\nRound\n797- Table Conference on Child Study\nin Kindergarten and Primary Grades —\nChairman, Miss Myra H. Winchester,\nRound\n791. Table Conferences, 502 ; Indian Department, 982.\nRules of Committee on Investigations and\nAppropriations, Amended, 344.\nRural Schools, Increasing the Efficiency of,\n309Russell,\nE. H. — In How Far May Child\nPsychology Take the Place of Adult\nPsychology or Rational Psychology in\nthe Training of Teachers? 571.\nSalaries of Teachers, 370.\nSalisbury, Albert — Discussion, 918.\nSalisbury, Miss Grace E. — Discussion, 917.\nSatolli, Cardinal — Remarks by, 29.\nSchaeffer, N. C. — President, Library Department, 911; Chairman, Round Table\nof State and County Superintendents,\n177; Discussion, 931.\nSchool Administration, Department of,\n897; Lessons in, 907.\n\nICX)I\n\nSchool Administrations, Retrospective and\nProspective, 897.\nSchool\nArchitecture\nof St. Louis — ^William\nB. Ittner,\n901.\nSchool Children, The Diagnosis of the\nCapabilities of, 738.\nSchools, Consolidation of, 313.\nSchools of Sweden, Relation of the Swedish\nEducational Exhibit to, 349.\nSchuyler, William — English as an Art\nStudy, 502;\nSecretary'sEducation,\nMinutes, 473;\nDepartment of Secondary\nDiscussion, 490.\nScience Education, Department of, 843.\nScience Instruction, Methods of, 844.\nScience, Nature Study as an Aid in, 889.\nScientific Exhibits of High Schools and\nColleges of the United States, 849.\nScientific Method, Teaching of the, 879.\nScott, W. — Secretary of Co-operative Committees ofMusic Associations, 707.\nSculpture and Decoration at the Exposition— George Julian Zolnay, 163.\nSecret Fraternities in High Schools — Gilbert B. Morrison, 484; Discussion, 490.\nSecondary Education, Department of, 473;\nThe New Departure in 114; The Value\nof Chemistry in, 872.\nSecondary Grade, Child Study in, 797.\nSecondary Mathematics, The Unification\nof, 519; The Aim of Modern Language\nStudy in, 522; Athletics and Collateral\nActivities in, 206; Course of Study in,\n188.\nSecondary\nSchools\nof the Schools,\nUnited States\nsus French\nSecondary\n475. verSecondary Schools of the United States versus German Secondary Education, 478.\nSecretary's Minutes, Department of Art\nEducation, 631; of Business Education,\n709; of Child Study, 737; of Council of\nEducation, 338; of Elementary Education, 380; of General Association, 23;\nof Higher Education, 537; of Indian\nEducation, 963 ; of Kindergarten Education, 380; of Library, 911; of Manual\nTraining, 593; of Music Education, 675;\nof Normal Schools, 567; of Physical\nEducation, 803; of School Administration, 897; of Science Instruction, 843; of\nSecondary Education, 473; of Special\nEducation, 933; of Superintendence, 173.\nSecretary's Minutes, English Conference,\n473; of Mathematics Conference, 473; of\nModern Language Conference, 474; of\nRound Table of City Superintendents,\n177.\n179; ofdents, State\nand County SuperintenSenter, H. A. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Science Education, 844;\nDiscussion, 878.Shepard, Irwin — Secretary's Minutes of\nGeneral Association, 23; Minutes of\nBusiness Meeting of Active Members,\n25; of Board of Directors for 1903-4,\n32; of Board of Directors for 1904-5, 38.\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": null, "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSheppard, James J.— The New Departure in Secondary Education, 114; Report of the Committee of Nine, Considered from the Standpoint of the Independent School of Commerce, 719.\nShould Teachers Be Required to Present\nfrom Time to Time Evidences of Increased Scholarship ?— Walter H. Small,\n326; Discussion, 330.\nRelation to EducaSight and Hearing\ntion—OscarinChrisman, 939.\nSight and Hearing Tests, Table of, 951.\nSime, Miss Diana— Discussion, 510; Simplified Spelling, Report of Committee\non, 34.\nSinclair, J. A.— Discussion, 982.\nSmall, Walter H.— Should Teachers be\nRequired to Present from Time to Time\nEvidences of Increased Scholarship ? 326.\nSmall College, The Place of the, 134.\nSmith, Anna Tolman — Member of Committee on Salaries, etc., 377.\nSmith, Charles H.— Discussion, 521.\nSmith, George Arthur — The Aim of\nModern Language Study in Our Secondary Schools, 522; Discussion, 533.\nSmiley, W. H. — Discussion, 490, 522.\nSnyder, Z. X. — Our Educational Creed,\n104.\n\nSoLDAN, F. Louis — Address of Welcome,\n47, 969; Some City Exhibits: Their Purpose and Plan — St. Louis, 184.\nSome Laboratory Investigations of Subnormal Children — Mary R. Campbell,\n744- Educational Needs of the, 94; Pro-,\nSouth,\ngress of the, 627.\nSouthern States, The Kindergartens in\nthe, 411.\nSpecial Departments, The Management of,\n271.\n\nSpecial Education, Department of, 933.\nSpelling, Report of Committee on Simplified, 174.\nSpencer, Robert C. — Discussion, 716.\nSpringer, D. W. — Discussion, 736.\nState and County Superintendents, Round\nTable of, 177, 306.\nStecher, William A.— The Objects and\nMethods of Physical Training in Primary\nand Grammar Schools — From the Standpoint of the Physical Training Teacher,\n810.\n\nSt. Louis, The School Architecture of, 901.\nSt. Louis Exhibit, Typical Child-Study\nMethods at, 759.\nStockwell, W. L.— Secretary's Minutes,\nRound Table of State and County\nSuperintendents, 177.\nStrong, Frank— The Effects of Athletics\non the Morale of the College, 564.\nStudy of Children by Means of Their\nHand- Work, The— Miss Elizabeth Harrison, 792.\nSubnormal Children, Some Laboratory\nInvestigations of, 744.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSubcommittee on the Course of Study in\nEnglish, 505.\nSubject-Matter of High-School PhysicsArthur L. Foley, 865; Discussion, 871.\nSuperintendence, Department of, 173.\nSuperintendent as a Man of Affairs, 259.\nSuperintendent's Authority, Limitations of\nthe, 152.\nSuperintendent's Influence on the Course\nof Study— W. H. Elson, 188.\nSuperintendents, Round Table of City,\n179, 322; of State and County, 177,\nSupervision, Administration and, 259;\nExpert, 321.\nSutton, W. S. — Herbert Spencer's Individuality as Manifested in His Educa306.\ntional Thinking, 226.\nSweden, Education for Artistic Handicraft\nin, 667; Manual Training in, 600.\nSwedish Educational Exhibit and Its\nRelation to the Schools of Sweden — N.\nG. W. Lagerstedt, 349.\nTable of Sight and Hearing Tests, 951.\nTeachers in Germany, Preparation of, 140.\nTeachers, Higher Standards in the Employment of, 319, 320.\nTeachers' Independence — Limitations of\nthe, 152.\nTeachers\nfor, 294. in Service, University Extension\nTeaching\nForbes, of\n879.the Scientific Method — S. A.\nTenure of Teachers, 370.\nThompson, John F. — The Microscope in\nthe\nBiological\nLaboratory of the High\nSchool,\n859.\nThwing, Charles F. — The Advantages of\ntion, 547.\nCo-ordinate\n(Annex) Method in EducaTinsley, Samuel B. — What is the Least\nAmount of Mathematics that Should Be\nin Any Secondary School Course? 514;\nDiscussion, 522,\nTreasurer, Annual Report of, 16.\nTrustees,\nBoard3. of. How Elected, Powers\nand Duties,\nTrustees, Report of Board of, 18.\nTower, Willis E. — How Much Mathematics Should the Physics Teacher\nTeach? 516.\nTo What Extent May Atypical Children\nBe Successfully Educated in Our Pubmann,\n754. — Maximilian P. E. Groszlic Schools\nTypical Child-Study Methods at the St.\nLouis Exhibit — Will S. Monroe, 759.\nTwentieth-Century Demands — How Should\nthe High School Be Modified to Meet ?\nUnification of Secondary Mathematics, The\n— Clarence E. Comstock, 519; Discussion, 521.\nUnited\n491- States, Resources of the, 717.\nUniversity Extension for Teachers in Service— R, H. Halsey, 294.\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nUnsolved Problems of Child Study and\nthe Method of Their Attack— G. Stanley\nHaU, 782.\nUpdike, Miss Nina — Discussion, 509.\nVacation Schools, Playgrounds and Recreation Centers — Miss Evangeline E. Whitney, 298.\nValue of Animal Pets in the Kindergarten\n— Anna E. Harvey, 432.\nValue of Chemistry in Secondary Education, The — WiUiam M. Blanchard, 872;\nDiscussion, 878.\nVan Adestine, Elizabeth — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Special Education,\nVan933.Liew, Charles C. — ^What is the Net\nGain to Education of Recent Investigations in Physiological Psychology ?\nVan 576.\nSickle, J. H. — Discussion, 330.\nVenable, Francis P. — Higher Standards\nin the Employment of Teachers, 319.\nVesper Meetings, Addresses at the, 155.\nWaddle, Charles W. — Criminal Tendencies and the Juvenile Court, 797.\nWaldo, Miss Eveline A. — The Kindergartens in the Southern States, and in\nSome of the Countries South of the\nUnited States, 411; Discussion, 432.\nWalking as a School Exercise, The Importance of, 804.\nWalker, Peleg R. — Discussion, 716.\nWashington, Booker T. — The Education of the Southern Negro, 128.\nWayward Child, Relation of the Home to\nthe, 800.\nWaywardness in Children from Ten to\nEighteen Years, 797.\nWells, Rolla— Address of Welcome, 49.\nWetzell, William A. — President's Address, Department of Music Education,\n678.\nWhat is Kindergarten Discipline ?— Miss\nMary Jean Miller, 427; Discussion, 431.\nWhat is the Least Amount of Mathematics\nthat Should Be in Any Secondary School\nCourse? — Samuel B. Tinsley 514; Discussion, 521.\nWhat May Be Done for Manual Training\nin Country Schools? — Alfred Bayliss,\n623.\nWhat May the Secondary Schools of the\nUnited States Learn from a Study of\nFrench Secondary Education ?— E. W.\nLyttle, 475.\nWhat May the Secondary Schools of the\nUnited States Learn from a Study of\nGerman Secondary Education? — Frederick E. Bolton, 478.\nWhat is the Net Gain to Education of Recent Investigations in Physiological\nPsychology ? — Charles C. Van Liew,\n576.\n\nWhat Omissions are Advisable in the Present Course of Study, and What Should\nBe the Basis194,for the Same ?— Frank M.\nMcMurry,\nWhat Study of Mathematics is Needed by\nthe Man of Average Education for Practical Lifecussion,— 521.John S. French, 510; DisWhat Teachers May Learn from the Model\nSchool for the Deaf and Blind, and Their\nExhibits — S. M. Green, 937.\nWheeler, Benjamin Ide — President, Department ofHigher Education, 537.\nWhitney, E. R. — Nature Study as an Aid\nto Advanced Work in Science, 889.\nWhyA. Teachers\nHaley, 145.Should Organize — Margaret\nWieland, Otto E. — Discussion, 528.\nWilde, Miss Frances — Discussion, 509.\nWilliams, Miss Mabel Clare — Laboratory Tests as a Means of Child Study,\nWinchester, Miss Myra H., Chairman —\nRound Table Conference on Child Study,\nWilkinson, Jasper N. — The Duty of the\nNormal School in Relation to District\nSchool\n770. Libraries, 919.\nWiNSHiP, A. E. — Herbert Spencer as an\nEducational Force, 230.\n791.\nWinslow, W. H. — Discussion, 983.\nWoodward, C. M. — Address of Welcome,\n•45, 968; Lessons in School Administration to Be Gained at the Fair, 907; Discussion, 619.\n^Worcester\nPublic950.\nSchools — Eye and Ear\nExaminations,\nWoRDEN, J. Perry — Illustrated Aids to\nthe Teaching of Modern Language with\nSpecial Reference to the Teaching of\nGerman, 533; Discussion, 496, 532.\nWolfe, L. E. — The Recognition of Certificates and Diplomas Granted (a) by\nState and County Authorities, (6) by\nSchools of Education, ^06.\nWork of the Private Commercial Schools,\nas Illustrated in the Exhibits at the St.\nLouis Exposition — Carl C. Marshall,\n714; Discussion, 716.\nWright, A. O. — Discussion, 985.\nWright, Carroll D. — Preliminary Report of Committee on Salaries, Tenure,\nand Pensions of Teachers, 370.\nWuerpel, Edmund H. — The Influence of\nthe Art School and Art Museum on\nCivic Life, 637.\nZamora, Senora Maria del Pilar — A\nFilipino's View of Education in the\nPhilippines, 468.\nZoLNAY, George Julian — Architecture of\nthe Exposition, 167; Sculpture and Decoration at the Exposition, 163.\nZoological Psychology and Child Study, 776.\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": null, "text": "/\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": null, "text": "13\nL\nN3A13\n1904\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings.,.\n\nPLEASE DO\nCARDS\n\nNOT\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}